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INTRODUCTION
a. Environmental Issues and Policies (EIP) in relation to sociology, economics, politics and other
fields of science
a.1. EIP and its relation to basic human needs, culture, lifestyle, etc.
a.2. EIP and its relation to our country’s economic growth and progress
a.3. Environmental Degradation – the basis for existing and future policies
a.4. EIP and its interdependence with chemistry, physics, medicine, agro-forestry,
aquaculture, sociology and etc.
a.5. EIP and its application to sustainable development
Sustainable Development – development that provides people with a better life without sacrificing or depleting
resources or causing environmental impacts that will undercut the needs of future generations.
The products of science include those that are good and those that are bad for people and other living
organisms as well as the environment. There is a need to take a global outlook in order to adequately maintain a
healthful balance in nature.
Sustainable Development- entails the use of available resources without endangering or compromising the
environment to ensure the development of society.
- Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
Objectives:
- social progress which recognizes the needs of everyone
- effective protection of the environment
- prudent use of natural resources
- maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and development
Ecosystem - A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment
- the interaction or relationship between organisms and their environment
- refers to all living and non-living components in a given area
Levels of Organization:
Ecology - focuses and emphasizes on the interaction taking place between organisms and the environment
- includes how living and non-living factors in the environment influence one another
Species - natural population or a group of organisms which transmit specific traits from parents to offspring
- they are reproductively isolated from other populations
Habitat - the place or type of place where an organism or population naturally lives as a community
Ecological Niche - work performed by an organism.
- the role of a particular organism in its environment
Ecosystem Structure
- the operational interactions and interrelationships of the living and non-living parts of the ecosystem
- all ecosystems are composed of biotic and abiotic components
2 Components of an Ecosystem
1. Abiotic Component
- generally referred to as the life support system that enables the living components to grow, reproduce, and
develop in the eternal cycle of life
- includes all the factors of the non-living environment
A. Physical Factors
- Inorganic Substances and Organic Compounds (proteins, lipids, minearals, N, C, etc.)
- Climate Regime (rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind, etc)
- Latitude (distance from equator)
- Altitude (elevation in relation to sea level)
- Nature of soil (terrestrial ecosystem)
- Fire/Heat
- Amount of suspended materials (aquatic ecosystem)
B. Chemical Factors
- Level of water and air in soil
- Plant nutrients disposed in the environment (terrestrial – soil; aquatic – water)
- Salinity of water for aquatic ecosystems
- Level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in aquatic ecosystems
- Level of artificial or natural toxic substances dissolved in soil and water
2. Biotic Component
- make up the living part of an ecosystem
Types of Consumers
Herbivores (Primary Consumers) - plant-eaters. feed directly and only on all or part of living plants.
Carnivores (Secondary Consumers)- flesh eaters. feed on plant-eating animals.
Omnivores (Tertiary/High-Level Consumers) - feed on plants, herbivores, and/or carnivores.
Ecosystem Functions
1. Production - responsible for the accumulation of organic substances in the ecosystem
*Free energy is fixed from a particular energy source such as sunlight (photosynthesis) by phototrophs
and from chemical compounds and nutrients from the environment.
(the byproducts of respiration, CO2 + H2O, are the raw materials)
*Raw materials are transformed into energy rich glucose material (CH2O) resulting in the production of
oxygen gas (O2)
Light Energy
CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2
Enzymes
Enzymes
CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O + Energy Released
Energy is utilized to fuel all essential functions in the organism (protoplasm building, reproduction,
photosynthesis, locomotion, ingestion, absorption, etc.)
Energy not utilized is dissipated from the system as heat.
Expelled from the system along with heat is Carbon Dioxide (CO2), a byproduct that serves as index for
decomposition in the ecosystem level.
Feeding Relationships
- Energy is stored by the producers is taken in or eaten by a series of consumers. Ultimately, decomposers
release any energy fixed by producers or accumulated by consumers (unused energy and nutrients).
Food Chain - refers to the transfer of energy from the source (plants) through a series of food organisms, in a
process of sequential eating and being eaten.
Each time one organism eats another in the food chain, energy is transferred.
For every transfer, about 80 to 90% of the potential energy is lost as heat.
The movement of energy is in one direction only. Usually from plants to a series of animals eating each
other.
Man is ultimately at the highest level.
2 Types:
1. Grazing Food Chain- start from green plants from which the chain goes to grazing herbivores and
then to carnivores.
2. Detritus Food Chain - from dead organic matter into microorganisms and then to detritus-feeding
organisms and their predators
Food Web - the interconnected or interlocking relationships among various food chains in an ecosystem.
In a food web, an organism may feed on several members of the web.
Several different predators may eat a prey
In complex natural communities, organisms whose food is obtained from plants by the same number of
steps are said to belong to the same trophic level.
A food web represents an attempt to describe the numerous alternative food energy pathways in a
community, most of whose members have more than one choice of food.
Food Pyramid - constitutes the overall structure of dependency among the living elements in an ecosystem.
At the lowest level of the food pyramid are the food sources (producers).
- one may even go further down and say that the base of the food pyramid is composed oforganic matter that
serves as fertilizer for producers.
- the sustainability of the food pyramid rests on the continuing presence and efficiency of those at the bottom
- the amount of usable energy decreases as it flows higher op the food chain/web/pyramid.
Population Dynamics
Species Diversity - is the extent to which an ecosystem possesses differences in species in terms of genetic
variation and distribution.
Population - is a group of interbreeding organisms belonging to the same species. It is the interaction between
organisms that causes a population change.
Characteristics of Population:
1. Size - pertains to the number of individuals in a population
Factors that contribute to the size of a population:
a. Natality - the number of organisms that are born
b. Mortality - the number of species that die
c. Immigration - members of the species that enter the land
d. Emigration - members of the species that leave the land
2. Density - it is the number of individuals of a population in a particular area (i.e. 100 cows/hectare, 300
trees/acre)
It is dependent upon such factors such as availability of space, food, water, light and heat.
3. Distribution - it tells us how these individuals are located in an area. It is the arrangement of the
individuals of a population within a particular space.
Three Patterns of Distribution:
a. Random Distribution - there is no specific order; the organisms are spread throughout the area
without an overall pattern.
b. Uniform Distribution - the organism are evenly distributed/organized over an area.
c. Clumped Distribution - the organisms are concentrated in an area. It may offer the population
protection from enemies.
Dominance - The state that exists when one organism or population has power over another.
Dominant Species - Species being the most abundant and/or having the most biomass
The most essential species in the ecosystem are called Keystone Species as their activities determine the
structure of the entire community and consist of species that often turn unexpectedly to be the ones important to
the survival of the community.
Environmental Resistance - are the environmental factors that limit and regulate population size.
Death Phase - the time period wherein there is a decline in population size.
Species Interactions
Different organisms in the ecosystem occupy a certain ecological niche - the physical, chemical and biological
factors that a species needs to live, grow, and reproduce in an ecosystem.
2. Predation (+,-) - an interaction where an organism called the prey is killed and the one that kills is the
predator. Many predators are larger and usually stronger and are faster than the prey. The predators kill
for food, so they benefit while the prey is harmed.
Example: Frog and Fly
3. Parasitism (+,-) - parasites feed off another organism called their host; but unlike predators, they live
on or in the host for a good part of their life cycle. Parasites draw nourishment from and gradually
weaken the host. This may or may not kill the host
Example: Flea and Dog
4. Mutualism (+,+)- two different types of organisms interact directly in ways that benefit each species.
Example: Honeybee + Flower (bees acquire nectar from the flower, flowers are pollinated by the bees)
5. Commensalism (+,0)- one type of organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed to any
great degree.
Example: Barnacles + Whales, Orchids + Trees
6. Ammensalism (-,0) – one organism is inhibited while the other is unaffected (negative-zero interaction)
Evolution – a theory that explains how random changes in genetic material and competition for scarce
resources can cause species to change gradually
Adaptation – when species acquire traits that allow them to survive in their environments
Natural selection – describes the process in which better competitors are more likely to survive and reproduce
more successfully.
Succession – process by which organisms occupy a site and gradually change environmental conditions by
creating soil, shade or shelter or by increasing humidity
Primary succession – occurs when a community begins to develop on a site previously unoccupied by living
organisms.
Secondary succession – occurs when an existing community is disrupted and a new one subsequently develops
at the site.
Homeostasis – defined as the tendency of an ecosystem to resist change and remain in equilibrium.
Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical Cycle – is the movement of nutrients through the ecosystem
- “bio” refers to the living organism, “geo” refers to inorganic molecules,”chemical” refers to the
interaction between them
Important Players
1. Green Plants – which organize the nutrients into biologically useful components
2. Animals – which converts some organic compounds by consumption
3. Decomposers – which converts organic matter into simple elements
1. gaseous cycle- the main reservoirs of nutrients are the atmosphere and the oceans
2. sedimentary cycle- the main reservoir is in the soil, rocks and minerals
Hydrologic Cycle – collects, purifies and distributes the earth’s fixed supply of water
1. Evaporation - The process wherein water (liquid) turns into water vapor
2. Condensation - Atmospheric vapor turns into a dense clouds because of cold
3. Transpiration - The process of giving off or exhaling water vapor through the skin or
mucous membranes
4. Precipitation - The falling to earth of any form of water
5. Runoff - The occurrence of surplus liquid (as water) exceeding the limit or capacity of
The soil
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Reservoirs:
1. Oceans
2. Rocks and Sediments
3. Terrestrial Biosphere
4. Aquatic Biosphere
5. Fossil Fuels
6. Biosphere
Carbon is the basic building block of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA and other
organic compounds necessary for life.
Nitrogen Cycle
it makes up about 78% of the air, but plants cannot use gaseous Nitrogen
4 Processes involved:
1. Fixation- processes of conversion of nitrogen from gaseous state, N2 to the usable ammonia and
nitrate.
2 types:
a. atmospheric fixation – lightning and cosmic radiation combines nitrogen and oxygen gases in the
atmosphere which then fall to the earth as nitric acid, in acid rain
b. biological fixation – where bacteria are able to perform nitrogen fixation
2. Ammonification – involves breakdown of dead organisms and their proteins and nucleic acids are
further broken down into amino acids.
- amino acids are converted into carbon dioxide, water and ammonia, with a release
of energy
- ammonia is the usable form of nitrogen that plant roots absorb
3. Nitrification – bacteria use ammonia to produce their energy needs by converting it to nitrous acid and
water, and then to nitrate and nitrite with a yield of .
4. Denitrification – process by which Nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere
Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus - Nonmetallic element of the nitrogen family that occurs commonly in inorganic phosphate rocks
and as organic phosphates in all living cells
Sulfur Cycle
- Sulfur passes through the gaseous, liquid and solid parts of our planet same with other nutrients
in a series of continuous reactions known as the sulfur cycle.
basically a nutrient cycle
- Sulfur is produced naturally as a result of volcanic eruption and through emissions from hot
springs.
- Sulfur enters the atmosphere primarily in the form of sulfur dioxide, then it remains in the
atmosphere in that form or after reacting with water, in the form of sulfuric acid. Sulfur is carried
back to the earth's surface as acid deposition when it rains or snows.
- When plants and animals die, sulfur is returned to the soil where it is converted by
microorganisms into hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide gas is then returned to the atmosphere,
where it is oxidized to sulfuric acid.
Habitat - is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or
other type of organism.It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment
that surrounds (influences and is utilized by) a species population.
Biomes
Biomes - Refer to biological communities with similar climate conditions, growth patterns, and vegetation
types
- A major biotic community characterized by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate
Deserts
Regions:
- Northern Primary and Southwestern Africa
- Parts of the Middle East and Asia
- Australia
- The Great Basin and southwestern United States
- Northern Mexico
- Usually around latitudes of 30 N and 30 S
Climate and Soils
- Very dry
- Hot days and cold nights, varying with latitudes
- Rainfall less than 10 inches/yr
- Soils thin and porous
Major Vegetation
- Widely scattered thorny bushes and shrubs, occasional cacti, and small flowers that quickly carpet the desert
floor after brief rains
- Extensive shallow root system as well as deep taproots ( as long as 100 ft) provide means of access to scarce
rainfall and groundwater
Animals
- Rodents, lizards, toads, snakes and other reptiles, owls, hawks, vultures, small birds, and numerous insects
- In plants, the following adaptations are observed:
1. Water-storing leaves and stems
2.Thick epidermal layers to reduce water loss
3. Salt tolerance
4. Drought deciduous (lose leaves during dry season)
5. Bloom and set seed quickly when a spring rain falls
- In animals, the following adaptations are observed:
1. Nocturnal (day: burrow to avoid sun’s heat and desiccation)
2. Get most of their moisture from seeds and plants
3. Highly concentrated urine
4. Nearly dry feces
Tundras
Primary Regions:
- North of the Coniferous forest in the Northern Hemisphere and extending southward at elevations above the
coniferous forests
Climate and Soils:
- Bitter cold except for an 8 –to-10 week growing season having long days and moderate temperatures
- Precipitation low, less than 10 inches annually
- Soils thin and underlain by permanent frost
Major Vegetation:
- Low-growing lichens, mosses, grasses, sedges, and dwarf shrubs
Animals:
- Year round: lemmings, arctic hares, ptarmigan, arctic fox and many others
-Mountain sheep migrate in and out of tundra
- Summers: many geese, ducks, sandpipers and other waterfowl migrate in to raise their young
- Insects and other invertebrates dense during the short summers.
Grasslands/Prairies/Savannas/Steppes
Primary Regions:
- Central N. America, central Russia and Siberia, sub equatorial Africa and S. America, much of southern India,
N. Australia
Climate and soils:
- Highly seasonal, abundant rainfall during wet season, hot and dry in summers and dry seasons
- Fires frequent
- Rainfall 10 to 60 inches/yr
- Soils rich and often deep
Major Vegetation:
- Grass species, from tall grasses in higher rainfall areas and short grasses where dryer
- Sparse bushes and occasional woodlands in some areas
Animals
- Large grazing animals – bison, antelopes
-Wild horses, kangaroos, giraffes, zebras, rhinos
- Predators – wolves, coyotes, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas,lions
- Variety of birds, small burrowing animals such as rabbits, dogs,
- Grassland with scattered trees is called as Savanna
Coniferous Forest
Primary Regions:
- Northern Portions of North America, Europe and Asia, extending southward at high elevations (glaciated
terrain)
Climate and soils:
- Seasonal, winters usually long and cold
- Precipitation often light in winter, heavier in summer
- Soils acidic and humus-rich, much litter
Major Vegetation:
- Coniferous trees (spruce, fir, pine, hemlock)
- Smaller amounts of deciduous tress (birch, maple)
- Poor understory
Animals
- Large herbivores such as mule deer, moose, elk, caribou; smaller herbivores such as mice, hares, red
squirrels
- Predators like lynx, foxes, bears, wolverines, fisher
- Important nesting area for many migratory warbles, thrushes and others
Tropical Rainforests
Primary Regions
- Northern S. America, Central America, Western and central equatorial Africa, SE Asia, various island in the
Indian and Pacific Ocean
Climate and Soils
- Annual temperature average 28oC
- Rainfall frequent and heavy, annual greater than 95 inches
- Soils thin and often acidic, nutrient poor
Major Vegetation:
- Great diversity of towering trees, the tallest being 60 m or so
- Epiphytes and lianas (orchids or woody vines that climb to the tree tops)
- Dense canopy, little understory
Animals:
- Enormous biodiversity
-Exotic,colorful insects
- Amphibians, reptiles, and birds very abundant –e.g. lizards, parrots, snakes, monkeys and small mammals
- A few large predators – tigers and jaguars
Freshwater Ecosystems
(Water) Reservoir - large and deep, human-created bodies of standing freshwater, often built behind dams.
- built primarily for water storage
Ponds - small, shallow; usually human created impoundments of freshwater used primarily for watering
livestock, raising freshwater fish, or recreation.
Streams - are relatively small and flowing bodies of freshwater that empty into rivers
Rivers - wider and deeper than streams and empty into the ocean
Estuarine Ecosystems
- Found along coastlines where freshwater from rivers mixes with salty oceanic waters
- Productive ecosystems because of the large amount of nutrients from the rivers
- Serve as nursery sites for fish and crustaceans
- Serve as barriers to pollution as they trap sediments that prevent pollutants from reaching the
ocean.
Wetlands are areas of standing water that support aquatic plants. Marshes, swamps, and bogs are all
considered wetlands. Plant species adapted to the very moist and humid conditions are called hydrophytes.
These include pond lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce. Marsh flora also include such species as
cypress and gum. Wetlands have the highest species diversity of all ecosystems. Many species of amphibians,
reptiles, birds (such as ducks and waders), and furbearers can be found in the wetlands. Wetlands are not
considered freshwater ecosystems as there are some, such as salt marshes, that have high salt concentrations -
these support different species of animals, such as shrimp, shellfish, and various grasses.
Marshes - Low-lying wet land with grassy vegetation; usually is a transition zone between land and water
- Consists of large areas of surface ground water, fed by underground water and natural drainage after
rain. The soil conditions are extremely wet and contain nutrient-rich sediment full of micro-organisms and
runoff from nearby farms, which is often rich in fertilizer. The wet soil supports the soft-stemmed vegetation
that has adapted to these wet conditions, including reeds, bulrushes and lilies that grow abundantly. The
vegetation creates the necessary cover for birds, duck, otters and muskrats to coexist in this ecosystem. The
abundant food supply is an important factor for the survival of the marshland ecosystem
Coastal Wetlands
- In temperate areas, coastal wetlands usually consist of a mix of bays, lagoons, and salt marshes
Human activities cause wetland degradation and loss by changing water quality, quantity, and flow
rates; increasing pollutant inputs; and changing species composition as a result of disturbance and the
introduction of nonnative or exotic species.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Birth/Fertility Rates-The ratio of live births in an area to the population of that area.
Death/Mortality Rates - The ratio of deaths in an area to the population of that area.
Migration - The movement of people into (immigration) or out of (emigration) an area.
Global Warming
- The increase in the average temperature of earth’s atmosphere.
- Mainly caused by the greenhouse effect
Although our species has existed for only a small fraction of earth’s history, we are altering its atmosphere 10-
100 times faster than the natural rate of change over the past 10,000 years. Global warming from our binge of
fossil fuel burning and deforestation and depletion of stratospheric ozone from use of chlorofluorocarbons and
other chemicals is now a global threat.
Greenhouse Effect - caused by atmospheric gases (greenhouse gases) that allow sunshine to pass through but
absorb heat that is radiated back from the warmed surface of the earth
Most common greenhouse gases
- Water Vapor (H2O)
- Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
- Methane (CH4)
- Ozone (O3)
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Ozone (O3) - a colorless gas soluble in alkalis and cold water; a strong oxidizing agent; can be produced by
electric discharge in oxygen or by the action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen in the stratosphere
where it acts as a screen from ultraviolet radiation
Ozone Layer - a layer in the stratosphere (approximately 20 miles from the earth’s surface) that contains a
concentration of ozone sufficient enough to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – a fluorocarbon bound with a chlorine particle; formerly used as refrigerant and
propellant in aerosol cans
Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation - overexposure to this radiation can cause sunburn and skin cancer, damage to the
eyes and the immune system
*Ozone layer depletion is usually caused by Chlorine and Bromine containing compounds
*Under the influence of high-energy radiation, ozone-depleting substances speed up the breakdown of ozone
(O3) into O2 and O. Each molecule can last in the stratosphere for 65-110 years.
*With less ozone in the atmosphere, more biologically harmful UV-B radiation will reach Earth’s surface,
giving people worse sunburns, earlier appearance of wrinkles, more cataracts (clouding of the eye lens that
reduces vision and can cause blindness if not removed.
Possible consequences/effects:
- Skin cancers/Melanomas
- Suppression of human immune system
- Eye Diseases
- Lower crop yields
- Reduction of phytoplankton population
Some solutions:
- Ban the production and use of ozone-depleting substances
- Find alternatives to CFCs
- Avoid using polystyrene/Styrofoam
Many nations are now experiencing difficulties in maintaining the demand for consumable energy. Due to the
increasing dependence on technology and advanced machinery, people tend to use up more of the resource than
what is actually needed.
Where does consumable energy come from?
Usually, energy is harvested from rich fossil fuel deposits of coal and crude oil. These provide essential
fuel and/or heat for homes and cars
Other sources include solar, geothermal, and hydro power plants
Natural resources - valuable materials supplied by the environment for industrial, commercial, and household
use
Depletion - when the resource is no longer available or when it is overharvested
Scarcity - a particular resource can barely support the demand. Resources that used to be easy to obtain are now
harder to obtain
*Resource scarcity leads to increased competition among humans and/or native species that rely on the material
or natural resource for survival.
Resource Management and Allocation - the systematic use of resources. It is necessary for sustainable
consumption and environmental restoration
A. Soil/Land Resource
- Agriculture, Housing, Infrastructure, Urban Expansion
Deforestation - the process of removing trees from an area.
Erosion - removal/transfer of rock and soil material from one place to another. It is usually
caused by the flow of water and gusts of wind
B. Mineral
- Construction, Jewelry, Electronics, Art and Aesthetics
*Ore Harvesting
Quartz - used in making watches
Marble - construction, statues and ornaments
Limestone - lime and cement
Granite - construction material (resistant to weathering)
C. Wildlife
*Endemic Species (Native/Exclusive Organisms)
*Ecological Balance
- Pest Control
- Limiting Excessive Population Growth
*Food
D. Water
*Potable Water
*Habitat (water-dwelling organisms)
*Eutrophication - introduction of excessive amounts of nutrients into bodies of water, mainly occurring
in lakes and other non-moving bodies of water
*Siltation - transformation of sandy water banks and shores into grainy mud/clay areas
Sustainability
- The ability to maintain a certain range of performance. In this case, it refers to the capacity of a system to
meet the resource demands of the people in both short term and long term perspectives.
- To ensure that the environment can cope with tomorrow’s resource demand, the current generation must
consider economic, environmental, and social factors. This will ensure a balanced development for the
future generations.
A man is hungry and wishes to eat a loaf of bread. Half of the loaf is already capable of satiating him. If
he were to follow the concept of sustainable development, he would leave half of the loaf for his son to
eat instead of consuming the whole.
- Most of the world has now acknowledged the reality of environmental degradation and some have agreements
and global policies regarding the improvement of environmental conditions.
Some examples:
Montreal Protocol - an international treaty that is aimed towards reducing the impact of ozone-depleting
substances (geared towards ozone-depleting substances)
Vienna Conference - the first international conference on ozone layer depletion
Kyoto Protocol - aimed at mitigation the impacts of global warming. It also deals with the causes of the
problem
Environmental Tariffs - an import or export tax placed on products being imported from, or also being sent to
countries with substandard environmental pollution controls
Agenda 21 -A global environmental action plan related to sustainable development held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil in 1992
The Philippines is considered as a developing country or a third world country. In terms of implementing
environmental technologies and policies, developing countries tend to be more lenient due to the limitations
towards economic progress. Industrialization brings about pollution, but it also helps the country’s income and
productivity.
Aside from the loose implementation of policies, most Philippine citizens lack the necessary awareness
needed to prevent environmental degradation. Most of our countrymen prefer the mentality “out of sight, out of
mind.” which means once they can no longer see their waste; it’s no longer considered their problem.
Poverty
- The state of having little or no money and few or no material possessions
- One of the major factors that affect a person’s social tendencies, including environmental inclinations
The Philippines is a country with a high poverty index. Most people attribute this to lack of education
and economic trends. The rich tend to acquire more financial resources than the poor despite the fact that they
are far fewer in number.
Rich people
Poor people
Rapid Urbanization
Urban Areas - areas that are considered major places of commerce, information, culture, and trading
- major towns and cities are classified as urban areas
Urban Expansion - when cities expand and influence the economic, industrial, and cultural behavior of its
neighboring areas
- companies and businesses from the city start outsourcing personnel for jobs
- people from the rural areas adapt to the cultural norms of the urban areas, often resulting in
less than ideal changes in behavior and philosophy
Some Causes:
- Expensive land within city limits
- People from urban areas tend to ask for higher job benefits
- Business opportunities/new market options in rural areas
Effects of Urbanization
Good: Bad:
- Provides people with job opportunities - Increased crime rate
- People adapt to different cultures - People no longer value tradition
- New technology is introduced to rural areas - People from rural areas become more materialistic
Solutions:
- City planning should update land use plans
- Improve job compensation
- Psychological implications
Solid Waste
- any unwanted or discarded material that is not gaseous or liquid in form
- includes food wastes, yard wastes, containers and product packaging, and other miscellaneous inorganic
wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources
Produced by:
- Households and businesses
- Agricultural operations
- Mining, Oil and natural gas production, and other industrial activities
Examples of SW:
- Used paper - Fruit peeling
- Fly ash - Food scraps
- Plastics
- Scrap metal
Solid waste contributes to the urban flooding problem. Trash clogs up the drainage systems, preventing
the flow of water. It can also be considered a health hazard, specifically in areas where people live near
dumpsites/landfills or polluted waterways.
Other solutions:
- Reducing waste and pollution generation
- Resource conservation
- Material reuse and recycling
- Composting (for biodegradable waste)
Hazardous Waste
- any discarded material that contains one or more toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic
compounds at levels that exceed established limits; is flammable; is reactive or unstable enough to explode or
release toxic fumes; or is capable of corroding metal containers such as tanks, drums, and barrels.
Examples:
- Radioactive wastes
- Hazardous and toxic materials discarded by households
* Liquid detergents, soap residue
*Aerosol sprays
*Unused lotion, shampoo and other beauty care products
- Mining wastes
- Oil and gas-drilling wastes
- Municipal incinerator ash
- Lead
- Dioxins
Improper disposal of hazardous, toxic, and radioactive waste can have serious consequences. Direct
exposure to these compounds cause skin irritations, organ failure, and even death. Chronic exposure can cause
cancer, mutations, and deformities among newborn babies.
Solutions:
- Pollution prevention
- Recycling and Reusing
- Detoxifying
- Monitoring of potential hazard areas
- Strict implementation of the STD system
*S - Storage
T - Treatment
D - Disposal
Pollution
Contamination - introduction of a foreign substance (usually with undesirable effects) into a native/local
substance.
Pollution - excessive contamination that causes adverse effects towards the environment
- Undesirable state of the natural environment being contaminated with harmful substances as a
consequence of human activities
Hazards and Risk - a hazard is any substance or action that can cause injury, disease, economic loss, or
environmental damage. Risk is the possibility of suffering harm from a hazard.
- risk assessment involves using data, assumptions, and models to estimate the probability
of harm to human health or the environment that may have resulted from exposure to specific
hazards
Air Pollution
Water Pollution
Soil/Land Pollution
Noise Pollution
Air Pollution
- the addition of harmful substances to the atmosphere resulting in damage to the environment, human
health, and quality of life. Air pollution occurs inside homes, schools, and offices; in cities; across continents;
and even globally.
Adverse effects:
- Promotes cancer
- Causes acid rain (pollutants react with water vapor during/before precipitation)
- Damage to habitats
- Degraded crop quality
Solutions:
- Proper enforcement of updated air quality policies and standards
- Ambient air quality monitoring
- Eco-friendly industrial standards
- Pollution control and prevention technology (Scrubbers and Filters)
- Proper indoor ventilation
Soil/Land Pollution
- Usually caused by over cultivation and the buildup of toxic chemical compounds, salts, pathogens
(disease-causing organisms), or radioactive materials that can affect plant and animal life.
- Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal materials that forms during a long process that may take
thousands of years
Other causes:
- Excessive use of insecticides and herbicides (Soil Degradation)
- Faulty irrigation practices (Erosion)
- Solid waste
Cultivating degraded soil results in lower quality crop yields. Excessive use of fertilizers also causes soil
acidity, making the area unsuitable for further agricultural purposes.
Water Pollution
- Contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays, or oceans by harmful substances
- Most dangerous when sources of drinking water are involved. It also causes complications in marine
and other aquatic habitats
Major pollutants:
- Petroleum products
- Pesticides and Inorganic Fertilizers
- Heavy Metals
- Sediments and excess organic matter
The amount of pollutants that are introduced into water systems can be reduced by improving sewer
systems, updating waste treatment technologies, and isolating clean water sources from possible hazards such as
dense human settlements.
Noise Pollution
- Exposure to levels of sound that are annoying stressful, or damaging to the ears. Most noise pollution
comes from automobiles, factories and aircraft. Prolonged exposure to noise pollution can cause temporary to
permanent deafness or ringing in the ears.
- People can avoid producing too much noise by being mindful of their surroundings. A person’s
karaoke session could mean a night without sleep for his neighbor. Loud forms of music are also best kept to
oneself using portable music players or a designated performance area.
Moving things around can also cause a certain degree of noise, such as rearranging chairs inside a
classroom or renovating a building’s roof.
Philippine Biodiversity
- The Philippines is a country teeming with life. It is home to many endemic and ecologically significant
species.
- Migratory birds pass through Philippine wetlands during their seasonal migration from cold regions of
the globe towards warmer regions where they reproduce.
- Plants and animals help control and balance environmental functions. Some animals are an integral
part of agriculture, helping farmers by eating harmful pests.
El Niño - Oceanic atmospheric phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean, during which unusually warm ocean
conditions appear along the western coast of Ecuador and Peru, causing climatic changes of varying
severity.
- Occurs every three to seven years and can affect climates around the world for more than a year
- The name El Niño, Spanish for “The Child,” refers to the infant Jesus Christ and is applied because
the current usually begins during Christmas season.
La Niña - Occurs when cooler water moves into the equatorial Pacific Ocean and wind systems change their
normal paths, bringing different weather patterns across the globe.
- A Typical La Niña winter brings with it cold air with high rainfall.
- La Niña promotes the growth of strong hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean.
Environmental sustainability is concerned with the preservation of the environment while also addressing the
need for social and economic growth.