Today’s summary

• Multiple beam interferometers: Fabry-Perot resonators

– Stokes relationships
– Transmission and reflection coefficients for a dielectric slab
– Optical resonance
• Principles of lasers
• Coherence: spatial / temporal

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-1

Fabry-Perot interferometers

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-2

1
 Relation between r, r’ and t, t’
ar a’t’
at
a’r’

a’

a
air glass glass air

r ′ = −r Proof: algebraic from the Fresnel coefficients

or using the property of preservation of the
r 2 + tt ′ = 1 field properties upon time reversal
Stokes relationships

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-3

Proof using time reversal

ar ar
at at

atr’

att’ art
a
air glass ar2 air glass

⇔
a(r + r ′) t = 0 ⇒ r = − r ′
( )
a r 2 + tt ′ = a ⇒ r 2 + tt ′ = 1

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-4

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 Fabry-Perot Interferometer
reflected

transmitted

incident

Resonance condition: reflected wave = 0

⇔ all reflected waves interfere destructively

mλ wavelength in free space

L=
2n refractive index

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-5

Calculation of the reflected wave

incoming a transmitted ateiδ transmitted ateiδt’

reflected ar reflected atei2δr’

transmitted atei2δr’t’

reflected atei3δ(r’)2 transmitted atei3δ(r’t’)2

reflected atei4δ(r’)3

transmitted atei4δ(r’)3t’

reflected atei5δ(r’)4

nL
δ = 2π
air, n=1 glass, n air, n=1 λ
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-6

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 Calculation of the reflected wave

{ (
areflected = a r + tt ′r ′ e i 2δ 1 + r ′2 ei 2δ + r ′4 e i 4δ + L )}
⎧ 1 ⎫
= a ⎨r + tt ′r ′ e i 2δ 2 i 2δ ⎬
⎩ 1 − r′ e ⎭

r ′ = −r
Use Stokes relationships
r 2 + tt ′ = 1

areflected = a
(
r 1 − e i 2δ )
1 − r 2 e i 2δ

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-7

Transmission & reflection coefficients

areflected = a
(1 − e ) r
i 2δ
atransmitted = a
tt ′
1− r e 2 i 2δ
1 − r 2 e i 2δ

2
R≡ r

2
⎛ reflection ⎞ areflected 4 R sin 2 δ
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
⎝ coefficient ⎠ a (1 − R )2 + 4 R sin 2 δ
⎛ transmission ⎞ atransmitted
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
2

=
(1 − R )2
⎝ coefficient ⎠ a (1 − R )2 + 4 R sin 2 δ

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-8

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 Transmission & reflection vs path
R=0.95

R=0.5

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-9

Fabry-Perot terminology
free
spectral
range

band
width

resonance
frequencies

mc (m + 1)c (m + 2)c frequency ν

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics 2nL 2nL 2nL
10/24/05 wk8-a-10

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 Fabry-Perot terminology
FWHM Bandwidth is
∆νFSR inversely proportional
to the finesse F
(or quality factor)
factor
of the cavity
π R
F≡
1− R
c
∆νFWHM ∆ν FWHM =
2nLF

∆ν FWHM =
∆ν FSR
(bandwidth ) = (free spectral range)
F (finesse)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-11

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

Goal: to measure the specimen’s absorption as function of
frequency ω
Experimental measurement principle:

light beam of spectrum of light beam scanning (controls cavity

known spectrum is modified by substance stage length L)

power
transparent meter
windows container with partially–reflecting
specimen to be measured mirrors (FP cavity)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-12

6
 Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity
Goal: to measure the specimen’s absorption as function of
frequency ω
Experimental measurement principle:

light beam of spectrum of light beam electro-optic (controls refr.

known spectrum is modified by substance (EO) modulator index n)

power
transparent meter
windows container with partially–reflecting
specimen to be measured mirrors (FP cavity)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-13

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

Fabry–Perot
I(ω) transmissivity

unknown
spectrum

ω1 ω
sample measured:
I(ω1)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-14

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 Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity
Fabry–Perot
I(ω) transmissivity

unknown
spectrum

ω2 ω
sample measured:
I(ω2)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-15

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

Fabry–Perot
I(ω) transmissivity

unknown
spectrum

ω3 ω
sample measured:
I(ω3)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-16

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 Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity
Fabry–Perot
unknown spectrum
I(ω) transmissivity
width should not
exceed the FSR unknown
spectrum

ω3 ω
sample measured:
I(ω3)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-17

Spectroscopy using Fabry-Perot cavity

Fabry–Perot
spectral resolution
I(ω) transmissivity
is determined by the
cavity bandwidth unknown
spectrum

ω3 ω
sample measured:
I(ω3)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-18

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 Lasers

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-19

Absorption spectra
Atmospheric transmission

λ (µm)
human vision
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-20

10
 Semi-classical view of atom excitations
Energy

e- Ze+

Atom in ground state

Energy

Atom in excited state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-21

Light generation

Energy
excited state

equilibrium: most atoms ground state

in ground state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-22

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 Light generation

Energy
excited state

A pump mechanism (e.g. thermal

ground state
excitation or gas discharge) ejects
some atoms to the excited state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-23

Light generation

Energy
excited state

hν

hν

The excited atoms radiatively ground state

decay, emitting one photon each

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-24

12
 Light amplification: 3-level system
Energy
super-excited state

excited state

equilibrium: most atoms ground state

in ground state; note the existence
of a third, “super-excited” state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-25

Light amplification: 3-level system

Energy
super-excited state

excited state

Utilizing the super-excited state

ground state
as a short-lived “pivot point,” the
pump creates a population inversion

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-26

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 Light amplification: 3-level system
Energy
super-excited state

excited state

hν

When a photon enters, ...

ground state

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-27

Light amplification: 3-level system

Energy
super-excited state

excited state

hν
hν
hν

When a photon enters, it “knocks” ground state

an electron from the inverted population
down to the ground state, thus creating
a new photon. This amplification process
is called stimulated emission
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-28

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 Light amplifier
Pout =gPin
Pin Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-29

Light amplifier w positive feedback

Pout =gPin
Pin Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

When the gain exceeds the roundtrip losses, the system goes
into oscillation

+
Σ g
+

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-30

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 Laser
initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Partially
reflecting
mirror
Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-31

Laser
amplified once initial photon

Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Partially
reflecting
mirror
Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-32

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 Laser
amplified once initial photon
reflected Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion)

Partially
reflecting
mirror
Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-33

Laser
amplified once initial photon
reflected Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion) amplified twice

Partially
reflecting
mirror
Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-34

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 Laser
amplified once initial photon
reflected Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion) amplified twice output

reflected

Partially
reflecting
mirror
Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-35

Laser
amplified once initial photon
reflected Gain medium
(e.g. 3-level system
w population inversion) amplified twice output

reflected
amplified again
etc. Partially
reflecting
mirror
Light
Amplification through
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-36

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 Confocal laser cavities

λ diffraction
tan θ = angle
πnw0

waist w0

Beam profile:
2D Gaussian function

“TE00 mode”

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-37

Other “transverse modes”

TE10 TE11

(usually undesirable)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-38

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 Types of lasers
• Continuous wave (cw)
• Pulsed
– Q-switched
– mode-locked

• Gas (Ar-ion, HeNe, CO2)

• Solid state (Ruby, Nd:YAG, Ti:Sa)
• Diode (semiconductor)
• Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers –VCSEL– (also sc)
• Excimer (usually ultra-violet)

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-39

CW (continuous wave lasers)

Laser oscillation well approximated by a sinusoid

1/ν

Typical sources:
• Argon-ion: 488nm (blue) or 514nm (green); power ~1-20W
• Helium-Neon (HeNe): 633nm (red), also in green and yellow; ~1-100mW
• doubled Nd:YaG: 532nm (green); ~1-10W

Quality of sinusoid maintained over a time duration known as

“coherence time” tc
Typical coherence times ~20nsec (HeNe), ~10µsec (doubled Nd:YAG)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-40

20
 Two types of incoherence
temporal spatial
incoherence incoherence

r1
r1 r2
matched
point d1 d2 paths
source

Michelson interferometer Young interferometer

poly-chromatic light mono-chromatic light
(=multi-color, broadband) (= single color, narrowband)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-41

Two types of incoherence

temporal spatial
incoherence incoherence

r1
r1 r2
matched
point d1 d2 paths
source

waves from unequal paths waves with equal paths

do not interfere but from different points
on the wavefront
do not interfere
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-42

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 Coherent vs incoherent beams
a1 = a1 eiφ1 Mutually coherent: superposition field amplitude
is described by sum of complex amplitudes

a = a1 + a2 = a1 eiφ1 + a2 eiφ2
2 2
a 2 = a 2 e iφ 2 I = a = a1 + a2

Mutually incoherent: superposition field intensity

I1 is described by sum of intensities
I = I1 + I 2
(the phases of the individual beams vary
I2 randomly with respect to each other; hence,
we would need statistical formulation to
describe them properly — statistical optics)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-43

Coherence time and coherence length

• l1-l2 much shorter than
“coherence length” ctc
l2 sharp interference fringes
Intensity
2I0

l1 0
l1
incoming • l1-l2 much longer than
laser “coherence length” ctc
beam no interference
Michelson interferometer Intensity

I0

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics

10/24/05 wk8-a-44
l1

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 Coherent vs incoherent beams
a1 = a1 eiφ1 Coherent: superposition field amplitude
is described by sum of complex amplitudes

a = a1 + a2 = a1 eiφ1 + a2 eiφ2
2 2
a 2 = a 2 e iφ 2 I = a = a1 + a2

Incoherent: superposition field intensity

I1 is described by sum of intensities
I = I1 + I 2
(the phases of the individual beams vary
I2 randomly with respect to each other; hence,
we would need statistical formulation to
describe them properly — statistical optics)
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-45

Mode-locked lasers

Typical sources: Ti:Sa lasers (major vendors: Coherent, Spectra Phys.)

Typical mean wavelengths: 700nm – 1.4µm (near IR)
can be doubled to visible wavelengths
or split to visible + mid IR wavelengths using OPOs or OPAs
(OPO=optical parametric oscillator;
OPA=optical parametric amplifier)
Typical pulse durations: ~psec to few fsec
(just a few optical cycles)
Typical pulse repetition rates (“rep rates”): 80-100MHz
Typical average power: 1-2W; peak power ~MW-GW
MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-46

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 Overview of light sources
non-Laser Laser
Thermal: polychromatic, Continuous wave (or cw):
spatially incoherent strictly monochromatic,
(e.g. light bulb) spatially coherent
(e.g. HeNe, Ar+, laser diodes)
Gas discharge: monochromatic,
spatially incoherent Pulsed: quasi-monochromatic,
(e.g. Na lamp) spatially coherent
(e.g. Q-switched, mode-locked)
Light emitting diodes (LEDs):
~nsec ~psec to few fsec
monochromatic, spatially
incoherent pulse duration

mono/poly-chromatic = single/multi color

MIT 2.71/2.710 Optics
10/24/05 wk8-a-47

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