Red Wine Production

by Dr. Murli Dharmadhikari

The basic procedure of red wine production is outlined in the diagram. An important
point in making red wine is that the fermenting must consists of juice skins and seeds.
As a result, the composition of red wine is determined by the constituents extracted
from skins and seeds in addition to those present in the juice.

Red Wine Styles

Red wines are made into a variety of styles. The stylistic differences are based on
differences in wine characteristics such as grape variety, color, flavor, body,
mouthfeel, and aging potential. The styles range from simple, fruity, fresh, light
colored blushes and rosés to complex, full-bodied, rich and dark red, with long aging
potential. Many factors such as a variety, soil, climate, growing conditions, and
viticultural practices influence the fruit composition, and therefore, the style of wine
that can be produced. In addition to fruit composition, winemaking techniques also
play an important role in determining the
wine style.

Varieties
Many varieties are available for red wine production. The wines are usually produced
as varietals, or as blends containing several varieties. A list of commonly used red
wine varieties is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Red wine varieties

_______________________________________________________________
Vinifera French
Group Labrusca hybrids Others
_______________________________________________________________

Varieties from the Vinifera group are most widely used for winemaking. In regions
where Vinifera grapes are not grown, French hybrids, Labrusca, and other varieties
are often used. Among the Vinifera group, Cabernet Sauvignon alone, or in
combination with Merlot and/or Cabernet Franc is used in premium red wine
production. Pinot noir, the famous grape of Burgundy, makes excellent red wine.
When grown in other parts of the world, the wine does not always attain the same
level of quality as found in Burgundy.
Zinfandel, though popular for blush wine, can also make dark, full-bodied, and
flavorful red wine. Syrah, the popular grape of Rhône and Australia makes fruity
wines with softer tannins.
Concord is the leading red wine variety among American grapes. Wines from these
grapes have a strong flavor, which is often referred to as a “foxy” aroma. Another
American red wine grape, Cynthiana/ Norton, does not have the foxy aroma and can
make full-bodied, dark red wines.
Among the varieties in the French hybrid category, Baco, Chambourcin, Foch, and
Rougeon are commonly used for red wines. These varieties, with proper handling,
make good red table wines.
Fresh grapes make the best raw material for making red wine. In a situation where
fresh grapes are unavailable, frozen grapes or grape concentrate can be used,
particularly for making smaller lots of wine.

Maturity and Harvest

The decision to harvest grapes with certain maturity parameters is guided by many
factors. These include wine style, variety, and maturity criteria. Typically during the
course of maturation sugars accumulate, titratable acidity declines, pH rises, color,
and phenolic compounds increase and the formation of distinct varietal aroma
components occurs. It would be highly desirable to have all these parameters in an
ideal balance. However, in practice this can be difficult to achieve since these
parameters are influenced by many factors.

Generally the fruit is harvested based on sugar (ºBrix), titratable acidity, and pH. It
should be noted that for making red wine, following only these harvest criteria is not
sufficient. Skin constituents such as color, tannins, and flavor strongly influence red
wine character and, therefore, their level should also be evaluated when making
harvest decisions. Because the skin is fermented with the juice, the skin condition
(freedom from rot) and the proportion of skins to juice (depending on berry size) are
also important considerations.
Generally, the accumulation of some components such as color and tannin closely
follows the accumulation of sugars. But this may not necessarily hold true for the
flavor. Aroma development may follow a different pattern. In such a case, sugar
measurements to determine harvest may not yield the best result. A good
understanding of the fruit composition and the way it is influenced by factors such as
region, climate, variety, and viticultural practices is essential in determining optimum
fruit maturity, and the time of harvest.

Prefermentation Processing Destem/Crush

The most common practice of handling harvested grapes is to separate the berries
from the stems. This is achieved by using the machine called a stemmer/crusher.

The object of destemming and crushing is to remove the stem and gently break the
berry skin. Care is taken to avoid excessive skin maceration and breaking of seeds.
The crushed fruit consisting of pulp, skin, and seed, called must, is transferred to a
container and about 30 mg/L of free SO2 is added. The purpose of SO2 addition is to
prevent the development of unwanted microbes such as indigenous yeast and harmful
bacteria.
Some winemakers retain a small (15 to 20%) amount of whole berries and also add a
fraction of stems to the must. The stem addition is intended to extract extra tannins. In
some cases, this can be beneficial; however, the stems can also contribute to harshness
and loss of pigments.

Cold Soak
In the practice of cold soak or cold maceration, the must is cooled to about 15 to 20 ºC
(41 to 68 ºF) to slow down the onset of fermentation by indigenous yeast, and contact
between skins and juice is promoted. The purpose of cold soaking is to encourage
extraction of pigments and other phenolic compounds from skins in the absence of
ethanol. The skins are soaked for one to two days and the must is pumped over or
mixed to facilitate the phenolic extraction.

The cold maceration is thought to improve color, body, and mouthfeel of the resulting
wine. The effectiveness of this approach will depend on variety, fruit composition and
the condition of the fruit.

Must Adjustment
Grapes are generally harvested at 22 to 24 ºBrix for red wine production. Some
varieties may not have sufficient amount of sugar at harvest. For these varieties (e.g.,
Concord), sugar addition to the must would be necessary. Sugar addition can be done
to the must at the beginning of fermentation. However, one needs to make an
allowance for the volume of seeds and skins when calculating the amount of sugar
needed. To circumvent this problem, some winemakers prefer to add sugar to the
fermenting must after pressing and removing seeds and skins.

In low sugar, high acid American grapes such as Concord, a sugar syrup in place of
dry sugar can be used. This process is also called amelioration. The advantage of this
process is that while sugar content increases, the acid level decreases due to dilution.
To ensure the quality of the resulting wine, the extent of amelioration within legal
limits should be carefully evaluated.

Prefermentation Processing
Adjusting Acidity
Compared to white wines, red wines are produced with lower acidity levels. Generally
a titratable acidity in the range of 6.5 to 7.5 g/L and a pH value of 3.4 to 3.6 is
preferred. If the grapes are low in acid content (e.g., less than 5 g/L) then the acidity
should be raised by tartaric acid addition. It is important to bear in mind that a portion
of the tartaric acid added to the must will be lost (by precipitation of potassium
bitartrate) following fermentation and cold stabilization. Allowance for this acid loss
should be made when determining the amount of tartaric acid addition.
Sometimes red grapes at harvest contain high acid levels (>9 g/L). To produce well
balanced wines from these grapes, a reduction in acid level may be desired. To reduce
acidity, a winemaker should consider chemical as well as biological (yeast and
malolactic fermentation) deacidifications.

Must Treatment
The issue of SO2 addition needs some consideration. Some winemakers do not add
free SO2 to red must prior to fermentation. The rationale is to minimize SO2 levels in
wine, facilitate malolactic fermentation, and maybe to achieve flavor complexity by
allowing indigenous yeast to participate in alcoholic fermentation. The problem with
this approach is that no SO2 addition can leave must unprotected from the activity of
undesirable microorganisms such as wild yeast and spoilage-causing bacteria. We
recommend the addition of a small amount (20 to 30 mg/L free SO2) of SO2 to the
clean must; must with rot will need higher (75 to 100 ppm) doses. This level (20 to 30
ppm) is sufficiently high to discourage spoilage organisms but not too high to
suppress malolactic fermentation, if it is so desired.

Pectolytic enzymes have been in use for white wine production. In recent years some
commercial enzyme preparations have been made available for red winemaking.
These enzymes are designed to promote the release of pigments, tannins, and
polysaccharides in the must. For certain styles of wines, use of these enzymes may be
beneficial. However, the merits of using these enzymes should be experimentally
evaluated.
Adequate nutrient level is necessary to ensure sound and complete fermentation.
Therefore, addition of diammonium phosphate (DAP), (a nitrogen source) and yeast
nutrient containing essential vitamins is recommended. The amount of DAP required
will depend on must nitrogen status, yeast strain, and the conditions of fermentation.
Generally a DAP addition in the range of 250 to 500 mg/L should be sufficient to
prevent fermentation problems such as H2S formation and ensure a clean
fermentation.

Fermentation
After making all the necessary adjustments (sugar, acid, etc.) and additions, the red
must, consisting of juice, skin, and seeds is ready for fermentation. The must can be
fermented in open top containers. This allows for ease in must handling, cap
management, and temperature control. However, some provision should be made to
keep the fruit flies away from the fermenting must. Some winemakers prefer to use
fermenters with closed tops or some cover to keep fruit flies away. Smaller lots can be
fermented in tubs, tanks, bins, or other containers made of plastic or stainless steel.

For larger must volumes, specially designed stainless steel fermenters should be used.
The fermentation should be conducted in a well-ventilated area, and provisions should
be made to remove excess CO2 generated during fermentation.

Yeast
A wide selection of yeast strains is available for conducting red wine fermentation.
The winemaker should choose the strain that will ferment the must efficiently and
completely with very little (below sensory threshold) amounts of undesirable
compounds such as acetic acid, ethyl acetate, and hydrogen sulfide. To obtain a clean
and rapid fermentation, commercially produced strains of active wine yeast in dry
form should be used. Dry yeast must be properly rehydrated before inoculating the
must. We suggest that winemakers experiment with various strains to make proper
selection.

Some winemakers use indigenous yeast strains. This practice can sometimes give
good results; however, it is risky and requires a lot more skill and attention. We prefer
commercially produced pure culture stains and suggest their use in red wine
fermentation.

Controlling Fermentation Temperature

The fermentation releases a significant amount of heat, which further increases the
must temperature. Increased temperature enhances the rate of fermentation and also
the extraction of color and phenolic compounds. Beyond a certain level (e.g., above
89 to 95ºF) the excessively high temperature can cause stuck fermentation, promote
the growth of undesirable microorganisms and contribute to the formation of off-odor
compounds.
Therefore, controlling temperature during fermentation is critical.

Red must is generally fermented in the temperature range of 77 to 86ºF.

As the fermentation begins, the skins and seeds rise to the top and form a cap. A
portion of the heat released leads to a higher temperature in the cap as compared to the
fermenting liquid below. In order to release the trapped heat and promote extraction of
skin constituents, the cap is periodically broken and the must is stirred.
In smaller lots, stirring the must can be sufficient to lower the fermentation
temperature. For larger must volumes, pumping over, along with the use of cooling
jackets, or must chiller may be needed to control the temperature.

Cap Management
With the onset of active fermentation the skins rise to the top of the fermenting liquid
and form a cap. Thus the skins and juice in a fermenter are somewhat separated. In
order to maximize the extraction of color and flavor from skin it is important to keep
skins in close contact with the juice during fermentation. To achieve this, the cap is
punched and skins and juice are mixed. For smaller lots, punching the cap twice daily
is sufficient to facilitate extraction and release heat.

For larger lots, punching the cap is difficult. In such a case, the juice can be drawn and
pumped over the cap. Some winemakers use a sprinkling device that sprinkles the
juice on top of the skin using a pump. The object is to thoroughly moisten the cap to
release the heat; thus, cooling the must and encouraging extraction of skin
constituents. When using pump-over, about one volume of juice is pumped over the
cap; and this is done about twice a day. Some winemakers vary the volume and
frequency of pump-over and choose the best approach that suits them. Using smaller
and shallower fermenters, punching the cap, and mixing the must gives good color
and flavor extraction.

Extraction of Skin Constituents during Maceration

Skin constituents have a significant influence on the quality and style of red wine. A
good understanding of these components, their extraction pattern, and their evolution
during maturation and aging is important in making stylistic decisions in red wine
production.

The color and tannins are the two major components that are extracted from skins
during fermentation. The purplish-red color of red grapes is due to the pigments
known as anthocyanins. The pigments are located mostly in the outer layers of the
skins. In grapes, many kinds of anthocyanins are present. They occur in both color and
colorless forms. The amount of pigment in colored or colorless form is strongly
influenced by the pH of the wine and also by the presence of free sulfur dioxide.
Lowering the pH shifts the equilibrium towards the colored form and SO2 has a
bleaching effect on the (monomeric) anthocyanins.
Tannins are complex polymeric phenols. They react with proteins, and it is this
property that is used in tanning hides to make leather. They are bitter and astringent
compounds with a wide range of molecular sizes. Condensation and polymerization of
smaller tannin molecules leads to the formation of bigger tannin molecules such as
condensed and highly condensed tannins. These large tannin polymers are less
astringent and assume yellow-red to yellow-brown color. When the tannins become
too large, they precipitate.
Tannins also play an important role by forming complexes with pigments, which
contributes to color stability. These polymeric pigments (pigment and tannin
complexes) are less sensitive to changes in pH and SO2 levels in wine. During
alcoholic fermentation, both the pigments and tannins are extracted from the skin, but
their pattern of extraction is slightly different.
The extraction of color is rapid at the beginning of fermentation. It reaches a peak in
the first two to three days; and, then slightly declines during the remainder of
fermentation. This means a short maceration time of about two to three days is
sufficient to obtain good color.
Tannins and other phenolic substances are also extracted quickly at the beginning but
their rate of extraction slows down as the fermentation proceeds. However, the
concentration of total phenols (this includes tannins) continues to increase towards the
end of fermentation.
The extraction of color and tannins is influenced by temperature, length of skin
contact, and the cap management technique followed during fermentation. Increasing
fermentation temperature from 20 to 30 ºC causes an increase in color (pigment) and
tannin content of the resulting wine.
Various cap management options have already been mentioned. For better extraction,
a thorough mixing of must is essential. Large wineries use autofermenters and rotary
fermenters to facilitate good mixing. However, smaller lots can be mixed by punching
the cap and mixing the must.
The length of skin contact also influences extraction. A longer contact time generally
means greater extraction of skin and seed constituents into the wine.

Skin Contact Time and Pressing Options

The winemaker has several options in determining the length of time of skin contact
during red wine fermentation. The decision is based on the wine style and the level of
extraction of skin component that the winemaker wishes to have in the wine. Although
a winemaker has many choices, presented are three of the widely used approaches.

Short or No Skin Contact

Red grapes are crushed and pressed, and the skins are separated immediately. The
must is treated like a white wine. This approach will have very little color in the wine.
To obtain slightly more color, a short skin contact of about 24 hours may be allowed
before the must is pressed. Wines produced in this style have a light color and a fruity
aroma with some residual sugar. They are processed for early consumption. Blush and
light rosé wines are the examples of this style.

A More Common Approach

Many winemakers typically ferment the must until the sugar level drops between 5 to
0 ºBrix. Depending on the conditions of fermentation, it may take three to five days to
reach this level. Note that in this range (0 to 5 ºBrix), the must will contain some
residual sugar and the fermentation will be expected to continue after the must is
pressed and skins are removed. This approach should yield wines with good color and
fruit flavor with a soft and round mouthfeel. These wines are consumed when
relatively young or after a short maturation period. They would not require prolonged
aging to achieve a higher quality.

Press At Dryness or After Extended Skin Contact

The must is fermented until it reaches dryness, i.e., all the fermentable sugar is used
up, and then pressed. If a winemaker wishes to extract more tannins, the skin contact
time is extended for one to three weeks. Generally, after the completion of
fermentation, the tank is closed and the must is left undisturbed. Over time the cap
sinks to the bottom and the must is then pressed. This approach is recommended for
the production of full-bodied, dark, and tannic red wines. They require a long
maturation and aging time before they are ready for consumption.

Carbonic Maceration
Carbonic maceration, also called whole berry fermentation, consists of fermenting
whole berries, without crushing, in a CO2 saturated atmosphere. In this method, the
tank, or any other container containing CO2 is filled with whole clusters. Some
winemakers place a small amount (about 5 to 10%) of fermenting must in the bottom
of the tank, which generates CO2. The idea is to surround all the fruit with CO2 and
create an anaerobic atmosphere. The tank is sealed after it is loaded with the fruit.
Under anaerobic conditions, partial fermentation begins within the cells. This
fermentation is caused by the cell’s own enzymes, (without yeast). The fermentation
produces a small amount of alcohol (about 1.5 to 2.5%), and brings about many
changes in the must composition.

The fermentation is carried out for about eight to ten days. The temperature is held
near 95 ºF. Following this whole berry fermentation, the clusters are removed and
pressed. The partially fermented juice is inoculated with wine yeast and the
fermentation is complete. Wines so produced are softer due to lower phenolics and
reduced acidity and have a characteristic fermentation aroma. These wines are
clarified, stabilized, finished, and offered for consumption within a few months of the
vintage.

Pressing
A decision to press the must is made according to the desired wine style, when an
optimum amount of color, flavor, tannins, and other constituents are extracted.
Generally the juice is drained or pumped, the cap is transferred to the press and the
must is then pressed. Following pressing, the young wine is placed in containers and
is allowed to finish alcoholic (if unfermented sugar remains) and malolactic
fermentation.

Malolactic Fermentation
Red wines are often subjected to malolactic fermentation (MLF). The object is to
reduce the acidity and achieve flavor complexity. The wine also achieves some degree
of biological stability, but it is important to realize that MLF wines are not necessarily
stable and that bacterial activity can occur if the conditions become favorable.

In the traditional approach, the malolactic fermentation is allowed to occur naturally.

This practice, however, is risky because the MLF remains uncontrolled and the
storage conditions favoring MLF are also conducive to microbial spoilage. It is,
therefore, prudent to use a selected pure culture of ML bacteria for conducting MLF.
The lactic acid bacteria culture is commercially available in two freeze-dried forms. In
one case, the culture requires reactivation and propagation before addition to the must.
In recent years, another form of freeze-dried culture for direct addition (without the
need for reactivation) has been developed and is commercially available. We suggest
the use of this freeze dried, direct addition culture form for conducting MLF. To use
the culture, follow the supplier’s directions.
The time of inoculation is an important consideration in conducting MLF. Some
winemakers inoculate the must during alcoholic fermentation. This approach may
have some benefits, but we think that the risk outweighs the benefits. Therefore, we
recommend conducting MLF after the completion of alcoholic or primary
fermentation. This approach is also suitable for using a freeze-dried culture, especially
designed for direct addition to the must.
Proper inoculation is an important step in conducting MLF. We strongly recommend
following the supplier’s instruction to obtain good results.

Wine Clarification
Young red wine is cloudy. The turbidity is caused by particles that remain in
suspension. The particulate matter includes grape fragments, crystalline compounds
(potassium bitartrate), colloidal compounds and microorganisms such as yeast and
bacteria. During storage, many of the particles slowly settle to the bottom leaving the
wine relatively clear. To achieve greater clarity, i.e., to make wine brilliantly clear,
wine is subjected to treatments such as racking, fining, and filtration.

Racking
After the alcoholic and malolactic fermentation, the wine is racked off the lees.
Generally, the amount of sediment is greater in the first racking and its volume
decreases in subsequent rackings. The procedure for racking red wine is similar to the
one described in the white wine section with one exception. In white wine racking, the
wine should be protected from undue aeration; whereas, in red wine racking, limited
air exposure, particularly in the first racking, is desirable. Controlled air exposure
during wine transfer is beneficial to the aging of red wine. It also allows for the
removal of off-odors (such as hydrogen sulfide) that may have developed during
fermentation. Racking wine three to four times a year should yield fairly clear wine. It
is important to add appropriate amounts of free SO2 after each racking.

Fining
Red wine can be fined to achieve greater clarity. However, the fining agents also tend
to influence the flavor of the wine. Red wines are rich in pigments and phenolic
compounds such as tannins that contribute to a harsh and astringent taste.
Proteinaceous fining agents such as gelatin and egg white are often used to lower the
tannin level, soften the wine, and enhance clarity. The choice of a fining agent and the
amount of fining material needed should be determined by conducting a fining trial
and blind tasting the wines.

For egg white fining, separate the egg white from the yolk and mix it with some water.
The solution will be cloudy, but adding a pinch of salt should make it clear. The egg
white solution should be slowly added, without foaming, to the wine while gently
stirring. Generally five to eight egg whites per barrel (50 gallons) are used for fining.
Gelatin for fining is commercially available in liquid and/or dry powder (leaf) form.
For convenience and better results, we recommend using low bloom liquid gelatin.
The amount of gelatin used in fining should be based on the supplier’s
recommendation.

Filtration
Filtration is another option that can be used alone or in combination with fining
agents. A wide variety of filters are available to small-scale wine producers. A small
plate and frame or cartridge filter can be used to filter and clarify the wine. The filters
come in various pore sizes. A polish or sterile grade filter pad often gives satisfactory
results.

Stabilization
The practice of stabilization refers to the treatment of wine to prevent cloudiness and
formation of sediment in the bottle. Red wines are rich in tannin contents, which carry
a negative charge. The tannins interact with positively charged proteins which lead to
agglomeration and settling of the tannin-protein complex. Due to the removal of
proteins in this manner, the problem of proteinaceous haze in red wines is not a
serious one.

Some winemakers use a small dose of bentonite to clarify the wine, which also helps
in protein stability. However, winemakers generally do not treat wine for protein
instability unless a test warrants it.
The precipitation of bitartrate in the bottle can be a serious fault. Therefore, red wine
is stabilized to prevent this problem.
One approach is to hold the wine at 28 to 35ºF for two to three weeks and remove the
precipitated potassium bitartrate by filtering the cold wine. Some winemakers feel this
treatment to be too harsh and prefer to stabilize wine by chilling or seeding with
bitartrate crystals at much higher temperatures, such as in the range of 41 to 50 ºF.
The rationale behind this approach is that the red wines are stored and consumed at
warmer temperatures than white wines, and therefore subjecting these wines to severe
low temperatures is not necessary.
Deep red and high tannic wines generally throw sediment during long bottle aging.
The sediment primarily consists of pigment polymers and some bitartrates. Such
sediment is not perceived as faulty and wine is simply decanted before consumption.

Maturation, Aging
The process of maturation and aging involves a series of changes that lead to the
improvement in the appearance, color, taste, and flavor of a wine. Red wine color is
due to the presence of anthocyanin pigments, which occur in monomeric and
polymeric forms. Young wines have higher levels of monomeric anthocyanin
pigments in various colored and colorless forms. The proportion of colored and
colorless types is pH dependent. In the range of wine pH, the lower the pH, the greater
the concentration of pigments in red form. Therefore, to produce young red wines of
attractive color, the winemaker should strive for a lower wine pH. The monomeric
pigments are also susceptible to sulfur dioxide, which causes bleaching. This reaction,
however, is reversible and loss of SO2 can restore original color. This point is
important to remember when sulfating young red wines. As the wine matures, the
monomeric pigments are polymerized and the color becomes more stable. It is then
less responsive to changes in pH and SO2 levels.

Another important phenolic compound in red wines is tannins. Their structure is

complex and they result from oxidative and non-oxidative polymerization reactions
involving many other compounds. They contribute bitterness and astringency to wine.
During maturation, some of the tannins are lost due to precipitation, while others
undergo reactions that diminish astringency and increase suppleness in red wine.
The flavor of the wine becomes complex as fruit, fermentation, and oak-derived
aromas become integrated.
The processing technique and the duration of maturation depend on the style of red
wine. Rosé, light red, and nouveau style wines, destined for early consumption, are
matured and aged for relatively short periods. The appeal of these wines is their youth
and fruit-derived aromas. They are simple wines and delicious to taste when young.
Medium to full-bodied, deep-colored and high tannin wines require prolonged
maturation periods before they become drinkable. During maturation and aging, their
tannins become soft and the complex flavors become integrated, resulting in balanced
and harmonious wines.
Generally, the containers used for red wine storage include stainless steel tanks and
wooden barrels. For home winemakers and others dealing with smaller lots, glass
carboys may be more suitable. In glass and steel containers, there is no loss of wine
due to evaporation. However in wood barrels, usually 2 to 5% of the wine is lost due
to evaporation. Because of this loss, it is necessary to top the barrels with wine to keep
them completely full.
The operation of topping and filling the barrel exposes wine to air which results in
limited oxidation. A certain amount of air exposure (oxidation) is considered
necessary for the maturation of red wine.
It is commonly believed that wine can breathe through wood, and, therefore, to
facilitate the oxidation, wood barrels should be used as a container of choice for
maturation. It has been demonstrated that a sealed and airtight barrel (wet staves) does
not allow air to enter the barrel, and oxidation of wine occurs when the barrels are
opened during topping and filling operations.
Fruity and young wines are generally matured in steel tanks (or used wood barrels)
and are usually made without oak character. Medium and full-bodied premium reds
are commonly matured in wood barrels. The barrels used include a mix of new and
used barrels. In this approach, the winemaker is aiming for flavor complexity,
including oak character. The length of wood maturation depends on grape variety,
wine style, kind of barrel, winemaker’s preference, and consumer choice.
Winemakers have a wide range of choices in selecting barrels based on species of oak,
geographic origin, toast levels, and method of barrel production. For a small-scale
producer, the use of a 50-gallon wood barrel may or may not be practical. Barrels are
generally expensive, require space for storage (full and empty), and are difficult to
clean and sanitize. Many winemakers use oak chips as an alternative to oak barrels.
In smaller lots where the use of a wine barrel is not practical or possible, oak chips can
be used to obtain oak character in the wine. Both American and French oak chips are
available in various sizes and grades. The usual rate ranges between 10 to 15 lbs/1000
gal (4.5 to 6.8 g/gal), and the contact time between oak chips and wine varies between
one to three weeks. Some winemakers prefer to use a higher dose in a portion of the
wine and then blend it back with the untreated portion to obtain a desired level of
oakiness in wine. It is desirable to conduct a trial to determine the optimum quantity
and length of contact time.

Maintaining Proper SO2

Managing proper SO2 levels in red wines is critical. The amount of SO2 used should
be low enough to permit some oxidation, but high enough to control spoilage-causing
microorganisms. This can be a difficult exercise, particularly if the wine pH is high
(3.6 and more). This is because at a higher pH, the higher dose of SO2 necessary to
control microorganisms can adversely affect the taste and flavor of the wine. To avoid
the need of using excess levels of SO2, the winemaker should attempt to keep the
wine pH lower, reduce microbial load by filtration before prolonged storage, and
conduct all cellar operations under stringent hygienic conditions. The SO2 levels
should be periodically checked and adjusted to the proper level.

Bottling
The procedure for bottling red wine is quite similar to bottling white wine.

*Previously published in Vineyard & Vintage View, Mountain Grove, MO.

The Chemistry of Wine Making

Main Pages

Home

Chem Page Who first realized why alcohol forms from fruit?
Phys Sc Page Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, the same scientist whose results on
Monthly Puzzles
combining gas volumes were explained by Avogadro, discovered
the overall reaction that converts glucose to alcohol and carbon
dioxide:
C6H12O6 -->2 CO2+ 2C2H5OH

How did Pasteur contribute to the chemistry of winemaking?

Pasteur realized that yeast was responsible for the conversion of glucose to alcohol.
By adding yeast to a simple sugar solution, he showed that alcohol could be
formed. He also revealed that the metabolism of yeast was pH -dependent; the
acid-level played a role in determining wine's properties. One of grapes' two
principal acids, tartaric acid (malic acid is the other), led to Pasteur's discovery of
enantiomers, molecules that are mirror images of one another. (The original
Pasteur experiment,
however, has been difficult
to replicate.)

Why is the acid-level

important in
winemaking?

Low acidity (high pH),

common in grapes that are
too sweet because they
were grown in excessively
warm climates, lowers the amount of subtle flavours in the grapes and
consequently in the wine. As mentioned before, there is an optimum pH for
fermentation as well. Prior to fermentation, pH is measured either by titration or
more conveniently with a pH meter, and if it is too high, tartaric acid is added.

What is the basic composition of grapes?

Component Percent
Range

70-80

18-25

0.3-1.5
20 amino acids

0.7

Vitamin C

11 mg
per 100
g

73 IU
per 100
g

185 mg
+
potassium, K per 100
g

less than
esters
0.1%
 13 anthocyanins

less than
0.1%

What is the role of sulfur dioxide, SO2 in wine-making?

After the grapes are crushed (the stems are mechanically separated), the blend of
pulp, skin and seeds are transfered to a vat. (For white wine only the pulp is used).
Here SO2 is introduced to kill wild yeasts. These are too varied in composition,
leading to a competition amongst themselves that causes fermentation to stop
prematurely. They are replaced with a pure culture, usually of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae .In addition,SO2, inhibits enzymes that oxidize phenolic compounds
responsible for discolouring wine.

What role does temperature play in wine-making

Fermentation is an exothermic process ( it releases heat). But in wine-making, the

temperature cannot exceed 85 F = 29.4 C for red wines or 60 F = 15.3 C for white
wines), otherwise the growth of yeast cells will stop. Moreover, a lower
temperature is desirable because it increases the production of esters, other
aromatic compunds and alcohol itself. This makes the wine easier to clear and less
susceptible to bacterial infection.

In general, temperature control during alcoholic fermentation is necessary to (1)

facilitate yeast growth, (2) extract flavours and colours from the skins, (3) permit
accumulation of desirable by-products, and (4) prevent undue rise in
temperature, killing the yeast cells.

What positive role do bacteria play in wine-making?

To clarify the wine, the fermented juice is transfered into a settling vat, or if made
on a smaller scale, into a demijohn. In these, suspended yeast cells, cream of tartar
and particles of skin and pulp settle to the bottom of the container. As the yeast
cells break down within the precipitate, they stimulate the growth
of Lactobacillus bacteria that convert the wine's malic acid into lactic acid. This
process is especially important in wines made from highly acidic grapes because
lactic acid is a weaker acid than malic acid. (Bacteria decarboxylate malic acid ,
thus removing the acidic carboxyl group), so it mellows the wine's taste.

Is the level of oxygen important in wine making?

After the demijohn stage, the wine is repeatedly racked to leave behind less and
less precipitate. During the repeated pourings, the wine is also given a chance to
rid itself of the excess carbon dioxide from fermentation. As the CO2 escapes,
oxygen enters the wine with each transfer, helping eventually to age the wine.

What are the benefits of resveratrol, an

antioxidant found in wine?

The Journal of Bilogical Chemistry (J. Biol. Chem., Nov 2005; 280: 37377 - 37382
)reported: "Several epidemiological studies indicate that moderate consumption of
wine is associated with a lower incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Wine is enriched
in antioxidant compounds with potential neuroprotective activities. However, the
exact molecular mechanisms involved in the beneficial effects of wine intake on
the neurodegenerative process in Alzheimer's disease brain remain to be clearly
defined. Here we show that resveratrol (trans-3,4',5-trihydroxystilbene), a naturally
occurring polyphenol mainly found in grapes and red wine, markedly lowers the
levels of secreted and intracellular amyloid- (A) peptides produced from different
cell lines. Resveratrol does not inhibit A production, because it has no effect on the
A-producing enzymes - and -secretases, but promotes instead intracellular
degradation of A via a mechanism that involves the proteasome. Indeed, the
resveratrol-induced decrease of A could be prevented by several selective
proteasome inhibitors and by siRNA-directed silencing of the proteasome subunit
5. These findings demonstrate a proteasome-dependent anti-amyloidogenic activity
of resveratrol and suggest that this natural compound has a therapeutic potential in
Alzheimer's disease." For a critical look at the potential benefits of resveratol, see
this site

References

 Amerine, Maynard . Scientific American. Wine. August 1964.

o Wine. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2000 DVD.
o United States Department of Agriculture

Background
Wine is an alcoholic beverage produced through the partial or total fermentation of
grapes. Other fruits and plants, such as berries, apples, cherries, dandelions, elder-
berries, palm, and rice can also be fermented.
Grapes belong to the botanical family vitaceae, of which there are many species.
The species that are most widely used in wine production are Vitis labrusca and,
especially, Vitis vinifera, which has long been the most widely used wine grape
throughout the world.
The theory that wine was discovered by accident is most likely correct because wine
grapes contain all the necessary ingredients for wine, including pulp, juice, and
seeds that possess all the acids, sugars, tannins, minerals, and vitamins that are
found in wine. As a natural process, the frosty-looking skin of the grape, called
"bloom," catches the airborne yeast and enzymes that ferment the juice of the grape
into wine.
The cultivation of wine grapes for the production of wine is called "viticulture."
Harvested during the fall, wine grapes may range in color from pale yellow to hearty
green to ruby red.
Wine can be made in the home and in small-, medium- or large-sized wineries by
using similar methods. Wine is made in a variety of flavors, with varying degrees of
sweetness or dryness as well as alcoholic strength and quality. Generally, the
strength, color, and flavor of the wine are controlled during the fermentation process.
Wine is characterized by color: white, pink or rose, and red, and it can range in
alcohol content from 10 percent to 14 percent. Wine types can be divided into four
broad categories: table wines, sparkling wines, fortified wines, and aromatic wines.
Table wines include a range of red, white, and rose wines; sparkling wines include
champagne and other "bubbly" wines; aromatic wines contain fruits, plants, and
flowers; and fortified wines are table wines with brandy or other alcohol added.
The name of a wine almost invariably is derived from one of three sources: the name
of the principal grape from which it was made, the geographical area from which it
comes, or—in the case of the traditionally finest wines—from a particular vineyard or
parcel of soil. The year in which a wine is made is only printed on bottles that have
aged for two or more years; those aged less are not considered worthy of a date.
Wine years are known as "vintages" or "vintage years." While certain wines are
considered good or bad depending on the year they were produced, this can vary by
locality.
In general, red wines are supposed to age from seven to ten years before being
sold. Because white and rose wines are not enhanced by additional ageing, they are
usually aged from only one to four years before being sold. And, since the quality of
wine can depend on proper ageing, older wines are generally more expensive than
younger ones. Other factors, however, can affect the quality of wine, and proper
ageing does not always ensure quality. Other factors affecting quality include the
grapes themselves, when the grapes are picked, proper care of the grapes, the
fermentation process, as well as other aspects of wine production.
Most wineries bottle wine in different size bottles and have different product and

Vineyardists inspect sample clusters of wine grapes with a refractometer to determine if the grapes are
ready to be picked. The refractometer is a small, hand-held device that allows the vineyardist to accurately
check the amount of sugar in the grapes. If the grapes are ready for picking, a mechanical harvester
gathers and funnels the grapes into a field hopper, or mobile storage container.
Some mechanical harvesters have grope crushers mounted on the machinery, allowing vineyard workers
to gather grapes and press them at the same time. The result is that vineyards can deliver newly crushed
grapes, called must, to wineries, eliminating the need for crushing at the winery.

graphic designs on their labels. The most common bottle sizes are the half bottle, the
imperial pint, the standard bottle, and the gallon bottle or jug. Most red and rose wine
bottles are colored to keep light from ageing the wine further after they are on the
market.
While viticulture has remained much the same for centuries, new technology has
helped increase the output and variety of wine.

History
Well documented in numerous Biblical references, evidence of wine can be traced
back to Egypt as far as 5,000 B.C. Tomb wall paintings showing the use of wine as
well as actual wine jars found in Egyptian tombs provide evidence of this fact.
Because more northern climates and soil produce better wine, the growth of the wine
industry can be traced from its emergence along the Nile River in Egypt and Persia
northward into Europe and, eventually, to North America.
Though the wines of old were coarse and hard and had to be mixed with water,
ancient Greek wine proved to be somewhat better than Egyptian wine. For this
reason, Egyptians began importing it. Then Roman wines (from what would emerge
to be Italy, Spain, and France) became notably superior. Eventually, French and
German wines grew to be the most desirable, thereby shifting the center of wine
production from the Mediterranean to central Europe. Some of the best wine in the
world is still produced in southern France, particularly in the Bordeaux region, where
wine has been made for more than 2,000 years.
The colonists brought wine production to the east coast of the New World by the
mid-1600s. The earliest account of wine used in the New World may be when the
Pilgrims fermented grapes to celebrate their first Thanksgiving in 1623. Settlers tried
to grow imported grape cuttings they brought from Europe, but unfortunately the
European cuttings had not developed immunities to the North American plant
diseases that eventually killed them. By the middle of the nineteenth century (using
the fruits of the abundant native Vitis labrusca grape plants) wineries were
established in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and North
Carolina.
In 1697, European cuttings of Vitis vinifera grapes were successfully introduced to
California by Franciscan priests at the Mission San Francisco Xavier. They soon
became the dominant grape species in California wine making. A great boost to
California wine making came from Colonel Agoston Haraszthy, a Hungarian
nobleman, who introduced more high-quality European cuttings during the 1850s.
His knowledge made him the founder of California's modern wine industry.
Today, California and New York state are by far the largest American producers of
wine, and California is one of the largest wine producers in the world. Though many
of its table wines are known for their quality, the enormous wineries of central and
southern California produce gigantic quantities of neutral, bulk wines that they ship
elsewhere to make specific wines, such as dessert wines, or to blend with other
wines. They also make grape concentrates to fortify weaker wines and brandies that
use large quantities of grapes.

Raw Materials
As mentioned above, the wine grape itself contains all the necessary ingredients for
wine: pulp, juice, sugars, acids, tannins, and minerals. However, some
manufacturers add yeast to increase strength and cane or beet sugar to increase
alcoholic content. During fermentation, winemakers also usually add sulfur dioxide to
control the growth of wild yeasts.

The Manufacturing
Process
The process of wine production has remained much the same throughout the ages,
but new sophisticated machinery and technology have helped streamline and
increase the output of wine. Whether such advances have enhanced the quality of
wine is, however, a subject of debate. These advances include a variety of
mechanical harvesters, grape crushers, temperature-controlled tanks, and
centrifuges.
The procedures involved in creating wine are often times dictated by the grape and
the amount and type of wine being produced. Recipes for certain types of wine
require the winemaker (the vintner) to monitor and regulate the amount of yeast, the
fermentation process, and other steps of the process. While the manufacturing
process is highly automated in medium- to large-sized wineries, small wineries still
use hand operated presses and store wine in musty wine cellars.
A universal factor in the production of fine wine is timing. This includes picking
grapes at the right time, removing the must at the right time, monitoring and
regulating fermentation, and storing the wine long enough.
The wine-making process can be divided into four distinct steps: harvesting and
crushing grapes; fermenting must; ageing the wine; and packaging.

Harvesting and crushing grapes

 1 Vineyardists inspect sample clusters of wine grapes with a refractometer to
determine if the grapes are ready to be picked. The refractometer is a small,
hand-held device (the size of a miniature telescope) that allows the
vineyardist to accurately check the amount of sugar in the grapes.
 2 If the grapes are ready for picking, a mechanical harvester (usually a
suction picker) gathers and funnels the grapes into a field hopper, or mobile
storage container. Some mechanical harvesters have grape crushers
mounted on the machinery, allowing vineyard workers to gather grapes and
press them at the same time. The result is that vineyards can deliver newly
crushed grapes, called must, to wineries, eliminating the need for crushing at
the winery. This also prevents oxidization of the juice through tears or splits in
the grapes' skins.

Mechanical harvesters, or, in some cases, robots, are now used in most
medium to large vineyards, thereby eliminating the need for hand-picking.
First used in California vineyards in 1968, mechanical harvesters have
significantly decreased the time it takes to gather grapes. The harvesters
have also allowed grapes to be gathered at night when they are cool, fresh,
and ripe.

 3 The field hoppers are transported to the winery where they are unloaded
into a crusher-stemmer machine. Some crusher-stemmer machines are
hydraulic while others are driven by air pressure.

The grapes are crushed and the stems are removed, leaving liquid must that
flows
 Once at the winery, the grapes are crushed if necessary, and the must is fermented, settled,
clarified, and filtered. After filtering, the wine is aged in stainless steel tanks or wooden vats.
White and rose wines may age for a year to four years, or far less than a year. Red wines may
age for seven to ten years. Most large wineries age their wine in large temperature-controlled
stainless steel tanks that are above ground, while smaller wineries may still store their wine in
wooden barrels in damp wine cellars.

either into a stainless steel fermentation tank or a wooden vat (for fine wines).

Fermenting the must

 4 For white wine, all the grape skins are separated from the "must" by filters
or centrifuges before the must undergoes fermentation. For red wine, the
whole crushed grape, including the skin, goes into the fermentation tank or
vat. (The pigment in the grape skins give red wine its color. The amount of
time the skins are left in the tank or vat determines how dark or light the color
will be. For rose, the skins only stay in the tank or vat for a short time before
they are filtered out.)
 5 During the fermentation process, wild yeast are fed into the tank or vat to
turn the sugar in the must into alcohol. To add strength, varying degrees of
yeast may be added. In addition, cane or beet sugar may be added to
increase the alcoholic content. Adding sugar is call chaptalization. Usually
chaptalization is done because the grapes have not received enough sun
prior to harvesting. The winemaker will use a handheld hydrometer to
measure the sugar content in the tank or vat. The wine must ferments in the
tank or vat for approximately seven to fourteen days, depending on the type of
wine being produced.
Ageing the wine
 6 After crushing and fermentation, wine needs to be stored, filtered, and
properly aged. In some instances, the wine must also be blended with other
alcohol. Many wineries still store wine in damp, subterranean wine cellars to
keep the wine cool, but larger wineries now store wine above ground in
epoxylined and stainless steel tanks. The tanks are temperature-controlled by
water that circulates inside the lining of the tank shell. Other similar tanks are
used instead of the old redwood and concrete vats when wine is temporarily
stored during the settling process.

After fermentation, certain wines (mainly red wine) will be crushed again and
pumped into another fermentation tank where the wine will ferment again for
approximately three to seven days. This is done not only to extend the wine's
shelf life but also to ensure clarity and color stability.
The wine is then pumped into settling ("racking") tanks or vats. The wine will
remain in the tank for one to two months. Typically, racking is done at 50 to 60
degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 16 degrees Celsius) for red wine, and 32 degrees
Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) for white wine.

 7 After the initial settling (racking) process, certain wines are pumped into
another settling tank or vat where the wine remains for another two to three
months. During settling the weighty unwanted debris (remaining stem pieces,
etc.) settle to the bottom of the tank and are eliminated when the wine is
pumped into another tank. The settling process creates smoother wine.
Additional settling may be necessary for certain wines.
 8 After the settling process, the wine passes through a number of filters or
centrifuges where the wine is stored at low temperatures or where clarifying
substances trickle through the wine.
 9 After various filtering processes, the wine is aged in stainless steel tanks or
wooden vats. White and rose wines may age for a year to four years, or far
less than a year. Red wines may age for seven to ten years. Most large
wineries age their wine in large temperature-controlled stainless steel tanks
that are above ground, while smaller wineries may still store their wine in
wooden barrels in damp wine cellars.
 10 The wine is then filtered one last time to remove unwanted sediment.

The wine is now ready to be bottled, corked, sealed, crated, labeled, and
shipped to distributors.

Packaging
 11 Most medium- to large-sized wineries I now use automated bottling
machines, and most moderately priced and expensive wine bottles have corks
made of a special oak. The corks are covered with a peel-off aluminum
foil or plastic seal. Cheaper wines have an aluminum screw-off cap or plastic
stopper. The corks and screw caps keep the air from spoiling the wine. Wine
is usually shipped in wooden crates, though cheaper wines may be packaged
in cardboard.
Quality Control
All facets of wine production must be carefully controlled to create a quality wine.
Such variables as the speed with which harvested grapes are crushed; the
temperature and timing during both fermentation and ageing; the percent of sugar
and acid in the harvested grapes; and the amount of sulfur dioxide added during
fermentation all have a tremendous impact on the quality of the finished wine.

Where To Learn More

Books
Adams, Leon. The Wines of America. McGraw Hill, 1978.
Anderson, Stanley F. Winemaking. Harcourt Brace & Company, 1989.
Churchill, Creighton. The World of Wines. Collier Books, 1980.
Farkas, J. The Technology & Biochemistry of Wine. Gordon & Breach Science
Publishers, Inc., 1988.
Hazelton, Nika. American Wines. Grosset Good Life Books, 1976.
Johnson, Hugh. The Vintner's Art: How Great Wines are Made. Simon & Schuster
Trade, 1992.
McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking. Collier Books, 1984.
Ough, Cornelius S. Winemaking Basics. Haworth Press, Inc., 1992.
Rainbird, George. An Illustrated Guide to Wine. Harmony Books, 1983.
Zaneilli, Leo. Beer and Wine Making Illustrated Dictionary. A. S. Barnes & Company,
1978.

Periodicals
Asimov, Isaac. "The Legacy of Wine," The Magazine of Fantasy and Science
Fiction. July, 1991, p. 81.
Merline, John W. "What's in Wine? (Calling All Consumers)," Consumers' Research
Magazine. November 1986, p. 38.
Oliver, Laure. "Fermenting Wine the Natural Way," The Wine Spectator. October 31,
1992, p. 9.
Robinson, Jancis. "Spreading the Gospel of Oak," The Wine Spectator. August 31,
1991, p. 20.
Roby, Norm. "Getting Back to Nature," The Wine Spectator. October 15, 1990, p. 22.
— Greg Ling

Read more: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Wine.html#ixzz5DtozTdD5

Wine is made from the fruit of the grape vine. The main factors that determine how a
wine will taste are: the grape variety used; the environment in which it is grown (climate
 and weather, soil and slope); the care with which the grapes are grown and harvested;
how the wine is made; how the wine is made; and how it is matured (including bottle-
age). Many of the factors that affect quality have a cost effect and will influence the final
selling price of a bottle of wine.

 The most important part of the process of winemaking is fermentation. When yeasts
feed on sugars in the grape juice, they produce alcohol, carbon dioxide and heat,
changing the flavours of the grape juice into those of wine.

 For WHITE WINES, the grapes are usually crushed to break the skins before they are
pressed to separate out the juice. Yeast is added but some winemakers choose not to
use commercial yeasts, believing that the “natural” ones that dwell in the vineyard and
winery give more interesting results.

 The wine must is transferred to a fermentation vessel (usually a stainless steel tank,
but some winemakers use oak barrels or open-topped concrete or wooden fermenters).
White wines are then fermented at low temperatures (typically 12ºC - 22ºC) to preserve
delicate fruit aromas. This takes between two and four weeks. Sweetness in white
wines is usually caused by unfermented sugar.

 Maturation is the next step and can take place in barrels or large neutral wooden or
stainless steel vats. It also takes place in the bottle after bottling. The most important
changes that occur are the slow chemical reactions that can allow complex flavours to
develop.

 For RED WINES, black grapes are crushed to release the juice, then the juice and
skins are put in the fermenting vessel together. Fermentation takes place at a higher
temperature for red than for white wine (20 ºC - 32 ºC). Alcohol helps the extraction of
colour, tannins and flavours from the skins. In order to keep the juice in contact with the
skin, the juice may be pumped over the floating skins or the skins may be punched
down into the juice. The amount of color and tannin in the finished wine depends on
how long the wine is kept in contact with the skins. This may be for more than 2 weeks
for richly flavoured wines or, as little as five days for light wines such. It also depends
on how much tannin, colour and flavor is in the skins – some black grape varieties are
naturally light in color and tannins. Hot climates encourage higher colour and tannin
levels in the grapes.

 When enough color and tannin have been extracted, the free run wine is drawn off. The
skins are then pressed yielding a further quantity of wine, known as the press wine.
Press wine contains higuer levels of tannins, and may be blended with free run wine to
produce the style required.

 Maturation is the next step and can take place in barrels or large neutral wooden or
stainless steel vats. It also takes place in the bottle after bottling. The most important
 changes that occur are the slow chemical reactions that can allow complex flavours to
develop.

 ROSE WINES must be made from black grapes. The method of production is similar to
that for red wines but they are fermented at a lower temperature (12ºC - 22ºC). They
must also have a much shorter period grapeskin contact (12 to 36 hours). Pink wines
labeled as white Zinfandel are made this way.