Innovations in Wireline Fluid Sampling
Fluid samples provide the first look at a well’s production,
and operators need to be confident that the few liters of fluid
retrieved from their wells are representative of the reservoir.
New developments in wireline sampling technology are help-
ing to make informed economic decisions.
Alastair Crombie Good formation fluid samples are of great
British Petroleum Exploration importance to those involved with the task of
Sunbury, England producing a reservoir. A representative sam-
ple may often be as useful as results from
Frank Halford petrophysical logs. In recent years, modern
Aberdeen, Scotland wireline formation testers have increasingly
been used to collect formation fluid samples
Mohamed Hashem previously obtained only from drillstem
Shell Offshore Inc. (DST) tests or production tests.
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA In comparison with DST and production
tests, downhole sampling operations are eas-
Robert McNeil ier to plan, and require less lead time. Other
E.C. Thomas advantages are reduced environmental and
Shell Exploration & Production Technology safety risks, elimination of surface testing
Houston, Texas, USA equipment and lower total cost. In addition,
wireline formation testers are highly selec-
Gus Melbourne tive, allowing a series of reservoirs to be
Sugar Land, Texas tested during a single trip into the well.
Samples can be taken at low drawdown pres-
Oliver C. Mullins
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
26
sure for greater control, ensuring the physical
state and behavior of the fluid is minimally
disturbed by the sampling process itself.
This article concentrates on state-of-the-art
sampling, with descriptions of how recent
innovations have overcome some of the tradi-
tional problems of downhole sampling. We
will look at several ways technology has met
some of the challenges of sampling:
• Downhole fluid analysis that improves the
ability to minimize sample contamination
and help determine in-situ oil properties.
• A new sampling technique that reduces
the pressure shock to the formation fluid.
• Fluid-flow modeling studies that led to
improved sampling techniques—shorten-
ing sample time while reducing ultimate
contamination levels.
• Sample retrieval to the surface without
changing fluid phase.
Oilfield Review
Why Sample?
Formation fluid sam-
ples are needed for a variety
of reasons. Reservoir fluid samples are
evaluated in the laboratory to establish their
physical and chemical properties, such as the
hydrocarbon type and the pressure, volume
and temperature (PVT) behavior of the reserves
in place. These properties help form the foun-
dation for planning efficient field develop-
ment. The investment in facilities and
processing depends on the amount, types and
flow characteristics of fluids in the reservoir.
A standard set of measurements per-
formed on a fluid sample from an oil reservoir
would include PVT relationships, viscosity,
Autumn 1998
composition, gas/oil ratio (GOR), differential
vaporization, and a multistage separation
test. Fluid samples also provide the infor-
mation needed to help with planning and
special treatments required for production,
such as hydrogen sulfide [H2S] removal,
waxing tendencies, asphaltene content,
metallurgy and refining trials.
Hydrocarbon composition can vary signifi-
cantly within an oil field and must be ade-
quately described. Compositional properties
are important in verifying the saturated
hydrocarbon concentrations that relate to the
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Chris
Besson, Edo Boek and Andrew Meredith, Schlumberger
Cambridge Research, Cambridge, England; Graham
Birkett, Oilphase, Aberdeen, Scotland; Andrew Kurkjian,
Schlumberger Oilfield Services, Sugar Land, Texas,
USA; Charles W. Morris, Schlumberger Wireline &
Testing, Houston, Texas, USA; Rod Siebert, Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA;
Carsten Slot-Petersen, Statoil Efterforskning og
Production A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark; and Tony Smits,
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Fuchinobe, Japan.
CMR (Combinable Magnetic Resonance), CQG
(Crystal Quartz Gauge), Low Shock Sampling, MDT
(Modular Formation Dynamics Tester), and OFA
(Optical Fluid Analyzer) are marks of Schlumberger.
RCI (Reservoir Characterization Instrument) is a mark
of Baker Atlas.
27
 100 Connecting to the reservoir—There are sev-
eral commercially available wireline forma-
tion tester tools that can take formation fluid
samples. Baker Atlas developed the
10 Reservoir Characterization Instrument (RCI),
Component fraction, wt%

which uses a probe and a dual-pump system

to obtain multiple formation fluid samples.
The RCI features a downhole phase pressure
1
estimation to aid fluid sampling.1 This device
Reservoir fluid traps a volume of fluid inside the tool, and by
100% Oil-base mud filtrate expansion or contraction of the fluid vol-
1 wt% OBM filtrate ume, the pressure response is used to assess
0.10
10 wt% OBM filtrate liquid and gas phase compressibility. These
40 wt% OBM filtrate are used to evaluate the pressure that will
flash the fluid to gas.
0.01 The most recent wireline formation tester
tool developed by Schlumberger is the MDT
C1
C2
C3
iC4
nC4
iC5
nC5
C6
Benzene
C7
Toluene
C8
Ethylbenzene
Xylenes
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
C17
C18
C19
C20
C21
C22
C23
C24
C25
C26
C27
C28
C29
C30
C31
C32
C33
C34
C35
C36
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester tool (next
page, top).2 This modular tool system consists
Component of a hydraulic sonde and probe module,
pumpout and flow control module, an OFA
■Sample compositional analysis. Weight concentrations are shown on the Y-axis for a Optical Fluid Analyzer module and various
typical formation hydrocarbon sample contaminated with varying concentrations of sample chamber modules. Liquid components
oil-base mud (OBM) filtrate. Each component on the X-axis represents the number of
carbon atoms in the principal hydrocarbon type; for example, C3 represents propane are identified using near-infrared spectroscopy
[C3H8]. Crude oils obtained from different reservoirs have widely different characteristics. and gas is detected with measurement of
Some are black, heavy and thick like tar, and others are brown or nearly clear with low polarized light reflection.3 The basic MDT probe
viscosity and low specific gravity. module contains a variable-rate and volume
pretest chamber, flowline fluid resistivity mea-
surement, temperature sensor and two pres-
paraffin that is produced (above). These Challenges in Sampling sure gauges including a fast, high-precision
waxes can cause blockage problems in pro- The objective of fluid sampling is to obtain a CQG Crystal Quartz Gauge instrument that
duction facilities and in cold subsea representative sample of the reservoir fluid. allows sensitive monitoring of drawdown
pipelines. Asphaltene precipitation also pro- The principal operational challenges associ- pressures during the sampling process. Sample
duces tar-like solids that can come out of ated with wireline fluid sampling include: fluids and contamination levels are accurately
suspension in crude oil when pressures are finding the best zones for sampling, con- monitored in the flowline by the OFA module
reduced within the formation, in production necting to the formation, obtaining sufficient which will be discussed in more detail later in
tubing and in surface facilities. Asphaltene quantities of acceptably low filtrate contam- this article. The basic tool can be combined
content is, therefore, an important parameter inated samples and transporting unaltered with one or more sample chamber modules
in choosing optimal completion designs. fluid samples back to the surface. such as the Modular Reservoir Multisample
Water samples are critical in establishing Zone selection—Knowing where to make Module (MRMS) that can accommodate six
factors fundamental to the production and the connection to the reservoir fluid is criti- 450-cm3 [27-in.3] sample bottles and larger
process design. These include scaling, cal. Conventional resistivity-density-porosity sample chambers ranging to 22,700-cm3
hydrate formation tendencies, compatibility log and core data help identify potential pay [1385 in.3] (next page, bottom).
with possible injected water, corrosivity, zones. Frequently, the operator knows the Obtaining PVT-Grade Samples—After con-
metallurgy of tubulars and design of the target reservoirs, and other openhole logs nection has been made to the formation, the
water-handling plant. may be helpful in identifying the best zones sampling process involves pumping formation
in the well for sampling. For example, fluid through the tool to the borehole, or flow-
1. Michaels J, Moody M and Shwe T: “Wireline Fluid nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logs ing into chambers carried as part of the tool.
Sampling,” paper SPE 30610, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, such as those from the CMR Combinable The first fluid to flow is mud filtrate from the
Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995. Magnetic Resonance tool are particularly near-borehole environment. Depending on a
2. Smits AR, Fincher DV, Nishida K, Mullins OC, useful for determining zones that will be pro- number of factors, such as the filtrate invasion
Schroeder RJ and Yamate T: “In Situ Optical Fluid
Analysis as an Aid to Wireline Formation Sampling,” ductive (see “Integrated Answers Maximize depth and time spent pumping, the sample
paper SPE 26496, presented at the 68th SPE Annual Sampling Efficiency,” page 34). will contain a mixture of mud filtrate and
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, virgin formation fluid. Since the objective is to
Texas, USA, October 3-6, 1993.
3. For more on the use of the OFA module and gas
obtain formation samples with sufficiently
detection in the MDT tool: Badry R, Fincher D, low levels of mud filtrate contamination for
Mullins O, Schroeder B and Smits T: “Downhole PVT analysis, the first question is what level of
Optical Analysis of Formation Fluids,” Oilfield
Review 6, no. 1 (January 1994): 21-28. filtrate contamination is acceptable?
4. Roffy MG: “Preliminary Investigation into the Effects
of Oil Based Mud Contamination on PVT Property
Prediction,” BP Internal Report, September 1998.

28 Oilfield Review

■The MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester tool in single-probe mode.
A retractable, hydraulically operated probe embedded in a circular rubber
packer is forced through the mudcake to make a seal with the formation.
Two opposing backup pistons on the opposite side of the tool help push the
probe against the formation and maintain a good seal. Keeping the tool
body centered in the borehole minimizes the risk of differential sticking.
■ Modular Reservoir Multisample Module. The multi-sample module is a single
carrier with six 450-cm3 sample bottles connected to a common flowline and
is run as part of the MDT toolstring for PVT sampling. The sample bottles are
controlled from the surface and can be filled individually at different depths
and times, providing multiple discrete fluid samples for PVT analysis.
Autumn 1998
When fluids are immiscible, contamina-
tion should be kept low in order to collect a
sufficient volume of virgin formation fluid,
and to prevent excessive partitioning of
some of the oil components to either the
water phase or to an emulsion. Nevertheless,
in the immiscible case, the fluids are gener-
ally separable. Contamination becomes
much more critical when fluids are miscible.
In this case—either crude oil and oil-base
mud filtrate or connate water and water-base
mud filtrate—contamination must be suffi-
ciently low to allow identification of virgin
fluid properties. Oil-base mud filtrate in a
condensate is extremely difficult, because
the small amount of liquid that drops out of
gas mixes with the filtrate to make a highly
contaminated liquid.
These are areas of continuing research.
Recently BP Exploration in Sunbury, England
concluded an initial study of the effects of
oil-base mud filtrate contamination on the
predictive ability of PVT analysis.4 With a
single stock-tank oil recombined with
methane at a known GOR, samples were
mixed with various levels of an oil-base mud
simulating contamination levels from 1% to
40% by weight. A basic suite of PVT experi-
ments, as mentioned above, were performed
on each mixture. Equations-of-state were
developed from the PVT data. These equa-
tions were then used to estimate uncontami-
nated fluid sample properties, and these
results were compared to known properties
of the original uncontaminated fluids.
The comparisons show that for the crude
oils and the mud used in this study, the abil-
ity to predict GOR and saturation pressure to
within 5% required mud filtrate contamina-
tion to be less than 20% by weight. The level
of filtrate that is tolerable depends on the
PVT precision requirements of the end-user
such as the reservoir engineer, and also the
nature of the reservoir fluid itself.
It is thought that volatile oils and conden-
sate gases require a much lower level of con-
tamination if the sample is to be of use.
Recently several projects have been initiated,
in Norway, the UK and the USA to learn
more about the effects of oil-base mud
contamination on predicting hydrocarbon
properties. One such project is being con-
ducted at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh,
Scotland. Understanding the limitations of
collecting openhole samples from wells
drilled with oil-base mud is essential.
29
 Light-emitting
diode
Gas detector
Fluid flow
■OFA spectrometer and gas detector. As
formation fluid flows through the flowline
in the gas detector, a polarized light
beam focused on a sapphire window
in the flowline reflects into an array of
photodiodes that detect whether gas or
liquid is flowing past the window. In
the liquid analyzer, a light beam passes
through the flowline measuring fluid
absorption with filters sensitive to radia-
tion in ten wavelength bands from ultra-
violet through near infrared. The output
of each filter is plotted as an optical
density in the OFA log as the sample
fluid is pumped through the analyzer.
Sample deployment—Bringing samples to
the surface while maintaining their initial
reservoir properties is a major concern. As
fluid enters the tool, care must be exercised
to maintain a low drawdown. This will pre-
vent the sampling pressure from dropping
below the formation fluid bubblepoint or
dewpoint. If solids precipitate in the sample
chamber or the fluid outgasses on its way to
the surface, then the sample transfer may
yield fluids that will not accurately represent
those in the reservoir. The subsequent process
of transferring samples from downhole
sample chambers to transportation containers
can lead to gas components escaping to the
atmosphere or solids being left in the down-
hole sample chamber.
Experience has shown that once sample
fluids undergo phase changes while being
brought to the surface, it can be difficult to
recombine the separated components back
together. For example, asphaltene precip-
itation will lead to solids that stick to the
chamber walls. Also, if leakage occurs from
the multiphase fluid, the overall compo-
sition changes. However, pumping at
downhole hydrostatic or low differential
pressures into special pressurized sample
chambers helps maintain reservoir fluids in
their original state. See page 40 for a discus-
sion of a special single-phase chamber that
can pressurize the sample as it is brought to
the surface to retrieve monophase samples
for PVT analysis.
30
Optical Fluid Analysis—
The Key to Sample Quality
The OFA module provides the flowline fluid
Lamp
measurements needed to distinguish sample
contamination in a wide range of complex
environments. This module uses a combina-
Water tion of visible and near-infrared absorption
Gas spectrometry to record the intensity of light
Oil transmitted through the MDT tool flowline
fluid at various wavelengths (left).
Light from a high-temperature tungsten
halogen lamp passes through a rugged sap-
phire window into the flowline of the MDT
Liquid detector tool. After the light passes through the fluid
Optical density sample, it exits through another sapphire
Comments
Water, window into ten optical filters that split the
Color oil
channels channels transmitted light into narrow-wavelength
bands over a broad spectral range from about
475 nanometers (nm) at the ultraviolet edge
Inflate packer
of the visible spectrum to over 2000 nm in
Packer the near-infrared portion of the light spec-
pretest trum. This is the heart of the spectrometer.
Start
Photodiode detectors attached to each
pumpout filter measure for each band the reduction
in light intensity due to the fluid flowing in
the flowline. The observed light transmission
is controlled by the amount of light both
scattered and absorbed in the fluid sample.
Pumping In the spectrometer measurement, the trans-
filtrate mission is characterized by the optical
density of the fluid.
The reduction in light transmission scales
exponentially with the optical density of the
Pumping oil fluid. Therefore, an optical density of zero
means no loss in light transmission intensity,
Stop and an optical density of 2 means a hun-
pumping
dredfold loss in light intensity. The range of
Start sample transmission in the OFA measurement is
Throttling scaled from 0 to 3, which means the ana-
lyzer is sensitive to a 1000-fold reduction in
Change
throttle light transmission.
Gas evolution during sampling must be
avoided, which means sampling pressures
Seal sample should be above bubblepoint pressure.5 The
OFA module has a gas detector, which
checks for the presence of gas in real time
in the MDT tool flowstream. Sampling
conditions, particularly pressures, can be
determined for which no gas evolves in the
crude oil, which allows a representative
sample to be collected.
Oilfield Review
Optical Properties of Wellbore Fluids 4
The transmission of light through the fluid
sample results from the combined effect of
two distinct processes—scattering and
absorption. Both of these processes affect 3 Crude B
Crude A
light transmission and the optical density

Optical density
measurement, and can depend on the wave-
Water
length of the light. Oil-base
Absorption—Absorption is a process in 2 mud filtrate
which photons disappear while inducing
specific molecular excitations in the sample
fluid. Crude oil can absorb light of particular
wavelengths through both vibrational and 1
Condensate
electronic excitation.6 The absorption spec-
trum of crude oil exhibits a series of absorp-
tion peaks with diminishing intensity at Diesel
shorter wavelengths (right). 0
Channel 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The largest oil peak that can be seen in the number
OFA spectrometer is at 1725 nm. This peak
500 1000 1500 2000
corresponds to exciting molecular vibrations
involving hydrogen-carbon bonds. Such Wavelength, nm
vibrational peaks—located at discrete wave- ■Laboratory oil and water optical spectra. Water contains two significant absorption
lengths, or energies—are analogous to the peaks seen in the OFA spectrometer at 1445 and 1930 nm. Oil contains a strong
resonant frequencies exhibited by mechani- absorption peak at 1725 nm. Variations in the aromatic molecular components in
cal springs or tuning forks. Since the hydrogen- different oils lead to differences in color—caused by increasing absorption at shorter
wavelengths—that differentiate one oil from another.
carbon chemical groups of all oils and
asphaltenes are similar, these vibrational
peaks are comparable for most oils.
1
Materials that are black, such as tar, absorb
the entire spectrum of visible light through Low flow rate
3
many different molecular vibrational and (150 cm /min)
electronic excitations. In these cases, the 0.8
High flow rate
absorbed energy is converted into heat.
Oil fraction from OFA spectrometer

3
(700 cm /min)
Water exhibits strong vibrational absorp-
tion peaks observed in the spectrometer at
1445 and 1930 nm. Therefore, just as an 0.6
astronomer can tell what elements exist in
the upper atmospheres of shining stars by
the existence of absorption lines in their
continuous spectra, oil and water can be 0.4
readily differentiated by virtue of their dif-
ferent absorption peaks. Thus careful analy-
sis of the relative contributions in the
0.2
near-infrared spectral channels helps deter-
mine the oil and water fractions in the MDT
flowline (right).
0
5. The bubblepoint of a system is the state characterized
by the equilibrium coexistence of a substantial 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
amount of liquid phase and a small amount of gas.
6. Mullins OC, Mitra-Kirtley S and Zhu Y: “The Oil cut from flowmeters
Electronic Absorption Edge of Petroleum,” Applied
Spectroscopy 46, no. 9 (1992): 1405-1411. ■Verifying OFA module oil-cut measurements. The relative contributions of water and
oil absorption to the OFA near-infrared spectrum are used to determine the relative
volumes of water and oil in the flowline. Laboratory measurements on fresh water and
light hydrocarbon (kerosene) demonstrate the OFA module oil cut (oil volume flow rate
divided by total flow rate) calibration, with good agreement—within 10%—at low flow
rates, and slightly larger errors at higher flow rates.

Autumn 1998 31
 Scattering—Scattering is a nonabsorbing When particles are large compared to the other particulate material in the flowline can
process in which a beam of light, or pho- light wavelength—but still can be very small cause scattering. With sufficient numbers of
tons, interact with particles and molecules to the eye—the light is simply reflected from scattering surfaces, no transmission of light
in the fluid and are deflected from the the particle surface. For instance, white paint can take place in the OFA flowline.
beam, thereby reducing optical transmis- is an excellent scatterer of light and is If the particles are small compared to
sion. The extent of scattering depends on opaque to light transmission. In this case, the wavelength of light, then the intensity
the size of the scattering particles relative to scattering intensity is not dependent on the of scattering increases with decreasing
the wavelength of light. particular wavelength or color. Sand and wavelength. This process is known as
Rayleigh scattering, and it explains why the
sky, diluted skim milk or cigarette smoke
Energy per
appear blue. For example, mud solids—
Objects of size
photon, eV comparable to which originate from clay particles ranging
Wavelength, m Cosmic wavelength from less than 400 nm to 4000 nm in size—
rays are excellent scatterers of light over the
entire range of the spectrometer (left).
–13 7
10 10
Fluid Analysis for Reliable Sampling
–12 6 In formations where invasion is deep, a large
10 10 rays volume of mud filtrate may have to be
–11 5 Water and hydrocarbon removed before sufficiently uncontaminated
10 10
molecules formation fluid is pumped into the sampling
–10 4 tool. For example, the pumpout module in
10 10
the MDT tool has a powerful pump that can
–9 3 X-rays discharge the contents of the flowline fluid
10 10
into the wellbore against a differential
–8 2 pressure of several thousand psi. After
10 10 identifying a zone with high production
Ultraviolet
–7
potential from which a sample is to be recov-
10 10 ered, the pump is operated until the optical
Visible spectrometer measurements indicate that the
–6
10 1 light
Clays mud filtrate contamination level has stabi-
lized at a low value. At that time, the flow-
–5 –1
10 10 Silts line fluid is routed to the sample chamber.
Infrared
The OFA module provides an accurate and
–4 –2 Sands
10 10 reliable distinction between gas and liquid,
oil and water, and crude oil and oil-base
–3 –3
10 10 mud filtrate.
Gravel
An example from the Daqing field of the
–2 –4
10 10 Songliao basin in China shows how careful
Radar bands monitoring helped the operator obtain good
–1 –5
10 10 Boulders formation fluid samples in the presence
UHF
of deep water-base mud filtrate invasion
–6 TV (next page, right).7 The test started with a nor-
1 10
TV mal pumping rate, but during the first 10
VHF FM TV
10 10
–7 minutes, the pump-out was stopped and
Short Rigs started several times because the MDT tool
R
HF A wave
2 –8 automatically sensed—from fluctuating
10 10 D Standard
I broadcast
hydraulic pressure—that the probe seal was
MF
3 –9 O radio failing under the differential pumping pres-
10 10
sure in an unconsolidated formation. During
LF Wells
the first part of this test, some mud contami-
nation entered the flowline (red on the OFA
log, track 2) followed by mostly mud filtrate
■Range of wavelengths. Visible light is only a small part of the electromagnetic spec- (blue on the OFA log). At 270 sec into the
trum which covers the range of wavelengths from the subatomic dimensions of gamma
test, the tool probe seal had a massive failure
rays to beyond those of radio waves—approaching the length of many boreholes. The
wavelength, or corresponding energy, of the electromagnetic radiation determines how and mud entered the flowline. Observation
it interacts with matter, and dictates the most efficient means for detecting the radiation. of these seal failures with the OFA log
prompted the engineer to restart the test with
a reduced pump rate, helping achieve a
smooth mud filtrate cleanup profile.

32 Oilfield Review
 After 24 minutes of sample pumping, the
flowline oil concentration stabilized. The Oil
water fraction in the flowline, shown in
track 2, indicates a high water cut. A forma-
tion fluid sample was taken and confirmed Fluid coloration
Water
the high 30% water cut. The fluid coloration 0.0001 0.01
is computed from the absorption in the visi-
ble and near-infrared channels and is shown Elapsed High
in track 3. Coloration decreased and resistiv- time, absorbing Flowline resistivity
ity increased, shown in track 4, throughout s fluid 0 ohm-m 1
sample cleanup. Thus, ability to monitor 0.000001 0.0001
mud and filtrate contamination levels in the 1755
flowline before taking the sample allowed 1710
the operator to get the most representative 1665
sample possible. 1620
1575
1530
Crude Color 1485
In addition to the strong vibrational absorp- 1440
tion peaks in the near-infrared spectra, many 1395
crude oils exhibit a continuous monotonic 1350
increase in their absorption at shorter wave- 1305
lengths caused by the many overlapping 1280
excitations from the large range of different 1215
1170
light-absorbing aromatic molecules.8 The
1125
largest of these molecules absorbs the 1080
longest wavelength light, but the continuous 1035
absorption spectra tails off toward zero at 990
longer wavelengths because the number of 945
larger molecules decreases with increasing 900
size in crude oils (see “Origin of Coloration 855
810
in Crude Oils,” page 36).
765
This continuous tail in the optical density 720
extends across the spectrum from the near- 675
infrared through the visible spectrum and on 630
into the ultraviolet. For this reason, the 585
absorption tail in the spectrum is used to 540
derive an index of coloration. Strictly speak- 495
450
ing, the observed color of most substances is
405
due to both wavelength-dependent scatter-
360
ing and electronic excitations in the mate- 315
rial. Most crude oils possess significant 270
coloration (below). 225
180
135
90
45
0

■Daqing, China example. During the first ten minutes (elapsed time shown in track 1,
starting at the bottom) of sample pumpdown in a formation with water-base mud filtrate
invasion, several seal failures were indicated by the high absorbing-fluid index (track 2).
After mud started to enter the flowline at 270 s, the pump rate was reduced—leading to
a more consistent sample pumping and decreasing filtrate concentration shown by the
steady reduction in water holdup (track 2), coloration (track 3) and increasing flowline
resistivity (track 4). The formation sample was taken after the water holdup in the flow-
line stabilized at 1440 s.

7. Olesen JR: “Enhancing Hydrocarbon Recovery with

■Crude oil colors. Some crude oils are
black as coal, while others may be the
color of coffee or tea, and still others
nearly colorless.
New Oilfield Technologies,” in China 1997 Well
Evaluation Conference, Beijing, PRC: Petroleum
Industry Press, 1997.
8. Aromatic molecules are so named because of their
strong odor.

Autumn 1998 33
 Integrated Answers Maximize Sampling Efficiency

Wellsite efficiency is substantially increased Induction Density porosity Five-level averaging

ohm-m on CMR data
when MDT sampling depths are guided by CMR Core porosity, p.u.
Clean core
results. The in-situ dynamic MDT measurements permeability, md T2 distribution
CMR-FFI, p.u.
complement the CMR continuous permeability Borehole Density porosity CMR Timur/Coates
permeability, md
6 in. 16 0.1 1000 CMR 3-ms porosity, p.u.
log, and help confirm the presence of producible GR Neutron porosity T2 log mean T2 cutoff
hydrocarbons. CMR and MDT data were acquired 0 API 150 45 p.u. -15 0.1 ms 1000 40 TCMR porosity, p.u. 0 0.3 ms 3000

for Statoil in a well in the North Sea.1 The reser- Depth, m

voir has low-resistivity pay zones, and the 35 X100

p.u., well-sorted, fine to very fine-grained sands, A

contain iron-rich glauconite and chlorite clay B

Tar
minerals (right). The microporous glauconite zones

reduces the reservoir’s effective porosity. The

CMR tool was used to help identify mobile oil,
and to quantify irreducible water saturation,
effective porosity and bound fluid volume.2 Core
permeability results available at the wellsite
suggested that the large high-porosity zone from
X102 to X120 m should be tested.
X125
However, poor free-fluid signals, missing poros-
ity and short relaxation decay times seen in the
CMR log identified this and several other smaller C

zones as unproductive tar zones. Without the CMR

results, core results would have prompted multiple
sample attempts throughout the tar zones. The cores
have been cleaned with a solvent that removed all
traces of the tar, changing their effective perme-
ability. With the CMR logs, good MDT samples
were obtained, enabling the operator to pinpoint a
gas zone at X102.8 m and oil at X104.2 m, just X150

above the thick tar zone, and to verify formation

water in a thin sand bed at X130.7 m.
The impact of the CMR data in this well was
twofold. First, it provided a better reservoir
description—identifying tar and gas zones as well
as irreducible water and free-water production.
Second, and more importantly, it helped guide
real-time operations with respect to formation
sampling—helping to identify sampling depths
and confirming the anomalous tar zone. Without
the extra information, a costly DST test would
have been likely.
■ CMR-MDT tool combination. The CMR tool was used to streamline MDT tool operations by identifying the
best zones to sample in a North Sea well. Missing porosity (black curve) and low levels of free fluid (solid red
curve) in track 4 and very short T2 decay times in track 5 are NMR signatures of tar seen between X105 and
X111 m and at X113, X115 and X118 m. Good formation fluid samples were obtained at A (gas), B (oil) and
C (water).
1. Slot-Petersen C, Eidesmo T, White J and Rueslatten HG: 2. Allen D, Crary S, Freedman B, Andreani M, Klopf W, Badry
“NMR Formation Evaluation Applications in a Complex R, Flaum C, Kenyon B, Kleinberg R, Gossenberg P,
Low-Resistivity Hydrocarbon Reservoir,” paper TT, pre- Horkowitz J, Logan D, Singer J and White J: “How to Use
sented at the SPWLA 39th Annual Logging Symposium, Borehole Nuclear Magnetic Resonance,” Oilfield Review 9,
Keystone, Colorado, USA, May 26-29, 1998. no. 2 (Summer 1997): 34-57.

34 Oilfield Review
Sampling with Oil-Base Muds—
Reading the Rainbows
A key objective of the OFA measurement is
to distinguish between oil-base mud filtrate
and crude oil. Achieving this objective is not
as straightforward as differentiating oil and
water, where one can rely on the readily dis-
tinguishable absorption peaks. Oil-base mud
filtrate and crude oil have the same base
fluid, saturated alkanes. Even though syn-
thetic oil-base mud may contain other chem-
ical groups not found in crude oils, such as
esters, they are predominantly alkane. These
compounds exhibit near-infrared vibrational
absorption peaks similar to those of pure
alkanes. Thus, as far as using near-infrared
spectral analysis is concerned, synthetic oil-
base mud filtrates have the same or a similar
signature. On some occasions, crude oils are
used as the base fluid exacerbating difficul-
ties associated with differentiation.
Nevertheless, an obvious distinction
becomes apparent when looking at the colors
of different crude oils and oil-base mud fil-
trates. In fact, crude oil coloration extends into
the near-infrared beyond the visible range of
the eye; the crude oil coloration in the visible
and near-infrared exhibits huge variation and
is readily measured. The color of crude oils
and, to a large extent, filtrates can be charac-
terized by a single parameter—coloration—
that varies over many orders of magnitude.9
The electronics in the OFA module are
designed to measure accurately slight varia-
tions in coloration by using detection cir-
cuitry with a high signal-to-noise ratio. This
permits sensitive optical absorption mea-
surements to be made over a wide dynamic
range. In addition, several of the spectrome-
ter channels are devoted specifically to mea-
surement of color, and the wavelength
location of these channels is optimized to
enhance the color measurement. Thus, high-
precision measurement of coloration during
sampling can be used to monitor the transi-
tion in the MDT tool flow stream from oil-
base mud filtrate to crude oil.
During sampling in a well drilled with oil-
base mud, the initial flow of fluid from the
formation is dominated by the filtrate, so the
first coloration recorded is largely the color of
the filtrate. Over time, the fraction of crude oil
in the flow increases, while the filtrate dimin-
ishes as the flow cleans up. The miscible
mixture of crude oil and oil-base mud filtrate
coloration simply reflects the corresponding
fluid fractions. Thus, coloration provides a
continuous measure of cleanup.
Autumn 1998
0.8
Channel 3
0.6
Optical density
0.4
Channel 4
0.2
Channel 5
Channel 7
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Elapsed time, min
■Oil-base mud field example. Optical density curves from several OFA spectrometer
channels are plotted as a function of pumping time. Initially mud is in the flowline,
and the responses in all channels show a high optical density. Immediately after flow
commences, mud is flushed from the flowline and the optical density seen in all
channels decreases. The optical density spikes are associated with the pump strokes
releasing mud solids trapped in the MDT tool flowline. At long times, the change in
coloration seen in channel 3 is very slight, and the flow is approaching pure crude oil.
Frequently, the initial flow in the MDT would not significantly reduce contam-
flowline exhibits rather large changes in col- ination further. A formation sample was
oration, indicating that the fraction of filtrate collected at this time. After being pumped
decreases significantly at first. Following this, into a sample chamber held at wellbore
the coloration usually exhibits asymptotic hydrostatic pressure, the sample fluid stayed
behavior over long periods. The vertical single phase. Laboratory analysis of the
scale on individual color channels can be recovered sample confirmed low synthetic
expanded to assist in monitoring the asymp- oil-base mud contamination—less than 15%.
totic behavior. To obtain contamination In some cases, different behavior is
levels at the few-percent level, correspond- observed related to the optical scattering
ingly small variations in coloration are process discussed earlier. For particle sizes
desired.10 When the coloration change with that are large compared to the wavelength of
time is sufficiently small, sampling is per- light, the scattering is independent of wave-
formed. With this method, sample contami- length. For example, when the MDT logging
nation levels below 10% are consistently tool is lowered into the well, the flowline fills
obtained in oil fields around the world. with mud. The OFA module records the
maximum optical density on all channels.
Flow-Stream Analysis No light gets through the sample because of
In typical cases, the method of sampling light scattering by the mud solids. After the
using optical density and coloration takes mud in the flowline is flushed, filtrate and
place as described above. In a well drilled formation fluids are obtained which gener-
with synthetic oil-base mud, the OFA mea- ally do not have suspended solids, so the
surements show that base oil filtrate scattering diminishes to zero.
and other contaminants decrease rapidly as
they are pumped through the MDT tool 9. Mullins OC: “Method of Distinguishing Between
Crude Oils,” US Patent No. 5,266,800 (November
(above). In this field example, the MDT flow 30, 1993).
stream was monitored with the OFA spec- 10. Hashem MN, Thomas EC, McNeil RI and Mullins
trometer, and the responses in channels 3 to OC: “Determination of Producible Hydrocarbon
Type and Oil Quality in Wells Drilled with Synthetic
7 evolve showing crude oil as the flow Oil-Based Muds,” paper SPE 39093, presented at the
cleans up. The OFA log suggests that after SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
about 30 minutes of pumping, little filtrate San Antonio, Texas, USA, October 5-8, 1997.
Felling MM and Morris CW: “Characterization of
contamination is present and coloration In-Situ Fluid Responses Using Optical Fluid Analysis,”
channels indicate that a medium-gravity paper SPE 38649, presented at the SPE Annual
hydrocarbon sample is flowing through the Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio,
Texas, October 5-8, 1997.
tool. In this well, the optical density readings
in all channels have stabilized after 40 min-
utes, indicating that additional pumping
35

Origin of Coloration in Crude Oils
Most crude oils have no significant electronic
absorption peaks in their visible spectra. Instead,
their coloration is characterized by a continuously
increasing absorption at shorter wavelengths which
extends into the ultraviolet range. For the purpose
of understanding this source of coloration, crude oil
can be considered to consist of aromatic hydrocar-
bons and saturated hydrocarbons.1
Aromatic compounds, an important component
of crude oil, consist of molecular rings with alter-
nating double and single carbon-carbon bonds.
Electrons are free to roam in these molecules,
and the electron wavelengths are commensurate
with the size of the molecule.2 Thus, the size
of the molecules impacts the range of optical
absorption wavelengths seen in fluids containing
these compounds. The smallest common aromatic
molecule is benzene, which is colorless, and the
largest commonly known aromatic is graphite.
While not found in crude oil, graphite illustrates
that large aromatics possess strong absorption
across the entire visible spectrum from ultraviolet
to infrared wavelengths—leading to its character-
istic black color.
Asphaltenes along with other aromatic com-
pounds found in crude oils contain moderately
large polycyclic aromatic ring systems—with an
average of seven rings in a molecule—yielding
significant light absorption in the visible and near-
infrared spectrum. This produces the characteris-
tic dark coloration of heavy, low API gravity crude
oil.3 Resins, the next heaviest component of crude
oil, also absorb in the visible spectrum. The con-
centration of asphaltenes and resins varies con-
siderably, producing the wide range of coloration
in crude oils. These are the highest density com-
ponents and, as such, high-density crude oils rich
in asphaltenes are quite dark. Correspondingly,
light oils lacking heavy components are lightly
36
colored. The correlation of coloration with API
gravity is approximate because other components
(such as waxes) can affect crude oil density but
not coloration.
In saturated hydrocarbons, the term saturated
refers to the molecule being saturated with chemi-
cally bound hydrogen. Thus, there are no double
bonds in this dominant class of hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons are colorless because
they consist of C-H bonds and single C-C bonds;
the electrons in these bonds can be excited only
by absorption of very high energy, far ultraviolet
light, but not by lower energy visible or near-
infrared light. Examples include the smallest
saturated alkane, methane. Even large saturated
hydrocarbons such as waxes are colorless (or
white if they are large enough to scatter light)
if obtained in their pure state. Thus, saturated
hydrocarbons have no bearing on the observed
coloration of crude oils except to dilute the col-
ored aromatic components.
Thus, coloration results from the broad contin-
uum of electronic excitations in the aromatic com-
ponent of crude oils. Crude oils and oil-base muds
have widely ranging concentrations of aromatic
molecules, and the change in coloration with time
during sampling is the basis for distinguishing
between an OBM filtrate and a crude oil sampled
with the MDT tool.
1. The aromatics molecules are ring structures, whereas the
saturates are typically long molecular chains. In crude oils,
molecular weights of the largest components of the aro-
matics and of the saturates can reach 1000 atomic mass
units. The structure of asphaltenes, the largest aromatics
in crude oil, is an area of active research.
2. The motion of an electron bound in an atom can be
described as a wave whose wavelength is related to its
momentum. In 1924, the French physicist Louis de
Broglie proposed the idea that matter behaves like waves.
3. Mullins OC and Sheu EY (eds): Structures and Dynamics
of Asphaltenes. New York, New York, USA: Plenum Press
(in press).
In some examples, large optical density
spikes occur after filtrate flow starts. These
spikes are associated with MDT pump
strokes that occur when flow is disrupted. By
careful analysis of MDT pressure pulses and
optical density spikes, along with flow rates,
the spikes have been traced to dislodged
mud and pieces of mudcake within the flow-
line. As expected, the spikes diminish in
amplitude with time. The effect of these
scatterers on OFA logs produces a clear-cut
signature—large optical densities are
recorded on all channels.
In certain other cases, optical density logs
obtained in the Gulf of Mexico by Shell Oil
show that oil-base mud filtrate extracted
from the formation exhibits optical scattering
at all wavelengths. That is, when filtrate is
present in the flowline, there is a large scat-
tering signal in every channel (next page,
left). By analyzing many logs and the con-
tents of sample bottles, it was discovered that
this scattering essentially labels or “tags” the
filtrate. When significant scattering is present
in the extracted sample, filtrate contamina-
tion is high; when little scattering is present,
contamination is low. This scattering is
thought to result from fine mud solids invad-
ing with the filtrate and is prevalent for cases
of high-permeability formations and those
drilled with high overbalance (up to 5000 psi
[34 MPa]). The scattering, which labels the
oil-base mud filtrate, is quite different from
the previously observed optical density
spikes. In those cases, the filtrate had no mud
solids or scattering particles, and the filtrate
coloration was measurable.
Thus, there are two sources of scattering:
optical density spikes from mud within the
flowline that gets dislodged with flow disrup-
tion, and from mud solids which invade with
the filtrate and appear continuously in time in
proportion to the filtrate concentration. The
scattering produced by the solids in the filtrate
can preclude measurement of filtrate color.
Nevertheless, the same coloration method
can be used to detect the presence of filtrate
and measure the evolution toward uncontam-
inated crude oil. As shown in the Shell exam-
ple, the optical density produced by the
scattering diminishes asymptotically.
The asymptotic behavior is virtually identi-
cal to that of the coloration and can be mon-
itored in the same way to decide when to
sample. One can select a color channel
where oil shows low optical absorbancy
(often reservoirs are known to produce light
oils with little or no coloration at longer
wavelengths) to quantify the contamination
level. The maximum logged optical density
in this channel at an early time in the draw-
down is defined as corresponding to 100%
Oilfield Review
 3.0 ■In-situ GOR 10,000
Channel 2 Channel 5 from OFA analy-
Channel 3 GOR = 812e0.114 (HOP)
Channel 6 sis. An empirical
2.5 Channel 4 correlation
between the
OFA-derived

GOR, scf /STB

hydrocarbon
2.0 optical property
(HOP) index and
Optical density

known gas/oil
1.5 ratios (GOR) was
used to estimate
the GOR in a
number of off-
1.0 shore wells in the
Gulf of Mexico. 1000
1 10 100
0.5 HOP index

■In-situ API from 40

0
OFA analysis.
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 API = 24e0.028 (COP)
A correlation
Elapsed time, s
between the
OFA-derived
■ Oil-base mud example with fines scat- crude oil optical

Oil gravity, °API

tering. Optical density curves from the 35
property (COP)
OFA channels are plotted as a function index and known
of pumping time in a Shell well drilled stock tank API
with oil-base mud. The mud filtrate gravity was used
causes scattering—increasing the optical to estimate during
density. In addition, spikes occur from sampling the API 30
mud dislodged from within the MDT gravity of the cor-
flowline with pump strokes. responding stock
tank oil in a
number of off-
shore wells in the 25
filtrate. With this assumption, the relative 1 10 100
Gulf of Mexico.
reading in this channel itself records the rel- COP index
ative level of contamination. When it is
reduced to 10% of the original value, the
contamination is considered to be 10%.

Determining Oil Properties in Situ
Shell Oil Company recognized that col-
oration can be used to characterize oil prop-
erties such as GOR and API gravity.11 These
are important new applications for optical
fluid analysis, and use of spectral informa-
tion to determine compositional and phase
properties of the formation hydrocarbons is
an area of continuing active research.
GOR—By measuring differences in color
transmission in the lowest four optical spec-
trometer channels, a hydrocarbon optical
property index was derived. This index
shows an excellent correlation with GOR
(top right).
This correlation was used to evaluate sam-
ples from a number of formations in the Gulf
of Mexico. Laboratory PVT analysis of the
samples agrees with the field results and val-
idates the technique. A high GOR means a
large gas fraction, which indicates that the
crude oil is low in high-carbon-number Log-derived values of API gravity and GOR
components such as asphaltenes, thus mak- are extremely useful. They can be used as
ing the oil more transparent in the visible early indicators in the planning cycle,
channels. Methane also acts to dilute the whereas more exact PVT data will be deter-
color of the oil. mined in the laboratory after samples have
API gravity—A similar empirical approach been brought to the surface. In-situ oil prop-
was used to determine in-situ API gravity. By erties are important because they reflect the
comparing the fluid absorption response in true nature of the downhole reservoir fluid
the visible wavelength channels with the before any changes can take place as fluids
response in the longer near-infrared wave- are brought to surface. These indicators are
length channels—associated with oil—a useful in the remaining formation evaluation
crude oil property index was obtained. This program if unexpected crude oil properties
index shows a remarkable correlation with are uncovered. Correlations between these
decreasing API gravity of the stock tank oil measurements and subsequent laboratory
(above). As the crude oil API gravity PVT values help reduce the uncertainties of
decreases, heavy components such as dense the OFA-derived GOR and API measure-
asphaltene fractions increase, leading to an ments in a given well and reservoir. Such
increase in absorption at shorter wavelengths operational advantages have allowed Shell
and a subsequent decrease in the color- to reduce rigtime and sampling costs in off-
based crude oil property index. shore wells.

11. Hashem et al, reference 10.

Autumn 1998 37
■Low Shock
Sampling tech-
nique. Internal
pressure of the
sample chamber
is held at the for-
mation pressure,
thereby eliminating
any shock to the
sandface when the
chamber is opened.
Before the sample
chamber is opened,
the pumpout mod-
ule flushes filtrate
from the formation
back to the well-
bore. The flowline
fluid can be moni-
tored using the OFA
module to deter-
mine when a low-
contamination
sample can be
recovered, and the
fluid flow can be
diverted into a
sample chamber.
Open valve
Closed valve
This technique is frequently used for sampling
in unconsolidated sands, where a typical
problem is breakdown and mobilization of
sand grains. An effective means to address
this problem is to use a single large-diameter
probe and a gravel-packed filter screen with
a large zone of the reservoir packed off.
For example, China Offshore Oil Bohai
Corporation in Bohai Bay, China needed a
new technique to sample fluids in a forma-
Formation
tion complicated by heavy oil in thin beds.
fluid
Resistivity Sampling is vital, due to the low-resistivity
contrast between oil and fresh water, leading
to uncertainty in determining formation fluid
CQG
P type. Conventional downhole testing in five
earlier wells in the same fault block was
Strain gauge P
Pressure unsuccessful in measuring pressure accu-
contamination test chamber
OFA bubbles
rately, and no samples were obtained.
Pump up/down
Using the Low Shock Sampling technique,
module the operator successfully captured 26 pres-
sure points and one low-contamination
water sample in this difficult formation. A
second-low contamination, high-density oil
Sample fluid
Sample sample was obtained using a dual-packer
chamber Wellbore fluid module (next page, left). The large area cov-
at hydrostatic ered by the dual packer reduces the load on
pressure
the sandface, allowing the invading filtrate to
be pumped out and heavy oil to be sampled
without collapsing the formation. The Low
Shock Sampling technique helped to record
a formation pressure profile safely—without
damaging the sandface—for the first time in
this field. The samples provided valuable
information for reservoir modeling and com-
pletion design.

Modeling Fluid Flow

Low Shock Sampling Technique
Conventional sampling can “shock” the for-
mation at the moment the chamber is
opened, and the pressure drawdown to the
formation can be violent and cause
extremely high flow rates at the probe. The
origin of many sampling problems is a sud-
den pressure change during drawdown and
an associated surge of fluids. The drawdown
can drop the sample pressure below the
bubblepoint, and change the phase charac-
teristics and composition of the sample with
the precipitation of solids or the appearance
of gas. In addition, high flow rates can
loosen matrix grains, causing formation
probe seal failures and plugging in probe
and flow lines.
Water and air cushions with valve throt-
tling have sometimes been used to counter
the initial shock, but in many cases these
techniques have failed. Air-cushion cham-
bers offer little control of the drawdown and
will frequently allow the flowing pressure of
the sample to drop below the bubblepoint.
Flashing in the formation will yield an
apparent GOR that is higher than the actual
reservoir GOR.12
The Low Shock Sampling technique was
developed by Schlumberger to limit pressure
drawdown during fluid sampling operations.
The shock is minimized by pumping for-
mation fluids into the MDT tool against
piston chambers held at borehole pressure,
as opposed to drawing formation fluid into
chambers at atmospheric pressure (above).
Since excessive pumping and cleanup time
means increased rig costs and additional risk
of differential tool sticking, new methods to
reduce cleanup time and minimize the level
of contamination are being investigated.
These require understanding what actually
happens to fluids in the formation when the
sample probe makes contact with the forma-
tion through the mudcake and starts to pump.
A good connection to the formation is essen-
tial. The probe must penetrate mudcake and
seal against the formation, and the mudcake
must be able to isolate borehole mud fluid
and keep it from filtrating into the sandface.
Without a good mudcake seal, formation fluid
flow in front of the probe can quickly change
to a flow around the probe pad, drawing in
mud fluids from the borehole. Given a good
mudcake and probe seal, and knowing the
depth of invasion from a resistivity profile, one

38 Oilfield Review
 ■Simulated fluid
flow around a sin-
gle probe. A
radial section
map (top) shows
Filtrate Oil zone formation satura-
tion adjacent to
the probe (right)
and formation oil

Water flow
(red) coning
towards the probe
during sample
pumping. Water
filtrate (blue) can
be seen feeding
in from above
Oil flow and below. The
invasion satura-
tion in the forma-
tion opposite the
probe (left) also
shows a charac-

Water flow
teristic hourglass
filtrate distribution
roughly centered
on the probe.
Simulator results
(bottom) indicate
that cleanup time
using multiple
probes (one probe
Filtrate dumped into borehole sampling and the
Formation fluid (oil)
other probe used
Mud filtrate (water) as a pumping
guard probe) can
100 reduce both the
cleanup time and
Sampling probe, 2 probes flowing
the ultimate level
80 Sampling probe only flowing of sample con-
tamination by a
Water cut, %

factor of three.
60

40
■Dual-packer module. The dual-packer
module has two packers inflated by the
pumpout module to isolate a zone of the 20
borehole from the column of mud. This
allows a greater area of the formation
0
to be pumped than is possible with the
single probe. 0 2.5 5.0
Elapsed time, hr

can estimate—assuming spherical flow—how
long to pump in order to remove the filtrate
layer in front of the probe.
Sometimes, even with good seals, many
gallons of fluid are pumped, and the sample
is still highly contaminated with filtrate.
Under apparently optimum conditions, such
factors as permeability anisotropy can affect
the results.13 Modeling fluid flow has been
a useful approach to understand the com-
plexity of fluid dynamics under sampling
conditions. Three-dimensional models have
been developed by Halliburton, Baker Atlas
and Schlumberger to simulate the flow of
fluids into wireline formation tester sample
probes.14 Results of these simulations help
visualize the flow and lead to better
sampling strategies designed to minimize
filtrate contamination.
Autumn 1998
Schlumberger applied the results of 3D
modeling to build a simulator to study con-
tamination levels and cleanup behavior in
more than 150 combinations of various
rocks with different fluid properties.15 The
simulator computed fluid flow and deter-
mined time evolution of the contamination
levels. The effect of various parameters such
as viscosity, anisotropy, relative fluid perme-
ability, end-point mobilities, fluid density,
porosity and proximity to barriers on
cleanup time were analyzed. For model ver-
ification, field data from sampling were
matched with simulated cleanup times.
The simulator results show that the radial
flow profile of formation oil is essentially
spherical or elliptical (depending on perme-
ability anisotropy), and filtrate flow is nearly
cylindrical within the invaded zone (above).
The outer wall of the invasion cylinder or the
12. Flashing is a process in which the composition
of a system remains constant, but the proportions
of gas and liquid phases that make up the system
change as pressure or other independent variables
are changed.
13. Ayan C, Colley N, Cowan G, Ezekwe E, Wannell M,
Goode P, Halford F, Joseph J, Mongini A, Obondoko
G and Pop J: “Measuring Permeability Anisotropy:
The Latest Approach,” Oilfield Review 6, no. 4
(October 1994): 24-35.
14. A comprehensive discussion of modeling fluid
flow at the Wireline Fluid Sampling Meeting,
Aberdeen, Scotland, April 22, 1997, can be
found at the Welltest Network website:
http://www.welltesting.net.com/index.html.
15. Akram AH, Fitzpatrick AJ and Halford FR: “A Model
to Predict Formation Tester Sample Contamination,”
paper SPE 48959, accepted for presentation at the
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 27-30, 1998.
39

■The MDT Modular Formation Dynamics
Tester tool in multiprobe mode. By pump-
ing through two of the three probes (the
two on the same side of the tool) simultane-
ously, samples can be obtained in less time
and with lower levels of contamination.
filtrate-oil interface, is drawn inward toward
the probe, leading to a filtrate saturation dis-
tribution around the wellbore in the shape of
an hourglass. Reduction in vertical perme-
ability will inhibit vertical flow of filtrate and
result in shorter cleanup times. Not surpris-
ingly, proximity to a flow boundary was
found to reduce cleanup time. Differences in
Using the Guard-Probe Technique
An operator working in Angola, West Africa,
needed PVT-quality, low-contamination formation
samples to characterize reserves in a deepwater
environment. The high cost associated with
obtaining fluid samples led the operator to con-
sider every option available—including new
methods of sampling—to minimize factors that
could degrade sample quality.
Guided by the results of flow-modeling analy-
sis, the MDT dual-probe configuration was used
to create a guard-probe geometry. The tool was
40
oil and filtrate density can cause the filtrate to
slump vertically; if sampling takes place
when there is significant slumping, cleanup
time increases.
Modeling suggests several practical ways to
reduce cleanup time and contamination
level. First, formation geometry can be used
to help obtain good samples. In many wells,
the zone of interest is located between two
closely spaced shale beds, and these beds
will provide a barrier that prevents filtrate
from flowing vertically and recontaminating
the sample zone. Another approach deploys
multiple sampling probes (left). With a mul-
tiple-probe tool, one probe can act as guard
probe to isolate the other sample-
taking probe from the natural vertical flow of
the invaded filtrate. The third probe is used to
help in setting the tool and provides a moni-
toring function.
In some wells, the sampling probe can be
placed below a shale cap and the guard
probe positioned 2.3 ft [0.7 m] lower. The
guard probe will clean out the filtrate in the
region beneath the sample probe, and the
shale cap keeps new filtrate from entering
from above. Simulations indicate that this
multiple-probe technique can reduce
cleanup time by a factor of three and
reduce final contamination level by the
same amount. This reduction in contamina-
tion level with two probes is especially use-
ful because reaching a low level of
contamination in some formations with a
single-probe configuration can be exceed-
ingly difficult (see “Using the Guard-Probe
Technique,” below).
16. Birkett GP: “Single-Phase Downhole Sampling for
Asphaltenes,” presented at the International Business
Communications Conference on Controlling
Hydrates, Paraffins and Asphaltenes, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA, November 6-7, 1997.
positioned adjacent to a permeability boundary to
help direct the flow pattern of the filtrate during the
pumpout cleanup phase. The expectation
was that by reducing the vertical filtrate flow, the
filtrate-to-reservoir fluid ratio would be lower.
After the flow pattern was optimized using
guard-probe geometry, the Low Shock Sampling
technique was used to capture fluid samples. The
OFA module was used to monitor the contamina-
tion level in real time, and the log showed when
the sample could be taken.
Single-Phase Sampling
Accurate compositional and PVT analysis of
formation samples requires the recovered
sample to remain in downhole formation
conditions. In many cases, this means main-
taining a monophase sample. Many sampling
chambers work on the principle of trapping a
fixed volume of single-phase fluid at reservoir
conditions. However, as the sample returns to
surface, the temperature in the chamber
decreases (next page, top left). This cooling
results in a pressure drop within the sealed
chamber, which in most cases causes the
sample to pass through the bubblepoint line
to a gas and liquid mixture. As the pressure
approaches the bubblepoint, asphaltene
precipitation can occur. Asphaltene deposi-
tion in the reservoir, wellbore and process
lines is a well-documented problem during
crude oil recovery. Additionally, cooling
causes the precipitation of paraffin, which
may be left behind if not completely heated
and recombined prior to sample transfer.
Recombination of precipitated asphaltenes in
the sample chamber requires a lengthy repres-
suring process, which may never be fully
reversible. Compositional changes will result
in changes to other critical production param-
eters such as GOR, viscosity and API gravity.
One solution to this problem has been
developed by Oilphase (a division of
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing in Aberdeen,
Scotland). The technique involves overpres-
suring the samples after they are taken at
reservoir conditions. Sample chambers are
pressurized across two pistons with a nitrogen
gas chamber, thereby allowing compensation
for the temperature-induced pressure drop as
the samples are returned to surface.16 The
Single-Phase Multisample-Chamber (SPMC)
is designed for use with the MDT multisample
Two oil samples with filtrate contamination levels
of 3.3% and 4.2% by weight were recovered—
well below the job design objective of 10%.
Previous attempts using older sampling tech-
niques yielded samples with contamination levels
as high as 18.6%. The operator applied the guard-
probe and the Low Shock Sampling technique
successfully on other wells in this region.
Oilfield Review
 ■Phase diagram of
B. Nitrogen charged a typical crude oil.
C. Single-phase sample
Liquid hydrocarbon
samples taken at
reservoir tempera-
A. Initial reservoir conditions ture and pressure (A)
can change phase
at lower tempera-
100% tures and pressures
Critical point
Liquid as they are brought
to the surface (D).
Pressure

By overpressurizing
the sample down-
Multiphase zone
,% hole (B), the sample
ion

will maintain its

ct
fra

D. Multiphase sample initial phase as it 250-cm 3

uid

is brought to the monophasic

75%
Liq

surface (C) at lower sample

50%
Liquid, % temperature.
25% Gas
0%

Temperature 'Floating'
piston
Reservoir temperature
Ambient temperature

module (right). The nitrogen is isolated from Future of Sampling

the sample chamber and acts on the sample
through a piston floating on a synthetic oil
buffer. This avoids any nitrogen contamination
of the sample fluid. The pressurized gas
charge maintains pressure in the sample
chamber, ensuring that the sample remains
above the bubblepoint line. Once brought to
the surface, sample chambers are transported
to the PVT laboratory for analysis.
How well does single-phase sampling
work? Recently, Texaco was trying to estab-
lish the presence of producible hydrocar-
bons in a North Sea reservoir. PVT-quality,
single-phase fluid samples were required—
a task well suited to single-phase sampling
with the MDT tool. Estimating recoverable
reserves required accurate reservoir parame-
ters derived from a representative, mono-
phase formation fluid sample.
The challenge was to distinguish formation
oil from the oil-base mud filtrate. Water sat-
urations from 40 to 50% compounded to
heighten the difficulty of testing and sam-
pling. SPMC chambers were run in this well
using the MDT multisample module. Six
low-contamination samples were recovered,
including two monophase samples. Surface
pressure checks on the SPMC chambers con-
firmed monophase recovery with readings
greater than 1600 psi [11 MPa] above forma-
tion pressure. Subsequent PVT lab analysis
recorded contamination levels of 4% and
2%. The samples allowed Texaco to reduce
the risks associated with their recoverable
reserves estimate.
Wireline fluid sampling technology and tech-
niques continue to evolve. Despite progress,
some aspects need further research.
The reservoir engineers, production Nitrogen pressure
chemists and process engineers who use transmitted to
formation fluid data are concerned with the sample
the range and quality of the PVT and through the
buffer fluid
compositional analyses they get from sam-
pling. Contamination levels and their impact 'Floating'
on the fluid analysis are crucial. As far as piston
water-base mud and miscible oil-base mud
filtrate contamination are concerned, experts
in the field believe they understand what are Pressure-
charged
the acceptable levels and how to obtain rep- nitrogen
resentative samples in formations with black
and volatile hydrocarbons. The situation in
reservoirs with gas condensates is not as
clear. Only a small level of oil-base mud
filtrate contamination is necessary to alter
sample behavior from a gas condensate to
a volatile oil. This is an important area of
continuing research.
The data gatherers—those concerned with
planning the jobs, designing and preparing
sampling tools and ultimately gathering
high-quality samples—must continue to lis-
Reservoir fluid
ten to the needs of the data users. Asking
questions about how samples will be used, Buffer fluid
and understanding how sample acquisition
and deployment affect the results, will set the Nitrogen
course for new, improved solutions. —RCH
■Single-phase sample chamber. The Oilphase Single-Phase Multisample Chamber
(SPMC) is a 250-cm3 [15 in.3], 20,000-psi [138-MPa] sample chamber that is used with the
MDT multisample module to provide pressure-compensated fluid samples. Its sample
bottles are filled at or near formation pressure by the MDT pumpout module. After cap-
ture of the fluid sample, the sample is overpressured during retrieval by the release of a
preset nitrogen charge (blue). The nitrogen acts on the sample through a piston floating
on a synthetic oil buffer. The recovery pressure is generally set several thousand psi
above the sample bubblepoint pressure.

Autumn 1998 41