Appendix C: Salient-Pole

Synchronous Machines
C.1  INTRODUCTION
Almost always low-speed synchronous machines with four or more poles have salient-pole rotors.
Such low-speed alternators are normally driven by water turbines and are often used as hydroelec-
tric alternators, as shown in Figure 7.2.
In cylindrical-rotor synchronous machines there is no saliency. Therefore, the reluctance and
thereby the reactances are constants due to the existence of a uniform air gap; but in the salient-pole
rotor the area midway between the poles (quadrature or q-axis) has a larger air gap than the area
between the pole centers (direct or d-axis). As a result, the armature mmf produces more flux along
the d-axis than along the q-axis. Because of this saliency, the reactance measured at the terminals
of a salient-rotor machine will vary as a function of the rotor position. The reactance associated with
the d-axis is called the direct-axis synchronous reactance, Xd. The one associated with the q-axis is
called the quadrature-axis synchronous reactance, Xq. They can be expressed as

X d = X a + X φd (C.1)

X q = X a + X φq (C.2)

where Xa is the armature self-reactance and is independent of the rotor angle. The direct- and
quadrature-axis magnetizing reactances Xϕd and Xϕq represent the inductive effects of the direct-
and quadrature-axis armature-reaction flux waves produced by the d-axis current Id and the q-axis
current Iq, respectively. The reactance Xq is less than the reactance Xd due to the existence of greater
reluctance in the air gap of the quadrature axis. The Xq is often between 0.6 and 0.7 of Xd. Therefore,
the armature reaction resulting from the armature current Ia can be taken into account by resolving
it into two components along the d-axis and the q-axis, namely, Id and Iq. Thus, as shown in Figure
C.1a, the total voltage in the stator can be expressed as

Vφ = E a + E d + Eq – Ia Ra (C.3)

where Ed and Eq represent the d-axis component and the q-axis component of armature reaction
voltage, respectively. Hence,

E d = − j Id X d (C.4)

Eq = − jI q X q (C.5)

Therefore,
Vφ = E a − jId X d − jIq X q − Ia Ra (C.6)

where the term represents the voltage drop due to the armature resistance. The armature current is

Ia = Id + Iq (C.7)

569
570 Appendix C: Salient-Pole Synchronous Machines

q
Ea
jIq Xq
Ra
Xd, Xq Iq
+ δ
+ Ia Id, Iq
θ V jId Xd
Ea Vφ Ia Ra
–
– Ia
Id

(a) (b) d

E´a

d
aX
Ea

jI
E˝a jIq Xq
a΄
Iq

q
X
V b΄

a
jI
δ jId Xd
0 δ
θ Ia Ra
0΄

a
Id Ia
b
(c)

FIGURE C.1  Equivalent circuit and phasor diagrams of a salient-pole synchronous generator: (a) equivalent
circuit; (b) phasor diagram; and (c) drawing the phasor diagram without knowing the power angle 8.

If the armature resistance is negligibly small, then

Vφ = E a − jId X d − Iq X q (C.8)

or

E a = Vφ + jId X d + jIq X q (C.9)

The equivalent circuit of a salient-pole synchronous generator is shown in Figure C.1a. The corre-
sponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure C.1b.
Note that this phasor diagram is based on the assumption that the angle between Ea and Ia
(i.e., θ + δ) is known in advance. Normally, however, the internal power factor angle θ + δ is not
known beforehand, only the power-factor angle θ is known. Figure C.1c shows how to draw the
phasor diagram when the power angle δ is not known in advance. Observe that the phasor E a′′ is

E a′′ = Vφ + Ra Ia + jIa X q (C.10)

The phasor E a′′ and the angle δ can be determined by drawing the phasor IaRa parallel to the current
Ia and from its tip the phasor IaXq perpendicular to the phasor Ia, and finally by drawing a line con-
necting the phasor origin to the tip of the phasor IaXq. Once the angle δ is known, then the internal
generated voltage can be readily found, as shown in Figure C.1c.
Also note that if the armature resistance Ra is ignored, then the angle δ can be found from

I a X q cos θ
tan δ = (C.11)
Vφ + I a X q sin θ

Appendix C: Salient-Pole Synchronous Machines 571

However, if the armature resistance Ra is not neglected, then the angle δ can be determined from

I a X q cos θ − I a Ra sin θ
tan δ = (C.12)
Vφ + I a X q sin θ + I a Ra cos θ

The power output of a three-phase synchronous generator is

P = 3Vφ I a cosθ (C.13a)

= 3Vφ I d cos (90° − δ ) + 3Vφ I q cosδ (C.13b)

= 3Vφ I d sinδ + 3Vφ I q cosδ (C.13c)

Since

Vφ sin δ = I q X q

or

Vφ sin δ
Iq = (C.14)
Xq

and

Vφ cos θ = Ea − I d X d

or

Ea − Vφ cos δ
Id = (C.15)
Xd

Substituting for Id and Iq in Equation 7.68c,

 E − Vφ cos δ   V sin δ 
P = 3Vφ  a  sin δ + 3Vφ  φ  cos δ (C.16)
 Xd   Xq 

or

3Vφ Ea  1 1 
P= sin δ + 3Vφ2  −  sin δ cos δ (C.17)
Xd  Xq Xd 

Since

(sin 2δ )
sin δ cos δ =
2

3Vφ Ea 3V 2  1 1 
P= sin δ + φ  X − X  sin 2δ (C.18)
Xd 2  q d

572 Appendix C: Salient-Pole Synchronous Machines

The first term is the same as the power in a cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, and the second
term is the additional power due to the reluctance torque in the machine. Note that the second term
depends on the saliency of the machine. Here,

1 1
Saliency = − (C.19)
Xq Xd

It disappears when Xd = Xq, which is the case for a cylindrical rotor. The developed torque of a syn-
chronous machine can be expressed as

3Vφ Ea 3V 2  1 1 
Td = sin δ + φ  − sin 2δ (C.20)
ωs Xd 2ω s  X q X d 

The torque developed by a salient-pole generator as a function of torque angle δ is plotted in

Figure C.2. Note that the maximum reluctance torque occurs when δ is 45° and is about 20% of the
available maximum torque. Also note that this type of machine is “stiffer” than a cylindrical rotor
machine since its torque increases faster for small values of 3. The maximum power takes place at
a value of δ less than 90°.
For a salient-pole machine, it is necessary to know the values of both Xd and Xq. These reac-
tances are determined by the slip test. The slip test is performed by applying reduced three-phase
voltage to the stator while the rotor is driven slightly above or below synchronous speed with the
field winding open-circuited (i.e., unexcited). Oscillograms are taken of the armature terminal
voltage, the armature current, and the induced voltage across the open-field winding. Figure C.3
shows such oscillograms. Approximate values of Xd and Xq can be found from the voltmeter and
ammeter readings. For example, when armature resistance is ignored, the Xd and Xq can be deter-
mined from

Td Total torque

Cylindrical-rotor
torque

Generator

δmax 90° 180°

–180° –90° 0° δmax δ

Motor Reluctance
torque

–Td

FIGURE C.2  Torque developed by a salient-pole synchronous generator as a function of torque angle.