Instruments for Vibration Analysis

By James I. Taylor

Introduction

In today's world market, the consumer has a wide variety of instruments to choose from. These
instruments are manufactured all over the world. Some instruments target a broad market and others
target a niche market. The shear number of high quality sophisticated instruments makes it impossible to
cover them all in this paper. This paper attempts to cover the generic requirements for instruments in the
vibration analysis field. For the sake of clarity, some instruments are mentioned by name/manufacturer to
make a point. Similar instruments from other manufacturers may be of equal or greater value. The
objective here is to identify the requirement and the consumer can choose the manufacturer. This paper
briefly covers four major topics. They are: transducers, data collectors, data processing and analysis, and
on-line systems.

Transducers

The experiences of this writer indicates that most vibration analysis departments use only one or two
different transducers. This could be a serious mistake for medium size plants and above. Following is a
list of transducers that should be considered.

1. Accelerometers. There are three basic types. They are high frequency, medium frequency and low
frequency. Most plants require all three because one transducer cannot be used to measure all
frequencies. Figure 1 contains a photo of an accelerometer.

Figure 1 - Accelerometer

2. Velocity transducer. The sensitivity should be about 400 to 500 mV/eu. The frequency response is
flat from about 10 Hz to 2 kHz. This transducer is not widely used however it should be the industry
"work horse". Figure 2 contains a photo of a velocity transducer.

3. Displacement. This transducer is required for all relative motion measurements and for diagnostics of
slow speed machines down to 2 or 3 RPM. These transducers are widely used in high-speed
machines with fluid film bearings. However, a portable version is not used very much. It can be used
to measure the amount of bend in a shaft, misalignment between shafts, and looseness in bearings.
All of this can be accomplished while the machine is in operation. Figure 3 contains a photo of the
portable displacement transducer.

Copyright © James I. Taylor, 1999. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without permission from the author.
Figure 2 - Velocity Transducer Figure 3 - Displacement Transducer

4. Microphone. The major problem with microphones is they pick up all frequencies in the audio range.
However, there are situations when a microphone must be used. They include noise abatement
programs, and determining the source of undesirable noise.

5. Pressure. These transducers are required to accurately measure and diagnose pressure fluctuations in
pumps, compressors, headboxes, etc. A wide variety of these transducers are available depending on
static pressure, pressure fluctuations, frequency and connections.

The proper transducer should be selected depending on the frequency and amplitude the analyst wants to
measure. Figure 4 contains the frequency response curves for velocity, acceleration, and displacement.
The displacement, acceleration and velocity curves were plotted at a constant 0.15 IPS. The frequency
response and noise floor (the lowest amplitude measurable) are very important in transducer selection.
Once the transducer is selected, the next step is selecting the instrument that has a low and high frequency
cut off and a noise floor that is acceptable.

Figure 4 - Frequency Response Curves

Data collection

The type of data collector required depends on the depth of analysis performed. If the philosophy
is to identify basic defects such as imbalance, misalignment, defects in bearings, and gearmesh
problems, etc., then most standard data collectors are satisfactory. On the other hand, if the
philosophy is for more in depth analysis to obtain more detail about the problem to identify the
root cause of the failure and to improve equipment maintainability and reliability, then long
periods of the time signal should be collected. Most standard "data collectors" collect the
frequency spectrum on one or two frequency ranges and one memory period of the time signal.
Often this does not provide enough resolution in frequency or time. Sure you can go “off route”
and collect more frequency ranges, a zoom, and more time periods. However, it is time
consuming and a lot more time must be spent at the equipment location. Even then, some
problems may be missed. For example, each cycle of gearmesh frequency is a profile of two
teeth meshing. The same teeth mesh again at the hunting tooth frequency. The time period for
hunting tooth frequency can be over three seconds. It is near impossible to capture each cycle in
the period of hunting tooth frequency unless several seconds of the time signal are collected.
Then each cycle must be presented with enough resolution for analysis.

A better approach would be to collect long time periods, 30 seconds or more depending on the
speed, for post processing in an office environment. For example, a four-channel digital audio
tape (DAT) recorder, see Figure 5, can record data from four points in 30 seconds. Under this
method, the data contains all vibration occurring during the 30 second period.

Figure 5 - Digital Audio Tape (DAT) Recorder

Data Processing and Analysis

If the proper transducer is selected and the time signal is recorded, this data must be processed
and analyzed. The specifications for this instrument depends upon the equipment speed, depth of
the analysis, noise floor, etc. If machine speed is 3 RPM or 0.05 Hz, the instrument must have a
low frequency cut off below 0.05 Hz, and it must have a frequency range of 2 Hz. Machines
rotating this slow generate very low levels of vibration, and a displacement transducer is the best
choice. Figure 6 contains a photo of one of the most popular data collector/analyzers in the
United States. Figure 7 contains a photo of Data Physics circuit boards that can be installed in a
PC. The graphs in this paper were produced by VCI software using the Data Physics boards.
Some other specifications that may be helpful include:

1. A long-time capture feature that permits writing long periods of the time signal to the
hard drive.

2. A noise floor that permits processing the lowest amplitude signal expected.

3. Most instruments have an upper frequency limit of 20 kHz. This is satisfactory for most
machinery applications. However, some gearboxes in high-speed applications and other
sophisticated measurements have frequencies over 20 kHz and some may approach 100
kHz.

4. The analyzer should have a true zoom. This means the capability exists to select any size
window, anywhere in the frequency range to obtain enough resolution for measurement
of all frequencies.
5. All required data may not be contained in one memory period of the time signal. The
analyst must review several memory periods of various lengths to obtain the required
information.

A couple of case histories may be helpful.

Figure 6 - Data Collector

Figure 7 - Data Physics Circuit Boards

Slow Speed Machine - Case History

If you want to diagnose problems in slow speed machines, you must select the proper transducer. If
the rotor weight is at least 10 percent of the housing weight, (thanks to Mr. Charlie Jackson for this
important fact) a low frequency accelerometer may be used. These transducers have a frequency
response up to about 500 Hz and a sensitivity of 500 mV/G. The noise floor of the transducer and
analyzer must be checked before use. The displacement transducer is the best choice if it can be
used. When using displacement transducers in slow speed equipment the rules for use are greatly
different from those used in high speed equipment. For example, a machined surface on the shaft is
desirable but not necessary. Two mils (0.002 in) of runout on a high speed machine could cause
panic. However, 2 mils of runout on a shaft rotating at 1.8 RPM causes little concern for most
people. However, there are some analysts that refuse to use displacement at any speed without a
runout subtractor.
Figure 8 - Data Taken from a Decker using a Proximity Probe

Figure 9 - Time Signal from a Decker using a Proximity Probe

The data in Figures 8 and 9 were taken from a Decker-washer using a proximity probe. A heavy-
duty magnetic base and Starrett flex-o-post was used to measure the relative motion between the
bearing housing and the shaft. The flex-o-post held the proximity probe 0.040" from the shaft.
The shaft speed is 1.8 RPM or 1.8 = 0.03 Hz.
60

The bearing is a SKF 23144 spherical roller bearing and has 23 rollers on each side. The BPFO is
0.25 Hz and the BPFI is 0.32 Hz. NOTE: When diagnosing problems in rotating machines the data
should be used as collected. As a general rule, filtering, integration, or differentiation should not be
used. The frequency spectrum in Figure 8 contains displacement data. The amplitude scale is from
0 to 2.5 mils peak-to-peak and the frequency range is from 0 to 2.5 Hz. The spectral line at 0.03 Hz
is rotor speed. Harmonics of rotor speed are also present. The BPFO of 0.25 Hz and harmonics are
also present. From this data we could conclude: the fundamental and harmonics indicate looseness
and there is a large defect on the outer race because of the frequency and high harmonic content.
This diagnosis is partly right, i.e. there is a defect on the outer race.

The analysis accuracy can be improved by using the time signal in Figure 9. The time period
contains a little more than two revolutions. The low frequency is rotor speed, and causes the
spectral line at 0.03 Hz. The time period between the two large pulses is 33.3 seconds or 1 x RPM.
These pulses are caused by a scratch on the shaft about 3 mills high and 2 mils low. The FFT of
these pulses yield many harmonics of speed. The smaller pulses occur at BPFO or more precisely
1
= 4 seconds . The amplitude of these pulses is about 3 mils peak-to-peak. The presence of
0.25
this pulse at BPFO indicates a deep fatigue spall. This spall could be in the form of a deep spall in a
shallow flaking area or it could be the steep slope of the defective area where the rollers exit the
defect. The higher frequencies between the pulses are harmonics of BPFO. This time signal is a
good example of a high frequency riding a low frequency. When this occurs, there is more than one
frequency and more than one problem. The analysis accuracy can now be improved as follows:

1. The shaft may have two mils of runout.

2. The shaft has a small scratch, the depth is five mils peak-to-peak..

3. The bearing has a defect on the outer race. The nature of the defect is shallow
flaking and a deep fatigue spall.

4. The length of the outer race defect could be determined by reviewing the true
harmonic content in the time domain. However, more resolution is required.

This case history proves that problems can be identified in slow speed machines. It also proves that
portable displacement transducers must be used for accurate diagnostics.

We should also review some of the physics in this case

g = 0.0511 F 2 D

∴ for the fundamental of 0.03 Hz

 g = 0.0511 x 0.032 x 0.0018

g = 8.28 x 10 -8

g = 0.0000000828

∴ for 1 Hz or 4 x BPFO
g = 0.0511 F 2 D

g = 0.0511 x 12 x 0.00040

g = 0.00002

If the accelerometer has 500 mV/G

∴ 0.5 x 0.00002 = 0.00001 volts or 0.01 mV
The noise floor for a 500 mV/G accelerometer is 0.000014 g's at two Hz. It is questionable if either
frequency could be identified. If the accelerometer has 100 mV/G or less the frequency could not
be measured. After the displacement transducer is selected, the signal processor specifications must
be reviewed. Some real-time analyzers (RTA) have a low frequency response down to 0.000125
Hz and a noise floor of 1 µ (micro) V or 0.000001 volts. These specifications are quite
satisfactory. The specifications for data collectors are not as good. The low frequency input may
be more than 0.03 Hz and the amplitude may be above 0.03 mV.

A Gears Case History

Figure 10 contains a frequency spectrum from slow speed gears. The spectral line at 177.5 Hz is
one-half gearmesh frequency. The spectral line at 355 Hz is gearmesh and the spectral line at 710
Hz is two times gearmesh frequency. The data was collected with a velocity transducer and
processed on the 1 kHz range with 400 lines of resolution. From this data we can determine there is
a gearmesh problem. We can also identify fractional gearmesh frequency. The data does not
identify the problem that causes these frequencies.

Figure 11 contains a zoom of a 40 Hz window around gearmesh frequency. The difference

frequency between 1 and 2 and 1 and 4 is 2.8 Hz, which is gear speed. The difference frequency
between 1 and 3, and 1 and 5 is 4.4 Hz, which is idler speed. This data indicates both gears are
eccentric and there is some looseness. The data does not indicate the nature of the eccentricity.

Figure 12 contains a 199 ms period of time from the gears. In this short time period, the amplitude
varies from about 0.2 to 1.2 IPS. This verifies that amplitude modulation is present. Each cycle of
this signal is gearmesh frequency. The amplitude of every other cycle is higher on some cycles at
the top and bottom. This indicates pitch line runout and a tooth transition problem. An FFT on this
signal yields a spectral line at fractional gearmesh frequency. More resolution is required for
further analysis. It should be pointed out that several time periods were viewed before this period
was captured.

Figure 13 contains 52 ms of time data. This data contains seven cycles of gearmesh frequency.
This represents the meshing of seven pairs of teeth. Notice that each cycle is a little different from
 Figure 10 - Frequency Spectrum from Idler Gear

4 2
3
5

Figure 11 - Frequency Spectrum of 40 Hz Window around Gearmesh Frequency

 12
3

Figure 12 - Time Domain Signal for Idler Gear

Figure 13 - Expanded Time Domain Signal of the Idler Gear

the other cycles. This occurs because different teeth generate each cycle. The time period of each
cycle varies. This indicates uneven tooth width.

These case histories emphasize the importance of instrument specifications described above.

On-Line Systems

Even when the best instruments are placed in the hands of the best analysts, one major flaw still
exists. On any manual system, the analysis is based on the few seconds the transducer was placed
on the machine. If the inner race cracks, oil line gets broken, or lock nut backs off, etc., a failure
could me missed. The only way to identify these failures is to install transducers, pull the wire to a
multiplexer and control the multiplexer and analyzer with a personal computer. Figure 14 contains
a photo of a velocity transducer installed on a felt roll in a paper machine. Figure 15 is a typical
installed multiplexer.

Figure 14 - Mounted Transducer

Figure 15 - A Typical Multiplexer Unit

Figure 16 - Display After Diagnostics have been Performed

Figure 17 - History Report

A lot has been written on neural networks and fuzzylogic. Howeve r, practical application of these
sophisticated theories may not be available at this time. The best expert systems available today are
rule based and follows the same logic an engineer would use to diagnose a particular problem. This
expert system should produce a fully annotated spectrum such as contained in Figure 16. All
problems such as looseness, defects on the inner and outer race, rollers, etc. are identified and
assigned a priority, plus an overall priority is assigned. The ID 27/37 indicates 27 of the 37 spectral
lines were identified. A history report or trend such as contained in Figure 17 should be produced.
This report trends all diagnosed problems at each point.

Summary

A large variety on instruments are on the market today. These instruments are accompanied by a
large variety of software. A paper such as this can do justice to neither. Each plant manager should
define the maintenance philosophy and select the instruments that can accomplish the goals. This is
not an easy task, and with the technology explosion experienced in recent history, the task
constantly changes.