Essential Natural Science 1 PDF

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Contents
PAGE
About this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Learning to learn Getting closer to the stars! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1 The Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Planet Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Learning to learn All creatures great and small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5 Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6 The plant and fungi kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7 The simplest living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Learning to learn Rock stars and instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8 The Earth’s atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

9 The hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10 Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11 Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Learning to learn It’s elementary! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12 Matter and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
13 Everything is matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
14 Atoms and elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Key language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
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Learning to learn
A B
ABOUT THIS BOOK
• Look at these illustrations.
Match them to the units
on the opposite page.
Then look at the book,
and check your answers.
Unit ......................... Unit .........................
C D E
Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................
F G H
Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................
I J K
Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................
L M N
Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................
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YOU ALREADY KNOW A LOT!

Work with a partner. Try to answer these questions.
THE UNIVERSE
How many planets in our galaxy can you name?
THE EARTH
How long does it take the Earth to rotate on its axis?
And how long does it take to orbit the Sun?
INVERTEBRATES
Can you name six invertebrates?
PLANTS
Plants are autotrophic: they make their own food.
What is the name of the process by which plants do this?
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

Can you name three meteorological instruments?
What does each one measure?
THE HYDROSPHERE
Water is present on Earth in gaseous, liquid and
solid form. Name four different places where you
can find water in nature.
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MINERALS
Quartz is a mineral. Can you name any other minerals?
Can you say what each is used for?
MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

Oil floats on water.
Which has the greatest density, oil or water?
THE STATES OF MATTER

Look at these three drawings.
They represent a solid, a liquid and a gas.
Can you match each drawing to its state?
1
UNIT
The Universe
What do you remember?
• What are the points of light in this photo?
• What is the difference between …
– a star and a planet?
– a moon and a comet?
STUDY A UNIT
Look at page 8, the first page of Unit 1
• What is the title of the unit? Content objectives Key language
In this unit, you will … Describing
• How many different sections are there on the page?

• Learn about the characteristics of the Planets are spherical bodies which orbit the Sun.
Universe Asteroids are rocky objects which are irregular in shape.
• Calculate astronomical sizes and distances Comparing
• Analyse the components of the Universe Dwarf planets are smaller than planets.
What are they about? • Compare sizes: the Sun and the planets
• Create a constellation poster
The Earth is larger than Mercury
Giving instructions
Study the constellations.
Research more about them on the Internet.
• What do you think you will learn about in Unit 1? 8
Now look at the rest of Unit 1

• What can you find on page 17?
• How many sections are there in this unit? How is this useful?
• What are most of the illustrations about? Symbols
• Some words are in bold. Why is this? • The text is recorded on the CD. 7
• How many activities are there in this unit? • The information you need is
• What will you do in the Hands on section, page 15? available on the CD.
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Getting closer to the stars!

Telescopes are used to see objects that are too far away to be seen with the naked eye. They also provide a
closer view of distant things. Astronomers use large telescopes to study the planets, stars, and other objects
in space. Without telescopes, we wouldn’t know much about celestial bodies!
Lenses or mirrors?
Telescopes with lenses are called refracting telescopes.
Lenses bend the light.
The largest telescopes use mirrors instead of lenses
Telescopes with mirrors are called reflecting telescopes.
Mirrors reflect light.
Look through
this end. The
things you
observe seem
closer!
eyepiece: lens
to view the image
focus adjustment:
move this to make
the image clearer
Some telescopes are small enough to be carried in one hand.

Others can be huge, bowl-shaped radio telescopes, more than
300 metres in diameter. This is longer than three football pitches!
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Optical telescopes consist of a long tube, with one end narrower than
the other. They can “perceive” light, just like eyes.
tube
OOPS!
Wrong end!
objective lens: the

lens closest to the
object being viewed
How does a telescope work?

Objects reflect light. This light enters our eyes, and
we see the object. Optical telescopes have an
objective lens: a curved piece of glass at the wide
end. This lens bends the light from the object so
that it forms an image – a picture of the object –
inside the telescope. The light from this image then
goes through the eyepiece, at the narrow end of the
telescope. The eyepiece bends the light back again,
so the object looks big.
The Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC),

also called GranTeCan, is a 10.4 m
reflecting telescope, located on a volcanic
tripod: three-legged peak (2,400 metres) on the island of La
stand to support the Palma, Spain.
telescope
It took seven years to construct!
Activities
1. Galileo Galilei invented the telescope. Why was this such an important
discovery? What did astronomers know about the stars before then?
2. Research. Have you heard of the Hubble telescope? When was it built?
Where is it? What pictures does it take?
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UNIT
1 The Universe
• What are the points of light in this photo?
• What is the difference between …
– a star and a planet?
– a moon and a comet?
Content objectives Key language

• Learn about the characteristics of the Planets are spherical bodies which orbit the Sun.
Universe Asteroids are rocky objects which are irregular in shape.
• Calculate astronomical sizes and distances Comparing
• Analyse the components of the Universe Dwarf planets are smaller than planets.
The Earth is larger than Mercury.
• Compare sizes: the Sun and the planets
Giving instructions
• Create a constellation poster
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1. What is the Universe like?

Scientists developed two different theories to explain what
the Universe was like. Activities
1. Find ten words in the word search.
M P L A N E T S
I G R L A A S A
L U A T S R P T
K N E L T T A E
Y S E N A H C L
W O H B R X E L
• Geocentric theory • Heliocentric theory
nd In 1542, Nicolas A T M S U N Y I
2 century BC: Ptolomy Y M O O N L G T
proposed that the Earth was Copernicus proposed
the centre of the Universe. that the Sun was at the K E S W C P A E
That is, the Sun, Moon and centre of the Universe.

planets orbited the Earth. 2. Imagine an alien friend from
another galaxy wants to write to
In 1610, Galileo Galilei invented the telescope, and proved the you. Write your galactic address.
Heliocentric theory: the planets and stars revolve around the Sun.
What makes up the Universe?
The Universe is all the matter, energy and space that exists.
The Universe is made up of galaxies which contain stars. Stars can have planetary systems
made up of planets and satellites. Galaxies are separated by vast spaces.
Galaxies are a vast collection of stars, dust and gases, held together by the
gravitational attraction between the components. They appear in groups called
galaxy clusters. Scientists think the vast spaces between the galaxies are empty.
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, belongs to the Local Group galaxy cluster.
Stars form when clouds of gases are pulled together by gravitational forces. They
are so hot inside that they emit heat and light. A galaxy can have up to five hundred
thousand million stars. An enormous cloud of gas and dust, a nebula, surrounds
the stars.
Planets are bodies which orbit some stars. They do not emit light; they receive light
from the star. They make up planetary systems. Our planetary system is the Solar
System. It is made up of eight planets and one star, the Sun, as well as moons,
comets and asteroids. The Solar System is located on a spiral arm of the Milky Way.
Natural satellites orbit some planets. The Earth’s natural satellite is the Moon.
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2. How big is the Universe?

The Earth seems huge, but, in reality, it is small
compared to the Sun. The Sun is only one Activities
of the millions of stars in the Milky Way. 3. Express the distance of Mercury, Mars and Pluto
To imagine the size of the Universe, from the Sun in kilometres.
use these comparisons with everyday objects.
• Imagine the Sun is the size of a pea.
• The closest star is another pea, five hundred
and forty kilometres away from the first pea.
• The Earth is like a particle of dust situated
Mars Mercury Pluto
two metres away from the first pea.
4. Research the term light-year. Why is it used in
• The Milky Way contains one hundred thousand astronomy?
million peas which form a circle with a radius
of seven million kilometres.
What units of measurement

do astronomers use? Did you know that...?
• Astronomical unit (AU). This is the distance Time to reach
Source of light
the Earth
from the Earth to the Sun. Approximately
150 million kilometres. Compare the distance the Sun 8 mins. 20 sec
of these planets from the Sun: Centauri, the
4 light-years
nearest star
– Mercury: 0.4 AU
Betelgeuse 500 light-years
– Mars: 1.5 AU
– Pluto: 39.4 AU
• Light-year. This is the distance light travels in
one year. Light travels 300,000 km The radius of the Sun is 109 times
greater than the radius of the Earth.
in one second or
9.5 trillion km
in one year.
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3. What makes up the Solar System?

The Solar System was formed approximately The planets in the Solar System
five thousand million years ago from the gas and
Distance from Period of Period of
dust of a nebula. Planet
Sun (AU) rotation revolution
Our Solar System is made up of the Sun, eight Mercury 0.39 58.65 days 88 days
planets with their satellites, dwarf planets and
Venus 0.72 243 days 224.6 days
small solar system bodies. The Sun is the central
body. Earth 1.00 23 h 56 mins 365.25 days
• The Sun consists mainly of two gases: Mars 1.52 24 h 37 mins 1.88 years
hydrogen and helium. It is the closest star Jupiter 5.20 9 h 55 mins 11.86 years
to Earth.
Saturn 9.54 10 h 40 mins 29.46 years
• Planets are spherical bodies which revolve
around the Sun. They all move in elliptical Uranus 19.19 17 h 14 mins 84.07 years
orbits, held by the gravitational force of the Neptune 30.06 16 h 7 mins 164.82 years
Sun. Planets are much larger than other
celestial bodies which orbit the Sun.
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are made up Activities
mainly of rock. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and 5. Which planet …
Neptune are made up mainly of gases. • takes the longest to orbit the Sun?
• Dwarf planets are spherical bodies which orbit • is the fastest to orbit the sun?
the Sun. They are smaller than planets. • has the longest days?
• Small solar system bodies are other celestial • has the shortest days?
bodies which orbit the Sun. They include 6. Why is a “day” on Venus longer than its “year”?
asteroids, comets and satellites. Satellites
7. What is an orbit?
orbit planets and consist of rock.
8. What do you call the imaginary plane of the
Earth’s orbit?
How do the planets move?
Celestial bodies like the Earth, have two types of movement:
Rotation. Celestial bodies spin or rotate Revolution. Celestial Orbit. A curved path which
on an invisible axis. This invisible line is bodies revolve around a celestial body follows in its
called the rotational axis. other celestial bodies. revolution around another celestial
body. The orbit of the Earth
around the Sun is an ellipse.
ecliptic plane
rotational axis of
the Moon
rotational axis
terre
strial
orbit
lunar orbit
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Mercury Venus Earth Mars

Diameter: 4,880 km Diameter: 12,104 km Diameter: 12,740 km Diameter: 6,794 km
4. Which are the inner planets?

The inner planets are the four planets closest to the Sun: Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Mars.
The Earth is the only planet that has life on it. The other In 2004, the robots Spirit and Opportunity landed on
planets are too hot or too cold. Mars. They investigated the possible existence of water.
INNER PLANETS
Did you know that...? Terrestrial or rocky planets: the crust and mantle are
made of rock. The core is metallic
Pluto, Ceres and Eris are Mercury Venus Earth Mars
dwarf planets. Pluto used to Diameter (Earth = 1) 0.382 0.949 1 0.532
be considered a planet. In Diameter (km) 4,880 12,104 12,740 6,794
2006, the International Union Average surface
of Astronomers reclassified it temperature (ºC) ⫺180 to 430 ºC 465 ºC ⫺89 to 58 ºC ⫺82 to 0 ºC
as a dwarf planet. Atmosphere none CO2 N2+O2 CO2
Satellites 0 0 1 2
Rings no no no no
the smallest rotates in the only
Interesting very thin
and closest to opposite planet
characteristics atmosphere
Ceres the Sun direction with life
CO2 ⫽ carbon dioxide N2 ⫹ O2 = nitrogen⫹ oxygen
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Jupiter Saturn Uranus

Diameter: 142,984 km Diameter: 120,536 km Diameter: 51,118 km
5. Which are the outer planets?

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the four outer planets.
They are called gas giants because they consist mainly of gases.
Neptune
Diameter: 49,492 km
Saturn’s rings are made up of small particles, mostly ice.
OUTER PLANETS
Activities
Gas giants: they consist mainly of gases
9. Which planet …
Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
• has the most satellites?
11.209 9.44 4.007 3.883
142,984 120,536 51,118 49,492
• is closest to the Sun?
• supports life?
⫺150 ºC ⫺170 ºC ⫺200 ºC ⫺210 ºC
• is the largest in the
H2⫹He H2⫹He H2⫹He H2⫹He Solar System?
63 59 27 13 • spins on its axis in the
yes yes yes yes opposite direction?
largest planet, rotational axis is greatest distance 10. If you live on Venus, will
system of rings
most satellites almost horizontal from the Sun the Sun rise in the East
and set in the West?
H2 ⫽ hydrogen He ⫽ helium
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Pluto
Mercury Earth
Mars
comet
Neptune
Saturn
Jupiter Venus
Uranus
Asteroid belt
The Solar System. Observe the elliptic paths of the planets’ orbits around the Sun. Notice that the orbit of Pluto, a dwarf planet,
is more inclined.
6. What are small Solar System bodies?

There are two main types: asteroids and comets. They orbit the Sun.
• Asteroids are rocky objects which are irregular in shape. They can
be several hundred kilometres in diameter, but most are only
a few metres wide. Asteroids orbit around the Sun. Most of them
are between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This area is called
the asteroid belt.
• Comets are small bodies that travel around the Sun in highly
elliptical orbits. They are irregular in shape. The nucleus is made
up of a mass of ice, dust and gas. When comets travel close
to the Sun, some of the ice evaporates, creating the long,
bright tails of the comets.
Activities
11. Compare the main characteristics of the inner and outer planets.
Halley’s comet has a bright tail. It was
12. Describe an inner or outer planet. Your partner will identify it. named after the English scientist
Edmund Halley. He was the first
is smaller / larger than
This inner planet the Earth. scientist to calculate the orbit of this
is the largest / smallest.
This outer planet … satellites. comet. Halley’s comet will next be
has (no)
visible from Earth in 2061.
carbon dioxide.
The atmosphere is made up of helium.
…
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Hands on
Prepare a constellation poster
Constellations are imaginary patterns of bright stars.
All societies have invented constellations. The
Ancient Greeks invented the constellations we call
the twelve signs of the zodiac.
There are 88 official constellations. However, most
of them do not really look like the mythical figures
they represent.
Cassiopeia Orion
The night sky looks different in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. The position of the
constellations changes with the seasons because
of the movement of the Earth.
1. Study these constellations. Which ones can you

see in the night sky where you live?
Ursa major Gemini
2. Choose one of the constellations and make a

The constellation Orion poster.
a. Find more information in encyclopedias or on
the Internet.
b. Draw the constellation, or cut out a drawing

or a photo of it.
c. Write some sentences about the constellation.
Orion represents the hunter.

The three stars in the middle are his belt.
His sword hangs from his belt.
You can see his sword and his bow.
Activities
13. Look up the constellation for your sign 14. Choose another constellation.
of the zodiac. Research more about it on the Internet.
a. Find out where and when it is most clearly
visible in the sky. Is it in the Northern or the
Southern Hemisphere?
b. Write the dates associated with this sign.
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Activities
15. Label each diagram with the name of … 21. Talk about astronomical distances with a partner.
a. a theory of the universe How far away is … from …?
b. the person who proposed the theory. It is … km / … light-years away.
a b Astronomic distances from the Earth

Object Distance
space station 300 km
weather satellite 36,000 km
the Moon 384,000 km
the Sun 150,000,000 km
Pluto 6,000,000,000 km
Alpha Centauri 4 light-years
16. Make a drawing of the Solar System and label it: the
Sun, the inner planets, the outer planets, Pluto and
the asteroid belt. 22. Research the latest astronomic discoveries. Report
your findings to the class.
17. Make a timetable of your daily activities on these
planets. Give an approximate duration for each. 23. This drawing shows the positions of a comet
• Earth. Rotation: 24 hours in orbit.
• Mercury. Rotation: 58.65 Earth days When a comet gets close to the Sun, why does it
• Jupiter. Rotation: 9.841 Earth hours develop a tail? Why does an asteroid not?
Duration on …
Activities Earth Mercury Jupiter
18. What two types of movement do all planets have?

Describe them.
19. Describe the composition, temperature and

movement of the Sun.
20. Make an illustrated list of the planets. Write them in

order: start with the closest one to the Sun.
a b c 24. Draw a diagram of the Solar System seen from

above. Include the rotation and revolution
movements of each planet.
25. Copy and complete to situate the Moon in the

Universe:
The Moon is a satellite of … which belongs to the
d planetary system called … . The star of this planetary
systems is … . It belongs to a galaxy called … .
e
This galaxy is part of the galaxy cluster called … .
f g h
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What should you know? 1

• Geocentric theory: the Earth is the centre of the
Universe. The Sun, Moon, stars and planets revolve
Early around the Earth.
concepts • Heliocentric theory: the Sun is the centre of the
Universe. The Earth, planets and stars revolve
around the Sun.
• Galaxies are grouped together in galaxy clusters.

• Galaxies contain thousands of millions of stars.
Components • Stars are massive spherical bodies of gases. Some
stars have planetary systems with planets,
satellites, asteroids and comets.
THE UNIVERSE
• Astronomical unit (AU): the distance between the Earth and the Sun, about
Units of
150 million kilometres.
measurement
• Light-year. The distance that light travels in one year: about 9.5 trillion kilometres.
The Solar System is the planetary system of our Sun.

It consists of:
• The Sun: a medium-sized star in the Milky Way galaxy.
• Planets:
Inner: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
All are rocky.
The Solar
Outer: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. All are gaseous.
System
• Dwarf planets: Pluto, Ceres, Eris
• Natural satellites: celestial bodies which revolve around planets and dwarf planets.
• Small Solar System bodies
Asteroids: small rocky bodies which orbit the Sun. Some form belts. The asteroid
belt: a band of asteroids between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Comets: masses of
ice and rock found beyond the orbit of Pluto.
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Could Mars support life?
First, list the factors that make life possible on Earth.
Then, investigate this website: http//solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars
WEB TASK: Do you want to visit Mercury, Jupiter or Mars?
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UNIT
2 Planet Earth
• In this photo, what does each colour correspond to?
• Is the Earth an outer or an inner planet?
• What is the interior of the Earth like?
• Where does life exist on Earth: in the geosphere or the biosphere?

In this unit you will … Describing
Water exists in three states.
• Learn about the Earth’s characteristics
It takes 28 days to orbit the Earth.
• Identify lunar phases
Expressing cause and result
• Describe the geosphere This causes the sequence of day and night.
• Learn about the Earth’s “spheres” This makes the seasons occur.
• Reproduce conditions of solar and lunar Comparing
eclipses The days get shorter.
Ocean trenches are the deepest areas.
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1. What is the Earth like?

The Earth is special for many reasons. The Earth is
the only planet with: Activities
• an atmosphere containing oxygen 1. Draw a diagram of the Earth, as seen from
space. Draw two people: one at the North Pole
• an average temperature of 15ºC
and one at the South Pole.
• a water cycle 2. Find out the mixture of gases and the average
• life as we know it temperatures of Venus and Mars. Why do you
think life is only possible on Earth?
All these characteristics make the Earth a unique
planet in the Solar System.
• The atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases. • The Earth has a relatively large natural
Nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant. satellite, the Moon. The gravitational attraction
Oxygen is essential for plant and animal of the Moon causes ocean tides.
respiration. There is also carbon dioxide, • The Earth’s magnetic field protects living
essential for photosynthesis. beings from dangerous solar radiations.
• The average temperature is 15°C on the • Conditions exist for life. Thousands of millions
Earth’s surface. This is possible because of the of years of evolution have produced the variety
distance from the Sun and the composition of of species there are today. This includes
the atmosphere. humans.
• Water exists in three states (ice, liquid, water • There is considerable geological activity on the
vapour) due to temperature variations. These Earth: earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain
variations make the water cycle possible. building, erosion, etc.
Photo of the Earth and the Moon taken by satellite. Volcanoes are proof of intense geological activity.
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2. How does the Earth move?

The Earth moves in two different ways: direction of rotation Northern
Hemisphere
Equator
• Rotation: The Earth rotates on a slightly tilted North Pole
axis, always in the same direction. This plane
rotation causes the sequence of day and night. of the Earth’s
orbit
• Revolution: The Earth’s revolution around the
Sun is an ellipse. It takes 365 1⁄4 days to
Sun’s rays
complete the revolution. This is one year.
Summer
Solar rays strike perpendicular to the Earth’s
surface and produce more heat.
ay
D
ht
rotational axis Nig
23.5° South Pole
Southern
Hemisphere
The rotation of the Earth. It is day on the half of the Earth facing
the Sun. It is night on the half facing away from the Sun.
What causes the seasons on Earth?

Winter
Two factors combine to cause the seasons:
Solar rays strike the Earth at a
steeper angle and produce less heat. • the revolution of the Earth around the Sun
• the Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of about 23.5º
The tilt of the axis causes differences in temperature
and in the duration of day and night.
The Sun’s rays strike the Earth in different ways
depending on the seasons.
The tilt of the axis makes the seasons occur at
different times of the year in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.
Spring. The days get longer and the Spring equinox Winter. The days get longer and the
nights get shorter until 21st June - 21st March nights get shorter. On 21st March,
the longest day. day and night are the same length.
Summer Winter
solstice solstice
21st June 21st December
Summer. The days get shorter and the Autumn Autumn. The days get shorter
nights get longer. On 22nd September equinox and the nights get longer until 22nd
day and night are the same length. 22nd September December- the shortest day.
The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere
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3. How does the Moon move?

1 The Moon moves in two different ways:
• Rotation. The Moon takes 29.5 days to
8
rotate once on its axis: a “lunar day”.
2 • Revolution. The Moon takes about
twenty-eight days (twenty-seven days
and eight hours) to orbit the Earth once.
7 A “lunar month” is the period of time
between two new moons. It is about 29.5 days.
A “lunar day” is as long as a “lunar month”.
3 As a result, the same side of the Moon always
faces the Earth.
6
4
5
Activities
3. Draw a diagram to show the phase of the
The same side of the Moon always faces the Earth. The red dot Moon in the Northern Hemisphere today.
indicates the dark or hidden side. It is never visible from Earth.
4. When is there a New Moon?
5. Draw a diagram of the phases of the
Moon in the Southern Hemisphere.
The phases of the Moon
New Moon Last Quarter

The Moon is between the Sun and the Half the side is lit by the Sun. The
Earth, so the Moon is not visible. illuminated part slowly shrinks. It rises
The dark side (not illuminated) faces the at midnight and sets at noon.
Earth. The Moon rises and sets with the
Sun, but you cannot see it from Earth.
First Quarter Full Moon

Half the side is lit by the Sun. When the Earth is between the Moon
The illuminated part slowly increases. and the Sun, the entire Moon is visible.
It rises at noon The illuminated side faces the Earth.
and sets at midnight. It rises and sets with the Sun.
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Hands on
Reproducing eclipses
If the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth, and blocks
off the sunlight, a solar eclipse occurs.
If the Moon passes behind the Earth, so the Earth prevents sunlight
from reaching the Moon, a lunar eclipse occurs.
Materials
the Sun the Moon

the Earth
1. Reproduce a solar eclipse. Position the planets: the Moon should block the Sun’s light
and project a shadow on the Earth.
2. Reproduce a lunar eclipse. Position the planets: the Earth should block the Sun’s
light and project a shadow on the Moon. Remember: a lunar eclipse can only take place
during a full moon.
3. In your notebooks, copy the diagrams for both eclipses.
umbra penumbra umbra penumbra
Sun Sun
Moon Earth Earth Moon

Solar eclipse Lunar eclipse
Activities
6. Find out when the next solar and lunar eclipses will
take place.
Visit this site:
http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/eclipse.html
7. How must you protect your eyes when observing a
solar eclipse?
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4. How many “spheres” make up the Earth?

The Earth is the only known planet which contains water and living things.
It is made up of four interrelated parts or “spheres”. These are:
• The geosphere. The solid part which includes • The hydrosphere. All the water on the Earth.
the crust, mantle and core. The upper 100 km • The biosphere. All the living things which
of the geosphere is called the lithosphere: inhabit the Earth.
it is the most rigid part.
• The atmosphere. The air: a layer of gases which
envelops the Earth.
The geosphere
The geosphere consists of three concentric layers: the crust,
mantle and core. The crust and the upper mantle make up
the lithosphere.
The crust is the outer layer of The mantle is the middle layer,
rock. The most abundant below the crust. It lies
minerals are silicates. 2,900 km below the
• The continental crust surface. It is made up
makes up the of mostly solid rock
continents. Granite material. The
is the most temperature is
mantle higher here, from
common rock.
• The oceanic outer 1,000ºC to
core
crust makes up (liquid)
4,000ºC, so
the ocean floor. some areas are
It was created inner melted rock.
core
by intense (solid)
volcanic activity The core is the
at mid-oceanic centre of the
ridges. Basalt, a Earth, below the
volcanic rock, is the mantle. It is made
most common rock. up mainly of iron.
The temperature is
over 4,000°C. The outer
core is liquid. The inner
core is solid.
Activity
8. Show the three layers of the
geosphere in a diagram. Label each
layer: main components,
temperature and state: solid or liquid.
oceanic crust
continental crust (thickness varies Label the two types of crust.
(thickness varies from 7 to 70 km) from 7 to 10 km)
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5. What is the surface of the Earth like?

From outer space, the Earth looks blue because of Ocean floor relief features
the vast expanses of water on its surface.
• The average depth is 4,500 m.
The distribution of materials that make up the
• The main relief features are:
Earth’s crust form the different types of land relief.
– Oceanic (mid-oceanic) ridges. Chains
Continental relief features of submarine mountains with intense
volcanic activity. Example: the Mid-Atlantic
• The average altitude is 600 m. ridge.
• The three main relief features are: – Oceanic trenches. The deepest areas
– Mountain ranges. Chains of high mountains. of the ocean. Example: Mariana Trench:
Examples: the Himalayas in Asia or the Andes 11,034 m deep.
in South America. – Abyssal plains. The largest plains on the
– Great plains. Large extensions of flat land. planet: 4,000 or 4,500 m deep.
Examples: the Amazon plain in South – Submarine volcanoes may create volcanic
America or the Sahara desert in Africa. archipelagos. Examples: the Canary Islands,
– Continental shelves. The areas near the the islands of Hawaii.
coastline, under the sea, that are made of Oceanic relief forms can rise up to 2 km
continental crust, not oceanic crust. These from the ocean floor. In some places they
areas slope down from the coastline to a few appear above the water to form islands.
kilometres out to sea, to a depth of about Example: Iceland.
200 metres.
Cross-section of the Earth’s surface
mountain range continental great plain
submarine volcano
mid-oceanic ridge
continental shelf
abyss
oceanic trench
abyssal plain
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6. What are the other three Earth “spheres”?

Apart from the geosphere, the other three Earth “spheres”
or systems are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the Activities
biosphere. 9. Say a relief feature. Your partner
says if it is continental or ocean
The atmosphere floor.
The atmosphere is the layer of air which surrounds the Earth. 10. Which continental feature is under
Air is a mixture of gases. The main components are: nitrogen the sea?
(78 %) and oxygen (21 %). Oxygen is one of the necessary 11. Describe the four different spheres
conditions for life. There are also small quantities of carbon that make up the Earth. List
dioxide (CO2) and other gases. examples of features in each
sphere.
The hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is all the water on, under and above
the Earth.
The hydrosphere is made up almost exclusively of liquid
water, but also snow and ice. Other materials in the
hydrosphere are the mineral salts in water. Sea water is very
rich in mineral salts, but fresh water has few salts.
The biosphere
The biosphere includes all the living things which inhabit
the Earth. Living things influence the physical and chemical
changes in the Earth. For example:
• In the Earth’s crust: Animals live in the ground and plants
take mineral salts from the soil. Plant roots can break up
rocks.
• In the atmosphere: Microorganisms which live in the soil
produce nitrogen. Oxygen is produced during
photosynthesis by plants, algae and some bacteria. Many
living things cause evaporation.
• In the hydrosphere: Living things contain water. Plants
take water from the ground. Many organisms live in aquatic
environments.
Did you know that...?

The water cycle refers to how water
evaporates, rises, condenses, falls Coral produces
to the Earth as rain or snow and exoskeletons which
accumulate to form a
moves around.
rocky shelf.
This cycle was described 2,500 years This atolon in Tahiti is
ago byThales. made up of living
things.
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Activities
12. Draw the Earth. Include an arrow pointing in the 18. The Moon has a dark side because each time
direction in which it revolves. When does the Sun it completes a turn around the Earth, it rotates
rise where you live? on its own axis. This takes 28 days.
With a partner, demonstrate the movement
13. Draw the Earth and its orbit. Show four positions. of the Moon around the Earth.
a. Indicate the solstices and the equinoxes. Divide
the orbit into four parts: one for each season in 19. What are the main differences between
the Northern Hemisphere. the continental crust and the oceanic crust?
b. Colour each season a different colour. Tip:
summer begins with the summer solstice and 20. Match each phrase to: geosphere, hydrosphere,
ends with the spring equinox. atmosphere or biosphere.
• water in a river
14. Why is the Sun higher over the horizon at noon • waves in the sea
in summer than in winter? Does this occur
• sand on a beach
at the same time of year in both hemispheres?
• fish, birds, plants or other living things
15. Think about the seasons. Use this information: • the air you breathe
Solstices. summer / winter • clouds
Equinox. spring / autumn. The Sun is above
21. Two friends are collecting rocks. Who is right? Why?
the Equator. Day and night are the same length.
Girl: These rocks belong to the geosphere.
a. When it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere,
what season is it in the Northern Hemisphere? Boy: No, they belong to the lithosphere.
And when is it spring there?
22. Think about the Earth’s rotation and answer.
b. What causes this difference in the seasons?
a. Why are days longer in the summer?
16. Match each picture of the Moon with a number b. Why do days and nights last for six months
in the diagram below. at the poles?
A B C D c. How are day and night produced? Make a drawing
to show this.
23. Identify: summer solstice, winter solstice. Explain

E F G H
your answer.
8 1
7 2
6 3
5 4
17. The ecliptic is an imaginary plane. It passes through

the centre of the Earth and the centre of the Sun.
a. Does it go through the centre of the Moon?
b. Does it pass through only sometimes?
How often? When?
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What should you know?

Special characteristics
2
• It has an intense magnetic field.
• The atmosphere contains mainly nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
of Earth
• The average temperature is 15ºC.

• Water exists on Earth in solid, liquid and gaseous states. There is a
water cycle.
• The Earth has one large natural satellite, the Moon.
• Life exists on Earth.
• Rotation. The Earth rotates on its axis. The axis is tilted 23.5º. This
Movements
rotation creates day and night.

• Revolution. The Earth revolves around the Sun. Its orbit is elliptical.
These two movements and the Earth’s tilt cause the seasons. Other
consequences are the differences in the length of day and night.
The Moon, the Earth’s
The Moon takes almost 28 days to orbit the Earth. It takes the same length
THE EARTH
of time to rotate once on its axis.

Lunar phases: New Moon, First Quarter, Full Moon and Last Quarter.
satellite
• Solar eclipse: the Moon blocks the light from the Sun.
• Lunar eclipse: the Earth blocks the light from the Sun so it does not
reach the Moon.
The gravitational attraction or “pull” of the Moon on the oceans causes the tides.
Geosphere: the solid part of the Earth. It consist of the:

• Lithosphere: the crust and the upper mantle.
– Continental crust: makes up the continents.
The four Earth “spheres”
– Oceanic crust: makes up the ocean floor. The Earth’s surface is made
up of continental features and ocean floor features.
• Mantle: the middle layer of the Earth, made of rock.
• Core: the centre of the Earth, made up of metals. Outer core: liquid. Inner
core: solid.
Atmosphere: the layer of air which surrounds the Earth. It consists of a
mixture of gases.
Hydrosphere: all the waters on the Earth.
Biosphere: the part of the Earth where living things exist. Living things can
be aquatic or terrestrial.
Projects
EXPERIMENT: Think about the geosphere.
• Shake together a mixture of gravel, cork and water. Allow this to settle. Observe the separation in layers by density.
• Compare with the diagram of the geosphere on page 23. Identify the crust, mantle and core represented
in your experiment.
WEB TASK: Find out about artificial satellites.
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All creatures great and small

The Earth is the only planet we know which is capable of supporting life.
1. How many living creatures can you find?
2. Check your answer in the word snake.
ha n t f lo s s f e r n f ungi
e le p we o
og ra em
fr nt
bu y tre
tte
r f lymon ke
3. Now put them into three different groups. Explain why you chose them.
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eyepiece
tube nosepiece
Look at these drops of water from arm

the pond. Can you see anything in
them? Some living things are so
objective
small they cannot be seen with the lenses
naked eye. They can only be seen
through a microscope.
cover slip coarse

focusing
knob
stage
iris fine
4. Match each task, a-f, to its diaphram focusing
corresponding part of the knob
microscope.
a. This magnifies the specimen
b. This increases the amount of light source base
light
c. This is where you put the
specimen Optical microscope
d. This is where you look through
e. This is where you change the
magnification
f. This is used for fine focusing
5. Look at the pond water through the microscope. What a surprise!

Use the code to write the vowels and discover the names of the microorganisms. Code: A__ E__ I__ O__ U__
__ __GL__N__ PR__T__Z__ __ B__CT__R__ __
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UNIT
3 Living things
• Can you name any of these living things?
• Classify them into groups: plants, animals, vertebrates, invertebrates.
• What do all living things do?
• What is the animal kingdom?
• What kingdom do human beings belong to?

In this unit, you will … Expressing facts
Living things feed, reproduce and interact.
• Define the characteristics of living things
• Describe cell structure and cell functions Making impersonal statements
Cells are organised into levels.
• Classify unicellular and multicellular living things
• Classify living things into five kingdoms Expressing purpose
Photosynthesis enables plants to obtain energy.
• Make slides to study cells
Water is used to transport substances.
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1. What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth in all its Biodiversity varies tremendously throughout the
forms. Biodiversity is the result of a slow process world. It is influenced by climate zones and
called evolution. Evolution began with the first habitats. For example, more than half the world’s
life forms and still continues today. Species change, species live in tropical rain forests and coral reefs.
and adapt to the environment. Some countries have many different climate zones
Scientists believe there may be more than thirty and habitats. As a result, they have more biological
million species. Approximately two million species diversity. For example, Spain has more biological
have been classified. diversity than other European countries.
What factors can reduce biodiversity?

3
Whole species of living things become extinct
every day for these four factors:
Destruction
of habitats
caused by
deforestation,
the construction
of roads, Pollution of water, soil and the atmosphere, caused
dams, etc. by agricultural, industrial and urban development.
2 4
Uncontrolled
hunting and
fishing
endangers
many species: Introduction of
for example the exotic species
Iberian lynx can destroy
(Lynx pardinus) local species.
is in danger of For example,
extinction. the river crab.
Activities
Did you know that...? 1. True or false? Biodiversity refers to all living things.
Rain forests 2. Why does biodiversity vary throughout the world?
have the
3. Match each photo with a factor that reduces
greatest biodiversity.
biodiversity.
a. pollution
b. destruction of habitats
c. uncontrolled hunting
d. introduction of exotic species
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2. What do all living things have in common?

All living things have a similar chemical
composition.
All living things also carry out three functions:
nutrition, interaction with the environment and
reproduction.
Nutrition refers to all the processes which enable
living things to obtain the energy and matter they
need to live.
Living things can be classified into two groups

depending on how they feed.
• Autotrophs produce the organic substances
which they need from inorganic substances.
They take substances like water, mineral salts
What function is this cheetah carrying out?
and carbon dioxide from the soil and the
atmosphere. To obtain these substances,
autotrophs need energy. They get energy from
sunlight through a process called
photosynthesis. Chlorophyl enables them to do
this. Plants, algae and some bacteria are
autotrophs.
• Heterotrophs feed on organic matter which is
already elaborated: for example, living things or
their remains. Animals, fungi, some bacteria and
all protozoa are heterotrophs.
Interaction with the environment: all the

processes which enable living things to react to
changes in their environment. For example: plants
Why are all the flowers following the Sun? What function are
grow towards the light; animals flee from they carrying out?
predators.
Reproduction: refers to all the processes which Activities

enable living things to create new living things.
There are two basic types: 4. Complete:
• Asexual reproduction involves one living Heterotrophs feed on ... .
thing. For example: a sponge can produce buds Autotrophs obtain ... .
which give rise to new sponges. Sexual reproduction involves ... .
• Sexual reproduction involves living things of Asexual reproduction involves ... .
different sexes. Each one provides a sex cell or
gamete. The two sex cells join to form the first 5. Test your partner. Ask questions:
cell of a new living thing, the zygote. Which processes enable living things to ...
... create new living things?
... adapt to their environment?
... obtain the energy they need?
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3. What are living things made up of?

All living things are made up of chemical substances. Carbon (C), oxygen (O),
hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) make up about 95 % of all living matter.
Combinations of these elements form molecules of living matter called
biomolecules.
Living things are made up of two kinds of substances: inorganic and organic.
Inorganic substances
Inorganic substances do not contain carbon. They • Water is the most abundant substance in living
are present in living things and non-living things. things. Living things obtain water directly
The principle inorganic substances are: by drinking it, or indirectly from substances
• Mineral salts have various functions: they make that contain water. Plants obtain water
up different structures, like shells, bones and from the environment. Water is necessary for
teeth. They are present in internal fluids, like chemical reactions and to transport all other
tears, sweat and blood. substances.
Organic substances
Organic substances are unique to living things. Carbon is their
principal element. Organic substances present in living things are:
Biomolecules Example Use/Function

Activities
Glucides glucose to provide energy
cellulose to make structures 6. Compare organic and
Lipids fatty acids to provide energy inorganic substances:
cholesterol to make structures
… substances are …;
Proteins haemoglobin to transport oxygen … substances have …
antibodies to fight microorganisms that cause disease
keratin to make structures: hair, nails 7. Ask questions about
Nucleic DNA to control cell function and heredity organic and inorganic
acid RNA substances. For example:
How are (lipids) used by

Organic and inorganic substances are present in different amounts in living things?
plants and animals. They are used to …
Plants Animals 8. Use the pie charts to

water 74 % water 60 %
calculate, in grams, the
approximate value of each
group of biomolecules:
a. Weigh yourself, then
calculate the
biomolecules in your
body.
For example,
glucides
lipids lipids 0.6 % 100 kgs = 60 kg water
0.8 % proteins glucides 20 %
mineral mineral proteins b. a sunflower: 2.250 grams.
3.2 % 19 %
salts 3.2 % salts 3.4 % 16 %
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4. What are cells?

Cells are the smallest unit of life. They are the structural
and functional units for all living things.
• All living things are made up of one or more cells.
• Cells carry out the functions of nutrition, interaction Robert Hooke
with their environment and reproduction. was the first
person to use
• Most cells are very small. For example, skin cells
the term cells.
are approximately one hundredth of a millimetre
In 1665, with this
in size.
microscope, he
• All cells come from other cells. observed cavities
in a thin slice of
cork, and called
What are the two basic types of cells? them cells.
nucleus
cytoplasm
cytoplasm
organelles
organelles
cell
cell membrane
genetic membrane
material
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. They have • Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, separated
no nuclear membrane. Genetic material is from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane.
dispersed throughout the cytoplasm. They are Algae, protozoa, fungi, animals and plants have
simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells. eukaryotic cells.
Bacteria are made up of prokaryotic cells.
How is a cell organised?

Activity
• The cell membrane covers the whole cell.
9. Read the chart, then make sentences
• Cytoplasm is the inside of the cell. It is a jelly-like to describe the cells: Eukaryotic cells are
substance. Many of the chemical reactions of the cell found in animals.
take place here. Organelles are small structures in the
cytoplasm. They are responsible for respiration, making Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
and storing nutrients, etc. cells cells
found in animals bacteria
• Genetic material controls and regulates how cells
work. This DNA contains the hereditary information size big small
that is passed from one cell to the daughter cell. DNA nucleus yes no
makes up the chromosomes. complexity complex simple
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5. How do animal and plant cells differ?

Both animals and plants have eukaryotic cells, • Plant cells have unique organelles called
but there are some differences. chloroplasts which are responsible for
• Plant cells have a rigid cell wall which photosynthesis.
surrounds the plasmatic membrane. The cell • The nucleus of plant cells is usually found on
wall gives the cell its shape and strengthens it. one side. A vacuole takes up most of the space.
• Plant cells are usually polyhedral, but animal Animal cells also have vacuoles, but they are
cells are various shapes: round, square, star-like. smaller.
Animal cell Plant cell

Cell membrane. Like a
skin around the cell. It
keeps the cell together
and controls what passes
in and out.
Nucleus. Contains
genetic material.
Cytoplasm.
Contains
the organelles:
mitochondria,
vacuoles…
Vacuoles.
Like bags, surrounded
by membranes where
substances, mainly
water, accumulate.
Mitochondria.
Where energy Chloroplasts.
is obtained from These store a green
nutrients. pigment,
chlorophyll,
which absorbs
the Sun’s energy
Cell wall. to elaborate
A thick, rigid wall organic matter
made of cellulose. during photosynthesis.
Activities
10. Make a Venn diagram: show the similarities and differences
between animal and plant cells.
11. Draw and label an animal cell with all its parts.
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Hands on
Making a hypothesis. Using a microscope to study cells
A hypothesis is a proposal. It is used as a basis Cellulose is a rigid substance that holds the cell
for reasoning. Scientists use experiments and parts together in a polyhedral shape.
observation to test the validity of a hypothesis. Resulting hypothesis: If you observe cells through
Hypotheses show the relationship between two a microscope that are polyhedral in shape and joined
or more facts. For example: we know that cell walls together by thick walls, you know they are plant cells.
in plant cells are made of cellulose.
Making a specimen of plant cells 1
1. Take a moss plant specimen and use tweezers to remove

a phyllode.
2. Place the phyllode on a slide. Add a drop of water.
3. Place the cover slip on the specimen, look through 2 3
the microscope and draw the specimen.
Use different magnifications.
At higher magnifications you may be able
to see and count the chloroplasts. phyllodes
Making a specimen of animal cells

1 2
1. To obtain cells, rub the inside of your cheek gently with
a clean cotton bud.
2. Spread the cells on a slide and add a drop of water.
3. Stain the cells with methyl green or a similar dye.
4. Put the cover slip on, look through the 3
microscope and draw the specimen. 4
Check your hypothesis

Notice that the plant cells have a polyhedral shape.
The animal cells are irregular, and they are not joined together.
Activities
12. Label each plant cell indicating its magnification.
13. Imagine that your hypothesis were incorrect. What result would make this obvious?
14. Imagine you have an unidentified sample. Hypothesis: If this is a living thing, it will be made up of cells.
Is this hypothesis correct? Can you use it to differentiate between living and non-living things?
What would you do to classify the sample as living or non-living?
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6. How do living things differ?

Living things can be classified into two different
groups: unicellular and multicellular. Activities
• Unicellular living things have only one cell. 15. Describe one of the specialised cells.
They sometimes form colonies. Unicellular living Your partner identifies it. For example:
things feed, interact with the environment and A: It has no nucleus. B: A red blood cell.
reproduce. Example: paramecia. 16. What is the difference between tissues, organs
• Multicellular living things have many different and systems?
cells. Example: plants and animals. Example: ... are made up of...
Multicellular organisation muscle cell

Cells
Cells in multicellular living things are organised
in levels. The cells work together to carry out
the vital functions. Tissue
muscle
• Cells are specialised: they have specific tissue
functions. Each type has a unique shape and
structure.
Organ
• Tissues are groups of cells with the same muscle
function. Example: muscle cells form muscle
tissue.
• Organs are groups of various tissues which act
together. Example: a muscle is an organ made
up of muscle tissue, nerve tissue, connective
tissue and blood tissue. Muscular
system
• Systems are made up of several organs.
Example: the digestive system includes the
stomach, the intestines, etc.
muscular
system
Form and function of cells
Specialised Cells
Sperm cells Red blood cells Neuron or Nerve cells Root hair cells
have a tail (flagellum) consist mainly of are like wires with are long and thin so they can
so they can swim haemoglobin to a lot of extensions absorb water and mineral
toward the ovum transport oxygen so they can conduct salts from the soil
and capture messages
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7. What are the five kingdoms?

Scientists use criteria for classification to organise living things into groups.
Classification enables them to compare different living things.
Scientist classify all living things into five kingdoms by three main criteria:
type of cells, how the cells are grouped, and nutrition.
Monera Kingdom Protoctist Kingdom Fungi Kingdom
Contains unicellular, prokaryotic Contains unicellular and multicellular Contains unicellular and multicellular
organisms. They may be autotrophic or living things. They are all eukaryotes. living things. They are eukaryotes.
heterotrophic. They have no tissues. They may be They have no tissues. They are
Bacteria and cyanobacteria. autotrophic or heterotrophic. heterotrophic.
Protozoa, algae. Yeasts, moulds, mushrooms.
Plant Kingdom Animal Kingdom
Contains multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues. Contains multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues. They
They are autotrophic. are heterotrophic.
Mosses, ferns, flowering plants. Animals: may be invertebrate or vertebrate.
Activity Kingdom Type of cells Tissues Autotrophic / Heterotrophic

Moneran Prokaryotic
17. Copy and complete the
table to describe Protoctist No tissues
the five kingdoms. Fungi Eukaryotic Heterotrophic
Plant
Animal They have tissues
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8. How are living things classified?

Living things can
CLASSIFICATION YOU BECAUSE YOU...
be differentiated
by the way they feed,
reproduce, interact Kingdom Animal Are a heterotroph, cells form tissues
with their enviroment,
etc. They are classified Phylum Chordate Have a spinal chord
into different groups.
The main group is the Sub phylum Veterbrate Are a chordate with a backbone
kingdom. Each
kingdom is then Class Mammal Have warm blood; babies drink mother’s milk
divided into
subgroups. Order Primate Your thumbs and fingers work together
This is how you are
classified. Family Hominid Walk upright
Genus Homo Talk, have a long childhood
Species Homo sapiens Are intelligent, have little body hair ...
9. What is a species? Activities

A species is the first level of classification for living things. A species 18. Make a list of animals that
is a set of living things which are physically similar. They reproduce show sexual dimorphism.
and usually have fertile descendants. 19. Describe the differences
between the male and
Animals from the same species have similar appearances. female of some animals.
However, there can be differences in structure, size and colouring
between the male and the female. This difference is called
dimorphism.
female
donkey horse - mare
mule
When a donkey and a mare mate, the

result is a mule. Mules are sterile
because donkeys (Equus asinus), and
The lion and lioness are examples A male peacock uses its colourful tail horses (Equus caballus) belong to
of dimorphism. to attract the female. different species.
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Activities
20. Study the illustrations. Which represent living 25. Study the cell diagrams. Match each with
things? Which characteristics support your a name and description.
decision?
D A
A B C
F
E
H B
21. Classify these living things as autotrophic or

heterotrophic.
C
A B C
D E F D
22. Copy and complete the chart.

1. They are long and thin in order to absorb water
Biomolecule Function and mineral salts from the soil.
Glucides
2. They are shaped like wires with a lot of
Lipids extensions. They conduct messages around
Proteins the body.
3. They have a tale (flagellum) which enables them

23. Draw an animal cell with the most important to swim towards the ovum.
organelles. What structures would transform it into
a typical plant cell? Draw them. 4. They have no nucleus so they have room to
Include: mitochondria, cytoplasm, cell membrane transport oxygen in the haemoglobin.
– Sperm cell – Neuron

24. Test your classmates. Ask questions about the five
kingdoms. – Red blood cell – Root hair cell
autotrophs / eukaryotes? 26. Complete the table on sexual dimorphism.

Which are made up of no tissues?
kingdoms have unicellular and multicellar Animal Group Male Female
living things? lion mammal long mane no mane
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Common • They are born and they die.
character- • They have a similar chemical composition.
istics • They are made up of cells.
of living • They have three vital functions: nutrition, interaction with
things the environment, and reproduction.
They are made up of two kinds of substances:

• Inorganic substances. Not exclusive to living things: water
Composition and mineral salts.
• Organic substances. Exclusive to living things: glucides,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
Cells consist of:

• A plasmatic membrane which surrounds the cell.
• Cytoplasm or internal matter. It contains the organelles
(mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.).
• Genetic material. This controls cell functions.
LIVING THINGS
There are various kinds of cells:

Cells • Prokaryotic. With no nucleus and no nuclear membrane.
• Eukaryotic. With a nucleus and a nuclear membrane.
Animal and plant eukaryotic cells are different.
Living things may be:
• Unicellular. Consisting of one cell.
• Multicellular. Consisting of many cells forming tissues,
organs and systems.
Living things are classified into kingdom, phylum,

subphylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
There are five kingdoms:
• Monera Kingdom: unicellular, prokaryotic living things.
They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Protoctist Kingdom: unicellular and multicellular living
Classification
things. They are eukaryotes and have no tissues. They may
and
be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
biodiversity
• Fungi Kingdom: unicellular and multicellular beings. They
are eukaryotes and have no tissues. They are heterotrophic.
• Plant Kingdom: multicellular eukaryotes. They have tissues
and they are autotrophic.
• Animal Kingdom: multicellular eukaryotes. They have
tissues and they are heterotrophic.
Projects
INVESTIGATE: an organisation trying to save the biodiversity of the planet. Give examples of actions taken.
WEB TASK: Learn how you can protect the biodiversity.
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UNIT
4 Invertebrates
• What characteristics make the giant squid an invertebrate?
• Do you know any invertebrates with …
– a soft, porous body?
– an elongated body with rings?
The giant squid is the largest
– a soft body covered by a shell?
known invertebrate: 20 m
– an external skeleton? long, 1,000 kg. Its tentacles
are more than 15 m long.
It lives deep in the ocean:
400 to 1,500 m below the surface.

In this unit, you will … Making generalisations
Most sponges live in the sea.
• Recognise the main characteristics of
Some molluscs have no shell.
invertebrates
• Classify invertebrates into groups Making impersonal statements
Their bodies are divided into segments.
• Describe invertebrate life functions
They are made up of one or two valves.
• Make a model of an invertebrate that can float
Expressing contrast
• Differentiate between bilateral and radial
Some are carnivores, but others are herbivores.
symmetry
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1. What makes up the animal kingdom?

The animal kingdom is made up of multicellular,
eukaryotic organisms. They are heterotrophic and Activities
sensitive to their environment. 1. What part of a sponge body does the
name porifera refer to?
How are animals classified? 2. Copy the drawing of the sponge. Use
Animals are classified in two groups: arrows to label the flow of water. Show
the entry points and the exit point.
• Invertebrates. Animals with no backbone. Some,
3. Talk about cnidaria.
like worms or jellyfish, have no skeleton. Others,
like insects or spiders, have an external skeleton or tentacles?
exoskeleton. are
carnivorous?
radial symmetry?
• Vertebrates. Animals with a backbone which is part of Which have
an opening at the top?
their internal skeleton or endoskeleton. can
a body like a tube?
float?
The simplest invertebrates

The simplest invertebrate animals are classified into two
water exits
groups: porifera and cnidaria. Porifera and cnidaria have osculum
no organs.
water
enters
Porifera
Sponges belong to this group. Most live in the sea. Their
bodies are full of pores and channels, so water circulates channels
in and out of them. They feed by filtration. Water enters
though the central cavity, deposits nutrients, and leaves
through a hole called the osculum. Sponges do not move
around; they are attached to rocks or coral.
Cnidaria pores
There are three different groups of cnidaria: jellyfish, corals

Cross-section of a porifera
and sea anemones. Their main characteristics are:
• radial symmetry. tentacles
• a soft body, with only one opening, the mouth, which is
surrounded by tentacles.
• a gastrovascular cavity, something like a stomach,
connected to the mouth.
• Nutrition. Cnidaria are carnivorous: they use their
tentacles to capture prey.
• Interaction. Most cnidaria live in the sea. Jellyfish can
float; corals and sea anemones live fixed to the sea bed.
• Reproduction. In their lifetime, cnidaria usually pass
through both the polyp and the medusa stages:
Polyps reproduce asexually by budding. jellyfish polyp
Jellyfish (medusae) reproduce sexually: there are male
and female specimens.
Cnidaria
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2. How do these worms differ?

These worms have bilateral
PLATYHELMINTHES ANNELIDS
symmetry,
a soft body, and no BODY BODY
skeleton. Long, flat, soft. In tapeworms the body Soft, cylindrical body divided into
Annelid bodies are divided is divided into rings. No legs. segments. Each segment is similar and
into segments. Each No respiratory or digestive system. has the same organs. These repeated
segments are called metameres. Tiny
segment has a cavity called appendages on each segment enable
a coelom. movement.
Nematodes have no segments. Annelids breathe through gills.
Exception: earthworms breathe through
The most common types of the skin. clitellum
worms are:
NEMATODES
segments head
BODY The Taenia tapeworm is a parasite that Earthworm

lives in human intestines. It absorbs
Soft, cylindrical bodies.
nutrients directly from its host. Some digestive tube body wall
No segments or rings.
Taenia species are more than ten
No respiratory system. coelom
metres long.
HABITAT HABITAT
Water or soil. Water or damp places.
Some are parasites. Many are parasites.
setae or hairs
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION
Cross-section of segment with coelom cavity
Heterosexual: Hermaphrodites: They have both male
There are male and and female sex organs.
females specimens. Platyhelminthes can fertilise themselves.
HABITAT
Water. Some are parasites, for example,
leeches.
Activities
4. Make your own table. 5. Which groups do the animals in
the photos belong to? REPRODUCTION
Annelids Some annelids are hermaphrodites.
6. Talk about these worms. Earthworms have larger segments
Main
characteristics called clitellum where the eggs are
deposited.
Habitat in water?
are
hermaphrodites?
Which breathe
through gills?
Example live
parasites?
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3. What are molluscs?

Squid, mussels, oysters, slugs and snails are all common molluscs.
Most are aquatic: they live in the sea or in fresh water. Garden snails,
however, live in damp soil.
What is a mollusc body like? stomach shell
Molluscs have these main characteristics:

body mass
• bilateral symmetry
• a soft body divided into three parts: lung eyes
– head which contains sensorial organs
and the mouth
head
– body mass with the main organs
– muscular foot to move about
• The body is covered by a fine membrane,
the mantle. This produces a protective shell.
The shell is made up of one or two valves.
Some species, such as octopi and slugs, have foot mouth
no shell. Others, such as cuttlefish and squid, Garden snail
have an internal shell.
Mollusc functions
• Respiration. Aquatic molluscs breathe through gills.
Terrestrial molluscs breathe through lungs.
• Nutrition. Some are carnivores. Others are herbivores.
• Reproduction. Most are hermaphrodite and
oviparous. The larva hatches, goes through Activities
metamorphosis and produces an adult individual. 7. Make your own table for
molluscs. Use page 44 as a
How many groups are there? model.
There are three main groups: 8. Match the photos to the

words.
• Gastropods: snails, sea snails and slugs. They have a spiral-shaped
no shell – eyes – foot –
shell with a single valve. Exception: slugs have no shell.
garden snail – bivalve –
• Bivalves: clams, cockles and mussels. Their shells have two valves. mouth – spiral shell
• Cephalopods: squid, cuttlefish and octopi. They have tentacles,
but no shell.
Gastropods: slug Bivalves: mussel Cephalopods: squid
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4. What are arthropods?

Arthropods are the largest, most varied group of living things:
more than one million species. They live in sea water, fresh
water and on land.
thorax head
antennae
What is an arthropod body like?
The main characteristics of arthropod bodies are: wings
• a segmented body covered by a thick cuticle that acts
abdomen
like an external skeleton or exoskeleton.
compound eye
• a body divided into three parts: head, thorax and
abdomen. mouth
In some arthropods, the head and thorax are joined to legs
form a cephalothorax. The antennae, eyes and mouth
are in the head. The sensorial organs are well-
Wasp
developed. The eyes can be simple: ocelli, or
compound.
• bilateral symmetry
• jointed appendages: legs, antennae, wings in insects.
The number of legs varies.
Arthropod functions
• Nutrition. Arthropods can be carnivorous, herbivorous Activities
or scavengers.
9. Make your own table for
• Respiration. They breathe through trachea (terrestrial arthropods: see page 44.
arthropods) or gills (aquatic arthropods).
10. Make generalisations about
• Reproduction. Most have male and female sexes which
arthropods. Use pages 46 - 7.
are distinguishable. They are oviparous. Fertilisation is
internal. Some hatch as larvae and undergo metamorphosis.
Some are ... . Most are ... .
As they grow, arthropods shed the old exoskeleton and
grow a new one. This is called moulting. Moulting takes Some have ... , but others ... .
place various times throughout an arthropod’s lifetime. In
other words, arthropod growth is discontinuous.
METAMORPHOSIS OF A MONARCH BUTTERFLY

1
2 3
1 The female lays eggs. A larva, called a caterpillar, hatches. 2 After a short period of development, the caterpillar
changes into a pupa (chrysalis stage). 3 After more changes, the chrysalis breaks open and the butterfly comes out.
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How many groups are there?
Groups Examples Body / Appendages Habitat

Crustaceans lobster, crab usually 10 legs aquatic
Myriapods centipede, scolopendra worm-like body, many legs terrestrial
Arachnids spider, scorpion 8 legs terrestrial
Insects butterfly, ant, bee, wasp 6 legs, 2 antennae, 2 or 4 or no wings terrestrial, some aquatic
Crustacean. Lobster. The front legs have claws for defence. Myriapod. Scolopendras are fast-moving, venomous
and predatory.
abdomen
cephalothorax
legs
pedipalp
chelicerae
Arachnid. Spider. The cephalothorax has two chelicerae Insect. Ants have a strong mouth for chewing and six legs.
which help the spider eat, and two pedipalps for defence.
Spiders have four pairs of legs: eight in all.

In some cultures, insects are food. You might find these
insects in an Indonesian restaurant: fried dragonflies.
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5. What are echinoderms?

Echinoderms live on the sea bed. Some live fixed arm
to a surface, but others move slowly about. Examples:
sea urchins, starfish and sea cucumbers.
What is the body like?

The main characteristics of echinoderms are:
• radial symmetry in adults, bilateral symmetry
in larvae.
ambulacral
• body shape: rounded (sea urchin), cylindrical apparatus
(sea cucumber) or like a star (starfish).
• an internal skeleton made up of plaques.
• no separate head, but there is a mouth on the
ambulacral
underside. Starfish
feet
Echinoderm functions
• Movement. The ambulacral apparatus, a series Did you know that...?
of internal tubes filled with water, enables
movement. The tubes form ambulacral feet with Starfish can regenerate body parts
suckers. or a whole body. All they need is a
• Respiration. Most echinoderms breathe through single leg with part of the central
their skin, using the ambulacral apparatus. Some disc.
have simple gills.
• Nutrition. They are carnivorous and feed mainly
on small crustaceans and molluscs.
Activities
• Reproduction. Most echinoderms have male
and female sexes, but some are hermaphrodite. 11. Can you trace the radial symmetry
Fertilisation is external. The larvae can swim and on the photos?
undergo metamorphosis to change into adults. 12. Make your own table for echinoderms:
see page 44.
13. How does a starfish feel? And a sea
urchin?
Echinoedea: Stelleroidea: Crinoidea: Holothuroidea: Ophiuroidea:

sea urchins starfish sea lilies sea cucumbers ophiura
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Hands on
Carrying out an experiment
The exoskeleton of an insect is covered with a fine layer

of grease or wax. This makes it impermeable. The wax
protects insects which live in water, such as the skater
(Gerris lacustris). The skater floats on the water surface.
If its legs get wet, it cannot take off.
Skaters can walk on water without sinking.

Compare the performance of insects
with or without impermeable legs
1. Make two identical insect models from card

as in the photograph.
Body: a rectangle 4 x 6 cm Legs: 5 cm long
Fold the ends of the legs so the insects
can stand.
2. Melt wax from a candle. Cover the bottom of the legs

of only one insect with the wax.
Observe and record the data
3. Place both insects on the surface of the water.

Observe carefully, and record your data on a chart Model
Model
without
like this one. Initially, after two minutes, then after with wax
wax
10 minutes.
It floats after It floats after

It stands on its legs. It floats initially.
2 minutes. 10 minutes.
Insect without
waxed legs
Insect with
waxed legs
Interpret the results

4. Does the wax make the paper model impermeable?
Activities
14. What would happen to an insect with no wax on its legs? It would float / sink.
15. RESEARCH: Spiders can walk on their webs without sticking. Can you explain this?
Think about the experiment above.
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Activities
16. The nautilus lives in a spiral-shaped shell. Inside, 20. Identify the photos: annelid or caterpillar.
the shell is divided into compartments. The animal Compare them. The... has, but the... has...
lives in the largest one. The other compartments
are filled with gas, so the shell floats. a
a. What group of molluscs does the nautilus belong
to? Explain.
b. What is the main difference between a nautilus
and an octopus?
The animal lives in

this compartment b
Nautilus
17. Copy and label the cnidaria: tentacles, opening,

21. Read and label: Tapeworms can be 4 metres long.
can float, live fixed.
The bulge in the front of the body is called the head
or scolex. It has four suckers and pointed hooks. The
thin part below it is called the neck. There are many
rings which get bigger as they get older and move
farther from the head.
Label the drawing: head, suckers, hooks, neck,
rings.
18. Which group of invertebrates does each animal

belong to?
a b c d
e f g h
22. Name each group of molluscs.
a b
19. Study the drawing of the starfish.

a. Copy, then label the following parts: arms,
ambulacral apparatus, ambulacral feet. c d
b. What do starfish eat?
What body mechanisms
do they use to eat?
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Porifera
• The body resembles a sack full of pores and channels. Water circulates
through it.
• Porifera live attached to a surface. They feed by filtration.
Cnidaria
• They have a soft body and a mouth surrounded by tentacles. There are two
body types: polyps which live attached to a surface, alone or in colonies, and
jellyfish which float in the sea.
• They are carnivorous.
Worms
• They have a soft body and no skeleton.
• The main groups are:
– Platyhelminthes: long, flat, soft bodies.
INVERTEBRATES
– Nematodes: soft, cylindrical bodies, not divided into segments

– Annelids: soft, cylindrical body divided into segments
Molluscs
• They have a soft body divided into three parts: head, body mass and foot.
Many have a shell.
• They breathe through gills (aquatic species) or through lungs (terrestrial
species).
• They go through metamorphosis.
Arthropods
• They have jointed legs and an external skeleton. Their bodies are divided into
three parts: head, thorax and abdomen.
• They breathe through trachea (terrestrial arthropods) or gills (aquatic
arthropods).
• They change their outer covering (moult), and some undergo metamorphosis.
Echinoderms
• They have an internal skeleton made up of plaques under their skin.
• They breathe through their skin, using the ambulacral apparatus. Some
echinoderms have simple gills. All are carnivorous.
• They undergo metamorphosis.
Projects
RESEARCH: Find out what crustaceans local fish markets sell. Make a list.
WEB TASK: Find out what some spiders eat.
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UNIT
5 Vertebrates
• What is common to all animals?
• What are the three vital functions of all living things?
• What are the two main groups of animals?
How do they differ?
• How many groups of vertebrates are there?

In this unit, you will … Expressing purpose
• Learn basic characteristics of animals Aquatic amphibians use lungs to breathe.
• Compare vertebrates and invertebrates Expressing cause and results

They undergo metamorphosis.
• Recognise the vital functions of As a result, they lose their gills and develop lungs.
vertebrates Expressing contrast
• Make a scientific drawing A shark’s skin, however, has denticles.
All reptiles have legs. However, snakes do not.
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1. What characteristics do vertebrates have?

All vertebrates have an endoskeleton with a backbone. The body is
made up of a head, a trunk, and many have a tail. Vertebrates have
articulated limbs, a well-developed nervous system and bilateral
symmetry.
head
brain
spinal
column trunk
articulated limbs
Penguins have bilateral symmetry.

Horse tail
Jellyfish Spider
Activities
1. Study the photos and
classify the animals:
vertebrate or invertebrate.
2. Compare the spider
and the lion: legs, body,
covering...
3. Show the bilateral
symmetry of two animals
with lines.
Lion Kangaroo Tortoise
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2. What are mammals like?

head
Most mammals are terrestrial animals. Some are aquatic hair
ears
animals like dolphins, but only one, the bat, can fly. spinal column
trunk
Main body parts
tail
• A neck joins the head to the trunk. The tail
is an extension of the spinal column.
• Mammals have four limbs. Terrestrial mammals neck
have legs, aquatic mammals have fins,
and bats have wings.
• Mammal bodies are covered with hair or fur
which keeps them warm.
• Mammals have teeth. The shape
of the teeth depends on the food
articulated limbs Alsatian dog
the mammal eats.
• Mammals have many glands. The most important ones
are the mammary glands. These produce milk.
What functions do mammals have? Activities

• Respiration. They use lungs to breathe. Aquatic mammals come 4. Complete the table.
up to the surface to breathe. Mammals
• Nutrition. They feed on different things. For example, carnivores Physical
eat meat. Insectivores eat insects. Herbivores eat plants. characteristics
Granivores eat seeds. Nutrition
• Reproduction. Fertilisation takes place internally, and the young Respiration
grow in the mother’s womb. Mammals are viviparous: they give
Reproduction
birth to live young. The babies feed on their mother’s milk.
• Interaction. Mammals are homeothermal or warm-blooded: 5. Compare a human being
they can keep their body temperature constant. with another mammal.
Make a Venn diagram.
How do the three groups of mammals differ?
Monotremes. Example: platypus. Marsupials. Example: kangaroo. Placentals. Example: dolphin. The young
Monotremes are born from eggs. They Marsupials finish their development develop inside the mother’s body, in the
have a beak, but no teeth. inside the mother’s pouch. uterus.
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3. What are birds like?

wing
barbs
rachis spinal
column
calamus
Feather
legs
• A bird’s body is aerodynamic: adapted for flight.
The neck is sometimes very long.
neck
• Birds have four limbs: the back limbs are legs, keel
and the front limbs are wings. beak
• A bird’s body is covered with feathers.
• Each feather has an axis or rachis. Barbs spread out
Sea gull
on each side of the rachis. The calamus joins the feather
to the body.
• Bird bones are hollow. This makes their body light, so they
can fly more easily.
• Strong wing muscles are attached to the sternum or keel.
• Birds have a horny mandible or beak, but no teeth. Activities
6. Make your table for birds:
What functions do birds have? see page 54.
• Respiration. They use lungs to breathe. The lungs are connected 7. What characteristics enable
to air sacs which enable them to breathe and to fly. birds to fly?
• Reproduction. Birds are oviparous: they lay eggs. The eggs are 8. Associate each beak with
incubated until the chicks hatch. Fertilisation takes place how the bird feeds: opens
internally. seeds, fishes, tears its prey.
• Nutrition. The shape of a bird’s beak depends on the food it eats. a. strong, curved; b. short,
• Interaction. Birds are homeothermal or warm-blooded. strong; c. long, pointed.
Buzzard. Strong, curved Swallow. Short beak. Heron. Long, pointed Duck. Wide, flat Rooster. Strong, short
beak. It catches its prey It captures insects beak. It fishes beak. It filters water beak. It feeds on grain
and tears the flesh. in flight. in shallow water. to obtain food. which it has to open.
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4. What are reptiles like?

Most reptiles, like snakes, crocodiles, lizards and
tortoises, are vertebrate terrestial animals, but
some spend a lot of time in the water.
• Reptiles, except snakes, have four limbs
or legs. Snakes have no limbs.
spinal column
• Reptile bodies are covered with hard scales
to keep them warm. Adult lizards and skin with scales
snakes shed their skin, but tortoises have
a hard shell called a carapace.
What functions do reptiles have?

• Interaction. Reptiles are poikilotherms,
or cold-blooded. As a result, they cannot
regulate their body temperature. Reptiles
legs
are warm or cold depending on the
environment. Green iguana
• Respiration. Reptiles use lungs to breathe.
• Nutrition. Most reptiles are carnivores. They
have teeth to capture their prey. Turtles,
however, have beaks. Many snakes
have fangs connected to glands that produce
poison. Activities
• Reproduction. Reptiles are oviparous. The
eggs develop inside a sac filled with liquid, 9. Make your table for
called amnion. A hard shell protects the eggs reptiles: see page 54.
and prevents dehydration. Unlike bird eggs, 10. What is a carapace like?
reptile eggs are not incubated. Some snakes How does it protect the
are ovoviviparous, that is, the embryo tortoise?
develops inside an egg that remains inside
the female until hatching.
How many groups of reptiles are there?
snake chameleon tortoise crocodile
Snakes. Cobras, vipers, Lizards. Lizards, iguanas, Turtles. Tortoises and fresh Crocodilians. Alligators
boas and snakes chameleons water turtles and crocodiles
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5. What are amphibians like?

All amphibians begin life in water, and they always live tail
in wet places. However, the adults are vertebrate terrestrial
animals, like frogs, toads, newts and salamanders. moist skin
spinal
• Amphibians have four limbs or legs. column
Frogs have very strong back legs.
• Amphibian skin is moist and has no covering.
Some amphibians have glands that produce toxins.
• Amphibians are the only vertebrates that undergo
metamorphosis. As a result, the adults
do not look like the young. Tiger
salamander legs
THE METAMORPHOSIS OF A FROG
1 2 3 4
The female lays eggs A tadpole with gills and The tail and gills The adult frog is a
in the water and the male a tail emerges from the disappear. Legs develop. terrestrial animal with
fertilises them. egg and lives in the water. lungs and four legs.
What functions do amphibians have?

• Interaction. Amphibians are cold-blooded. As a result, they Did you know that...?
do not usually live in cold places.
• Respiration. Adult reptiles use their lungs and skin to breathe. Some South
Young frogs, or tadpoles, are aquatic and use gills to breathe. American tribes
use secretions
• Nutrition. Most amphibians are carnivores, but at the tadpole
from poisonous
stage, they are herbivores.
frogs to make
• Reproduction. Most amphibians are oviparous, poison darts.
but salamanders are ovoviviparous. Fertilisation takes place
externally in some amphibians and internally in others.
Activities
11. Test your classmates. Complete the text to ask 12. Show the life cycle of a frog with drawings.
questions. 13. Compare frogs and tadpoles in a chart.
Example: What do tadpoles use to breathe?
14. Make your table for amphibians: see page 54.
breathe?
What do ... use to
keep moist?
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6. What are fish like? scales
dorsal fin
lateral line system
Fish are aquatic vertebrates. Some live in fresh
water and some in salt water. caudal
• Fish are fusiform: the body fin
is wider in the middle than
at the ends.
• Fish limbs are called fins.
Each species of fish has different
fins, but most have dorsal, pelvic
and caudal fins.
• Fish are covered with scales.
A shark’s skin, however, is covered spinal column
anal
with small denticles. fin operculum
• The lateral line system is a sensory organ
that detects vibrations.
pelvic fin
What functions do fish have?

• Interaction. Fish are cold-blooded. As a result, they cannot Activities
regulate their body temperature. 15. Make your table for fish: see
• Respiration. Fish use gills to obtain oxygen from water. page 54.
The gills are protected by the operculum or cover. However, 16. Which type of fin enables fish
sharks and rays have no operculum. to move forward most?
• Nutrition. Most fish are carnivores.
• Reproduction. Fish are oviparous, and fertilisation
takes place externally. However, sharks are ovoviviparous;
fertilisation takes place internally. Did you know that...?
Many fish have a swim
bladder which fills with air
How many groups of fish are there?
to control buoyancy.
There are two groups of fish: cartilaginous and bony.
ray carp
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks or rays. Bony fish, such as carp, hake or salmon.
The skeleton is made of cartilage. The skeleton is made of bone.
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Hands on
Scientific diagrams
Scientific diagrams often depict living things.

A scientific diagram does not have to be a perfect
work of art, but it must...
• be realistic.
• have the correct proportions.
• have realistic colours (if it is coloured).
• be labelled.
Follow these steps to make a diagram of a fish. 1. Put the fish on a tray.
Be sure you can see the parts you want to draw.
2. Observe the shape and size. 3. Fill in the outline with the other parts of the
First, draw the outline and the main elements: fish: fins, operculum, eye, scales…
fins, tail…
head dorsal fin

lateral line caudal fin
eye
operculum pelvic fin

pectoral fin
4. Colour the drawing. 5. Label all the parts.

Observe the model carefully. Use the correct
colours.
Activities
17. Study the scales on a fish. Make a scientific drawing of their shape and position.
18. Touch a fish from the caudal fin to the head. What does it feel like?
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Activities
19. Which of these are characteristic of animals? 25. Copy the diagram, and label the parts of a feather.
a. They have eukaryotic cells. b.
b. They are heterotrophic.
c. They have an internal skeleton.
d. They have four limbs.
a. c.
20. What are the characteristics of vertebrates?
21. Do all animals have bilateral symmetry? 26. Reptiles are poikilotherms. What does this mean?
a. Is this kind of symmetry also internal?
b. Are there any vertebrates with no bilateral 27. Bats are the only mammals that can fly. Compare
symmetry? bat wings and bird wings. What similarities and
differences are there?
22. The blue whale lives in the sea, and spends a lot of
time beneath the water.
a. Why do whales have to come to the surface?
b. Why don’t marine mammals have ears?
28. The photographs show a fish, a mammal

and a bird. What characteristics enable them
to live in water?
23. What kind of bird eats each type of food?

I. Meat III. Grain
II. Insects in the water IV. Insects in wood
A B C D
b c
24. Write a table and complete it with the
characteristics of each vertebrate group.
Vertical: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish
Horizontal: Type of limb, Skin covering, Homeotherm/
Poikilotherm, Respiration, Nutrition, Reproduction
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• Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic, and have specialised cells.
• They are heterotrophic. They are sensitive to their environment, and they can move.
• There are two main types of animals:
ANIMALS
– Invertebrates have no backbone.
– Vertebrates have a backbone.
There are five groups: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish.
• Mammals have limbs. Terrestrial mammals have legs;

aquatic mammals have fins; bats have wings.
• Mammals bodies are covered with hair or fur. Mammals are
Mammals
homeothermal. They use their lungs to breathe. They are
viviparous. They have mammary glands. Mammals feed on
different things.
• Birds are aerodynamic. The back limbs are legs,

and the front limbs are wings. A bird’s body
is covered with feathers. Its bones are hollow.
Birds
Birds have a beak.
• Birds are homeothermal. They use their lungs to breathe.
VERTEBRATES
They are oviparous. Birds feed on different things.
• All reptiles, except snakes, have four legs. Reptile bodies

are covered with hard scales.
Reptiles
• Reptiles are poikilothermal. They use their lungs to breathe.
Most reptiles are oviparous and carnivorous.
• Amphibians have four legs. Amphibian skin is moist, and

has no covering.
Amphibians • Amphibians are poikilothermal. They use their lungs and
skin to breathe. They undergo metamorphosis. Most are
oviparous. Adult amphibians are carnivores.
• Fish are fusiform. The limbs are called fins. Fish are covered
with scales.
Fish
• Fish are poikilotherms. They use their gills to breathe. Most
fish are oviparous. Most fish are carnivores.
Projects
HYPOTHESIS: Feathers keep birds dry. Test this hypothesis. Place some feathers in water; observe them, and
revise your hypothesis.
WEB TASK: Find out if the Iberian lynx makes a good pet.
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UNIT
6 The plant
and fungi kingdoms
• Which characteristics enable you to classify ferns as plants?
• Which characteristics do all plants have?
• Name two main differences between plants and animals.
• Do all plants reproduce in the same way?
• Why are plants and fungi so important in nature?

In this unit, you will … Comparing
• Identify the main characteristics of the Ferns are bigger than mosses.
plant and fungi kingdoms Conifers are the largest group of gymnosperms.
Describing a process
• Recognise plant and fungi organs, shape
When minerals dissolve in water, raw sap is produced.
and functions
Making generalisations
• Discover how plants and fungi obtain
Most gymnosperms are evergreens.
nutrition and reproduce
Many angiosperms are deciduous.
• Learn how to make a classification
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1. What living things make up the plant kingdom?

The plant kingdom is made up of multicellular, eukaryotic,
autotrophic living things. They cannot move about. Activity
All plants: 1. Classify the plants as in the
• have roots, stems and leaves. These vary according to the example.
species.
Are they vascular?
• are multicellular: made up of many cells which form tissues.
• have eukaryotic cells. These cells have a nucleus and
organelles surrounded by membranes. They are surrounded No Yes
by a cellulose wall. They have chloroplasts which contain
chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis. Mosses Ferns, gymnosperms,
• are autotrophic beings: they can make their own food angiosperms
through photosynthesis.
• live attached to the soil. However, they are able to make
Do they have flowers?
some movements. For example, they grow towards light.
How are plants classified? No Yes
Plants are classified in two groups: non-flowering and flowering.

• Non-flowering plants are simple plants without flowers
or seeds.
– Mosses. They are small, and non-vascular: they have
no conductor vessels. Do they have fruit?
– Ferns. They are bigger than mosses. They are vascular:
they have conductor vessels to distribute water and No Yes
nutrients.
• Flowering plants are more complex, with flowers and seeds.
– Gymnosperms. They have seeds inside a false fruit, like
a pinecone.
– Angiosperms. They have seeds inside a real fruit.
Mosses Ferns Gymnosperms: pine Angiosperms: roses
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2. What are non-flowering plants like?

Mosses and ferns are
capsule
non-flowering plants: spores
• They reproduce by spores. The
swimming
mature spores are dispersed by fertilisation sperm
the wind. The spores germinate
and produce new mosses or
ferns.
• They grow in damp, shady
places. They need a lot of water zygote b a
in order to reproduce.
germinating
mature gametophytes spore
Life cycle of a moss
Mosses Ferns
The main characteristics are: The main characteristics are:
• very small, non-vascular plants. • vascular plants. They can be very large.
• no true roots, stems or leaves. They fix • have roots, stems and leaves. The stem, called
themselves to the ground by rhizoids. a rhizome, grows horizontally in the round.
• Instead of leaves, they have small laminas called • The leaves are large, and are called fronds.
phyllodes. • ferns develop clusters of spores called sorus
• Mosses produce spores inside capsules at the (plural: sori) on the underside of the fronds.
end of filaments.
frond
capsule
filament
root
rhizome
sorus
spores
phyllodes
spores
rhizoid
Moss Fern
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3. What are flowering plants like?

There are two main groups: gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Both grow seeds in order to reproduce.
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
• Most are evergreens, like pine trees and • Many are deciduous, for example, oak trees.
sequoias. They have leaves all year. The leaves They lose their leaves in winter.
are normally shaped like needles. • The seeds are enclosed by a fruit. The fruit
• The seeds are not protected by a fruit. protects the seeds. It also enables them to be
• They have small, insignificant flowers. These dispersed more easily.
group together into inflorescences or cones. • They have brightly coloured flowers. The
These cones are male and female. flowers attract animals and facilitate polinisation.
male cones contain

the pollen
flowers
leaves
Gymnosperm: pine tree fruit

Angiosperm: oak tree
leaves
The female cones, called Did you know that...?
pinecones, contain the seeds,
called pine nuts The largest flower belongs
to the species Rafflesia arnoldii.
One flower can reach a diameter
of 1 m and weigh up to 11 kg.
Activities
2. Which characteristics differentiate gymnosperms
and angiosperms?
3. Research the plants where you live. Classify them into the four
main groups in a chart. Describe their reproduction, and identify
them as vascular or non-vascular, with cones or with fruits.
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4. What functions do leaves,

stems and roots have? topside
Plants have three main organs: leaves, stems and roots.

blade
Leaves underside
Photosynthesis takes place in leaves. The leaves take in petiole
and expel gases from the atmosphere. They eliminate

excess water in the form of water vapour. This process is apical stomata
called transpiration. bud
The main part of a leaf is called the blade. A leaf has a

topside and an underside. A petiole joins the leaf to the
leaves
stem. Gases and water vapour enter the leaf and are
expelled through small pores. These pores, stomata, are
found on the underside of the leaf. node
Stems
Plant stems are usually above ground. The stem keeps the
plant upright and supports it. It also carries substances to
other parts of the plant. Some stems, for example, the
potato, accumulate reserves of water and food.
stem
Leaves and branches are joined to the stem at nodes. The main root
part of the stem between the nodes is called the

secundary
internode. Stems grow upwards from the apical bud. roots
Lateral branches grow out of axilliary buds along the
stem.
Roots root
cap
Plant roots have two functions: to fix the plant to the
root
ground, and absorb water and minerals. Some roots, for hairs
example, carrots and beetroots, accumulate food reserves. root
cap
The root surface is covered with many tiny hairs
which absorb the water and minerals. Each root ends
in a root cap.
Did you know that...? Activities

When the Venus Flytrap plant 4. Where do vegetables
detects an insect, its leaves come from? Make a poster
close quickly to trap the insect showing the vegetables you
inside. eat. Classify them as: leaf,
stem, root, rhizome, etc.
5. Draw a plant. Label
the main parts.
Venus flytrap
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Hands on
Observation and classification of leaves
What is a classification system?

A classification system is an organised way of grouping
objects into similar categories. Scientists use criteria
(rules) to sort the objects into categories. needle shape not needle
Each category in the classification is labelled. An shape
effective system has multiple levels of increasing detail.
Creating a leaf classification system Group A

There are an enormous variety of shapes and sizes
not parallel parallel
of leaves in the plant kingdom. veins
veins
In pairs or groups, use these steps to create your own
classification system.
1. Collect samples. Group B
Collect as many different samples of leaves as

possible. Remember, pine needles are leaves! simple leaves compound leaves
2. Establish criteria for classifying the samples.

a. Separate the leaf samples into two different
groups. You must use discriminating and
objective criteria so everybody will decide the two smooth not smooth opposite alternate
different groups, without personal opinions. edge edge arrangement arrangement
Look at the diagram to help you.
b. Now choose new criteria to separate these
groups into two more groups.
c. Repeat this process again with the new groups,
until all the leaf samples in a particular group
have similar characteristics.
Group C Group D Group E Group F
3. Create a key to explain the classification.

a. Write down your selection criteria. For example: Group A: leaves shaped like needles.
The key can then be used to classify new leaf samples.
b. Test your classification system and key. Ask a classmate to add a new leaf sample to
a group. If this is done correctly, you know your classification works.
A
Activities
6. Using your key, classify leaves A and B, into groups.
7. How might you change your criteria for classification B
if you were sorting leaves for a Maths class?
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5. How do plants reproduce?

• Asexual reproduction. Only
one plant is involved. When Taking a
you take a cutting of a cutting of a
geranium
geranium and replant it,
plant
asexual reproduction takes
place.
• Sexual reproduction. Sexual
cells from two different plants
join together to produce a new
plant. Flowering plants have
sexual reproduction.
Geraniums reproduce asexually from cuttings of stems with leaves
Main parts of a flower
Flowers are the reproductive corolla (petals)
organs of angiosperms and
gymnosperms. Flowers have two
parts: the reproductive part and
the protective part.
• Reproductive parts: the stamen
(male reproductive part) and
the pistil (female part).
The ovules are found inside the pendule
ovary. During reproduction, pollen
stigma
calyx
the ovules come into contact grains (sepals)
with the pollen which is
produced in the stamen. style
anther
• Protective parts: the petals,
which make up the corolla,
and the sepals, which make up
the calyx. ovary
filament
ovules
“Bee” orchids (genus Ophrys)
have flowers which resemble
female bees. When a male Stamen Pistil
insect lands Flower
on the
flower, the Activities
pollen rubs
on to it, and 8. Study the flower diagram on this page. Identify the reproductive
the insect and protective parts of the flower.
flies off. 9. Research ways that pollen can be carried from flower to flower.
Make a list, and give an example of a plant to illustrate each one.
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The reproductive stages

Plant reproduction has the following stages: 3. Fruit and seed formation. The fertilised flower
pollination, fertilisation, formation of fruit and is transformed. The corolla and the calyx dry up.
seeds, dispersal and germination. The ovary changes into the fruit. The ovules are
1. Pollination. Pollen from one flower’s anther transformed into seeds inside the fruit.
reaches another flower’s stigma. 4. Dispersal. The ripe fruit falls off the plant or
2. Fertilisation. Pollen reaches the stigma, releases the seeds.
penetrates it, and fertilises the ovules inside the 5. Germination. The seeds fall on the ground and
ovary. germinate. A small root and shoot grow.
Life cycle of a plant
Wind and animals

The plant transport pollen from
flowers one flower to another
A new plant
grows from
each seed
pollen
grain
After
dispersal, pollen
the seed seed tube
germinates
fruit
ovules
Formation
of the seed
and fruit
Fertilisation takes place
inside the ovary
6. Can plants react? Activities

10. Describe the reproductive
Plants receive information from the environment, and react to it.
stages of a plant. Refer to
There are two types of reaction: the drawing and text.
• Permanent reactions. These reactions relate to growth. For
In stage 1, pollination …
example, if you place a plant horizontally, the stem will grow Where does (fruit and seed
and curve towards the light. The roots will grow down into formation) take place?
the soil.
• Temporary reactions. The plant returns to its initial position 11. Study the plants around
you. Find examples of
when the change stops. For example, some carnivorous plants
permanent reactions.
close their leaves when an insect lands on them.
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sunlight
7. What is plant nutrition?

Plants are autotrophic: they produce their own food. carbon
They use their leaves, stems and roots to carry dioxide
out these processes:
• Absorption. Plants absorb water and mineral salts
from the soil through their roots. When mineral
salts dissolve in the water, raw sap is produced.
oxygen
• Transportation. The raw sap travels up
the conductor vessels from the roots
to the stem and leaves. elaborated sap
raw sap is distributed
• Transpiration. Excess water is expelled through water travels up
vapour
the stomata as water vapour. As a result, raw sap
goes up into the leaves.
• Photosynthesis. Raw sap is transformed
in the leaves into elaborated sap: a mixture
of water and organic substances. It contains
sugars. Sunlight provides the energy needed
for this process. During photosynthesis,
the plant absorbs carbon dioxide through
its leaves. The leaves then expel oxygen
through the stomata.
Finally, the elaborated sap is distributed throughout Water and mineral salts
the plant cells by the conductor vessels.
• Respiration. Plants breathe. During respiration, plant leaves Activities
take in oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide.
12. Draw a diagram of a plant.
Indicate the phases of
carbon carbon nutrition for each part.
oxygen dioxide oxygen dioxide
13. Observe these drawings.
F F F
in respiration out F respiration a. What does each drawing
in out
represent? Day or night?
b. Do plants breathe and carry
out photosynthesis all day?
Explain your answers.
O2 A
CO2
carbon
dioxide oxygen O2 B
CO2
F
F photosynthesis
Daytime: respiration and photosynthesis Nighttime: plants breathe but do NOT CO2
take place simultaneously. Plants carry out photosynthesis. O2
breathe AND carry out photosynthesis.
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cap
8. What are fungi like?
Fungi generally grow in the soil in dark,
damp places. ring
gills
The main characteristics of all fungi are:

• They can be unicellular or
multicellular. However, multicellular
fungi do not produce different types of
tissues.
• The cells are eukaryotic. They have a
true nucleus and a rigid cell wall. They spores
stalk
are similar to plants, but have no mycellium
cellulose.
• They are heterotrophic: they do not hyphae
produce their own food. There are two
types: saprotrophs and parasites.
– Saprotrophs break down food from
dead, organic materials.
– Parasites feed on other living beings.
They cause diseases in plants and
human beings.
Toadstool
• The body is made up of hyphae which
are microscopic filaments. The hyphae
group together to form the mycelium, Activities
which grows underground.
14. Compare fungi and plants. How are they different?
• Fungi reproduce by spores. When the
How are they the same?
spores are dispersed, they form new
hyphae which grow into new fungi. 15. Talk about fungi:
Which fungi are… …edible? …useful?

Three groups of fungi …parasites? …multi-cellular? …poisonous?
Fungi can be classified into three main 16. Research mushrooms and toadstools. Make a poster.
groups.
Yeasts. Some are parasites. Others are Moulds. Multicellular. Some are parasites. Mushrooms. Multicellular. Some are
useful. Yeast is useful for making bread, Others feed on organic matter and edible. Others are poisonous.
beer, wine. decompose it: bread mould, fruit mould.
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Activities
17. Can a plant move around? And make movements? e. Elaborated sap is transported to all parts.
Explain your answer, giving examples. f. Photosynthesis takes place in the cells of the
green parts of the plant.
18. Study the photos and answer.
a. What environments do plants live in? 25. Copy and label the flower diagram.
b. How do they carry out nutrition?
c. Are plants unicellular or multicellular?
A B C
26. Compare mosses and ferns. Complete the chart.
Vascular Roots,
Size or non- stems, Reproduction
vascular? leaves?
Mosses
19. Plants are autotrophic organisms. Ferns
Can photosynthesis take place in a plant root?
Why or why not? 27. Describe the life cycle of a moss.
20. Which part of the plant is each of these foods? 28. Why do you think male pine cones are located on
a. cauliflower b. lettuce c. carrot the far ends of the branches?
d. green bean e. artichoke f. red pepper
29. Paper is made with cellulose. To obtain the
21. Imagine the stem from a white carnation is left in a cellulose from trees, they are cut down.
glass of red ink. a. How could more trees be saved?
a. After some time, the carnation petals turn red. b. How can you recycle paper?
Why does this happen? c. How else can you save and reuse paper?
b. What mechanism allows the liquid to travel up
the stem? 30. Look at the tree trunk. There are pairs of rings.
The light area corresponds to springtime, when the
22. If a flowerpot is placed in a window, the stem grows tree grows most. The dark corresponds to autumn,
in the direction of the light. Is this reaction when it grows less. To find out a tree’s age, count
temporary or permanent? each pair of light and dark rings.
How old is this tree ?
23. Cacti have very small leaves, like thorns.
What advantage does this have for the plant? What
characteristics of cacti allow them to survive
in the desert?
24. Put the stages of plant nutrition in order.

a. Carbon dioxide enters through the stomata.
b. The raw sap travels from the root to the leaves.
c. Oxygen is released and elaborated sap is formed.
d. The roots absorb water and mineral salts, and raw
sap is formed.
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Plants are multicellular, autotrophic living things.
They live fixed to the soil, but can make some movements.
• Nutrition. There are five stages: absorption

of nutrients, transportation, transpiration,
photosynthesis and respiration.
Functions • Interaction with environment. Plants can respond
to changes.
• Reproduction. Asexual (only one plant is involved)
and sexual (two different plants are involved).
• Mosses. They are small, non-vascular plants.

Non-flowering They have no true roots stems or leaves.
PLANTS
plants • Ferns. They are vascular plants. They have roots,

stems and leaves called fronds.
• Gymnosperms. They have seeds, but no fruit.

They have small, insignificant flowers.
• Angiosperms. The seeds are protected by a fruit.
They have colourful flowers.
Leaves. They carry out photosynthesis. Gases are
exchanged and transpiration takes place through
Flowering
the leaf stomata.
Plants
Stems. They keep the plant upright and support the
plant structure.
Roots. They fix the plant in the soil, and absorb water
and mineral salts.
Flowers. They contain the reproductive system.
The main parts are the corolla, calyx, stamen and pistil.
Fungi can be unicellular or multicellular. They have eukaryotic cells.

They are heterotrophic. Fungi are made up of hyphae, which group
together to form the mycelium. Fungi are classified into:
FUNGI
• Yeasts. Unicellular. They are used to make bread, wine, beer…

• Moulds. Multicellular. They grow on food products.
• Mushrooms and toadstools. Multicellular. Some are edible, others are
poisonous.
Projects
INVESTIGATE: How is bread made? How was penicillin discovered? What sort of fungi are involved?
WEB TASK: Where can you find the tallest tree in the world?
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UNIT
7 The simplest
living things
• What do all living things have in common?
• What three vital functions do all living things carry out?
• What is the chemical composition of all living things?
• Where can you find microorganisms?

In this unit, you will … Expressing facts
• Identify the main characteristics Parasites feed off living things.
of microorganisms Saprophytes live on decomposing matter.
• Examine the structure and vital functions Describing

of bacteria Viruses cannot live independently of their host.
Algae have no true tissues or organs.
• Learn how viruses are structured
Giving instructions
• Observe microorganisms under the
Label each jar. Observe the samples.
microscope
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1. What is the Monera kingdom?

The Monera kingdom contains unicellular, flagellum
microscopic, prokaryotic organisms. They do not have
an organised nucleus.
Bacteria belong to the Monera kingdom. They can live
almost anywhere. They sometimes form colonies, but each
genetic
individual cell remains independent. The first living material
things on Earth, more than 3,500 million years ago,
were probably bacteria.
cytoplasm
Bacteria nutrition
Most bacteria are heterotrophs: they do not produce
bacteria
their own food. capsule
• Parasites feed off living things. They cause illnesses
like tuberculosis and cholera.
cell wall
• Saprophytes live on dead or decomposing matter.
They transform organic substances into inorganic
plasmatic membrane
substances. Some saprophytes are useful: lactobacilo
is used to make yoghurt. Bacteria cell structure
• Symbionts live on the bodies of other living things
to provide mutual benefit. They can be found in the
digestive system of many mammals. There, intestinal
bacteria help with digestion.
Some bacteria are autotrophs. For example, cyanobacteria Activities
make their own food through photosynthesis.
1. Draw a bacteria cell and label it: cell wall,
Bacteria reproduction cell membrane, cytoplasm.
2. Compare bacteria. Complete the chart:
Bacteria generally reproduce by binary fission,
producing two daughter cells. Each daughter cell Nutrition
grows, and then divides again. Parasites Saprophytes Symbionts

Bacteria can be classified into four groups by their shape.
Coccus. Spherical Bacillus. Rod-shaped Vibrio. Curved-rod shaped Spirillum. Helical
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2. What is the Protoctist kingdom?

The Protoctist kingdom includes unicellular and multicellular living
things. They are all eukaryotes and have no tissues.
Protozoa and algae are found in this kingdom. Did you know that...?
Plasmodium, which cause
What are protozoa? malaria, need both a
vertebrate and a mosquito to
The main characteristics of protozoa are: complete their life cycle.
• Unicellular. A single cell carries out all the vital functions.
• Heterotrophs. They feed on bacteria, organic remains
and other microscopic organisms.
• They live in both salt water and fresh water. Some protozoa float
on water, zooplankton, and are food for aquatic animals.
• Some are parasites, and cause illnesses.

There are four groups of protozoa. They are classified according to
the way they move.
blood
flagellum cell
cilia pseudopods plasmodium

Flagellates Ciliates Rhizopods Sporozoa
Movement: using a Movement: using cilia: Movement: using No movement.
flagellum or tail. hair-like organs. pseudopods: projections Nutrition: All are parasites.
Nutrition: some are Nutrition: Some are of cell cytoplasm. Fact: Plasmodium causes
parasites. parasites. Nutrition: Some are malaria.
Fact: Trypanosoma causes Fact: Paramecium is shaped parasites, others are not.
sleeping sickness. like a slipper. It has two Fact: Entamoeba histolytica
nuclei. causes dystentery.
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What are algae?

The main characteristics of algae are:
• Unicellular or multi-cellular. Unicellular algae sometimes
form colonies. Each cell can carry out the vital functions.
All the cells of multicellular algae look the same and have
the same functions. Therefore, algae have no true tissues or organs.
• Autotrophs. They contain chlorophyll and other pigments
which capture sunlight for photosynthesis. They can be classified
by their pigment: green, brown or red.
• Some live in salt water and fresh water, but others live on tree
trunks or rocks. Some unicellular algae, like diatomea, float on
water forming phytoplankton, and are food for aquatic animals. Diatomea. These unicelular algae have
a silica shell formed by two interlocking
Algae provide food for humans too, for example, ice cream is made valves.
from algae. Industrial uses include medicines and fertilisers.
Green algae Brown algae Red algae

Colour: mainly green Colour: green, yellowish pigment Colour: green and red
Habitat: on the surface of salt water Habitat: salt water, on rocky coasts Habitat: deep in warm, still ocean
or fresh water and on the surface of water. water
Example: Euglena, Ulva Example: Diatomeas, Sargazos Example: Coralina
Did you know that...? Activities

3. Compare protoctists and monera. Examples:
Many acuatic ... live in ... . ... are autotrophs, but ... are ... .
animals feed on
4. Describe how each group of protozoa move.
zooplankton and
Example: ... move using... . ...do not move.
phytoplankton.
5. What do algae have in common with plants?
Example:
6. Compare protozoa and algae. Draw a Venn
the blue whale
diagram.
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3. What are viruses?

Viruses are not cells, so they are not really living things. They cannot
carry out any vital functions by themselves. They infect living cells,
and then they can reproduce. They are always obligate parasites:
they cannot live independently of their host.
What is a virus like?

The main characteristics
of viruses are:
Flu virus seen under an electron microscope
• Extremely small. They
can only be seen through
an electron microscope. Nucleic acid. Genetic material
• Unable to move. inside the capsid
• Extensive habitat. They Capsid. A protein shell.

are found on the ground, It can have different shapes.
in the air and in water.
Viral envelope. It covers the capsid. Only some
viruses like influenza or HIV viruses have one.
Virus infection process

1. The virus enters 2. Reproduction: viruses use the infected 3. The viral components 4. New viruses
the cell. cell to make the viral components. assemble. leave the cell.
cell membrane
Infected cell

Rabies, a fatal disease
in humans, is caused by
Activities
a virus. Louis Pasteur 7. Which vital function do
and Emile Roux developed viruses share with other
the first rabies vaccination living things?
in 1885. 8. Draw and label a virus.
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4. What are infectious diseases?

An infectious disease occurs when a pathogenic microorganism respiratory
invades a living thing, and causes an illness. system
Microorganisms reproduce very quickly inside the body. However,

the effects of an infection are not immediate. First, there is
an incubation period. Then, various symptoms
of the illness are observed, for example, a high temperature.
When microorganisms are transmitted from a sick person digestive
contact system
to a healthy one, contagion occurs. Transmission can take place with
in many ways: see the diagram and chart. the skin
Symptoms are the effects that a disease has on the body, and
can be observed.
Vectors are insects that carry a disease from one person to another.
Mosquitos (Anopheles) can carry Plasmodium which causes malaria,
if they bite an infected person.
Some illnesses caused by microorganisms

Transmitted
Illness Microorganism Symptoms
through
sexual
contact
stuffed up nose,
sneezing, high
Cold virus the air
temperature,
coughing
general
sexual and blood
AIDS virus weakness,
contact
weakened defences
fever, coughing,
Pneumonia bacteria the air pulmonary
infection
How microorganisms enter the body
high temperature,
Salmonellosis bacteria spoiled food nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea
Activities
nausea, vomiting,
contaminated
Cholera protozoan stomachache, 9. Use the diagram and chart
water
severe diarrhoea to classify the entry points
for each illness.
the bite of the headache, Copy the diagram and label
Malaria protozoan female Anopheles intermittent it with the illneses.
mosquito vomiting, fever
10. Choose two more common
itching and cracked illnesses. Copy the chart
microscopic physical contact headings and complete
Athlete’s foot skin, scaly skin
fungus through the skin them for both illnesses.
between the toes
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Hands on
Taking and classifying samples. Observing microorganisms
Scientists obtain data from nature by collecting samples. They do this for different reasons:
• To compare. For example, on farms, blood • To classify. Classification helps scientists to

samples are taken from animals. These are organise and understand the natural world.
compared to check the animals’ health.
Compare two water samples. Then classify water with leaves and soil
the microscopic living things in the water. tap water
puddle water
1. Take the samples. Put water from a

puddle into a glass jar with a screw top.
Alternative: put water in a bowl and mix
it with some soil and dried leaves. Let it
rest for a few days. Put some tap water
into another clean jar. Label each jar. bowl
2. Observe the samples. Using a pipette,

put three drops of puddle water onto
a microscope slide. Include a fragment Navicula
of vegetation or clay. Put three drops of
clean water onto another slide. Paramecium
Look at the puddle water through the
microscope. First observe it with low Colpidium
magnification, then increase it. Study all
Phyllodinea
parts of the slide for a few minutes.
Repeat the process with the tap water.
Vorticella
3. Identify the living things. Look at
drawings of freshwater microscopic Scenedesmus
organisms to recognise the samples Euglena
under the microscope.
4. Classify the living things.

Can you classify them into groups? Cosmarium
Activities
11. Did you see any microorganisms in the tap 14. Compare vaccines and antibiotics. See page 81.
water? Did that surprise you? Why or why not? Make a Venn diagram.
12. Did you identify any living things in the puddle 15. Can antibiotics cure a cold? See page 81. Explain
water? Draw and label them. Remember to write your answer.
down the microscope magnification. 16. How does intestinal flora help human beings?
13. Would you drink puddle water? Why or why not? See page 81.
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5. How can you fight infectious diseases?

You can protect yourself from infection in several ways:
• Personal hygiene: wash your hands before eating.
• Eat and drink only fresh food and drinks.
Penicillin was first discovered
Vaccines by Alexander Fleming.
It was later developed as an
A vaccine contains dead or weakened microorganisms from a specific antibiotic. Penicillin has
illness. These microorganisms cannot produce the illness, but they saved millions of lives.
can protect against it.
Vaccines teach the body how to fight an illness. Therefore vaccination
is a preventive measure. Your body can fight against microorganisms
if it is exposed to them. Most vaccines protect the body indefinitely.
Others require a booster dose, another dose, later on.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are produced by certain bacteria and fungi. They prevent
the microorganisms that cause illnesses from growing. Antibiotics are
curative measures and must always be prescribed by a doctor. They
cannot fight illnesses caused by viruses.
6. Are all microorganisms harmful?

All viruses are pathogenic. They are parasites that • Intestinal flora are bacteria that live in human
cause illnesses. A few bacteria, protozoa or and animal digestive systems. They are useful
microscopic fungi are pathogenic. because they produce vitamins.
Many microorganisms are beneficial: • Other bacteria are used to obtain antibiotics.
Decomposer microorganisms Plankton is the primary food for many Some bacteria are used to make food,
transform dead animals and plants aquatic animals. like cheese.
into inorganic substances. Some
are harmful.
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Activities
17. Look at the drawings of a bacteria and a virus. 22. Investigate. Red tide is a natural phenomenon.
a. Label them. What characteristics helped you? It is caused by an accumulation of living things.
Red tide affects the world’s coasts, especially
b. What do these organisms have in common?
in spring and summer. Each year it causes
a b the death of many fish, shellfish, molluscs,
h
a mussels, oysters, cockles and other marine
b bivalves.
c a. What type of living things cause red tide?
f
i b. How do you think the marine animals become
e g
infected?
d
c. Can red tide affect people? Why or why not?
18. What type of organism or structure, 1-3,
corresponds to each description? 23. Many bacteria live symbiotically inside the digestive
tract of herbivorous animals, like the giraffe,
a. They are not really cells; they are obligate elephant or cow.
parasites.
a. Are these bacteria autotrophs or heterotrophs?
b. Autotrophs or heterotrophs with prokaryotic cells.
b. Where do they obtain their nutrients?
c. Heterotrophous, eukaryotic, unicellular organisms.
24. Look at the protozoa in photos A-D.
1 2 3
A B
HIV virus Intestinal bacteria Paramecium

(0,11 mm) (1 ␮m) (20 ␮m)
19. Microorganisms are microscopic living beings.

They are measured in micrometres: one millionth C D
of a metre, or one thousandth of a millimetre (␮m).
a. How big, in millimetres, is each microorganism
in the picture in activity 18?
b. Classify each microorganism: eukaryotic
or prokaryotic.
c. Which of these microorganisms is not
considered a living thing? What type of structures enables each to move?
d. What makes prokaryotic microorganisms
different from eukaryotic microorganisms? 25. Cavities in teeth are produced by microorganisms
like streptococcus and lactobacillus.
20. Unlike certain bacteria and pathogenic protozoa, a. What type of microorganism are they?
cyanbacteria and unicellular algae do not produce b. Are cavities considered an infectious disease?
diseases. Why or why not?
Why do you think this is? c. What is the best way to prevent cavities?
21. Compare bacteria, protozoa and algae: cell type, 26. Research beneficial microorganisms in the food
nutrition and habitat. Create a table. industry. Display your results in a poster.
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The Monera kingdom includes unicellular, microscopic,
prokaryotic organisms.
Monera Bacteria belong to the Monera kingdom. They are
Kingdom classified according to shape:
• Coccus: Spherical • Bacillus: Rod-shaped
• Vibrio: Curved-rod shaped • Spirillum: Helical
The Protoctist kingdom includes unicellular and

multicellular living things. They are all eukaryotes and
have no tissues. They are generally very small and include:
• Protozoa are unicellular. They are heterotrophs.
MICROORGANISMS
They live in both salt and fresh water. Some are

Protoctist
parasites. They are classified by the way they move:
Kingdom
flagellates, ciliates, rhizopods and sporozoa.
• Algae may be unicellular or multicellular. They are
autotrophs. They sometimes form colonies. They live
in salt and fresh water. Algae are classified as green,
brown and red.
Microorganisms can be harmful or beneficial.

Harmful microorganisms:
A few microorganisms cause illnesses. Contagion
occurs when microorganisms are transmitted from
a sick person to a healthy one.
Micro-
Beneficial microorganisms:
organisms
• Decomposer microorganisms
• Plankton
• Intestinal flora
• Some are used to make food
• Some are used to obtain antibiotics and other medicines.
VIRUSES
Viruses are extremely small.

They are not cells, so they are not true living things.
They are obligate parasites, that is, they cannot live without the host.
They consist of a capsid, an external shell and nucleic acid.
Projects
EXPERIMENT: Put moist bread in a plastic box. Observe the changes after a few days. What causes them?
WEB TASK: Find out about friendly and unfriendly microbes.
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Rock stars...
Stereoscopic microscopes illuminate solid objects from above. They are used to obtain
magnified, three-dimensional images. They are very useful for studying rocks.
Images from a
stereoscopic microscope
eyepiece
tube
fine focusing
knob
light source coarse

focusing knob
stage
arm (limb)
stand
1. Match these rocks to their corresponding image above.
1 2 3
granite limestone sandstone
2. Describe each rock sample. For example:
black/ white /grey/ reddish / cream.

Granite is heterogeneous / homogeneous.
smooth / rough / sandy.
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and instruments
There are many different meteorological instruments used to study the Earth’s atmosphere
and weather. For example:
A thermometer A rain gauge A hygrometer

measures or pluviometer measures humidity
temperature. measures rainfall. in the air.
3. Look at these photos. What do you think the weather is like in each place?
A B
The Sahara Desert The North Pole
C D
A rain forest A deciduous wood
4. Match each text to its corresponding photo. 5. Say what the weather is like
where you live.
1 Temperature: high 2 Temperature: extremely high. Where I live the temperature is...
Precipitation: very abundant Precipitation: very low.
Humidity: very high. Humidity: very low.
3 Temperature: very low 4 Temperature: medium

Precipitation: very abundant Precipitation: abundant
Humidity: very high Humidity: high
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UNIT
8 The Earth’s
atmosphere
• What elements can you see
in the photo? Describe
them.
• In which part of our planet
do these phenomena form?
• What other atmospheric
phenomena do you know?
• Air is a mixture of gases.
Which are the most
abundant?
• Is the composition of air
the same at sea level as
at the top of a very high
mountain?

In this unit, you will … Expressing amounts
• Examine the origin and composition of the The Earth’s atmosphere is about 800 km high.
atmosphere The density of air is about 1kg/m3.
• Discover how living things affect the Comparing
composition of the atmosphere The ionosphere is the highest and the thickest
• Analyse how wind, clouds and layer.
precipitation are formed The higher the altitude, the lower the density
• Study the effects of living things on of air.
atmosphere and climate The higher a place is, the colder and wetter it will be.
• Make and use a meteorological instrument
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1. What do we know about the atmosphere?

The atmosphere is made up of gases in different proportions. Composition of the air
Nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant. The atmosphere was very Nitrogen (N2). Colourless.
Odourless. 78 % of air
different 4,600 million years ago.
• The primitive atmosphere was made up of water vapour, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, methane and other oxides,
but no oxygen.
The first living beings (bacteria), produced oxygen by
photosynthesis. Molecules formed when chemical reactions took
place between some gases. These molecules fell to Earth with rain. Oxygen (O2). Other gases: 1 %
Colourless. Argon (Ar).
• The present atmosphere is made up of 78 % nitrogen, 21 % Ozone (O3)
Almost all living
oxygen, 1 % carbon dioxide, water vapour, and other gases, such creatures breathe it. Water vapour
as argon. 21 % of air. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Necessary for
Much later, the ozone layer was formed from oxygen. The ozone photosynthesis
layer protects life from harmful radiation from the Sun.
The layers of the atmosphere Activity

1. Why does oxygen in the
There are four layers. The Earth’s atmosphere is about 800 km high atmosphere make it suitable
and is held in place by the Earth’s gravity. The separation in layers is for life? And carbon
caused by variation in temperature with respect to altitude. dioxide? And water?
500 km
Ionosphere. The highest and the

thickest layer. Its temperature
increases to 1,000 °C due to X-rays
and gamma rays from the Sun.
400 km Comets appear here.
80 km
Mesosphere. About 40 km thick.

It contains clouds of ice and dust.
A LT I T U D E
300 km
40 km
Ozonosphere
Stratosphere. About 30 km thick.
There is an increase in
temperature from −70 °C at its
200 km lower limit to 0 °C at its higher limit.
The ozone layer is here.
10 km
Troposphere. Very thin, but
contains 80 % of the total mass of
100 km the atmosphere. This is where
80 km meteorological phenomena occur.
40 km
10 km
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2. What makes up the weather?

Weather describes the state of atmospheric conditions
at a certain place, over a short period of time. Weather conditions Did you know that...?
include:
• Humidity. The concentration of water vapour in the Weather spreads the Sun’s
atmosphere. heat around the Earth. Without
• Clouds. Formed when rising air cools. weather, the tropics would get
hotter and the Poles would get
• Precipitation. Water that falls to the ground: rain, snow and
colder, until there was no life
hail.
on Earth.
• Temperature. How hot or cold the air is.
• Wind. Movements of air.
Atmospheric pressure
Air has weight. The pressure it exerts on a surface is called
atmospheric pressure. It is caused by gravity, and is measured
in millibars (mb).
In the 17th century, the Italian scientist, Torricelli, proved that
atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Therefore, at sea L
level, the pressure is higher than at the top of a mountain.
The density of air on the Earth’s surface is about 1 kg/m3. This
means that 1 m3 weighs 1 kg. The higher the altitude, the lower
the density of air.
Predicting the weather

H
996
1 00
Air moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
0
This enables weather forecasters to predict the weather.
On weather maps, lines called isobars connect
Air moves because the Sun heats it. Hot air rises and the colder points with the same atmospheric pressure.
surrounding air moves in to take its place. Look at this example.
• Low pressure area. Air moves from the sea towards a land H = high pressure L = low pressure
mass. It brings humidity with it. Clouds form and
precipitations occur.
• High pressure area. Air moves from a land mass towards the
sea. There are no clouds and the sun shines.
992
1008
10
04
988
1 016
1 000
12 980 984 Activities

10 H L
2. What is atmospheric pressure?
996
3. Does the atmospheric pressure at

the Poles have the same value as
at the Equator? Explain.
The rotation of the Earth also makes air move in spirals.
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3. What factors affect climate?

Climate describes the characteristic pattern of weather in an area,
over a long period of time. Factors affecting climate are: Activities
• Latitude. How far north or south a place is from the Equator. 4. Look at the four factors that
At the Equator, solar energy is concentrated and causes high affect climate. Can you define
temperatures. Towards the north and south, solar energy is how these affect the climate in
more spread out and causes cold temperatures. your part of the country?
• Altitude. The height above sea level. The higher a place is, 5. What will the weather probably
the colder it will be. be like if you are looking at
• Distance from the sea. cirrus clouds? And if you are
looking at cumulonimbus
– Sea water heats up slowly and cools down slowly. In winter
clouds?
the sea releases heat, keeping coastal areas warmer.
– Land heats up quickly and cools down quickly. In summer,
cold sea keeps coastal areas cooler.
• Ocean currents.
– Warm ocean currents flow up from the tropics to the poles
and warm up surrounding areas, especially in winter.
– Cold ocean currents can lower temperatures in an area.
Clouds and precipitation

• Rain occurs when condensation makes large, heavy droplets
which fall to Earth. Snow and hail occur when the water
vapour in the air freezes.
• Clouds form when rising air cools. Some of the water vapour
molecules in the air condense to form cloud droplets or ice
crystals.
There are three basic types of clouds: cirrus, cumulus and
stratus. There are many variations of these. Coastal areas have milder weather than
inland areas.
Cirrus. High, thin clouds. These Cumulus. Like cotton wool. They form Stratus clouds. Low, horizontal clouds.
form above 6,000 m. They at about 1000 m. They can develop into These normally cover most of the sky.
normally mean fair weather. cumulonimbus: thunder clouds. Usually no precipitation falls.
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4. What is meteorology?
Meteorology is the study of different atmospheric variables to make weather
predictions. Meteorologists collect information about temperature,
precipitation, wind, the humidity of the air, atmospheric pressure and clouds.
1 024
1 008
1 016
H
1 024
1 00 0
1 016
1 02 4 1 008
1 016
L
Meteostat photo Meteorological map Map with weather symbols
The most important meteorological instruments
A thermometer
measures A barometer measures
temperature. atmospheric pressure.
Activities
6. You hear this report on the
radio:
A rain gauge / Wind speeds were 95
A hygrometer measures kilometers an hour and 200
pluviometer
the humidity in the air. litres of rain fell per square
measures the
metre. What instruments
amount of rainfall were used to collect this
per square metre. information?
7. Copy and complete.
Metereological Measures/
instrument Shows
anemometer
An anemometer barometer
A weather vane shows
measures wind the direction the wind is
speed. coming from.
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Hands on
Observing the weather
Make and use an anemometer to measure wind speed

An anemometer measures wind speed. Remember that wind is simply moving air.
Materials
– A pencil with an eraser end – One coloured plastic cup
– A drawing pin – Three white plastic cups
– A plastic plate – A stapler
1. a. Staple each cup to the plate so that

they are spread out equally.
b. Pin the plate to the eraser on the end
of the pencil. Make sure the plate
can spin round easily.
c. Take your anemometer outside.
2. Watch the wind blow the cups around.

Count the number of times the coloured
cup passes in one minute.
(Revolutions per minute = RPM)
3. Record the wind speed for one week.

At the same time, observe the weather
for each day. Record if it is fair or unstable.
4. Interpret the results How to calculate the wind speed

Can you prove or disprove the following First, calculate the circumference (in metres)
hypothesis using your results? of the circle made by the rotating paper cups.
High wind speed is directly related to unstable Multiply the RPM value by the circumference
weather. of the circle. This gives you the approximate wind
speed in metres per minute.
Activities
8. How cloudy is it when the air pressure is lowest / highest?
9. What kind of wind is associated with rain?
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5. How do humans impact on the atmosphere?

Human activities cause atmospheric pollution: the think that air pollution is causing the Earth’s
release of harmful substances called pollutants into surface to heat up.
the atmosphere.
Most pollutants are gases: sulphur dioxide, carbon Acid rain
dioxide and nitrogen oxide. They are produced by Rain is naturally slightly acidic due to carbon
combustion from motor vehicles, aeroplanes, by dioxide dissolved in it. Pollutants such as sulphur
burning fossil fuels, and from industrial activities. dioxide and nitrogen oxide, form acids when
Air pollutants can also be particles of liquid and mixed with the rain.
solid molecules: ash from forest fires, black smoke,
dust and soot. The hole in the ozone layer
Pollulants in the air can cause: respiratory system
Ozone exists throughout the atmosphere, mainly
irritation, eye irritation, increase in asthmatic
concentrated in the stratosphere. Ozone is being
processes, headaches.
destroyed by air pollution. Chemicals called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in aerosols and
Global warming refrigerators escape into the atmosphere. They
In the last century, our atmosphere has warmed react with ozone and destroy it. Harmful solar
between 0.5 and 0.9 °C on average. Some scientists radiation may enter through this hole.
Human activities that pollute the atmosphere

Human activity Pollutant Consequences
gases used in CFC gases Reduces the amount of gas
aerosols, air in the ozone layer so more
conditioners ultraviolet radiation reaches the
Earth. Skin cancer results.
particles released soot Cities are dirtier. Buildings are
from burning coal damaged. Can cause lung
and other fuels diseases.
burning fossil fuels: carbon Global warming: tropical cyclones,
coal, petrol dioxide polar ice melts, sea levels rise,
(CO2) severe droughts
burning gasoline sulphur Acid rain: damages buildings,
and nitrate vegetation and harms herbivorous
The hole in the ozone layer allows in harmful
dioxides animals.
UV rays. These cause sunburn.
Air contamination
from industry
Acid rain damages this statue.
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6. What is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural sunlight enters
phenomenon. It is essential for keeping the the ground
and air get
temperatures on Earth suitable for life. hotter
The atmosphere absorbs a great amount of
solar radiation. CO2 in the atmosphere acts
like the glass walls of a greenhouse. It traps the
heat and prevents it from returning into space.
In this way the Earth does not lose too much
heat. If there were no atmosphere, our planet
would be much colder.
The increase of carbon dioxide

The amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere has gradually increased over the
last 200 years. Carbon dioxide is produced Greenhouse
when fossil fuels are burned; by living things made of glass
breathing; by fires, and by erupting volcanoes.
The Sun
Some CO2 is dissolved in the oceans and heats the air
absorbed by growing plants. Unfortunately,
people are destroying plants and burning more
and more fossil fuels. This means more carbon
dioxide is produced. An increase in carbon
dioxide means more heat is trapped. Therefore
the average temperature of the Earth is
increasing.
atmosphere
traps the heat
Protecting the atmosphere
When pollution is reduced, global warming,
the hole in the ozone layer and acid rain are
also reduced. By saving energy, the atmosphere
will improve and our health will be much
The greenhouse effect
better. You are part of the solution.
• use hot water carefully: do not waste it Activities
• turn off unnecessary heating and electrical
devices 10. Talk about pollutants.
• travel by public transport, by bike or does (carbon dioxide) come
Where
on foot do (CFC gases) from?
• avoid aerosols with CFCs
• recycle paper, plastic and glass does it
What damage cause?
do they
• plant trees
11. Survey. Ask your classmates: Do you protect
the atmosphere? Do you recycle paper? Etc.
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Activities
12. Study the map and answer the questions. 18. Indicate the meteorological role of each instrument
a. Is cloud and precipitation more likely in Spain and what it measures.
or in the UK?
b. What will the weather be like in Spain?
c. Where is the low atmospheric pressure
coming from? Central Europe or the Iberian
Peninsula?
d. Copy the map. Use arrows to show the wind
direction.
L 19. Explain the differences between the primitive

atmosphere and the Earth’s atmosphere today.
20. Look at the table. It shows the atmospheric

pressure at different times.
Time 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00

H
Atmospheric
1 020 mb 1 016 mb 1 010 mb 1 007 mb
pressure
13. Why do mountain climbers carry oxygen tanks a. Is the atmospheric pressure increasing
to climb Mt. Everest? or decreasing?
b. Is there a possibility of high pressure or low
14. What are the five principal components of air? pressure?
For each one indicate: c. Will there be a high or low chance of clouds?
a. its proportion
21. Label the maps: weather map or isobar contour
b. its origin
map.
c. if it has a role in an important process.
Do the two maps show the same weather? Explain.
15. Investigate. Ozone is very scarce, but very
important. Explain why it is important. Tell how it
can be beneficial and harmful.
16. Draw a greenhouse. Explain what the greenhouse L

effect is and how it works.
17. Copy and complete with information about

the layers in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Approximate Description
thickness of the layer
Troposphere
22. Give three reasons why the atmosphere is essential
for life. Use these ideas:
Stratosphere
a. Sun’s radiation
Mesosphere
b. gases and living things
Ionosphere
c. control of Earth’s temperature
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The atmosphere is composed of air. Air is a mix of gases:
• 78 % nitrogen, 21 % oxygen, 1 % other gases
• Variable quantities of water vapour
Composition The atmosphere is divided into layers:
and • Ionosphere: The outermost layer. It extends to 500 km above the Earth.
structure • Mesosphere: 40 to 80 km above the Earth.
• Stratosphere: Between 10 and 40 km above the Earth. It contains the ozonosphere.
• Troposphere: From the Earth’s surface to 10 km above the Earth. Meteorological
phenomena occur here.
The primitive atmosphere contained no oxygen. It underwent several changes:

Origin • Water formed the hydrosphere. Carbon dioxide was instrumental in photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis increased the amount of oxygen.
1 024
THE ATMOSPHERE
1 008
1 016
H
Studied by meteorologists who measure temperature,
1 024
precipitation, atmospheric pressure, winds, and humidity.
1 016
Weather forecasts are based on this information
1 02 4 1 008
Changes and show it in:
1 016
L
in the • Pressure / isobar contour maps and weather symbol
atmosphere maps
Air moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
When air cools, the humidity can condensate or freeze,
forming clouds and precipitation.
Climate The average weather over a long period of time.
Human activity creates substances that pollute the

atmosphere: An increase in carbon dioxide produces
Human the greenhouse effect, which causes climate change.
impact • CFC gases eliminate the ozone from the stratosphere.
• Sulphuric oxide and nitrogen oxide cause acid rain.
• Soot pollutes the air and creates health problems.
Projects
PROJECT: Weather maps. Collect the weather maps from a newspaper during one whole week. Stick them
onto a chart. Write the weather each day next to each map.
WEBTASK: You are planning a trip to London. What is the weather like today?
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UNIT
9 The hydrosphere
Look at the picture and
answer the questions.
• Where can water be found
on our planet?
• How is sea water different
to water in rivers and
lakes?
• What is the water cycle?
Can you describe it?
• Why is it important not
to waste water?
• Do you know some easy
ways to save water?

In this unit you will ... Expressing amounts
• Find out how water is distributed on Earth 68.7 % occurs in the form of ice and snow.
• Learn about the properties of water Describing

• Learn about ocean movement: waves, Water is attracted to other water.
currents and tides Water is a powerful solvent.
• Describe the water cycle Expressing direction
• Identify uses of water and causes of water pollu- Water filters into the ground.
tion Currents move through the sea.
• Study the effects of temperature on condensation Waves transport sand along the coast.
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1. Where is there water on Earth?

There is salt water and fresh water on Earth. Distribution of water on Earth
97% of the water on Earth is salt water.

WATER
Total water on Earth

It is found in the oceans.
3% of the water on Earth is fresh water. Salt water 97 %
Fresh water 3 %
Fresh water is found in: These small squares represent all the water
in the hydrosphere.
68.7% is ice and snow from glaciers
FRESH WATER
or at the North and South Poles.

30.1% is groundwater: water
Fresh water distribution
below the Earth’s surface.
0.9% is in the atmosphere, in living 0.9% other 0.3%
fresh water
things, etc.
0.3% is surface fresh water. 68.7% ice 30.1%
and snow ground water
Surface fresh water is found in:

FRESH WATER
87% is found in lakes.

SURFACE
11% is found in swamps.

2% is found in rivers: it is fit
for human consumption.
Surface fresh water distribution
rivers 2%
swamps 11%
lakes 87%
Activities
1. How much water is there for human
consumption on Earth? Explain.
2. Represent the pie chart information in two bar
graphs.
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2. What are the properties of water?

Water is a substance with unique properties. It plays an
important part in the processes that occur on the
Earth’s surface and is essential to living beings.
Water covers 75% of the surface of
Water is made up of molecules. Each molecule of water
our planet.
is made up of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of
This characteristic is unique in the
hydrogen. At room temperature the molecules can
solar system.There is water on other
move about freely: water flows.
planets, but it is never found in a liquid
The main properties of water are: state nor in such huge quantities.
• A powerful solvent. It dissolves many components
of rock. When water evaporates, it leaves deposits of
mineral salts.
• Absorbs heat. Water moderates the Earth’s climate
by absorbing heat in summer and emitting heat in
winter.
• Cohesion and adhesion. Water is attracted
to water: this is called cohesion. Water sticks to PACIFIC OCEAN
itself, it can travel throughs vessels in plants to
transport food to the leaves. Water transports
substances throughout the bodies of living things.
Water molecules are also attracted to other materials:
this is called adhesion. As a result, water wets
surfaces such as soil and rocks.
Anomalous dilation. When water freezes, it dilates or increases in volume. As a result, the volume of ice is greater than the
same mass of water in liquid form.
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3. What are the properties of sea water?

Sea water has special properties:
• It is salty. Each litre contains about 35 grams of dissolved Salts dissolved in sea water
salts.
chlorides 87%
• It contains dissolved gases: mainly nitrogen, oxygen and
carbon dioxide. These gases are dissolved in the water by
two processes:
– the movement of the waves which mixes water with air.
– the activity of aquatic beings. Oxygen is produced by
the photosynthesis of aquatic plants; living things breathe
out carbon dioxide.
• The temperature of salt water varies with depth. At the
sea surface, the temperature is higher. In the deepest
zones, the temperature of the water is lower: between 4ºC
others 2%
and ⫺2ºC. sulphates 11%
Movements produced in the oceans

Ocean waters move in three ways: waves, currents and
tides.
• Waves occur on the surface. They are caused by the wind.
Waves mix water with the air above the surface, dissolving
a lot of oxygen in this zone. Movement of gases occurs
from the atmosphere into the oceans, and from the oceans
into the atmosphere.
Wave action causes cliff erosion and creates beaches.
Waves transport sand and mud along the coast and out
to sea.
• Ocean currents are masses of water which move like
rivers through the sea. The currents are produced by
wind, differences in temperature, and differences in
salinity.
• Tides are the periodic rise and fall of the sea level. They
are caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon
and, to a lesser extent, the Sun. Wave action causes rock erosion.
Activities
3. Look up the following terms: solvent, evaporation, cohesion, anomalous dilation and adhesion.
4. Think about cohesion and adhesion. Why are these properties so important for living things?
5. Is there more oxygen dissolved in sea water near the surface or in the deep, darker zones? Explain.
6. Why do you think sea water in warm areas contains more salt than sea water in cold areas?
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4. Where is fresh water found?

Fresh water is found on the continents. It contains much less salt than sea water. It is found
in different forms: lakes, rivers, torrents, underground rivers, pools and glaciers.
snow from the groundwater

mountain tops
stream
river wetlands
lake
lagoon
Streams or torrents are water courses fed by rain. The flow of water
varies a lot from season to season. Activities
Wetlands are areas of marshlands and swamps where the ground is 7. Copy the diagram and label
inundated all year round. the bodies of fresh water.
Glaciers are formed from the accumulation of snow on mountain tops. Which bodies of fresh
water can you find where
Rivers are permanent water courses. The River Nile is the longest
you live?
river in the world.
8. Look out your window. Draw
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface. and label the water cycle
Lakes are bodies of water of different sizes surrounded by land. processes you observe.
Example: Lake Victoria, Africa.
River valley Groundwater in a cave Lake
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5. What is the water cycle?

The water cycle is the movement of water on, above and below
the surface of the Earth. It consists of the following processes:
evaporation, evapotranspiration, condensation, precipitation,
surface runoff and infiltration.
• Evaporation. Liquid water changes to a gas (water vapour).
Water passes from the hydrosphere to the atmosphere.
• Evapotranspiration. Water evaporates into the atmosphere
from the leaves and stems of plants.
• Condensation. Water vapour changes to liquid, forming
water vapour
clouds and dew.
• Precipitation. Water in the clouds falls to the ground as rain,
snow or hail.
• Surface runoff. Surface water moves across the land and
forms rivers and streams. precipitation
• Infiltration. Surface water filters into the ground. This
occurs more easily if the ground is porous.
condensation in clouds
the form of clouds e ment of
v
mo
precipitation
evaporation
surface runoff
evaporation
surface rocks
evaporation
evapotranspiration
infiltration
groundwater
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6. What is water used for?

Water is the most abundant substance in living things. Every
day your body loses 1.5 to 2 litres of water through sweat,
urine and respiration. You replace it by drinking water. Water
is used in different ways, depending on the country.
The main uses are:
• Agriculture. To water crops.
• Industry. Water is used in many industrial processes.
• Domestic use. Drinking water is used for human
consumption, cleaning, etc.
How can you save water? Watering crops
Water is a scarce resource. You can reduce domestic water

consumption if you ...:
• Take a shower, not a bath.
• Turn off taps when brushing teeth or soaping your body.
• Load dishwashers and washing machines completely before use.
• Install water-saving devices in the lavatory cistern.
7. What pollutes water?

Water becomes polluted for many reasons. For example, as a Oil refineries consume a lot of water
result of:
• Waste water from industries and farmland.
• Sewage water from towns and cities.
• Oil slicks caused by the accidental spillage of crude oil at sea.
• Agricultural fertilizers and pesticides which filter into
the soil and pollute rivers and groundwater.
Some causes and prevention of water pollution

Causes Prevention
Rubbish thrown in the Pick up rubbish and place in rubbish bins. Cleaning water polluted by an oil slick
countryside, on beaches,
in rivers, etc.
Toxic waste from domestic Do not throw paints, oils or solvents down Activity
use makes it difficult and the drain or toilet.
expensive to purify water. 9. Use information from this page to
make a water poster. Example: Take
Chemical pollution Recycle batteries. They release toxic showers. Don’t throw rubbish on the
chemicals into the soil, then into rivers. beach. It pollutes the water.
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Hands on
Studying the effects of temperature on condensation
Controlling variables
in an experiment
60 °C 18 °C 6 °C 0 °C
To see how temperature affects the
condensation of water vapour, compare
masses of air at different temperatures.
Keep all other variables equal.
Keeping all the variables equal, and
modifying only one is called controlling
A B C D variables.
Procedure
1. Place four identical glasses on a table. Label them 4. Observe the table. What can you conclude from
A, B, C and D. Place a thermometer in each one. the effects of temperature on the process of
condensation?
2. Put very hot water in glass A; water at room
temperature in glass B; three ice cubes in glass Glass Temperature Appearance
C. Fill glass D with ice cubes. Make sure the four A 60 ºC No condensation
glasses are completely dry on the outside.
B 18 ºC No condensation
3. Wait twenty minutes. Then observe and note C 6 ºC Small drops
down the amount of condensation on the
Large drops which slide
outside of each glass. D 0 ºC
down the glass
Controlling variables. The four glasses are

surrounded by the same air, so we can assume
Water
condensation that atmospheric pressure, particles in the
outside the atmosphere, humidity, etc., are the same for
glass. each glass. These are the controlled variables.
Only the temperature varies. The temperature
is the independent variable, that we changed for
the purpose of the experiment. The amount of
condensation of the humidity in the air
depends on the temperature, so the
condensation is the dependent variable.
Activity
10. Breathe on each glass to make the surrounding air more humid. Does the amount of condensation
increase in each case? Which controlled variable have you now modified?
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Activities
11. This diagram shows the distribution of fresh water 17. Look at the diagram of the water cycle.
in the hydrosphere. Label the corresponding
sections.
A
C
B
a. Copy the diagram and label each process:
12. Water transports dissolved salts to the sea.
evaporation, condensation, evapotranspiration,
Water also transports nutrients in our blood.
precipitation, surface runoff and infiltration.
What property enables water to do these things? b. What role do plants play in the water cycle?
13. If you water the ground on a hot day, you notice the 18. What are the main sources of water pollution
atmosphere becomes cooler. caused by human activity? Example:
What causes this effect? How is it similar to feeling
cold when you get out of a swimming pool or the
ocean?
14. There is less difference between winter and

summer temperatures on the coast, than in the
interior of the country.
What is the cause of this difference, and what
property of water would explain it?
19. Fill a small bottle of water to the top. Close it tightly
15. If you put a bottle of water in the lavatory cistern,
and put it in the freezer. Depending on the type of
this reduces water consumption. Why is this?
plastic, it may break or change shape.
16. About 15 litres of water a minute flow through an a. Why does this happen?
open tap. b. Would this happen to a glass bottle?
20. Complete the chart.
Percentage
Water on Earth
of the total
Salt water
rivers, lakes,
Continental groundwater
water ice and snow
surface fresh
a. A person cleans his teeth three times a day and
takes a shower once a day. Calculate how much 21. When water passes from the biosphere to the
water he saves if he turns off the tap for two atmosphere, what is this process called?
minutes while he cleans his teeth.
b. And if he takes five minutes less in the shower? 22. Explain what role the Sun plays in the water cycle.
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97 %: salt water. 3 %: fresh water, of which:
• 68.7 %: is ice and snow from glaciers or at the Poles.
Water
• 30.1 %: is groundwater.
distribution
• 0.3%: is surface fresh water.
• The remaining 0.9%: is in the atmosphere and living creatures.
• Good solvent. Transports substances inside living things.

• Absorbs large quantities of heat. Moderates temperature differences in climate.
Properties
• Anomalous dilation. Water dilates when it freezes.
of water
• Cohesion: water molecules are attracted to other water molecules.
• Adhesion: water molecules can be attracted to other materials.
• Waves. Caused by the wind. Waves mix water, causing

air-gas exchange. They cause erosion of cliffs, and
THE HYDROSPHERE
transport materials.
Movements
• Currents. Movement of large bodies of water by
of ocean
prevailing winds. Cause differences in water salinity and
waters
temperature.
• Tides. Rise and fall of sea water levels due to
gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Water from the hydrosphere moves through the suface of

The water the Earth and the atmosphere.
cycle The processes are: evaporation, evapotranspiration,
condensation, precipitation, runoff and infiltration.
• For agriculture. To water crops.

• For industry. Used in many industrial processes.
• Drinking water has domestic uses. For human consumption, cleaning, etc.
Water is contaminated by:
Uses of water
• Waste water from industries and farmland.
• Sewage waters from towns and cities.
• Oil slicks at sea.
• Fertilizers and pesticides filter into the soil and pollute rivers and groundwater.
Projects
POSTER: Draw a frozen lake. Show the living things that exist under the ice. Add labels and text:
These animals live...
WEB TASK: Calculate the amount of water you use in one week for showers or baths.
Compare your consumption with your classmates’.
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UNIT
10 Minerals
Look at the gold mine and gold sample in the photograph.
• Where is gold is found?
• Is gold a solid, liquid or gas?
• Is it natural or man-made?
• Do you think there is a lot of gold available on Earth?

Diamonds are harder than talc.
• Learn the definition of a mineral
• Identify the properties of minerals Describing
Some minerals have a metallic colour.
• Classify minerals Mica can be scratched with a fingernail.
• Learn to use the Mohs Scale of Hardness Classifying
• Use a mineral key to identify minerals Non-silicates are classified into five groups.
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1. What are minerals? Did you know that...?

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, solid substances. The Earth’s crust is made
They have a definite chemical composition and specific physical up of rocks, and rocks are
properties. made up of minerals. Oxygen
All minerals must be: is the most abundant element
in the Earth’s crust. More than
half the weight of a rock is
naturally ocurring ⫽ solid substances ⫽ not a liquid or a gas
not made by humans
made up of oxygen!
definite chemical composition ⫽

inorganic ⫽ the atoms composing the solid have calcite
not from living things an orderly, repeated pattern
All minerals are solid substances. Water and mercury have most
of the characteristics of minerals, except they are liquid at room
temperature. They are called mineraloids, not minerals.
Pyrite. Like all

Mercury. It is a naturally occurring,
minerals it
inorganic, liquid substance.
is a naturally
Mercury is
occurring,
a mineraloid.
inorganic, solid
substance.
Pyrite has
a definite
chemical
composition:
iron sulfide.
amber
Activities
1. Look at the photos. Answer these questions
for each one:
gold
a. Is it a solid?
b. Does it occur naturally, or does someone make it?
c. Is it made from living things?
d. Is it organic or inorganic?
2. Are they minerals or not? Answer using the table.
diamond
natural.
is it is
… a mineral because inorganic.
is not it is not
solid. water
Example: An animal bone is not a mineral because animal plastic

it is not inorganic. bone
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2. What are minerals composed of?

Minerals are composed of one or more chemical elements.
The chemical elements of each mineral are arranged in a
particular way.
A chemical element is a substance which is made up of only
one kind of atom. An atom is the smallest particle of matter.
Oxygen, hydrogen, iron and gold are examples of chemical
elements.
smoky quartz agate milky quartz
The chemical composition and the main physical properties are the same
for all quartz. Smoky quartz, agate and milky quartz are varieties of quartz.
The colours are different because of impurities in the samples.
Does the chemical composition of a mineral change?

Activities
Quartz is a mineral. The chemical composition of quartz is always
the same, because it is always composed of the same elements. 3. Study the photos of quartz.
The chemical composition of a mineral determines its physical What colours can you see?
properties. Quartz from Spain has the same properties as quartz Why can quartz be several
from America. colours?
4. Research other varieties of

Impurities in minerals quartz. What colours are they?
a. Amethyst
Minerals can be found with impurities. Impurities are small
amounts of other substances which are not part of the mineral. b. Jasper
These impurities can change some of the properties of the mineral. c. Citrine
For example, quartz is usually colourless, but it can be found d. Creolite
in several different colours. e) Rose quartz
f) Rock crystal
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3. How are minerals extracted and used?

Mineral extraction and its consequences
A B
Minerals are found everywhere in the Earth’s crust. They are
extracted in different ways. Some minerals are found dispersed
in rocks. For example, 1kg of granite rock contains 340g
of quartz.
Other minerals occur in mineral beds in high concentration.
They are extracted in: C D
• surface mines when they are in layers which are relatively
close to the surface.
• underground mines when they are deep in the Earth’s crust.
Extracting minerals can damage the environment in several ways.

1. Washing the soil to isolate
minerals pollutes rivers and
streams.
2. Surface mines destroy vegetation.
3. Lorries, and other heavy vehicles

make a lot of noise. Traffic pollutes
the air, soil and water.
4. Soil and rocks from excavation

is left in huge tips.
Minerals are used in everyday life

• At home: Fluorite is used in the composition
of toothpaste. You might use talc after Activities
your shower. The salt you put on your food 5. Match each photo, A – D above,
is the mineral halite. with its environmental impact, 1 – 4.
• At school: Your pencil is made of graphite. 6. What minerals are used to make
Your digital watch can be made using quartz, these things?
aluminium, gold or silver. –wedding rings – cement – glass
• In the shops: Gold, silver and platinum are – table salt
used to make jewellery. Precious stones are 7. Research.
minerals: diamonds, sapphires and amethysts. a. Find out about other things
Your dentist sometimes uses gold to fill teeth. which are made of minerals.
• Construction materials: Plaster is made from talc. b. What metals are obtained
Cement is made from calcite. Glass is made from minerals?
from quartz.
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4. How are minerals classified?

There are many different minerals, found mainly in stones and rocks. The most abundant
Minerals are formed by the combination of chemical elements found elements in the Earth’s crust
in the Earth’s crust. Element Percentage
Oxygen is the most abundant element of the Earth’s crust, Oxygen (O) 47 %
about 47 %. Silicon is the second most common, about 28 %. Silicon (Si) 28 %
Aluminium (Al) 7.9 %
Silicates Iron (Fe) 5.0 %
Oxygen and silicon combined together produce silicates. Silicates are Calcium (Ca) 3.6 %
the most abundant minerals on Earth. Rest 8.5 %
These common silicates make up many rocks:

• Quartz. Usually found in granite rocks or sandy river sediments. Activities
Very hard. Used in jewellery. 8. Use the information from
the table of the most
• Feldspar. Found in many rocks such as granite and basalt.
abundant elements to make
Used in glass and ceramics industries.
a bar graph.
• Mica. Abundant in granite. There are two types: white mica, 9. Summarise the information
called muscovite and black mica, biotite. Used in electronic on silicates in a chart.
insulators and paints.
Mineral
• Olivine. Very common. Olive green in colour. Found in volcanic
Found in
rocks. Used to make jewellery. Also used as an abrasive.
Colour
Uses
Olivine.
Muscovite. White, yellow, grey. Glassy
Olive green
Feldspar. White or pink.

Glassy
Biotite. Black. Glassy Quartz. Several colours. Glassy
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Non-silicates
Non-silicates are all the minerals that are not silicates.
They are minerals that do not contain silicon. Diamonds and graphite are both
Common non-silicates are classified into groups as: made up of pure carbon. They
have the same composition, but
• Native elements. These are minerals made up of a single their internal organisation is
element. For example, gold, silver, copper, and sulphur. different. Their properties are
• Oxides. This group of non-silicates are made up of oxygen different, too. Diamond is the
and one other element. For example, oligiste hardest mineral. Graphite is
is a source of iron ore from which soft: it is used to make pencils.
iron is extracted.
• Sulphides. These are minerals
made up of sulphur and a metal.
Galena is the source of lead ore.
• Carbonates. Minerals made up
of carbon, oxygen and a metal.
For example, calcite.
• Halides. Minerals made up
of a metal and chloride or fluoride.
For example, halite. Halite. White or transparent
Calcite. All colours. Glassy.

Stalactites form when calcite dissolves
in water. The water evaporates
and the calcite remains.
Activities
10. What is the difference between silicates and non-silicates?
11. List the minerals on these pages as silicate or non-silicate.
12. Match each term with its composition:
a. oxide 1. metal ⫹ chloride / fluoride
b. sulphide 2. oxygen ⫹ another element
c. carbonate 3. sulphur ⫹ metal
d. halide 4. carbon ⫹ oxygen ⫹ metal
13. Diamonds are 100 % carbon. Which group of minerals
do they belong to?
Native gold
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5. What are the properties of minerals?

• Colour. Some minerals are always the same • Streak. The streak of a mineral is the colour
colour. For example, sulphur is always yellow. of the powder left on a streak plate (a piece of
Quartz can be different colours. unglazed porcelain) when the mineral is scraped
• Shape. Minerals can be geometric or irregular. across it.
• Lustre refers to the way minerals reflect light. • Cleavage is how a mineral breaks up or cleaves.
Minerals can be classified as: For example, mica cleaves in sheets, but galena
cleaves in cubes.
– metallic: like metal:
for example, pyrite • Hardness measures how a mineral reacts to
– non metallic: being scratched.
waxy like oil or
fat dull not shiny Mica cleaves
glassy like glass in sheets.
Activities
14. Study the Mohs Scale of
Hardness and describe each
mineral.
harder than
Talc is apatite.
softer than
15. Describe your test for hardness.

Oligiste leaves a red streak.
a finger nail?
Can a nail?
you talc with
What is the Mohs Scale of Hardness? scratch a piece of glass?
a diamond?
In 1812, Frederick Moh devised the Mohs Scale of Hardness.
He selected ten minerals and arranged them in order from
1 to 10. The mineral with the highest number is the hardest. 16. Look for information on minerals
The mineral with the lowest number is the softest. The Mohs on the Internet. Classify more
Scale is used to compare the hardness of any mineral. minerals by colour, lustre and
hardness.
Minerals not on the scale are given an intermediate number.
For example, galena has a hardness of 2.5.
MOHS SCALE OF HARDNESS

G HARD: can be scratched with glass
G SOFT: can be scratched with a nail F
VERY SOFT: can be scratched
G with a fingernail F
1 2 3 4 5
Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite
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Hands on
Using a mineral identification key. Classifying minerals
1. Identify a mineral with this key:
a. Study the lustre: is it metalic or non-metallic? b. Study the colour: is it light or dark?
metallic non-metallic light dark
c. Test the hardness. Use the Mohs Scale of Hardness and these tools.
Each mineral can scratch only those minerals below it on the Mohs Scale.
The harder the mineral, the harder the tool needed to scratch it.
fingernail copper coin steel nail glass
2. Study the minerals in this unit, then copy and complete the chart.
Mineral Colour Lustre Hardness
Mica
Olivine dark green Can be scratched with a nail
Calcite
Pyrite
Talc
Quartz
FG VERY HARD: can scratch glass F
6 7 8 9 10
Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
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Activities A
17. Look at photos A and B. 26. Are these minerals?

a. Which one represents a mineral? Explain why or why not.
b. Which one represents a mixture of different a. a rhinoceros horn
substances? b. a tortoise shell
c. a snail shell
A B
B C
18. Can you name minerals that do not contain oxygen?

27. Copy and complete the table about the use of
19. Which of the following are characteristics minerals. Give several examples for each place.
of minerals?
MINERALS IN EVERYDAY LIFE
a. They are inorganic.
b. They are a combination of two substances. Mineral Use
c. They have a definite chemical composition. halite table salt

d. They are artificial. At home talc
e. They are natural. fluorite
f. They are made of organic material.
At school
g. They are solids.
In the shops
20. What do you call minerals with no silicon Jewellery
in their composition? How many main groups
Construction
are there?
21. What number on the Mohs Scale of Hardness 28. Many Ancient Egyptian
would these minerals have? statues are still standing
a. A mineral that can be scratched by talc. today. The statue
b. A mineral that can scratch talc, and can be in the photo is made
scratched by gypsum. of alabaster.
Describe alabaster:
22. Study the minerals on pages 112 and 113 and test is it hard or soft?
your partner: Explain your answer.
What mineral is this? Can you describe the colour? Hint: alabaster is 2-3
How hard is it? Is the lustre metallic or non-metallic? on the Mohs Scale.
23. What minerals can you identify at home or at school?
24. Research. Where are diamonds obtained?

What different colours of diamonds are there?
29. Many people have mistaken pyrite for gold.
Make a file card about diamonds.
This is why it is often called ‘Fools Gold’.
25. Choose a mineral. Research its most important Pyrite is quite easy to distinguish from gold.
uses in daily life. Make a poster to illustrate If you had a sample of each mineral, how would you
these uses. distinguish them?
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Minerals are naturally ocurring, inorganic, solid substances

with a specific chemical composition and specific physical properties. They
are made up of elements. The most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust
are oxygen (47 %) and silicon (28 %).
There are two main groups of minerals.

• Silicates are composed of silicon and oxygen.
The most common silicates are quartz, feldspar, mica
Mineral
and olivine.
classification
• Non-silicates are classified by their chemical
composition as: native elements, oxides, sulphides,
carbonates and halides.
• Colour. Some minerals are always the same colour.

MINERALS
Others, like quartz, can be different colours because

they contain impurities.
• Lustre refers to the way a mineral reflects light:
metallic; non metallic.
Properties • Hardness measures how a mineral reacts
to being scratched. Minerals are classified on a scale
of 1 to 10. 1 is soft. 10 is the hardest.
• Streak is the colour of the powder left when
a mineral scratches a surface.
• Cleavage is how a mineral breaks up: in sheets or cubes.
Minerals occur in high concentration in mineral

deposits. They are extracted in surface mines
or underground mines.
Extraction Uses:
and uses • Sources of metal: lead, iron, etc.
• Jewellery: gold, silver, diamonds and quartz
• Construction materials: plaster, cement
• Home: table salt, toothpaste, watches …
Projects
EXPERIMENT AND REPORT: You cannot scratch quartz with a nail. Can quartz scratch the nail?
PROJECT: Mineral Exhibit. Use the information from the table on page 113. Prepare a file card for each mineral.
WEB TASK: What is your birthstone? What are some of its properties?
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UNIT
11 Rocks
• What are rocks made up of?
• Are all rocks solid, or can a rock exist in liquid state at normal temperature?
• Can you name some things that granite and marble are used for?

In this unit, you will… Expressing a purpose
Granite and marble are used for sculptures.
• Explore some uses of rocks
• Understand the relationship between Making impersonal statements
minerals and rocks Igneous rocks are formed from cooled magma.
Rocks are divided into three main classes.
• Recognise common types of rock
Describing a process
• Analyse how rocks are formed Plutonic rocks form as magma cools slowly under
• Classify rocks by their properties the ground.
• Discover the processes involved Volcanic rocks form as lava cools rapidly on the surface.
in the rock cycle
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1. How are rocks used?

In the past, stone was used to make buildings, – Ceramic materials are made of clay. They are
bridges, city walls, aqueducts, roads, etc. used for tiles, bricks, and bathroom pieces
Today, most modern constructions are not made like sinks and toilets.
of stone. However, they usually contain some • Decoration. Granite and marble are the most
form of rock. popular. They are used for sculptures, floors,
• Construction materials. Granite, limestone kitchen countertops, etc. They are easy to carve
and slate are strong, decorative, and provide and polish to a smooth, shiny finish.
good insulation. They are used to make walls • Containers. Clay is used to make pottery and
and roofs. They also serve as raw materials to china. After the pieces are decorated, they are
manufacture other products. glazed and fired. This makes them much stronger.
– Cement is made of limestone and clays. • Fuels. Coal and oil are used in transportation,
It is used to make concrete. Concrete is industry, heating and to produce electricity.
used for roads, bridges, dams and entire
buildings. • Chemical industry. Oil is used to make
plastics, paints, fertilizers, synthetic fibres and
– Plaster is made of gypsum and other
many other products.
ingredients. It is used on interior walls.
A B C D
Stonehenge, in England, The Roman aqueduct in Many buildings are decorated Concrete, glass and metals are
is made of sandstone. Segovia is made of granite. with stone. made from rock.
E F G H
Many statues and monuments Clay is used to make plates Refineries process oil into fuel. Plastics are made from oil.
are made of marble. and pottery.
Activities Did you know that...?

1. Match each photo with one of the uses of rocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza,
2. Make a list of the uses of rocks. Use the text above. in Egypt, was built mostly
3. Oil has more uses than most other rocks. Investigate of limestone - more than
“products made from oil” on the Internet. Make a list. 1,300,000 blocks!
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2. What are rocks?

The solid part of the Earth is made up of rocks. Rocks are any Some Monomineralic Rocks
natural, inorganic material made up of minerals.
Mineral Rock
clay minerals clay
Some rocks are made of a single substance. They are called
halite salt
monomineralic rocks. Others can be found in liquid form,
calcite calcite / limestone
for example, oil.
quartz quartzite
How are rocks classified?

Rocks are divided into three main classes: igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic.
• Igneous rocks are formed from cooled magma. Magma is
molten rocky material below the Earth’s surface. Igneous rock is named
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation and after the Latin word “ignis”
compaction of sediment, for example, clay, sand or rock meaning “fire”.
fragments.
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks by the effects
of heat and pressure. Forces inside the Earth cause a “parent
rock” to change into another type of rock, without melting.
Igneous rock. These rocks are

formed by minerals joined together.
In granite it is easy to see the
various components.
Sedimentary rock. Conglomerate.
Metamorphic rock. Slate.
Activities mantle
crust
4. What are the three types of rock? Define them in
external core
your notebook.
internal core
5. What is the difference between minerals and
rocks? Check your answer by looking at Unit 10.
Composition of the Earth
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3. What are sedimentary rocks?

Sedimentary rocks are classified into three groups:
detrital, chemical and organic. Did you know that...?
Oil and coal are called fossil fuels.They
Detrital rocks are made up of fragments of other are the most important energy resources
rocks that are stuck together. for the planet.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are made of mineral

crystals from oceans, lakes and groundwater that have Activities
dissolved in water.
6. Observe pieces of detrital rocks using a
magnifying glass.
Organic sedimentary rocks are made of plant and
Make drawings to show the differences.
animal remains which have been transformed into
minerals. 7. Describe a rock from the table.
Your partner guesses which one.
Common
Formed by Properties
sedimentary rocks
Fragments of rock Round or angular

Conglomerate
and some sand fragments
Grains break off

Detrital
Sandstone Small grains of sand

if scratched
Different colours.
Clay Very small grains Smells like wet earth
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
when wet
Chemical reactions.
Limestone Reacts to acids
All contain calcium
(Many types) by producing bubbles
carbonate.
Very soft.
Chemical
Gypsum Can be scratched with

a fingernail
Evaporation of the
water in deposits
Rock salt Tastes salty
Remains of land Soft, black.

Coal
vegetation Burns easily
Organic
Remains of marine plants

Oil Thick, black liquid
and animals
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4. How are sedimentary rocks formed?

The formation of sedimentary rocks begins with the accumulation and
consolidation of sediment or of rock fragments.
Sedimentary rocks are made up of fragments of other rocks.

The deposition of these sediments in layers, in lakes or seas, takes
place over millions of years. The deposited sediments are transformed
into compact, cohesive rocks. Rocks are fragmented by:
Weathering. Rocks at the surface of the Earth are broken up by

the action of atmospheric phenomena (changes in temperature,
rain, acid rain), or by the activities of plants and animals.
Erosion. These broken fragments of rocks are swept away by running

water, glaciers, waves or wind.
After heavy rains, the rivers transport mud, clay, sand and stones to the valleys. Strata in sedimentary rock can be
horizontal or folded. As the Earth's crust
moves, the layers of rock get folded up.
The layers of sediment build up over

millions of years to form different
stratas of sedimentary rocks.
How are fossils formed?

Sedimentary rocks sometimes
contain remains of living things
that lived millions of years ago.
These remains are called
fossils. Fossils become part of
the rocks during the processes
of compaction and cementation
of sediments. Fossils provide
invaluable information about Tree trunks and leaf fossils can show Ammonites are marine molluscs which
the history of life on Earth. the vegetation that coal comes from. lived during the Mesozoic period.
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Rock fragments join to form rock by two processes:

Compaction. The weight of successive layers of sediment compacts
the sediments more. This pressure reduces the spaces between the Activities
fragments and squeezes out the water. As a result, salt crystals are
formed. 8. Where can you find
examples of rock erosion
in your country? Choose
an example and say what
natural phenomena
caused the erosion.
9. How are fossils formed?
Make a series of drawings
to show the process.
Deposition
of sediments
10. What two processes
transform soft, wet
Compaction sediment into
sedimentary rock?
11. Summarise the
Cementation. The rock fragments are stuck together with the salt
information about coal
crystal which formed when the water was eliminated.
and oil. Complete the
Each layer of sediments is transformed into a layer of sedimentary chart.
rock. This layer is called a stratum (plural: strata).
Coal Similar- Differ-
& Oil ities ences
Pressure
fragment
mineral deposits
Cementation
How are organic sedimentary rocks formed?

Two kinds of sedimentary rock are made up • Oil. Some sedimentary
of organic material: coal and oil. Coal is made rocks contain oil.
of terrestrial vegetation. Oil is made of marine Millions of years ago,
plant and animal remains. microscopic marine
• Coal. Millions of years ago, vegetation animals and plants
accumulated in swamps. Eventually, (plankton) fell to the bottom of the sea.
the vegetation was buried in the Earth’s Sediment accumulated on top of this organic
crust, without air. Then, heat, pressure and material. The material was buried underground
bacteria changed it into coal. This type of rock without air. Eventually, heat, pressure and
is found in continental environments such bacteria slowly changed the organic material
as forests. into oil.
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5. How are igneous rocks formed?

Igneous rocks are formed as a result of the cooling and
solidification of magma. Activities
Magma is the melted, rocky material from below the Earth’s 12. Look up plutonic in an
crust or mantle. Magma consists of silicates, water and gases encyclopedia or on the Internet.
at high temperature. Lava is magma on the Earth´s surface. Where does the word come
There are two types of igneous rocks: from?
• Plutonic (intrusive) rocks form as magma cools slowly 13. Research: What is the difference
between magma and lava?
under the ground over thousands of years. As a result, the
mineral crystals are large. 14. In which type of rock can you see
minerals most clearly? Why?
• Volcanic (extrusive) rocks form as lava cools rapidly on the
surface of the Earth. As a result, the mineral crystals are tiny.
cooling, large crystals.
• Made up of quartz, feldspars and small quantities

Plutonic rocks: slow
of mica and other minerals

• Large, visible crystals
Granite
• The most common rock in the continental crust
• Many colours – pink to grey and black
• Very hard and strong
• Dark or black colour

• Heavy and hard
Formed by the solidification of magma
Basalt • It may contain olivine crystals

COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS
• It may have a few bubble holes

Volcanic rocks: quick cooling, tiny crystals, vitreous.
• The most common rock on the ocean floors

As a result, the crystals are not visible.
• Mostly light colours

Pumice • Light weight and floats in water
• Spongy texture from bubble holes
• Black and smooth

Obsidian • Looks like black glass
• The edges can cut
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6. How are metamorphic rocks formed?

Metamorphism is a slow process which occurs deep in the Earth.
The effects of temperature and pressure change the parent rock Activities
into metamorphic rock. 15. Do igneous or metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks are formed deep within the Earth by the rocks contain fossils?
effects of intense heat and pressure on sedimentary, igneous or Why or why not?
other metamorphic rocks. 16. Draw pictures of sedimentary,
These rocks do not melt, but the minerals inside them are igneous and metamorphic
changed by heat and pressure. The rocks become hard and rocks. Write the name
on the back. Distribute the
compact. Metamorphic rocks rarely have fossils.
pictures. Say if your rock is
sedimentary, igneous or
The formation of metamorphic rocks metamorphic.
sedimentary metamorphic igneous

rock rock rock magma
Common
Appearance Properties
metamorphic rocks
Usually black,
Foliated
Hard, but can be separated

of metamorphic rocks
slightly shiny
Slate into thin layers or sheets
because of the
Classification
(foliation)
presence of mica
Does not separate into layers.

Non-foliated
Many different Marble reacts with acids,

Marble colours. Often with such as vinegar or
veins hydrochloric acid, producing
CO2 bubbles
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7. What is the rock cycle?

The rock cycle is a set of processes which form, change and recycle
rocks over time. These processes can take thousands or even millions
of years.
The rock cycle is similar to the recycling process for glass. Used
glass is transported from recycling bins to factories. There, it is
crushed and melted to make new glass. Glass can be used and
recycled many times.
A similar recycling process occurs with rocks. On the Earth’s
surface, weathering and erosion break down and transport rocks.
Under the Earth’s surface, rocks go through processes which
change them. As a result, they become new rocks. The cycle
is continuous. Rocky landscape, Cappadocia, Turkey
The rock cycle
F
F
he
a ta
ing
me
nd
e
her
ur
pr
lt in
ss
weat
Metamorphic rocks
es
pre
su
and
re
t
magma
hea
sediments
F
F F
ing
m
F
r
el t
F
he
ing
t
wea
ac t ing
coo
mp
lin
co
F
g
we F
g a th
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Sedimentary rocks Igneous rocks
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Hands on
Investigating weathering and sedimentation
1. Chemical weathering 2. Physical weathering and sedimentation

Chemical weathering occurs when rock Physical weathering breaks down rocks into
components react chemically with a substance fragments. The deposition of these fragments in
and are broken down. layers over millions of years results in compact,
Prediction. Vinegar is an acid. What do you think sedimentary rock.
will happen if you put it on the rock sample? Prediction. Which rock fragments will be in the
bottom layers and which the top layers?
Materials
a piece of chalk or limestone Materials
a glass jar a plastic bottle with a screw-on top
a balloon 0.5 L water
some vinegar small and medium-sized stones
sand
Procedure
a. Put the rock into the jar. Procedure
b. Add a few drops of vinegar. a. Put the stones, sand and water in the bottle.
c. Stretch the balloon over the top of the jar. b. Shake the bottle vigorously for one minute.
c. Wait for the solid matter to settle. Figure 2.
Observation
a. Wait and watch carefully. Figure 1. Observation
b. Take notes to answer these questions. a. Observe the layers and draw a picture:
What happens to the rock? – Which stones are on the bottom?
And on the top?
What happens to the balloon?
b. Why did the layers form this way?
Conclusions. What does this experiment tell you
about weathering? Conclusion. What does this experiment tell you
about sedimentation?
Hint: What acids do you find in the air or water?
Figure 1 Figure 2
Activities
18. Research on the Internet how limestone caves
17. Collect rock samples in your area.
are formed. Is this process caused by physical
Which ones are sedimentary rocks? or chemical weathering?
How can you tell?
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Activities
19. Copy and label the diagram to show the stages of 24. Clay and granite are rocks. Clay is soft and fragile.
erosion / weathering. Granite is strong and hard. Can you explain why?
25. Study the photographs. Identify the rocks: marble

or granite. Which is made up of only one mineral?
A B
20. In volcanic eruptions, large amounts of gases

26. What type of rock can burn? Explain your answers.
escape into the atmosphere. Where do they come
from?
27. Are there any sedimentary rocks made up
of granite, an igneous rock? Think and explain
21. Copy and label the stages of the rock cycle.
your answer. See the rock cycle diagram.
28. Compare the origin of metamorphic rocks and the

F
F origin of igneous rocks.
29. What is metamorphism? What two factors

produce it? What do you call the rocks which
result from this process?
F
F F
30. How can a metamorphic rock become an
F
igneous rock?
31. Can a sedimentary rock be transformed into

F
another sedimentary rock?
F
32. If an igneous rock is under great pressure, what

could happen?
33. Imagine your school wants to buy a sign to place

22. Observe samples of sandstone and clay under
outside. You have information on two different signs:
a stereoscopic microscope or magnifying glass.
one made of limestone and one made of granite.
a. What differences can you see?
Which one is better? Select the best sign, and write
b. Can you see minerals in one or both rocks? a report. Give reasons for your selection.
c. Observe other rocks, such as conglomerate,
granite or limestone. Draw pictures of them. 34. Blocks of stone are often used to build walls, and
d. Write a brief description of your pictures. stone tiles are used for roofs. The most common
rocks used for these purposes are slate and granite.
23. What is the difference between rock salt and sea Which one is used for walls? Which is used for
salt? roofs? Explain your answer.
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Rocks are formed by minerals. If the composition of the rock consists of only one mineral, the rock is called
monomineralic. Rocks are classified into three types according to how they are formed:
• Sedimentary rocks. Formed by the accumulation of compacted sediment.
• Igneous rocks. Made of magma which has cooled.
• Metamorphic rocks. Formed by high pressure and temperature. They are always in a solid state.
The rock cycle is the combination of processes that rock and sediments undergo on the Earth’s surface and
in its crust.
Some of the main uses of rock are: construction materials, decoration, containers, fuels, the chemical industry.
Sedimentary rocks are usually found in layers, called strata.

There are three types:
• Detrital. Formed by the combination of fragments of different
rocks and minerals. Conglomerate, sandstone and clay.
Sedimentary
• Chemical. Sedimentary rocks are made of mineral crystals
rocks
from oceans, lakes and groundwater that have dissolved in
water. Limestone, gypsum, salt.
ROCKS
• Organic. These are formed by the accumulation

of organic material. Coal and oil. These are known as fossil fuels.
Igneous rocks are made from magma: a mixture of melted rock

and gases. There are two types.They can be:
• Plutonic. Slowly solidified deep in the Earth.
Igneous
Crystallized minerals are apparent. For example, granite.
rocks
• Volcanic. Solidified quickly on the exterior
of the Earth’s crust. Homogeneous appearance,
not crystalline. Basalt, pumice and obsidian.
Metamorphism is the process of changes produced in solid

rock by high temperatures and pressure. Metamorphic rock
can be:
Metamorphic
• Foliated. These can be separated, cleaved, into layers.
rock
For example, slate, schist and gneiss.
• Non-foliated. These can be broken into irregular shapes.
For example marble, and quartzite.
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Can some rock float? Drop a piece of pumice in water.
a. Does the pumice float or sink?
b. Observe the pumice through a magnifying glass. What can you say about the structure?
c. Is pumice sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous rock? How is it formed? What causes the holes?
WEB TASK: How many active volcanoes are there on Earth?
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It’s elementary!
Currently, more than 110 different chemical elements have been identified. Over 90 elements are found in
nature. The rest are created only in laboratories as artificial elements. All these elements are classified in the
Periodic Table of Elements according to their properties.
The first ten elements

atomic symbol
atomic 1 Black - solid

F
F
number Blue - liquid

H F
Red - gas
name F Hydrogen
Purple - artificial 1
of the 1 H Beryllium is used for structural
element Hydrogen
3 4
Be components of space craft.
2 Li Be
Lithium Beryllium
Hydrogen is used
H as rocket fuel.
Lithium is used
Li for batteries.
Hydrogen, hydrogen everywhere!

About 90 % of the atoms in the Universe are
hydrogen, about 9 % are helium, and all the
other elements account for less than 1 %.
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Boron is used in fireworks Helium is mixed with oxygen

B to provide a distinctive green He and is used by deep sea divers.
colour, and in rockets for ignition.
Hard diamonds and soft Neon is used for

C graphite (found in pencil lead)
are both forms of carbon.
Ne advertising signs.
He
Helium
5 6 7 8 9 10
B C N O F Ne
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Fluorine is present in
Nitrogen in the soil is
N necessary for plant growth. Plants and animals need oxygen F toothpaste. It helps
prevent dental cavities.
O for respiration. Oxygen is used for
patients with respiratory problems.
Activity
1. Turn to the Periodic Table, page 152. Choose another element and research its uses.
As a class, make a poster of different elements and their uses in everyday life.
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UNIT
12 Matter and
its properties
• What is matter?
• What unit of measurement is used to show the mass of matter?
And to measure the volume?
• What instrument do you use to measure the sides of a patio?
What units would you use?

Iron has more mass. It is denser than wood.
• Understand what matter is
Measuring
• Learn how to measure the 13.5 g per cubic centimetre. One milligram. Minus 459 degrees.
properties of matter
Making impersonal statements
• Create a graph to show the Two scales are used to measure temperature.
relationship between two variables Time is measured in seconds.
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1. What is matter?
Everything that takes up space and has mass is matter. Air is matter
Therefore, everything around us is matter.
• General properties. These are the properties common A
to all matter: mass, volume, weight and density.
• Specific properties. These are the characteristics that
differentiate one kind of matter from another. They are
colour, shape, size, texture, hardness, etc. They can be
used to identify and describe matter.
Balance two inflated balloons on a cane. (A) Then,

burst one of the balloons. The balloons are no longer
balanced. (B) This happens because the inflated
The books you read and the pencils you write with are matter. balloon contains air, so it has greater mass than the
The water you drink and the air you breathe are matter. burst balloon. Air has mass and occupies space,
therefore it is matter.
The International System of Measurements

To measure matter, many types of units can be used.
To compare measurements, however, everyone needs to
use the same units. In the past, people used their
The most common system is the International hands to measure an object,
System of Units. There are seven base units. All other units or steps to measure the
are a combination of these base units. length of a field.
• Base units are used to measure length, mass, time etc.
These units are the metre, the kilogram and
the second, etc.
Activities
Some base units
1. What are the general properties of all
Length Mass Time Temperature
matter?
Unit metre kilogram second kelvin
2. You can’t see air. Explain why is it
Symbol m kg s K matter.
3. How long is this book? And how
• Derived units are obtained from a combination of the wide? Which unit of measurement
base units. They are used to measure surface area, would you use in the International
volume, speed and density, etc. These units are the System of Units?
square metre, cubic metre, metre per second, etc.
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2. What is length?
Multiples and submultiples of a metre
Length is the distance between two points.
Unit and symbol Equivalent
Length is a base unit. In the International System of Units,
length is measured in metres. millimetre (mm) 1,000 mm 1 mk
centimetre (cm) 100 cm 1 m
Did you know that...? metre (m) 1m

kilometre (km) 1,000 m 1 km
This bar made of platinum and iridium was used as
the International Prototype to define the metre as
the international unit of length. It is displayed in the
Multiples and submultiples
International Bureau of Weights and of a square metre
Measures, Paris.
Unit name Equivalent
square millimetre
(mm2) 1,000,000 mm2 1m2
3. What is surface area? square centimetre

(cm2) 10,000 cm2 1 m2
square metre (m2) 1m2

Surface area is the space occupied by the length and width of
square kilometre
a body. It is a derived unit from length. 1,000,000 m2 1km2
(km2)
In the International System of Units, surface is measured in
square metres (m2).
F
How is surface area measured?
To calculate the surface area of:
• Regular shaped objects.

height
Use the mathematical

equation corresponding
to the shape.
G
G base F
• Circular objects. Use
base length height
Surface area multiplied by the square
2
of the radius: r2.
Radius
G F
• Irregular-shaped objects.
Divide the irregular shape into
regular ones, and calculate the
area of each one. Then, add
these areas together to
calculate the total (estimation). Surface area r 2
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4. What is volume?
Volume
of the object
The volume of a solid is the amount of space it
occupies. It is a derived unit from length.
Volume is measured in cubic metres (m3).
F
To measure the volume of:
G
• Regular geometric solids. Use the corresponding
mathematical formula. For example, to find the
volume of a box, multiply the base (length x width)
by the height.
• Irregular-shaped solids. Use a measuring cylinder
to measure the volume. Submerge the body in
Measuring the volume of an irregular object
water, then measure the amount of water displaced.
• Liquids. Use a measuring cylinder to measure
the volume.
Initial volume
F
Volume of
• Gases. Fill a measuring cylinder with water. Place it the gas
G
Final volume
upside down in a dish of water. Mark the water level
in the cylinder: initial volume. Blow air through a
tube into the cylinder. The air displaces some water.
Mark the new water level: final volume. The
difference between the two levels is the volume of
gas added to the cylinder.
Capacity Measuring the volume of a gas
The volume of a liquid can be calculated by measuring Multiples and submultiples of a litre
the capacity of its container.
Unit and symbol Equivalence in litres
Capacity is the amount of liquid a container can hold Litre (L) 1L
when it is full. For example, a bowl can hold more
Decilitre (dL) 0.1 L
water than a cup. Capacity is measured in litres (L).
Centilitre (cL) 0.01 L
Millilitre (mL) 0.001 L
Equivalences between volume and capacity

Volume Capacity
1 m3 1,000 L
3
1 dm 1L
3
1 cm 1 mL
3
1 mm 0.001 mL
Activities
4. What is the capacity of a container
with a volume of 3.4 cm3?
5. How many 250 mL bottles do you need
to fill a tank with a capacity of 10 L?
Perfume is sold in small bottles because it is very expensive.
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5. What is mass?
Mass is the amount of matter in a body. Mass is a base unit. Mass
is measured in kilograms (kg). Scales are used to measure mass.
Multiples and submultiples of a kilogram
Unit and symbol Equivalence in kilograms

ton (t) 1,000 kg
kilogram (kg) 1 kg
gram (g) 1kg 1,000 g
decigram (dg) 1g 10 dg
centigram (cg) 1g 100 cg
milligram (mg) 1 g 1,000 mg
This prototype of the kilogram is in the

International Bureau of Weights and
Measures in Paris. The kilogram is a
unit of mass.
A B C
Traditional scales compare mass with a standard weight. To do this, place the body to be weighed in a
saucer (A). Add weights to the other saucer (B) until they are balanced (C).
Activities
6. A gold chain was weighed using the following weights:
– one 100 g weight – two 1 g weights – one 500 mg weight
Can you calculate the mass of the chain in grams and milligrams?
7. A box of biscuits weighing 1 kg costs 3 €.
A box weighing 250 g costs 1 €.
Read and calculate:
The 1 kg box of biscuits is times bigger than the 250 g box.
How much money do you save if you buy the big box? This electronic scale can measure
mass to one hundredth of a gram.
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6. What is density?
Density is the relationship between the mass and the volume
of a body, that is, how concentrated the mass is in a specific volume.
Density is measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3.
Iron has a higher density than wood. These two blocks, one of iron,
and one of wood, have the same volume. The block of iron has
more mass, or amount of matter, so it is harder to move. The block
of iron feels heavy for its size.
The mass of one litre of oil is 900 g.
hard to move easy to move

→ → → →
The relationship between mass and volume:

• The greater the mass is, the greater the density.
• The greater the volume is, the smaller the density.
Density is a specific property of matter. It helps differentiate one The mass of one litre of water is 1,000 g.
substance from another.
mass
Density Did you know that...?
volume
Oil floats on water because it
Generally speaking, solids have a higher density than liquids. is less dense.
Liquids have a higher density than gases. For example, air weighs For the same
very little because it has little mass: it feels light for its size. volume of oil and
water, water has
more matter than
Activities oil. This is the
property of density.
8. Which of the substances in the table on the right float on water?
Why do the others sink?
Densities of some substances
9. These two bodies have the 10. These two bodies have the
Substance Density (g/cm3)
same mass: the crosses same volume, but different
represent particles of mass. mass. Water 1.0
Which of them has the Which body has the highest Oil 0.9
highest density? Explain. density?
Petrol 0.7
x x
Lead 11.3
x x x x
x
x
x
x
x x x
Iron 7.9
x
A B C D Mercury 13.5
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7. What are temperature and time?

What is temperature?
Temperature is used to measure the thermal
state of a body. This measurement is related to
the body’s internal state.
Temperature is related to the amount of heat a

body gives off or absorbs. A hot body will
heat a cold one until they are both the
same temperature.
Thermometers are used to measure the

temperature of bodies.
In the International System of Units, the kelvin
(K) is the unit for temperature. Another unit,
degrees Celsius (°C) is used frequently. Some
countries, (especially the United States of
America) use another measurement,
Fahrenheit (ºF). Here are some equivalents:
Penguins are much warmer
Temperature scales kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit than the place they live in.
Their feathers stop them
degree degree
Unit (symbol) kelvin (K) losing heat.
Celsius (°C) Fahrenheit (°F)
Boiling point of water 373.15 100 212
Melting point of ice 273.15 0 32
Absolute zero 0. 273.15 459.67
Temperature does not depend on the

amount of matter. For example, imagine that Did you know that...?
the temperature of the water in a glass is
The following units are also used to measure time:
60 ºC. If you pour half of the water into one
glass and half in another, the temperature in 60 seconds = 1 minute (min)
each one will still be 60 ºC. 1 hour (h) = 60 minutes
1 day (d) = 24 hours
What is time? 7 days = 1 week
Everyone is aware of the passing of time. 365 days = 1 year (366 days in a leap year)
Even without a watch, it is easy to tell when 100 years = 1 century
this class is going to end. The position of the
Moon or the Sun indicates if it will soon be
daytime or nighttime. Activities
Time is used to measure the passing of events. 11. Convert these temperatures into degrees Celsius.
In the International System of Units, time is (ºC +273 = K)
measured in seconds (s). a. 285 K b. 290 K c. 254 K
12. How many things can you list related to measuring
time? Don’t forget “school timetable”.
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Hands on
Analysing results. Using graphs.
A graph can be used to analyse the data from an Graphs show how one base quantity varies
experiment. A graph also shows the relationship in comparison with another. For example,
between two variables. the temperature of a mass of water will
increase when it is heated.
thermometer To see how the temperature
increases, heat a glass with 500 Time (min) Temperature (°C)
mL of water. Measure the 00 018
temperature every
01 018
2 minutes.
water 03 032
05 046
07 060
09 074
11 088
13 100
15 100
Follow these steps to draw the graph:

100
1. Draw the coordinate axes on squared paper.
– Write the time scale on the horizontal 80
Temperature (°C)
axis (min).
– Write the temperature scale on the 60
vertical axis (ºC).
40
2. Mark the points on the graph. Mark
points on the graph where the time values 20
intersect with the temperature values.
3. Draw a line to join all the points. 0

0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Use a ruler to make the line straight.
Time (min)
Activities
13. Describe the graph. Why do you think the line begins and ends horizontally?
14. Do the same experiment with 300 mL of water.
a. Stir the water so the temperature is the same in all parts of the glass.
b. Measure the temperature of the water every two minutes.
c. Make a table and draw a graph.
d. Compare the two graphs. Are there any differences?
e. Does the amount of water affect the time it takes to heat up?
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Activities
15. Measure the surface of a piece of paper 24. Look at the picture. Which of the two substances
and give the result using the correct units of is denser? Why?
measurement.
16. Which multiples and submultiples of the metre would

you use to calculate the following measurements?
a. The distance between two towns. B
b. The diameter of the head of a nail. A
c. The length of your pen.
d. The length of the classroom.
17. Research on the Internet different types of calendar.

Which calendar do you use in your country?
25. A 3 L container of olive oil has a mass of 2.7 kg.
18. Copy and complete the following table using the
Calculate the density of olive oil.
formula to calculate density.
Density 26. Oil spills occur when the cargo from an oil tanker
Substance Mass (kg) Volume (m2) pours into the ocean due to an accident, for
(kg/m3)
Cedar wood 57,000 100 570 example, Prestige, in 2002. Taking into account that
Water
the density of oil is less than that of sea water, will
1 1,000
the oil float or sink? What consequences do oil
Lead 22,600 2
spills have on the environment?
Gold 3 19,300
Mercury 54,400 4 27. What base quantities are also general properties
Aluminum 5,400 2 of matter?
96º alcohol 1 800
28. Research the history of the different ways to
measure temperature. Where do the names
19. Give the following measurements in centimetres.
Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin come from?
a. 320 mm b. 3.5 m c. 2 km
29. Copy and complete the table:
20. If you mix water with oil, it separates into two
layers. Which liquid floats on top? Temper- Surface
Length Mass Time Volume
3 ature area
Remember: the density of water is 1 g/cm , and the
density of oil is 0.9 g/cm3. Unit
Symbol
21. The density of iron is 7.9 g/cm3. If a nail made of
ºC K
iron has a mass of 20 g, what is its volume?
22. Measure the surface area of a piece of paper. Give

your answer using the International System of Units.
23. A school wants to build a new sports field. It needs

to include:
– a football pitch measuring 100 m x 100 m
– a basketball court measuring 18 m x 15 m
– a tennis court measuring 23.77 m x 8.23 m
How many square metres are needed for the sports field?
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Matter is anything that has mass and volume.

The properties of matter are:
• General properties, common to all matter:
Properties
– Mass – Volume
• Specific properties: those which differentiate one
substance from another.
Base quantities are all independent. They are

measured in base units.
• Length is the distance between two points.
The unit for length in the International System
of Units is the metre (m).
• Mass is the amount of matter in a body.
Base The unit for mass in the International System
MATTER
quantities of Units is the kilogram (kg).

• Temperature is the thermal state of a body.
The unit for temperature in the International
System of Units is the kelvin (K).
• Time measures the passing of events.
The unit for time in the International System
of Units is the second (s).
Mathematical combinations of base units are called

derived units.
• Surface area is the extension of a body in two
dimensions. The unit for surface area in the
International System of Units is the square
Derived
metre (m2).
quantities
• Volume is the space occupied by a body.
The unit for volume is the cubic metre (m3).
• Density is the relationship between the mass and
the volume of a body. The unit for density is the
kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3).
Projects
EXPERIMENT: Think up an experiment to prove the hypothesis: A digital watch measures
time more accurately than an hour glass.
Describe: a. The equipment you used. b. Procedures. c. Conclusions.
WEB TASK: How warm is 50 degrees Fahrenheit? How big is a 30 inch TV screen?
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UNIT
13 Everything is matter
• What are icebergs and glaciers made of?
• What state of matter is ice?
• Can water exist in more than one state?
• Is sea water made up of one substance or several?
• What is fresh water made of?

In this unit you will … Describing a process
When a liquid is heated, it boils.
• Differentiate changes of state of matter
When a solid is heated, the particles gain energy.
• Recognise the conditions in which changes
occur Making generalisations
Most common substances are mixtures.
• Differentiate pure substances and mixtures Most plastics are made from petroleum.
• Evaluate the need for recycling waste Describing
• Draw conclusions from examining the A pure substance has only one component.
components of a mixture A compound contains two or more elements.
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1. Which are the states of matter?

Matter can exist in three physical states: solid, liquid and gas.
Matter normally exists in one state in nature. However, water can
exist naturally in all three states: ice, water and water vapour.
Solids have a fixed shape Liquids have no fixed shape. Gases have no fixed shape.
if no pressure is exerted. They adapt to a container. They occupy all available space.
Solids Liquids Gases

Shape Hold shape Shape of container Shape of container
Volume – Fixed volume – Fixed volume – Volume of container
* except for water – Solids expand – Liquids expand – Gases expand to
if heated, or contract if cooled* if heated or contract if cooled. occupy all available space.
Fluidity – Solids cannot flow. – Can flow. They spread if not – Can flow. They spread if not
in a container. in a container.
Density – Usually have a high density: – Quite high density: – Low density: few particles
many particles a lot of particles in a small in a large volume
in a small volume volume
Compressibility – Difficult to compress – Quite difficult to compress – Easy to compress
The states of matter according

Activities
to particle theory
1. In which of the states of matter are the particles
• Matter is made up of tiny particles. closest together? Why is it very difficult to compress
Between them are empty spaces. solids and liquids?
• The particles within matter are in constant 2. Describe how the particles move in solids, liquids
motion. and gases.
• Temperature affects the speed of particles. 3. Why do solids generally have a higher density than
liquids, and liquids a higher density than gases?
• There are forces which attract the particles.
Solids Liquids Gases
The particles are very The particles are close together, The particles are far apart and
close together, held by held by weak forces move quickly in all
strong forces of of attraction. directions. The
attraction. They have some particles have no
They vibrate freedom of force of attraction.
but do not movement. They collide
change They can flow with each other.
position. and slide easily.
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fusion vaporisation
solidification condensation
2. How can matter change its state?

Particles of matter do not change from one state to another.
They only change their arrangement or their energy. When Did you know that...?
matter changes state, no mass is lost.
Above its boiling point a substance
is a gas.
Solid to liquid
Between its melting point and boiling
• When a solid is heated, the particles gain more energy point a substance is a liquid.
and move more. The forces of attraction between the
particles are weakened. Below its melting point a substance is
a solid.
• At a certain temperature, the particles have enough
energy to break free from their positions. When a solid
changes into a liquid, the process is called melting or
fusion.
• The reverse process, when a liquid is cooled and changes
Activities
to a solid, is called solidification. 4. Study the diagram. Which arrows
• The temperature of a substance at fusion and (red or blue) indicate changes of state
produced by heating? Which arrows
solidification is always the same one.
correspond to changes produced
by cooling?
Liquid to gas
liquid
• When a liquid is heated to a certain temperature, it
boils. The particles have enough energy to break free
from their positions. When a liquid evaporates into a
gas, the process is called vaporisation. va
po
n
ris
sio
• The reverse process, when a gas changes into a liquid, co at

io
fu
nd
n
n
tio
en
is called condensation.
ca
solid sa gas
tio
ifi
lid
n
so
Solid to gas sublimation
• When a solid changes into a gas without first becoming

regressive sublimation
a liquid, the process is called sublimation. For example,
naphthalene balls change slowly into a gas.
• When a gas changes directly into a solid, the process is 5. 50 g of iron is melted. How much liquid
called regressive sublimation. For example, snowflakes iron is produced? Why is this?
change from water vapour into solid snow.
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3. What are mixtures?

Most common substances are mixtures. For example, the
air in the atmosphere is a mixture of various gases.
Mixtures that appear uniform are called homogeneous.
Mixtures where more than one part is distinguishable are
called heterogeneous.
Granite is a heterogeneous mixture. It is
composed of minerals that are clearly
Heterogeneous mixtures distinguishable (each colour is a different
In some mixtures, the components are clearly mineral).
distinguishable. For example, most rocks contain a mixture
of different minerals.
Homogeneous mixtures Steel is a homogeneous mixture.

It is made from iron and carbon.
In homogeneous mixtures, you cannot distinguish each
component with the naked eye. They have a uniform
composition. For example, sea water, air, and vinegar. Activities
6. Copy and complete the chart. Add
What is a solution? more examples.
A solution is any homogeneous mixture. Solutions are Homogeneous /
usually liquid mixtures, that is, liquids with solid Mixture Components
Heterogeneous
substances, such as water with sugar. The sugar is dissolved air nitrogen, oxygen, argon homogeneous
evenly throughout the liquid. The simplest solutions
steel iron and carbon
consist of two components: a solvent and a solute.
granite various minerals
However, solutions can be solid, liquid or gaseous:
– Solids within solids: alloys are special solutions: 7. Look in your kitchen for mixtures and
all their components are solids. For example, steel (iron label them homogeneous or
mixed with carbon). heterogeneous:
– Liquid within liquid: alcohol dissolved in water. mayonnaise, tomato sauce, paper,
pineapple juice, honey, a drink of
– Solid within liquid: salt dissolved in water.
coffee, coke, chicken soup, fruit
– Gas within liquid: CO2 dissolved in fizzy drinks. yogurt.
– Gas within gas: air (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, etc.)
Solute.
The dissolved
Solvent. The liquid substance
part (often water)
Solution
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4. What are pure substances?

hydrogen oxygen
A pure substance has only one component. It has a
homogeneous look. It has unique properties that
characterise it, for example, its density. These properties
distinguish it from every other substance.
Pure substances in nature can be either chemical
compounds or elements.
• Chemical compounds. A chemical compound
consists of two or more elements joined up. The
atoms are from different elements. Compounds
have a fixed composition: water is always made up
of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
It can be expressed as H2O.
• Chemical elements. A chemical element cannot be
water broken down into simpler substances. About ninety
Water is a compound. It is made up of two parts chemical elements can be found in nature.
hydrogen to one part oxygen. Twice as much hydrogen Hydrogen and oxygen are chemical elements.
as oxygen is obtained when water is broken down.
5. What are physical and chemical changes?

A physical change does not change the composition of the substance. In a chemical change, where there is
a chemical reaction, the substance is changed to a new kind of substance.
Activities
8. What are the differences
between pure substances
and homogeneous mixtures.
How are they similar?
9. Classify these things:
homogeneous or
heterogeneous mixtures,
Physical change. If you cut Chemical change. When rust or pure substances:
paper into tiny pieces, each appears on a piece of iron, a new a. sand and water
piece is still paper. When water substance has been formed: iron b. oxygen
changes into ice or vapour, it is oxide. When paper is burned, you c. iron
still water. can no longer see the pieces of d. water
paper. A new substance has been e. milk and chocolate powder
formed: ash.
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Hands on
Checking a hypothesis. Separating mixtures
Using the filtration method
The filtration method is good for separating an
insoluble solid from a liquid. (An insoluble substance
does not dissolve in water.)
You are going to separate a mixture of water and
sand using this method.
The liquid passes through the filter, but the solid
particles cannot go through.
Materials
– water – a beaker
– a funnel – some filter paper
– a container for the mixture of water and sand
1. Put the funnel into the beaker. Place the filter

paper in the funnel.
2. Pour the mixture into the filter paper.
3. Remove the sand that has stayed behind in the
filter paper.
Using the decanting method

The decanting method is useful for separating
a heterogeneous mixture of two liquids that have
a different density.
You are going to separate a mixture of water and oil
using this method.
Materials
– water – oil – spoon
– a container for the mixture of water and oil
1. Leave the mixture to rest until the particles of the

liquid with the least density (oil) settle on top of
the particles with the highest density (water).
2. Use a spoon to separate the liquid that is at the
top of the beaker.
Activities
10. Does sand dissolve in water? 11. Copy and complete the text.
Is a mixture of sand and water homogeneous or Sand dissolve in water. When you mix
heterogeneous? sand and water you get a mixture.
Sugar in water to form a solution.
A solution is a mixture.
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6. What are synthetic materials?

Synthetic materials do not exist in nature. They are obtained from
natural substances which are transformed by chemical processes. Activities
12. What materials would
Synthetic materials are used to manufacture many products in you use to make the
modern, industrialised societies because of their special properties. following products?
Some of the most popular synthetic materials are: a. a boat
Plastic. Most plastics are made from petroleum. There are many b. a modern office
different kinds, used to make a multitude of things. building
c. parts of an aeroplane
Glass is made from silica.
d. a strong container to
Fibreglass is made from extremely fine fibres of glass, woven hold water
together. e. a cable for
Fibre optic is a fibre made of glass or plastic. It is a long, fine tube telephones
which light travels along. Say why in each case.
Carbon fibre is made up of mainly carbon atoms. It is an extremely 13. What properties of
thin fibre. Each fibre is incredibly strong. The fibres are woven carbon fibre make it ideal
together to create a very resistant material. for making a bicycle?
Some properties of synthetic materials

Material Plastic Glass Fibreglass Fibre optics Carbon fibre
Properties – impermeable – fragile, but hard – flexible and – excellent – light

– light, flexible – does not rust strong conductor of light – resistant
– resistant – lets light through – does not rust – does not rust – elastic
– does not rust – does not rust
Used for multiple uses multiple uses boats, car bodies cables for cars, bikes, tennis
telephones, rackets, aeroplanes
computers
Carbon fibre is strong but elastic. Equipment for water sports is often Fibre optics can conduct vast quantities
It has many uses in aviation made of fibre glass of light or information at very high speed
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7. Why is recycling important?

Every year, modern societies generate more and more Solid waste: example
rubbish. Urban solid waste is unwanted solid and organic matter 30 % paper 25 % textiles 10 %
semi-solid materials from homes, commerce and
industry.
This waste can be harmful to the environment. Some
of it is toxic. It needs to be treated or recycled.
What can you do to help?

You can reduce solid waste in the home, and recycle
some of it. Recycled materials can be transformed
plastics 7 % glass 10 %
into new raw materials.
metals 8 % other 10 %
DO Activities
Reuse materials: plastic bags, writing paper. 14. Copy and complete the table about waste
in your home.
Recycle paper, glass, tins and plastic.
Organic Toxic Recyclable
Take old medicines, paints and batteries to
vegetables medicines bottles
collection dumps. Use rechargable batteries. leaves paints newspapers
DON’T 15. Make a Do / Don’t poster about how to help
Buy things with a lot of unnecessary packaging. reduce solid urban waste.
16. Investigate how urban solid waste is removed
Dump rubbish on the beach or in the countryside.
in your own area.
What happens to recycled waste?
transport
waste collection
gl
as
s
pa
pe
domestic m r
et waste
consumption al
pl collection
as
tic
co
m
po
st
rubbish
dump
ss
ce
raw materials
pro
g
lin
cyc
re
processing
and toxic waste incineration
manufacturing
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Activities
17. Read and classify: solid, liquid or gas. 22. Could you make a solution of the following
a. oxygen d. hydrogen g. salt substances? Say why or why not in each case.
b. water e. oil h. iron -cornflakes and milk -water and oil
c. granite f. steam -butter and salt -water and ink
18. Identify: element, compound, mixture. 23. Can mixtures be compounds? Why or why not?
Hint: A chemical compound consists of two or more
A B C
elements joined up.
24. Copy and complete the following phrases.

a. The change from solid to liquid is called…
19. Copy and complete the table with the properties of b. The change from gas to liquid is called…
the three different states. c. The change from liquid to gas is called…
d. The change from liquid to solid is called…
Flows / does
Shape Volume
not flow 25. Indicate the solvent, the solute and the solution in
this drawing.
Solids
A C
Liquids
B
Gases
20. Give reasons for your classification in activity 17.

1. It flows easily.
2. It is easy to compress. 26. All substances can be found in any one of the three
3. It cannot be compressed. states of matter, if the conditions are right.
4. It has no fixed shape. a. Is it is possible to find iron in a liquid state on Earth?
5. It has a fixed shape. b. Is it possible to find water in a gaseous state?
6. It has a fixed volume and shape.
7. It takes the shape of its container. 27. Draw how you think particles of air are organised
8. It can spread out into a space. inside a container. Represent the air particles with
Example: a-4. Oxygen is a gas: it has no fixed shape. dots. Then, draw the particles again after half the
air has been removed.
21. Classify the changes: physical or chemical.
Give a reason. 28. Cartons are made with several layers of cardboard
and polyethylene. The polyethylene is in contact
a. Paper is burned and changes into ashes. with the liquid. It is a light plastic that does not let
b. A rusty piece of metal. in air, humidity or bacteria. Cardboard makes the
c. Clothes drying in the Sun. container harder.
d. Lava cools down and solidifies. a. Why is polyethylene a good material to store food?
e. Water is broken down into hydrogen
b. What would happen if the container were made
and oxygen.
only of cardboard?
chemical is the same.

29. If you wash up a glass and leave it to dry, what has
It’s a change because the substance happened to the water on the glass? Would it dry
physical changes.
faster in a cold room or a warm one? Why? What is
the name of this process?
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Matter can exist in three different physical states:
• Solid: Fixed shape and volume. High density.
• Liquid: No fixed shape. Fixed volume. It can flow.
Quite high density.
• Gas: No fixed shape. No fixed volume. It can flow
and be compressed. Low density.
Physical A substance can change from one state into another.
states
F
Liquid
va
on
po
si
ris
co
n
fu
tio
at
nd
io
ca
en
n
ifi
sa
lid
tio
so
n
sublimation
F
G
F
Solid G Gas
regressive sublimation
EVERYTHING IS MATTER
• Matter is made up of tiny particles, surrounded by

empty spaces.
Particle • The particles within matter are in constant motion.
theory • There are forces which attract the particles.
Particle theory describes changes from one state into
another.
Matter can be classified by its appearance as:

• Heterogeneous: the appearance is not uniform. The
components can be distinguished.
• Homogeneous: appearance is uniform. The
components cannot be distinguished.
Mixtures
Most common substances are mixtures.
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more
substances, made up of:
• a solvent: the most abundant component.
• a solute: the least abundant part of a solution.
There are two types:

Pure
• Chemical compounds: Can be broken down chemically into simpler substances.
substances
• Elements: Cannot be broken down into simpler substances
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Research other methods for separating mixtures. Display the results in a poster.
Use diagrams and explanations.
WEB TASK: What is the fourth state of matter? Investigate.
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UNIT
14 Atoms and elements

• What is all matter composed of?
• What gases are there in the air?
• Which gas predominates?
• Which gas do living things breathe?

Magnesium is a silvery white metal.
• Learn about the basic components of matter Silicon is a solid, non-metal substance.
• Identify elements in the PeriodicTable Indicating location
• Differentiate atoms, elements, molecules Magnesium is found in minerals.
and crystals Carbon is found on the Earth´s crust.
• Interpret some chemical formulas Comparing

Hydrogen is the most abundant gas in the Universe.
• Prepare a scientific report Oxygen is the most abundant element on Earth.
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1. What is matter made of? electrons
All matter is made up of atoms. An atom is the smallest protons
particle of matter which can exist alone. It has all the

properties of matter to which it belongs.
Atoms are so small, they cannot be seen under a
microscope. For example, one gram of copper contains
more than nine thousand trillion atoms.
The structure of an atom

nucleus
At the centre of an atom is a core called a nucleus. The
nucleus is made up of particles called protons and neutrons
neutrons.
Protons have a positive charge (⫹). Neutrons have no The structure of an atom
charge. This means that the nucleus has a positive charge.
Extremely small particles called electrons orbit the
nucleus. Electrons have a negative charge (⫺). They are Carbon atom Nitrogen atom
attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus.
Between the nucleus and the electrons there is nothing, so
most of an atom is empty.
The atomic number

The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons
in the nucleus. Each atom has a unique atomic number. 6 protons 7 protons
Carbon atoms and nitrogen atoms have different
2. What are elements? atomic numbers: 6 and 7, respectively. As a result, they

are different elements with very different properties.
An element is a substance that contains one type of atom.

It cannot be broken down into anything simpler by
chemical reaction.
The atoms of one element are different to the atoms of
every other element. For example, oxygen is made up
only of oxygen atoms. Hydrogen is made up only of All matter is made up of the atoms of
hydrogen atoms. Consequently, an atom is the smallest one or more elements. There are about
part of an element. 90 different elements found in nature.
Activities
1. In what ways are some atoms different from others?
2. Why is most of the structure of an atom empty?
3. Draw a carbon atom and label nucleus, protons,
neutrons and electrons.
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3. How are elements classified?

All the elements found on Earth are classified in the Periodic Table of
Elements. Each element is represented by a symbol consisting of one or Black - solid
two letters. Blue - liquid
Red - gas
For example, the symbol for hydrogen is H and for magnesium it is Mg. Purple - artificial
In the Periodic Table, the elements are grouped according to their atomic atomic F 12
number Mg
number. Elements with similar chemical properties are in the same column.
F
atomic
name F Magnesium symbol
of the
element
The Periodic Table of Elements
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
1 H He
Hydrogen Helium
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
LANTHANIDE F 6 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
SERIES Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
ACTINIDE F 7 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
SERIES Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Activities
4. Find platinum, gold and mercury in the periodic table. How many protons does each element have?
5. Can you find any other metals in the Periodic Table?
6. How are elements grouped in this Periodic Table?
7. Say the letters of a symbol. Your partner says the element.
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4. How are atoms organised?

The noble gases are monoatomic. In others
words, they exist as single atoms: they do not
join up with each other to form molecules. Did you know that...?
The noble gases are helium, neon, argon, Helium, a noble gas,
krypton, xenon and radon. is lighter than air.
Atoms are organised in different ways. It is used to fill party balloons.
The atoms of most elements join up with each
other to form molecules. Molecules are made
up of two or more atoms. There are two types
of molecules:
• Simple molecules consist of two or more
atoms of the same element joined together.
Simple molecule Compound molecule
• Compound molecules consist of a Oxygen (O2) Water (H2O)
combination of different atoms joined
together.
Crystals consist of atoms or molecules
arranged in a regular, organised structure.
Each crystal has a different shape and unique
properties. There are two types of crystals:
• Simple crystals consist of groups of atoms A water molecule
of the same element joined together in an O2 is an oxygen is H2O: two
molecule made hydrogen atoms
organised structure. For example, metals. up of two joined with one
• Compound crystals consist of groups of oxygen atoms. oxygen atom.
atoms from different elements joined
together. For example, common salt is
sodium chloride.
Every chemical element has its own specific
properties. The combination of elements
produces millions of compound substances
with very different properties.
Activities
8. Look at the periodic table. How many noble
gases are there? What are their atomic
symbols?
9. Compare the main characteristics of atoms, Compound crystal
molecules and crystals. Make a table. Common salt is made from
10. Draw pictures to illustrate an atom, an sodium and chloride atoms
element and a molecule. bonded together.
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5. What is a chemical formula? Oxygen molecule (O2)
Each element has its own chemical symbol: oxygen is O, calcium

is Ca. To describe molecules, a chemical formula is used.
A chemical formula consists of chemical symbols and numbers
to indicate how many atoms of each element make up a molecule. two
oxygen atoms
For example, the formula for carbon monoxide is CO. This
means that each molecule of carbon monoxide consists of one
carbon atom joined to one oxygen atom.
• Simple substances. The formula indicates the molecule of
the substance. For example, O2 is the formula for the
substance with molecules made up of two oxygen atoms
joined together.
symbol for the element F
O2 F
number of atoms
• Compound substances. The formula indicates which

elements make up the molecule. For example, a water
molecule, H2O, consists of one atom of oxygen joined to two
atoms of hydrogen.
F
symbols for each elements H2O number of atoms oxygen

atom
F
hydrogen
• Crystals. Some elements form simple crystals. In this case, atoms
the chemical formula is the same as for the chemical symbol
for the element. For example, carbon crystals: C. Water molecule (H2O)
• Compound crystals. The chemical formula indicates the

elements and their proportions within the crystal. sodium
atom
F
symbols for elements NaCl proportion of each chlorine

atom
F
• Some chemical formulae are more complicated. For example, Sodium chloride
the formula for sodium sulphate is Na2SO4. It indicates that molecule
sodium sulphate consists of two sodium atoms, one sulphur (Na Cl)
atom and four oxygen atoms.
Activities
11. Copy the table and complete. 12. Sucrose is the chemical name for sugar.
Atoms: Its formula is C12H22O11.
Name Chemical formula
name and number a. How many elements make up this substance?
iron oxide Fe2 O3 b. What is the name of each element?
silver oxide Ag2 O c. How many atoms of each element are there
aluminum oxide Al2 O3 in sucrose?
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6. Which elements can be found in nature?

Universe
There are more than 110 elements in the Periodic Table,
hydrogen 83.9 %
92 are found in nature. All the others are man-made.
Hydrogen and helium are the most abundant
elements in the Universe. The stars are made up
mainly of these two elements.
Hydrogen (H2) is a gas. It makes up 83% of the
Universe. It is found in the atmosphere, water, rocks…
Helium (He) is a noble gas. It makes up 15.9% of
matter in the Universe, but there is very little on Earth.
other elements 0.2 % helium 15.9 %
Living things
hydrogen 63 % others 0.6 %
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen form 95%
of all living things.
Atoms of carbon combine with many other atoms
to form a wide variety of molecules in living things.
Some elements can be found both in living beings,
in water and on the Earth’s crust. However, they
form different compounds.
Nitrogen (N2) is a gas formed by molecules. It is
the most abundant gas in the Earth’s atmosphere.
nitrogen 1.4 %
oxygen 25.5 % It is a basic compound of proteins. There is
carbon 9.5 %
nitrogen in the soil.
Earth’s crust Oxygen (O2) is a gas formed by molecules. It is the
silicon 28 % oxygen 47 % most abundant element on Earth. It is found in the
aluminium atmosphere in water, rocks and organic substances.
7.9 %
Carbon (C) is the basis of all organic compounds
in living things. It is found on the Earth’s crust as
coal, graphite ...
Activities
iron others
4.5 % 1.69 %
13. Compare the pie charts.
calcium 3.5 %
a. Which is the most homogeneous? In which
sodium 2.5 % carbon 0.19 %
is there more diversity?
potassium 2.5 % hydrogen 0.22 %
magnesium 2.2 % b. Ask questions about the charts: for example,
Where is there more hydrogen? In the

Universe or the Earth’s crust?
Did you know that...? Is there any silicon in living things?
Living things are made
14. Carbon is not the most abundant element in
up of about twenty elements.
living things. Which element is?
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7. Why are elements

important?
In the Earth´s crust
The most abundant elements which form the rocks
and minerals of the Earth’s crust are silicon,
aluminium, iron, magnesium and calcium.
• Silicon (Si) is a solid, non-metal substance.
It is generally found as a compound: the most
common is quartz. It combines with oxygen to
form silicates. Magnesium is used in the composition of fireworks.
• Aluminium (Al) is a soft, light metal. It is only
found as a compound and is obtained from
bauxite. Aluminium alloys are used to make Did you know
aeroplanes, ships, etc. that...?
• Iron (Fe) is a grey metal. It is generally found as Pure silicon is used
a compound. It combines with oxygen to form to make microchips
hematite and magnetite. Iron is present in your for computers.
blood.
• Magnesium (Mg) a silvery metal. It is found in
minerals such as olivine. It burns very easily
with a very bright, white flame.
• Calcium (Ca) is a greyish white metal, found
only in compounds. Calcium carbonate,
(CaCO3), is found in seashells and egg shells.
In sea water
The most abundant elements in sea water are
chlorine, sodium and potassium.
• Chlorine (Cl) is a yellowish green gas at room Water is disinfected with chlorine.
temperature. It combines with metals to form
salts. Chlorine is used to disinfect water in
swimming pools. Activities
• Sodium (Na) is a soft, shiny metal. It is only 15. Which element can you find in: fireworks,
found in compounds. It reacts easily with the sea shells, aeroplanes, and blood?
oxygen in the air. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is 16. Classify the elements on this page in a table.
common salt.
Metal Non metal
• Potassium (K) is a soft, shiny metal. It is only
found in compounds like potassium chloride
17. Describe an element. Your partner guesses
(KCl).
which one.
Sodium and potassium are also present in living It is a soft, shiny metal.
things. They help muscle contraction and the It is found in common salt.
functions of the nervous system.
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Hands on
Writing a fact file: Elements
Research an element from the Periodic Table.
Some interesting elements:
Then, write up your fact file. Follow this outline to
copper, iron, phosphorus, sulphur, fluorine, iodine.
help you.
1. Chemical composition. 4. Why it is important.

Choose an element. What is its atomic symbol?
Is it important in living things, or in the
Draw the atom. What is its chemical formula?
Earth’s crust?
2. Description. Give some facts and examples.
Write a physical description of the substance. Is it
solid, liquid or gas? Is it a metal or a non-metal? 5. Some important uses.
What is this element or its compounds used for?
3. Where it is found in nature. What other forms does it have?
Is it found as a simple substance or a compound
substance? Is it abundant or rare?
Calcium Fact File
Calcium, Ca has an atomic number of 20.
Description Calcium atom

Calcium is a soft, grey metal.
Where it is found in nature

Calcium is not found as an element in nature.
It is usually found in rocks like limestone or gypsum.
Why it is important
Calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust.
It is also essential for living things. It is the most common mineral
in the human body. 99 % of this is found in bones and teeth.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the main component
of seashells, egg shells and snail shells.
Some important uses

It is used as an antacid for stomach pains.
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Activities
18. Copy and label this atom: 25. Study the diagrams. Different atoms are shown
nucleus in different colours.
protons
neutrons A B
electrons
19. Each of these formulas represents a gaseous

substance: (CO) carbon monoxide, (NO) nitrogen C D
oxide, (C4H10) butane.
Explain the meaning of each formula.
20. Write the formula for a substance which contains

two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur, and a. Which drawings correspond to elements?
four atoms of oxygen.
b. Which drawings correspond to compounds?
Explain your answers.
21. Carbon monoxide is a gas: CO. Lead is a solid,
heavy metal. Could these substances be found as c. Can you see any molecules? How many atoms
molecules or as crystals? does each have?
22. What is the difference between an atom and a 26. Copy and complete the table.
molecule?
Element Compound
23. Use the Periodic Table to make a list of the
elements that are most abundant in: Copper (Cu)
a. The Universe. b. The Earth’s crust. Sulphur

dioxide (SO2)
24. Copy and complete the summary for each element. Sulphuric
acid (H2SO4)
Elements in nature Helium (He)
Nitrogen (N2)
The Earth’s crust In sea water
27. Copy and complete the table.

Silicon
compound / formula elements / number of atoms
Chlorine hydrogen: 2
water (H20)
oxygen: 1
Si sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
non-metal sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)
It is in quartz. calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

It forms silicates.
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Atoms are the smallest particles of a chemical element. They
are made up of a nucleus with protons and neutrons, and
electrons which orbit the nucleus.
Atoms • Matter is made up of atoms.
and
• Elements are formed by equal atoms.
elements
• Compounds consist of two or more different atoms.
There are more than one hundred different elements. They
are classified in the Periodic Table of Elements.
Atoms form different types of substances:

• Monoatomic: the noble gases.
• Molecules: the union of two or more atoms.
– Simple molecules: formed by identical atoms:
gases (O2, N2, H2)
ATOMS AND ELEMENTS
Substances – Compound molecules: formed by different atoms:

and formulas compounds in gas or liquid form (H2O, CO2).
• Crystals: many atoms joined together in an organised
structure.
– Simple crystals: formed by identical atoms. Example: metals.
– Compound crystals: formed by different atoms. Example:
solid substances like sodium chloride (NaCl).
• Hydrogen. A gas formed by molecules (H2). It is the most Universe

abundant gas in the Universe.
• Helium. A gas formed by atoms (He). It is the second most
abundant gas in the Universe.
• Nitrogen. A gas formed by molecules (N2). It is the most
abundant gas in the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Oxygen. A gas formed by molecules (O2). It is the most
Elements in abundant element on Earth, and the second most
nature abundant in the atmosphere. Living
• Carbon is the basis of organic compounds. things
• Silicon is only found as a compound in nature. It is the

main component of silicates.
• Aluminium, iron, magnesium and calcium are metals
which are abundant in minerals and rocks.
• Chlorine, magnesium, sodium and potassium dissolve in Earth’s
water. They make up the ‘salt’ in sea water. crust
Projects
INVESTIGATE: Nitrogen in soil is very important • Why do we use fertilizers with nitrogen?
for living things. Why? • Where does nitrogen in the soil come from?
• Can plants live in soil without nitrogen? WEB TASK: Research the world of nanotechnology.
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Vocabulary
1 The Universe solar eclipse when the Moon passes between the Sun
and the Earth, and blocks off the sunlight.
asteroids rocky bodies which orbit the stars. water cycle the movement of water around, over,
astronomical unit the distance from the Earth to the and through the Earth: evaporation, condensation,
Sun: approximately 150 million kilometres. precipitation, surface runoff and infiltration.
galaxies a vast collection of stars, dust and gases, held
together by gravitational attraction. 3 Living things
geocentric theory proposed that the Earth was the
centre of the Universe. autotrophs living things which produce the organic
heliocentric theory proposed that the Sun was at the substances they need from inorganic substances. Plants,
centre of the Universe. algae and some bacteria are autotrophs.
light-year the distance light travels in one year: cell membrane the outer covering of a cell. The cell
about 9.5 trillion km. membrane keeps the cell together and controls what
passes in and out of it.
Milky Way the galaxy where our Solar System is.
orbit a curved path which a celestial body follows chloroplasts organelles with a green pigment,
in its revolution around another celestial body. chlorophyll, which absorbs the Sun’s energy to
elaborate organic matter during photosynthesis.
cytoplasm the inside of a cell where many of the
2 Planet Earth chemical reactions take place.
eukaryotic cells cells which have a nucleus,
atmosphere the layer of gases which envelops the separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
Earth. Nitrogen and oxygen are the most abundant. membrane.
biosphere the part of the Earth’s surface, sea and air heterotrophs living things which obtain nutrition
that is inhabited by living things. from organic matter which is already elaborated.
core the centre of the Earth, below the mantle. Animals, fungi, and all protozoa are heterotrophs.
Its temperature is over 4,000°C.
inorganic substances things which contain no
crust the outer layer of the Earth’s surface. It is carbon. They are present in living things and non-living
divided into continental crust and oceanic crust. things: water and mineral salts.
equinox the time of the year when day and night are organelles small structures in the cytoplasm
exactly the same length. responsible for respiration, making and storing
geosphere the solid part of the Earth which includes nutrients, etc.
the lithosphere, the mantle and the core. organic substances substances exclusive to living
hydrosphere all the water on Earth. things. Carbon is the principal element. Organic
lithosphere the upper 100 km of the geosphere. It is substances include: glucides, lipids, proteins and
is made up of the crust and the upper mantle. nucleic acids.
lunar eclipse when the Moon passes behind the nutrition all the processes which enable living things
Earth, so the Earth prevents sunlight from reaching to obtain the energy and matter they need to live.
the Moon. photosynthesis the process through which plants
mantle the middle layer of the Earth, below the crust. obtain nutrition.
It is made up of rock. The temperature is from 1,000 to prokaryotic cells cells with no nucleus or nuclear
4,000ºC, so some areas are melted rock. membrane. Genetic material is dispersed throughout
revolution the elliptical path taken by one body the cytoplasm. They are simpler than eukaryotic cells.
around another. The Earth revolves around the Sun. species the first level of classification for living things.
rotation the Earth rotates on its axis. The axis is tilted A group of living things which are physically similar.
23.5 degrees. This rotation creates day and night. They reproduce and usually have fertile descendants.
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4 Invertebrates poikilotherms cold-blooded animals. They cannot

regulate their body temperature, so are warm or cold
depending on the environment.
annelids invertebrates with soft, cylindrical bodies
divided into segments, with organs in each segment. reptiles vertebrate animals with bodies covered with
Most breathe through gills. hard scales. They are poikilothermal and most of them
are oviparous and carnivorous.
arthropods the largest and most varied group of
living things: more than one million species. They live viviparous animals that give birth to live young.
in sea water, fresh water and on land. Development starts in the mother’s body. The babies
feed on the mother’s milk.
cephalopods a group of molluscs. They have tentacles,
but no shell. For example: squid, cuttlefish and octopus.
cnidaria jellyfish, corals and sea anemones. They 6 The plant and fungi
have a soft body, with only one opening
and a mouth surrounded by tentacles. kingdoms
crustaceans a group of arthropods with 10 legs, with
usually an aquatic habitat. For example: lobster or crab. angiosperm flowering plants which have seeds inside
a real fruit.
echinoderms invertebrate animals which live on the sea
bed. For example, sea urchins, starfish and sea cucumbers. dispersal a stage of plant reproduction. The ripe fruit
falls off the plant or releases the seeds.
gastropods a group of molluscs. Gastropods have a
spiral-shaped shell with a single valve. For example, ferns small non-flowering plants. Ferns are vascular.
snails, sea snails and slugs. Slugs have no shell. They have roots, stems, and leaves called fronds.
molluscs a group of invertebrate animals with a soft fertilisation a stage of plant reproduction. Pollen
body divided into head, body mass and foot. For reaches the stigma, penetrates it, and fertilises the
example, squid, mussels, oysters, slugs and snails. ovules inside the ovary.
myriapods a group of arthropods with worm-like fungi have eukaryotic cells and are heterotrophic.
bodies and many legs. They are terrestrial. For example, Fungi are made up of hyphae, which group together to
centipede and scolopendra. form the mycelium.
oviparous animals that lay eggs. Eggs are laid by germination the last stage of plant reproduction.
the female and develop outside the body. Seeds germinate producing a tiny shoot and root.
gymnosperm one kind of flowering plant. They have
platyhelminths invertebrates with long, flat, soft
seeds inside a false fruit, like a pinecone.
bodies. They have neither legs nor respiratory or
digestive systems. Many are parasites. mosses small, non-flowering plants. They are non-
vascular. They have no true roots, stems or leaves.
polyp cnidaria bodies shaped like a tube with the
opening at the top. For example, corals and sea pollination the first stage of plant reproduction.
anemones. Wind and insects transport pollen from one flower to
another.
porifera invertebrate animals without organs.
Sponges belong to this group. stomata microscopic pores on the underside of a leaf.
transpiration process by which excess water is expelled
through leaf stomata in the form of water vapour.
5 Vertebrates vascular plants with conductor vessels to distribute
water and nutrients.
amphibians vertebrate animals. Their skin is moist
and has no covering. They have four legs and are yeasts unicellular fungi. Some types are used to make
poikilothermal. They undergo metamorphosis. bread, wine, beer, etc.
homeotherms warm-blooded animals: capable
of keeping their body temperature constant. 7 The simplest living things
mammals a group of vertebrate animals. Their bodies
are covered with hair or fur. They are homeothermal algae unicellular or multicellular autotrophs. They
and have mammary glands. live in salt and fresh water.
ovoviviparous animals that are born from an egg. bacteria microscopic, prokaryotic organisms. They
The egg develops inside the female. belong to the Monera kingdom.
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ciliates a group of protozoa with hair-like organs. 9 The hydrosphere

flagellates one of the groups of protozoa. They move
with a flagellum (tail). condensation the process in which water vapour
protoctist unicellular and multicellular living things. changes to liquid.
They are eukaryotes and have no tissues. The Protoctist currents movement of large bodies of water by
kingdom includes protozoa and algae. prevailing winds.
protozoa unicellular and heterotrophic living evaporation the process of the water cycle in which
things. Some are parasites, and cause illnesses. liquid water changes to a gas (water vapour).
rhizopods protozoa with pseudopods (projections evapotranspiration when water evaporates into the
of the cell cytoplasm). atmosphere from the leaves and stems of plants.
saprophytes organisms which live on dead or groundwater water located beneath the ground.
decomposing matter. They transform organic infiltration surface water penetrates into the ground.
substances into inorganic substances. This occurs more easily if the ground is porous.
sporozoa a group of protozoa that cannot move. surface runoff when the movement of surface water
vaccines contain dead or weakened microorganisms across the land forms rivers and streams.
from a specific illness. They teach the body how to fight tides the rise and fall of water levels due to
an illness. gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
waves occur on the surface of water, caused by the
8 The Earth’s atmosphere wind. Wave action causes cliff erosion and creates
beaches.
acid rain rain with dissolved pollutants such as
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. 10 Minerals
climate describes the characteristic pattern of weather
in an area, over a long period of time. hardness measures how a mineral reacts to being
global warming in the last century, the atmosphere scratched.
has warmed between 0.5 and 0.9ºC on average. impurities small amounts of other substances found
greenhouse effect a natural phenomenon, essential in minerals. These can change some mineral properties.
for keeping the temperatures on Earth suitable for life. lustre refers to the way minerals reflect light. It can
CO2 in the atmosphere acts like the glass walls of a be metallic, or non-metalic.
greenhouse. It traps the heat and prevents it from mixtures are made up of different substances of
returning into space. varying sizes, shapes and colours.
ionosphere the highest and thickest layer of the Mohs Scale of Hardness classifies minerals by
atmosphere. hardness. One is soft. Ten is the hardest.
mesosphere a layer of the atmosphere about 40 km non-silicates minerals which contain no silicon:
thick. It contains clouds of ice and dust. native elements, oxides, sulphides, carbonates and
meteorology the study of different atmospheric halides.
variables to make weather predictions. silicates the most abundant minerals on Earth.
ozone (O3) a gas which exists throughout the They are made up of silicon and oxygen. Some
atmosphere, mainly concentrated in the stratosphere. common silicates are quartz and feldspar.
It makes up the ozone layer. streak the colour of the powder left when minerals
stratosphere a layer of the atmosphere about 30 km are scratched.
thick. There is an increase in temperature from –70ºC
at its lower limit, to 0ºC at its higher limit. 11 Rocks
troposphere a very thin layer which represents 80%
of the total mass of the atmosphere. Aeroplanes fly at cementation the process by which sedimentary rock
this level. It is where the greenhouse effect is produced. is formed from sediments glued together.
weather describes the state of atmospheric compaction the weight of layers of sediments which
conditions at a certain place, over a short period of reduces the spaces between the fragments and squeezes
time. out the water. As a result, salt crystals are formed.
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erosion fragments of rocks are picked up and 13 Everything is matter

transported by running water, glaciers, or wind.
igneous rocks rocks formed from cooled magma. chemical compound a substance containing two
metamorphic rocks rocks formed from other rocks or more elements joined up.
by the effects of heat or pressure. compressibility a property which measures the
metamorphism a slow process in which temperature difficulty of matter to be compressed.
and pressure change parent rock into metamorphic fusion the process by which a solid changes into a
rock. liquid.
organic sedimentary rocks made up of organic heterogeneous a mixture of substances where more
material, fossils. There are two kinds: oil and coal. than one part is distinguishable.
plutonic (intrusive) rocks rocks formed as magma homogeneous a substance which is uniform in
cools slowly under the ground over thousands of years. structure and composition.
rock cycle the processes which form, change and recycle to transform used materials into new materials.
recycle rocks over millions of years. regressive sublimation the process by which a gas
sedimentary rocks rocks formed by the changes directly into a solid.
accumulation and compaction of sediment, for solidification the process by which a liquid is cooled
example, clay, sand or rock fragments. and changes to a solid.
volcanic (extrusive) rocks rocks formed as lava solute in a mixture, the dissolved substance.
cools rapidly on the Earth’s surface.
solution any homogeneous mixture.
weathering atmospheric phenomena (changes in
solvent in a mixture, the part where the substance
temperature, rain, etc.), or the activities of plants and
is dissolved.
animals which break up rocks.
sublimation the process by which a solid changes
into a gas, without first becoming a liquid.
12 Matter and its properties vaporisation when a liquid evaporates into a gas.
base units used to measure length, mass, time, etc. 14 Atoms and elements
capacity the amount of liquid a container can hold
when it is full. Capacity is measured in litres (L). atom the smallest particle of matter which can exist
degrees Celsius a scale used to measure temperature. alone. It is made up of a nucleus with protons
0ºC equals 273.15K or 32ºF. and neutrons, and electrons.
density the relationship between the mass and the atomic number the number of protons in the nucleus
volume of a body. Measured in kg/m3 or g/cm3. of an atom. This number is different for each atom.
derived units obtained from a combination of the chemical formula symbols which indicate how many
base units. They are used to measure surface area, atoms make up a molecule.
volume, speed, density, etc. crystals consist of atoms or molecules arranged in a
International System of Units (SI) a system which regular, organised structure.
defines the base and derived units required to measure electrons extremely small particles that orbit the
the properties of matter. nucleus. They have a negative charge (–) and are
kelvin one of the scales of the International System of attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus.
Units that is used to measure temperature. 0 K equals element a substance that contains just one type of
–273.15ºC and –459.67ºF. atom. It cannot be broken down into anything simpler
mass the amount of matter in a body. Mass is by chemical reaction.
measured in kilograms (kg). molecules two or more atoms joined together.
matter all objects that take up space, and have mass. neutrons particles in the nucleus which have no charge.
Everything around us is made of matter. periodic table of elements a table in which all
surface area the extension of a body in two elements are grouped with similar elements, with their
dimensions, measured in square metres (m2). symbol and atomic number.
volume the amount of space matter occupies. Volume protons particles in the atom’s nucleus, which have
is measured in cubic metres (m3). a positive charge.
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Key language
CLASSIFYING
Non-silicates are classified into five groups.
There are two groups of minerals.
How many groups of non-silicates are there? Five.

How are minerals classified? Into two groups.
COMPARING
Planets are bigger than other celestial bodies.
The closest star to Earth is the Sun.
Are planets bigger than other celestial bodies?

the deepest areas of the oceans.
Ocean trenches are
The largest plains on the planet are under the oceans.
Where are the largest plains on the planet?
Ferns are bigger than mosses.

Flowering plants more complex.
Which group is bigger, ferns or mosses? Ferns.
The higher a place is, the colder it will be.

The higher the altitude, the lower the density of the air.
Where is it colder? The higher a place is, the colder it will be.
Talc is softer than apatite.
Is talc harder than apatite? No, it isn’t.
That box is four times bigger than this one.
Why does oil float on water? Because it is less dense.
Hydrogen and helium are the most abundant elements in the Universe.
Which are the most abundant elements?
DESCRIBING
The Sun consists mainly of hydrogen and helium.
Asteroids are rocky objects.
What does the Sun consist of? What are asteroids?

Water exists in three states.
There are submarine volcanoes in the oceans.
How many states does water exist in? Are there volcanoes in the oceans?
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DESCRIBING
A bacteria does not have an organised nucleus.
Does a bacteria have an organised nucleus? No, it doesn’t.

Water is a powerful solvent.
Water absorbs heat.
What are two properties of water? Cohesion and adhesion.

Petroleum is a rock.
Mica can be scratched with a fingernail.
Is petroleum a mineral? No, it’s a rock.

How hard is talc? It has a hardness of 1 on the Mohs scale.
A pure substance has only one component.
Is sea water a homogeneous mixture? Yes, it is.
Calcium is a greyish white metal.
What is potassium like? It is a soft, shiny metal.
DESCRIBING A PROCESS
When minerals dissolve in water, raw sap is produced.
When pollen penetrates the stigma, ovules are fertilised.
When are ovules fertilised? When pollen penetrates the stigma.
Igneous rocks are formed as a result of the solidification of magma.
How are igneons rocks formed? By the effects of heart and pressure.
When paper is burned, it changes into ashes.

When you mix sand and water, you get a heterogeneous mixture.
When does sublimation occur? When a solid changes directly into a gas.
EXPRESSING FACTS
Living things feed and reproduce.
Inorganic substances do not contain carbon.
What do living things do? They reproduce.

Do inorganic substances contain carbon? No, they don’t.
The Monera kingdom contains unicellular organisms.

Most bacteria do not produce their own food.
EXPRESSING AMOUNTS
The Earth’s atmosphere is about 800 km high.
How high is the atmosphere? About 800 km high.
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EXPRESSING AMOUNTS
68.7% of fresh water is found in lakes.
How much salt is there in sea water? About 35 grams.

What percentage of fresh water is there on the Earth? Only 3%.
EXPRESSING CAUSE AND RESULT

Water exists in three states due to temperature variations.
The Earth looks blue because of the water on its surface.
Why does the Earth look blue? Because of the water.
They undergo metamorphosis. As a result, they develop lungs.
How do amphibians develop lungs? As a result of metamorphosis
EXPRESSING CONTRAST
Some arthropods are carnivores, but others are herbivores.
Most gastropods have a shell, but slugs don’t.
Do all cephalopods have a shell? Are all arthropods carnivores?

Most fish are covered with scales. However, a shark’s skin has denticles.
Do all fish have scales? Most do. However, sharks have denticles.
EXPRESSING DIRECTION
Water filters into the ground.
Waves transport sand along the coast and out to sea.
Where does water flow? To the sea, and into the ground.
EXPRESSING PURPOSE
Water is necessary to transport all other substances.
Living things need glucose to get energy.
Why is water necessary? To transport substances.

Why do living things need glucose? To get energy.
Reptiles have hard scales to keep them warm.
Why do reptiles have hard scales?

Ceramic materials are used for tiles and bricks.
How are rocks used? Which rock is used for roofs?
GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
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GIVING INSTRUCTIONS
Label each jar. Observe the samples.
INDICATING LOCATION
Magnesium is found in minerals.
Where is magnesium found? In minerals.
MAKING GENERALISATIONS
Most sponges live in the sea.
Some molluscs have no shell.
Where do most sponges live?

All plants have roots.
Most gymnosperms are evergreens.
Do all plants have roots? Are all gymnosperms evergreens?

Most rocks contain a mixture of minerals.
Solutions can be solid, liquid or gaseous.
How many states of matter are there? Three.
MAKING IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS

Systems are made up of several organs.
What are systems made up of?

Some bodies are divided into segments.
What are their bodies like? A series of segments.
Some rocks can be broken into irregular shapes.

Sedimentary rocks are found in strata.
How are rocks classified? Into three main classes.
The volume of a liquid can be calculated by measuring the container.

A thermometer is used to measure temperature.
How is surface area measured? In square metres (m2).
MEASURING
The court measures 18 by 15 metres.
Density is measured in kilograms per cubic metre (Kg/m3).
How cold is that? Minus 273.15ºC.

How is density measured? In kilograms per cubic metre.
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Essential Natural Science 1 is a collective work, conceived, designed and created by the Secondary Education
department at Santillana, under the supervision of ENRIQUE JUAN REDAL, ANTONIO BRANDI and MICHELE C. GUERRINI
Content writers: Concha Barreiro, Marcos Blanco, Antonio Delgado, Belén Garrido, Pilar de Luis,
Miguel Ángel Madrid, Ignacio Meléndez, Margarita Montes and Cristina Zarzuelo
Content consultants: Kevin Salvage and Carmen Rengel
Language specialists: María José Sánchez (Key language), María Rosa Batlle, Giselle Dubois, Paul House,
Kate Marriage, Beatriz Papaseit and Ana María Pons
English editors: Sheila Tourle, Sheila Klaiber, Kirsten Ruiz-McOmish, Rebecca Adlard and Patricia Gómez
Student CD:
Vocabulary organiser: Antonio Delgado
Web tasks: Jeannette West
Art director: José Crespo

Design coordinator: Rosa Marín
Design Team:
Cover: Martín León-Barreto
Interior: Manuel García, Alfredo Mateo
Coordinator, design development: Javier Tejeda
Design development: José Luis García and Raúl de Andrés
Technical director: Ángel García Encinar

Technical coordinator: Marisa Valbuena
Layout: Alfredo Mateos, Javier Pulido
Artwork coordinator: Carlos Aguilera
Illustrations: alademoscail-lustració, Digitalartis, Marcelo Pérez, Pere Luis León
Research and photographic selection: Amparo Rodríguez
Photographs: A. Toimil; A. Toril; A. Viñas; Algar; C. Díez; C. Jiménez; C. Roca; C. Suárez; C. Valderrábano e I. Hernández; D. Lezama; D. López; F. de Santiago;
F. Gracia; F. Ontañón; F. Orte; F. Po; G. Rodríguez; GARCÍA-PELAYO/Juancho; I. Rovira; I. Sabater; J. C. Martínez; J. C. Muñoz/’Instituto Geológico y Minero de España’;
J. Escandell.com; J. I. Medina; J. Jaime; J. L. G. Grande; J. Lucas; J. M. Borrero; J. M.ª Barres; J. M.ª Escudero; J. Ruiz; J. V. Resino; Juan M. Ruiz; Krauel; L. M. Iglesias;
M. Izquierdo; M.ª A. Ferrándiz; Michele di Piccione; O. Torres; P. Anca; P. Esgueva; P. López; P. Nadal; Prats i Camps; R. Antunes; R. Vela; Roca-Madariaga; S. Cid;
S. Padura; Sánchez-Durán; X. Andrés; A. G. E. FOTOSTOCK/K. H. Jacobi, Andrew Syred, Tom Servais, Nacho Moro, Marevision, Dan Suzio, Jim Zipp, PIXTAL, CNRI,
Dennis Kunkel, SPL, Claude Nuridsany & Marie Perennou, SCUBAZOO/Matthew Oldfield, Science Photo Library, Detlev Van Ravenswaay, Science Museum/SSPL,
Dr. Gary D. Gaugler, Dr M. A. Ansary/SPL, Sinclair Stammers, Herman Eisenbeiss, Susumu Nishinaga, SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, James Cavallini, CINTRACT Romain,
Eye of Science; A.S.A./Minden Pictures/FOTO NATURA/Armin Maywald; ABB FOTÓGRAFOS/F. Baixeras; ACTIVIDADES Y SERVICIOS FOTOGRÁFICOS/J. Latova;
ARIAS FORMATO PROFESIONAL/A. Arias; COMSTOCK; CONTIFOTO/François Merlet, VISA REPORTAGE/X. Desmier; COVER/POPPERFOTO; COVER/SYGMA/Dan Bool;
COVER/CORBIS/Papilio/Bryan Knox, Tim Davis, EPA/Irwan; DIGITAL BANK; DIGITALVISION; EFE/AP PHOTO/The Miami Herald/Ron Magill, EPA PHOTO/FEATURECHINA,
Alfredo Aldai, César Borja, M. Martí, M. Riopa, AP PHOTO/I. UNDATED FILE PHOTO, AP PHOTO/NASA/EIT, SIPA SANTÉ/BN/SIPA ICONO; EFE/SIPA-PRESS/Lambert,
Becker, David Howells, Dirk Heinrich, F. Durand, Gerald Buthaud, Hulot, Leonide Principe, Pinson, Romuald Meigneux, S. Corp., SEA WORLD (GATLEY); FOCOLTONE;
FOTONONSTOP; GALICIA EDITORIAL/Miguel Villar; GETTY IMAGES SALES SPAIN; HIGHRES PRESS STOCK/AbleStock.com; I. Preysler; JOHN FOXX IMAGES;
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NASA, ESA and A. Nota (STScI/ESA), Credit Image created by Reto Stockli with the help of Alan Nelson, under the leadership of Fritz Hasler; PAISAJES ESPAÑOLES;
PHOTODISC; SEIS X SEIS; STOCKBYTE; BUREAU INTERNATIONAL DES POIDS ET MESURE; C. Brito/J. Núñez; Calvin Hamilton; cortesía IBM; FUNDACIÓ
‘LA CAIXA’/Colección Fundació ‘La Caixa’; I. Nieva; INSTITUTO GEOLÓGICO Y MINERO DE ESPAÑA; INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE METEOROLOGÍA, MADRID;
M. Falagán; M. Vives; MATTON-BILD; MUSEO CAPITOLINO, ROMA; Parque Nacional Marítimo-Terrestre de las Islas Atlánticas, Galicia/Roberto Castiñeira; S. Matellano;
SERIDEC PHOTOIMAGENES CD/DIGITALVISION; T. Grence; ARCHIVO SANTILLANA
The publishers would like to express their gratitude to the following teachers for their insightful comments and useful suggestions
throughout the preparation of Essential Natural Science.
Carlos Álvarez Santos, Silvia Durán, José Ramón Noya, Maureen Vidal Gafford
© 2008 by Santillana Educación, S. L. / Richmond Publishing Richmond Publishing

Torrelaguna, 60. 28043 Madrid 58 St Aldates
Oxford OX1 1ST
Richmond Publishing is an imprint
of Santillana Educación, S. L.
PRINTED IN SPAIN
Printed in Spain
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored

ISBN: 978-84-294-2222-1 in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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About this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Learning to learn Getting closer to the stars! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Learning to learn All creatures great and small . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

6 The plant and fungi kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

7 The simplest living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Learning to learn Rock stars and instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

8 The Earth’s atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

12 Matter and its properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

13 Everything is matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

14 Atoms and elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Key language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................

Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................

Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................

Unit ......................... Unit ......................... Unit .........................

YOU ALREADY KNOW A LOT!

THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

THE STATES OF MATTER

• How many different sections are there on the page?

• What do you think you will learn about in Unit 1? 8

Now look at the rest of Unit 1

Getting closer to the stars!

Some telescopes are small enough to be carried in one hand.

objective lens: the

How does a telescope work?

The Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC),

Content objectives Key language

1. What is the Universe like?

That is, the Sun, Moon and centre of the Universe.

2. How big is the Universe?

What units of measurement

3. What makes up the Solar System?

Mercury Venus Earth Mars

4. Which are the inner planets?

CO2 ⫽ carbon dioxide N2 ⫹ O2 = nitrogen⫹ oxygen

Jupiter Saturn Uranus

5. Which are the outer planets?

Saturn’s rings are made up of small particles, mostly ice.

6. What are small Solar System bodies?

1. Study these constellations. Which ones can you

2. Choose one of the constellations and make a

b. Draw the constellation, or cut out a drawing

c. Write some sentences about the constellation.

Orion represents the hunter.

a b Astronomic distances from the Earth

18. What two types of movement do all planets have?

19. Describe the composition, temperature and

20. Make an illustrated list of the planets. Write them in

a b c 24. Draw a diagram of the Solar System seen from

25. Copy and complete to situate the Moon in the

What should you know? 1

• Galaxies are grouped together in galaxy clusters.

The Solar System is the planetary system of our Sun.

Content objectives Key language

1. What is the Earth like?

2. How does the Earth move?

What causes the seasons on Earth?

The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere

3. How does the Moon move?

The phases of the Moon

GLN PRTZ BCTR