INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize.
Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production –
virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by
materials. Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been
intimately tied to the members' ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their
needs. In fact, early civilizations have been by the level of their materials development.

The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those
that occur-naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time they discovered
techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural
ones; these new materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was
discovered hat the properties of a materials could be altered by heat treatments and by
the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a
selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials the
one best suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics. It was not until relatively
recent times that scientists came to understand the relationships between the structural
elements of materials and their properties.

His knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years, has empowered
them to fashion, to large degree, the characteristics of materials. Thus tens of
thousands of different materials have evolved with rather specialized, characteristics
that meet the needs of our modern and complex society, these include metals, plastics,
glasses and fibers.

The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable

has been intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. And
advancement in the understanding of a materials type is often the forerunner to the
stepwise progression o a technology. For example, automobiles would not have been
possible without the availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable
substitute. In our contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on
components that are made from what are called semiconducting materials.

Why do Study Science and Engineering?

Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether

mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a
design problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the
superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Of
course, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the
investigation and design of materials.

Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the
many thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision
is normally based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these
will dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a
material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties. Thus, it may be
necessary to trade off one characteristic for another. The classic example involves
strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength will have only a limited
ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may
be necessary.

A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that

may occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mechanical
strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments.
Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished
product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but is
prohibitively expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable. The cost of a
finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the
desired shape.
 The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and
structure–property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the
more proficient and confident he or she will be to make judicious materials choices
based on these criteria.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATERIALS

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications:
metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup
and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another,
although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are the composites,
combinations of two or more of the above three basic material classes. A brief
explanation of these material types and representative characteristics is offered next

1. Metals – normally combination of metallic elements

 Quite strong, yet deformable which account for their extensive use in
structural applications.
 Forms cations and Ionic bonds with non-metals.
  Have crystalline structure in which the atoms are arranged in orderly
manner.
 Relatively strong and ductile at room temperature and maintain good
strength even at high temperatures.

2. Ceramics – compounds between the metallic and non-metallic elements

chemically bounded together.

 Most frequent oxides, nitrides, and carbides

 Composed of clay minerals, cement and glass
 Can be crystalline and non-crystalline but some consist of mixture of both
 Advantages in engineering applications include light weight, high strength
and hardness, good heat and wear resistance, reduces friction and
insulative properties
 Typically insulative to the passage of electricity and heat and are more
resistance to high temperature and harsh environment than polymers and
metal
3. Polymers – include familiar plastics and rubber materials

 Chemically based on carbon, hydrogen and other non-metallic element

 Low density and may be extremely flexible
 Polymeric material are non-crystalline but some consists of mixture of
crystalline and non-crystalline
 The strength and ductility of materials vary greatly
 Some of materials are good insulator and are used for electrical insulation
application
 A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the
main constituent of wood and paper
 Synthetic polymer materials such nylon, polyethylene, teflon, and silicon
have formed the basis for a burgeoning polymer industry

4. Composite materials – mixture of two or more materials

 Consists of selective filler or reinforcing material and a compatible resin
binder to obtain specific and properties desired
  Design to display a combination of the best characteristics of each of the
component materials
 Plywood is a commonly encountered composite material

5. Semiconductor materials – solid or liquid material which is able to conduct

electricity at room temperature more readily than an insulator but less easily than
a metal
 Have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors and insulators
 At low temperatures, pure semiconductor behave like insulator
 The common semiconductor include chemical elements and compounds
such as silicon, germanium, selenium, gallium, arsenide, zinc selenide
and lead telluride
 The foundation if modern electronics, including radio, computers,
telephones, and many other devices

6. Biomaterial – employed in components into the human body for replacement of

diseased or damaged body parts
 These materials does not produce toxic substances and must be
compatible with body tissues

CHEMICAL BONDING

1. Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is perhaps the easiest to describe and visualize. It is
always found in compounds that are composed of both metallic and
nonmetallic elements, elements that are situated at the horizontal
extremities of the periodic table.Atoms of a metallic element easily give up
their valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms. In the process all the
atoms acquire stable or inert gas configurations and, in addition, an
electrical charge; that is, they become ions. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the
 classic ionic material. A sodium atom can assume the electron structure of
neon (and a net single positive charge) by a transfer of its one valence 3s
electron to a chlorine atom. After such a transfer, the chlorine ion has a
net negative charge and an electron configuration identical to that of
argon. In sodium chloride, all the sodium and chlorine exist as ions.

Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional; that is, the magnitude of the

bond is equal in all directions around an ion. It follows that for ionic
materials to be stable, all positive ions must have as nearest neighbors
negatively charged ions in a three-dimensional scheme, and vice versa.
The predominant bonding in ceramic materials is ionic.

2. Covalent Bond
In covalent bonding, stable electron configurations are assumed by
the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms. Two atoms that are
covalently bonded will eachcP ntribute at least one electron to the bond,
and the shared electrons may be considered to belong to both atoms. The
carbon atom has four valence electrons, whereas each of the four
hydrogen atoms has a single valence electron. Each hydrogen atom can
acquire a helium electron configuration (two 1s valence electrons) when
the carbon atom shares with it one electron. The carbon now has four
additional shared electrons, one from each hydrogen, for a total of eight
valence electrons, and the electron structure of neon. The covalent bond
is directional; that is, it is between specific atoms and may exist only in the
direction between one atom and another that participates in the electron
sharing.

Many nonmetallic elemental molecules as well as molecules

containing dissimilar atoms, such as and HF, are covalently bonded.
Furthermore, this type of bonding is found in elemental solids such as
diamond (carbon), silicon, and germanium and other solid compounds
composed of elements that are located on the right-hand side of the
periodic table, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb),
and silicon carbide (SiC).
3. Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding, the final primary bonding type, is found in metals

and their alloys. A relatively simple model has been proposed that very
nearly approximates the bonding scheme. Metallic materials have one,
two, or at most, three valence electrons. With this model, these valence
electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or
less free to drift throughout the entire metal. They maybe thought of as
belonging to the metal as a whole, or forming a “sea of electrons” or an
“electron cloud.” The remaining nonvalence electrons and atomic nuclei
form what are called ion cores, which possess a net positive charge equal
in magnitude to the total valence electron charge per atom. The free
electrons shield the positively charged ion cores from mutually repulsive
electrostatic forces, which they would otherwise exert upon one another;
consequently the metallic bond is nondirectional in character. In addition,
these free electrons act as a “glue” to hold the ion cores together. Bonding
energies
SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS BONDING

Secondary, van der Waals, or physical bonds are weak in comparison to the
primary or chemical ones; bonding energies are typically on the order of only 10 kJ/mol
(0.1 eV/atom). Secondary bonding exists between virtually all atoms or molecules, but
its presence may be obscured if any of the three primary bonding types is present.
Secondary bonding is evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable electron
structures, and, in addition, between molecules in molecular structures that are
covalently bonded.

Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles. In essence, an

electric dipole exists whenever there is some separation of positive and negative
portions of an atom or molecule. The bonding results from the coulombic attraction
between the positive end of one dipole and the negative region of anadjacent one.
Dipole interactions occur between induced dipoles, between induced dipoles and polar
molecules (which have permanent dipoles), and between polar molecules. Hydrogen
bonding, a special type of secondary bonding, is found to exist between some
molecules that have hydrogen as one of the constituents.

Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds

A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally

electrically symmetric; that is, the overall spatial distribution of the electrons is
symmetric with respect to the positively charged nucleus. All atoms are experiencing
constant vibrational motion that can cause instantaneous and short-lived distortions of
this electrical symmetry for some of the atoms or molecules, and the creation of small
electric dipoles. One of these dipoles can in turn produce a displacement of the electron
distribution of an adjacent molecule or atom, which induces the second one also to
become a dipole that is then weakly attracted or bonded to the first; this is one type of
Van der Waals bonding. These attractive forces may exist between large numbers of
atoms or molecules, which forces are temporary and fluctuate with time.

The liquefaction and, in some cases, the solidification of the inert gases and
other electrically neutral and symmetric molecules such as and are realized because of
this type of bonding. Melting and boiling temperatures are extremely low in materials for
which induced dipole bonding predominates; of all possible intermolecular bonds, these
are the weakest.

Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical

arrangement of positively and negatively charged regions; such molecules are termed
polar molecules. A permanent dipole moment arises from net positive and negative
charges that are respectively associated with the hydrogen and chlorine ends of the HCl
molecule.

Polar molecules can also induce dipoles in adjacent nonpolar molecules, and a
bond will form as a result of attractive forces between the two molecules. Furthermore,
the magnitude of this bond will be greater than for fluctuating induced dipoles.

Permanent Dipole Bonds

Van der Waals forces will also exist between adjacent polar molecules. The
associated bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving induced
dipoles. The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a special case of
polar molecule bonding. It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently
bonded to fluorine (as in HF), oxygen (as in ), and nitrogen (as in ). For each H—F, H—
O, or H—N bond, the single hydrogen electron is shared with the other atom. Thus, the
hydrogen end of the bond is essentially a positively charged bare proton that is
unscreened by any electrons.

PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

Physical properties

Physical Properties is any property is measurable; whose value describes a state

of a physical system.

 Angular Momentum
─ extent to which an object will continue to rotate in the absence of an
applied force
 Color
─ is the characteristics of human visual perception described through color
categories
 Density
─ mass per unit volume
 Area
─ is the quantity that expresses the extent of two- dimensional figure or
shape in the plane
 Hardness
─ measure of how resistant solid matter is
 Malleability
─ materials ability to deform under compressive stress Luster - manner in
which light interacts with a minerals surface Viscosity - is the fluids
resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress

Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of materials are ascertained by performing carefully

designed laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service
conditions. Factors to be considered include the nature of the applied load and its
duration, as well as the environmental conditions. It is possible for the load to be tensile,
compressive, or shear, and its magnitude may be constant with time, or it may fluctuate
continuously. Application time may be only a fraction of a second, or it may extend over
a period of many years. Service temperature may be an important factor.

 Brittleness – Ability f a material to break or shatter without significant deformation

when under stress, opposite of plasticity
 Bulk modulus – Ratio of pressure to volumetric compression
 Compressive strength – Maximum stress a material can withstand before
compressive failure
 Creep – The slowand gradual deformation of an object with respect to time
 Ductility – Ability of a material to deform under tensile load
 Elasticity – Ability of a body to resist a distorting influence or stress and to return
to its original size and shape when the stress is removed
 Flexibility – Ability of an object to bend or deform in response to an applied force
 Fracture toughness – Ability of a material containing a crack to resist fracture
 Plasticity – Ability of a material to undergo irreversible or permanent
deformations without breaking or rupturing; opposite of brittleness
 Shear modulus – Ratio of shear stress to shear strain
 Shear strength – Maximum shear stress a material can withstand
 Specific modulus – Modulus per unit volume
 Specific strength – strength per unit density
 Tensile strength – Maximum tensile stress a material can withstand before failure
 Toughness – Ability of a material to absorb energy
 Yield strength – The stress at which a material starts to yield plastically

Chemical properties

It is important to have the knowledge of chemical properties of engineering materials.

Because most the engineering materials come into contact of other materials react
chemically to each other. Due to this chemical reaction they may suffers from chemical
deterioration.

 Corrosion resistance
 ─ ability of a material to withstand damage caused by oxidation or other
chemical reactions
─ Expressed in terms of corrosion rate and measured in units :millimeter per
years or “mils".
─ Corrosion resistant materials are: non-ferrous material, stainless steel,
nonmetallic materials
─ Pure metals such as iron, copper, aluminum get corroded slowly in
atmosphere. To avoid corrosion to of these metal in pure form, we use
metals in the form of alloys, such as stainless steel, brass, bronze,
German silver, gunmetal etc.
─ Steel, cast iron must be protected by coating and surface treatments.

 Acidity and Alkalinity

─ The acidity and basicity of a material
─ To determine a material is acidic or alkane, it is decided by the pH value of
material. pH value varies from 0 to 14. pH value of 7 is considered to be
neutral. The material which are having pH value below 7 are called acidic
and materials which are having pH value greater than 7 are called alkane.
─ It indicates how the react with other materials.

 Flammability
─ Ability if a material to burn or ignite, causing fire or combustion

 Hygroscopic
─ Refers to material's ability to attract and hold water molecules.

Thermal Properties

By “thermal property” is meant the response of a material to the application of

heat. As a solid absorbs energy in the form of heat, its temperature rises and its
dimensions increase. The energy may be transported to cooler regions of the specimen
if temperature gradients exist, and ultimately, the specimen may melt. Heat capacity,
thermal expansion, and thermal conductivity are properties that are often critical in the
practical utilization of solids.

 Thermal conductivity
─ Ability of a material to conduct heat
 Thermal resistance
─ A material's ability to resist heat flow
 Thermal shock resistance
─ The ability of a material to be rapidly cooled and not fracture.
 Thermal expansion
─ Tendency of a material to change in shape, area and volume in response
to a change in temperature
 Heat capacity
─ Ability of a material to absorb heat

Electrical Properties

The electrical properties of a solid material are a consequence of its electron

band structure—that is, the arrangement of the outermost electron bands and the way
in which they are filled with electrons.

 Resistivity
─ The property of material which resist the flow of electric current through
material
 Conductivity
─ The property of a material which allow the flow if electric current through
material
  Dielectric strength
─ Property of material which indicates the ability of material to withstand at
high voltages.

Magnetic Property

Magnetism, the phenomenon by which materials assert an attractive or repulsive

force or influence on other materials, has been known for thousands of years. However,
the underlying principles and mechanisms that explain the magnetic phenomenon are
complex and subtle, and their understanding has eluded scientists until relatively recent
times. Many of our modern technological devices rely on magnetism and magnetic
materials; these include electrical power generators and transformers, electric motors,
radio, television, telephones, computers, and components of sound and video
reproduction systems.

Iron, some steels, and the naturally occurring mineral lodestone are well-known
examples of materials that exhibit magnetic properties. Not so familiar, however, Is the
fact that all substances are influenced to one degree or another by the presence of a
magnetic field.This chapter provides a brief description of the origin of magnetic fields
and discusses the various magnetic field vectors and magnetic parameters;
thephenomena of diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, and
ferrimagnetism;some of the different magnetic materials; and the phenomenon of
superconductivity.

 Permeability
─ It is the property of magnetic material which indicates that how easily the
magnetic flux is build up in material. Some time is also called as the
magnetic susceptibility of material. It is determined by the ratio of
magnetic flux density to magnetizing force producing this magnetic flux
density. It is denoted by µ.

 Retentivity or Magnetic Hysteresis

 ─ When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, its
grains get oriented in the direction of magnetic field. In which results in
magnetization of material in the direction of external magnetic field. After
removal of external magnetic field, some magnetization exists, which is
called residual magnetism.

 Coercive force
─ A measure of the ability of a ferromagnetic material to with stand an
external magnetic field without becoming demagnetized. An analogous
property, electric coercivity, is the ability of a ferroelectric material to
withstand an external electric field without becoming depolarized.

 Reluctance
─ It is a property of magnetic material which resists to buildup of magnetic
flux in material. It is denoted by R. Its unit is “Ampere-turns / Wb”.

Optical Property

By “optical property” is meant a material’s response to exposure to

electromagnetic radiation and, in particular, to visible light. This chapter first discusses
some of the basic principles and concepts relating to the nature of electromagnetic
radiation and its possible interactions with solid materials. Next to be explored are the
optical behaviors of metallic and nonmetallic materials in terms of their absorption,
reflection, and transmission characteristics. The final sections outline luminescence,
photoconductivity, and light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (laser), the
practical utilization of these phenomena, and optical fibers in communications.

 Absorbance
─ How strongly a chemical attenuates light
 Birefringence
 ─ is the optical property of a material having a refractive index that depends
on the polarization and propagation direction of light.

 Colors
─ The characteristics of human visual perception described through color
categories such as red, yellow, purple, or blue.
 Luminosity
─ It is the process where a material absorbs energy and then immediately
emits visible or near-visible radiation. It consists of electron excitation and
then dropping down to lower energy states.
 Photosensitivity
─ It is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving photons,
especially visible light.
 Reflectance
─ Reflectance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in
reflecting radiant energy. It is the fraction of incident electromagnetic
power that is reflected at an interface.
 Refractive index or index of refraction
─ Dimensionless number that describes how light propagates through that
medium.
 Scattering
─ Is a general physical process where some forms of radiation, such
as light, sound, or moving particles, are forced to deviate from a
straight trajectory by one or more paths due to localized non-uniformities
in the medium through which they pass.