ABSTRACT

In this work, method of regenerative braking in electric vehicle is investigated. The dynamic model of
the BLDC motor, that is available in the existing vehicle (Bishoftu Automotive Industry), is derived and
simulated in MATLAB/ Simulink environment. The Bidirectional DC- DC converter is designed and
simulated. The proposed PI controller is designed in order to control the bidirectional converter. The
proposed system is designed and simulated by MATLAB/Simulink and shows an improved performance
of the battery electric vehicle. During regenerative braking the bidirectional DC-DC converter system
supplies a charging current to the battery and this shows the increasing of battery State –of-charge.

In battery electric vehicle, regenerative braking helps to conserve energy by charging the battery, thus
extending the driving range of the vehicle. There is a number of different ways to implement
regenerative braking in a BLDC motor. This work describes the bidirectional dc-dc converter drive
system for increasing efficiency of battery electric vehicles by using regenerative braking which results in
the improvement of the battery thereby increasing the driving ranges of electric vehicles.

Finally, the design and analysis of the system that consists of a battery and motor interconnected by a
DC-DC converter has been done. The converter is made to be bidirectional in order to recover some
energy from the motor during braking of the vehicle and transfer it back to the battery. The energy
recovery with regenerative braking is accomplished. The torque and speed conditions during motoring
and regeneration were used to determine the energy flow, performance and efficiency of the drive. By
using MTLAB, it is shown that braking the electric vehicle for a single second improves the voltage by
about 1.0%. This indicates that increasing of the voltage by using regenerative braking system. All
simulation results were plotted and discussed.

Keywords: - battery electric vehicle, bidirectional DC-DC converter system, BLDC motor, regenerative
braking.

Table of Contents Page No.

Certificate i

Declaration i

ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Table of Contents v

List of Figures vii

List of Tables ix

List of Abbreviations

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background BackgroundBackground…………………………………………………………...1

1.2 Statement of the problem…………………………………………........1

1.3. General Objective……………………………………………………..2

1.4. Specific objective………………………………………………...........2

1.5 Scope of the

study……………………………………………………………………………………….3

1.6. Methodology. …………………………………………………………3

1.7. Organization of thesis…………………………………………… ……..4

1.2 Statement of the problem 2

1.3 General Objective 2

1.4 Specific objective 2

1.5 Scope of the study 2

1.6 Limitation of the study 2

1.7 Methodology 3
 1.8 Organization of thesis

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Introduction 4

2.2 Summary of literature review 10

CHAPTER THREE REGENERATIVE BRAKING OF BEVs 11

3.1 Introduction 11

3.2 Regenerative braking system 12

3.2.1 Working principle 12

3.2.2 Control system of electric vehicles 13

3.2.3 Switching model of regenerative braking 14

3.2.4 Switching modification of control scheme 14

3.2.5 Functional block diagram of regenerative braking 16

3.2.6 Electric vehicle drive train 17

3.2.7 Bidirectional DC-DC converter 18

3.2.8 Control strategy of Bi-directional converter 20

3.3 Regenerative braking system for battery electric vehicles 21

3.3.1 Control objects of regenerative braking 21

3.3.2 The scheme and principle of regenerative braking

 22

3.3.3 Limitations of regenerative braking systems 24

23

CHAPTER FOUR

METHODOLOGY 24

4.1 Materials and methods 24

4.2 Electric vehicle modeling 26

4.2.1 Four quadrant operations 27

4.3 Battery 27

4 .3.1 current battery for battery electric vehicles 28

4.3.1.1 lead acid batteries 28

4.3.1.2 The capacity of battery 30

4.4 Battery charger 31

 4.5 proportional Integral (PI) controller 32

4.5.1 Conventional pi controller 33

4.6 power modules 34

4.6.1 DC-DC controller 35

4.7 DC-DC converter topologies 36

4.7.1 DC-DC buck-boost converter 36

4.8 pulse width modulation(PWM) 39

4.9 Component Selection 40

4.10 Duty Cycle Calculations 41

4.11 Input/ Output Capacitor Selection 42

4.12 Modeling of BLDC motor 44

4.12.1 Motor Control 44

4.12.2 Voltage and current control PWM mode 44

4.12.3 MOSFET control 44

4.12.4 4 4.12.4

46 Modeling & simulation of Bidirectional DC-DC converter

50
 4.12.5

47 50 DC-DC boost converter system Simulink model

51

CHAPTER FIVE SIMULATION RESULT AND DISSCUSSION 54

5.1 Simulation of BLDC motor 54

5.2 MATLAB /Simulink model without Regenerative braking 52

MATLAB /Simulink model without Regenerative braking

59

5.3 MATLAB /Simulink model with Regenerative braking

63

CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK 69

6.1 Conclusions 69

6.2 Future works 70

References 71

APPENDIX A Parameters of the BLDC Motor for the BEV 74

APPENDIX B data of battery electric vehicle performance 75

APPENDIX C parameters of the lead- acid battery 76

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Description Page No.

Figure 3.1: Normal driving condition 12

Figure 3.2 regeranative braking action during braking 13

Figure 3.3 Drive circuit of brushless DCmotor 14

Figure 3. 4 driving mode 15

Figure 3. 5 Intial breaking mode15

Figure 3. 6 Regenerative braking mode 16

Figure 3. 7 Block diagram of Regenerative braking system 16

Figure 3. 8 Block diagram of battery electric vehicle component 17

Figure 3. 9 Block diagram of bidirectional dc-dc converter power flow 19

Figure 3.10 Bidirectional DC-DC converter 19

Figure 3. 11 The configuration of the breaking system 21

Figure 3.12 Electrical circuit of power converter system 22

Figure 4.1. Block diagram of electric vehicle drive train 26

Figure 4.2 Four quadrant motoring and breaking operationin torque speed plane 27

Figure 4.3. Battery of electric vehicle 30

Figure 4.4. battery charger of electric vehicle 31

Figure 4.5. PI Controller Block Diagram 33

Figure 4.6 power module of circuit diagram…………………………………………34

Figure4.7. Circuit diagram of buck-boost converter 35

Figure 4.8. Pulse width modulation 38

Figure 4.9 Charging and discharging of inductor current 39

Figure 4.10 simulink model of buck boost converter 39

Figure 4.11 BLDC motor for a inverter drive system 44

Figure 4.12 Electrical model of BLDC motor 45

Figure 4.13: Emplacement of the DC/DC converter in the traction system of EV 50

Figure 4.14: DC/DC bidirectional converter MATLAB Simulink model 51

Figure 4.15: Battery voltage of dc-dc boost converter system 52

Figure 4.16: output voltage of dc-dc boost converter system ...53

Figure 4.17: output current of dc-dc boost converter system 53

Figure 5.1: Brushless DC Motor Fed by Six-Step Inverter MATLAB Simulink 54

Figure 5.2: SOC (%), battery current and wave form …..55

Figure 5. 3: Rotor speed and stator current waveform………………………………………………….56

Figure 5. 4: Electromotive force wave form .57

Figure 5.5: line to line voltage wave form 57

Figure 5.6: Electromagnetic torque waveform 58

Figure 5.7: Simulink model without Regenerative braking of battery BEV 59

Figure 5.8: Simulink model of SOC battery voltage wave form 59

Figure 5.9 MATLB/Simulink model of battery voltage wave form………………….60

Figure 5.10: Simulink model of electromagnetic torque wave form 60

Figure 5.11: Simulink model of Rotor speed wave form 61

Figure 5.12: Simulink model of back EMF (e_a) wave form………………………….61

Figure 5.13 Simulink model of Stator current wave form…………………………….62

Figure 5.14: Simulink model of Line to line voltage waveform 62

Figure 5.15: Simulink model With Regenerative braking of BEV 63

Figure 5.16: Simulink model of SOC (%) and battery voltage waveform 64

Figure 5.17 Simulink model of electromagnetic torque wave form 65

Figure 5.18: Simulink model of Rotor speed wave form 65

Figure 5.19: Simulink model of Stator current and EMF wave form 66

Figure 5.20: Simulink model of Line to line voltage waveform ...67

LIST OF TABLE

Table No. Description Page No.

Table 4.1: The parameters of BLDC motor for Battery electric vehicles 25

Table4.2: Proposed data of battery electric vehicle performance 26

Table 4.3: The parameters of Lead acid battery 29

List of Abbreviations

AC Alternating current

BEV Battery electric vehicle

BOEV Battery only electric vehicle

BLDC Brushless direct current

BEMF Back electromotive force

BEER Battery error

D Duty cycle

DC Direct current

DSP

DER Digital signal processing

Distributed energy resources

EV Electric vehicle

EB Battery voltage

EMF

FLC

HV

KWH

KW Electromotive force

Fuzzy logic control

High voltage

Kilowatt hour

kilowatt

HEV Hybrid electric vehicle

MATLAB Matrix laboratory

RBS

N Regenerative braking system

Torque

Speed

NEDC New European driving cycle

PWM

Pb Pulse width modulation

Lead

PV Photovoltaic

PI Proportional integral

PID

PDU

RPM

SOC

VCU Proportional integral Derivative

Power distribution unit

Revolution per unit

State of charge

Vehicle control unit

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are powered 100% by the battery energy storage system available on-
board the vehicle. Battery-powered EVs as a potentially major strategy to reduce vehicle emissions and
improve air quality. A BEV is refueled by connecting it to the electrical grid through a connector system
that is designed specifically for this purpose. Most advanced BEVs have the ability to recapture some of
the energy storage utilized through regenerative braking (in simple terms, the propulsion motor acts as
a generator during braking). When regenerative braking is applied, BEVs can typically recover 5 to 15
percent of the energy used to propel the vehicle to the vehicle speed prior to braking [1].

Batteries are the primary energy-storage devices in ground vehicles. Nowadays battery fed electric
drives are commonly being used for electric vehicles applications, due to various advantages, such as:
nearly zero emission, guaranteed load leveling, good transient operation and energy recovery during
braking operation [2].

The bidirectional dc-dc converter along with energy storage has become a promising option for many
power related systems, including hybrid vehicle, fuel cell vehicle, renewable energy system and so forth.
It not only reduces the cost and improves efficiency, but also improves the performance of the system
[2].

Electric Vehicles have become a viable alternative form of transportation and present many engineering
challenges. This project will develop a bidirectional DC-DC converter drive system for an electric vehicle
which consists of a battery, motor, DC-DC Converter, charger and PI control system. The DC-DC
converter is required to perform mainly the function of controlling the power flow under braking
conditions. During braking or regenerative mode the kinetic energy of the motor is converted into
electrical energy and fed back to the battery.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Battery electric vehicles provide for less dependence on foreign oil, which for our country Ethiopia and
other developing countries is a cause for concern about susceptibility to oil price instability and supply
disruption.

The main challenge of battery electric vehicle is short driving range. The regenerative braking result at
lower speeds, therefore the friction brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete
stop. The problem of air pollution produced by motor vehicles is another issue. Air pollution impacts on
the environment and human health. The main energy source in electric vehicle is battery, but the
battery in electric vehicles have a weakness that the capacity and service life is limited.

1.3 General Objective

To design Bidirectional dc-dc converter drive system for increasing efficiency with the help of
regenerative braking for battery electric vehicles.

1.4 Specific Objectives

 To develop mathematical modeling of BLDC motor and simulate in MATLAB/ Simulink
environment.

To design and simulate the Bidirectional DC-DC converter.

To design and implement the PI controller to the Bidirectional DC-DC converter.

To implement the bidirectional DC-DC converter using the designed controller and to simulate
regenerative braking system.

1.5. Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is to extend the driving range of battery electric vehicle by using regenerative
braking system and bidirectional DC-DC converter drive system using MATLAB/Simulink software in
order to drive a long distance without using any external sources in electric vehicle.

1.6. Limitations of the Study

Due to unavailability of electric vehicle platform to undertake testing, the experimental validation of the
proposed controller design will be limited to focus only on modeling and simulation.

1.7. Methodology

To accomplish the above mentioned research objectives, the following methodology have been applied.
The overall approach was to use bidirectional DC-DC converter drive system during regenerative braking
simulation to compare the performance of the base battery electric vehicle (BEV). The required input
parameters for the BEV model were obtained from the vehicle at Bishoftu Automotive Industry. The
steps in the methodology were as follows:

A comprehensive literature review was conducted to understand the history of BEV and the
major battery types. Different candidates for the secondary energy storage were studied and the most
suitable battery system was selected. Further previous works on the application of the BEV were
assessed and gaps identified.

BEV model were created in a suitable simulation environment. Firstly, bidirectional DC-DC
converter drive system and a regenerative braking system were considered. The BLDC motor
characteristics, PI control strategy and other BEV components were also studied.

1.8. Organization of the Thesis

The thesis work has been organized as follows:

Chapter 1: presents an introduction of the thesis, general composition of the thesis such as statement
of the problem, thesis objectives, methodology and organization of the thesis were discussed.
Chapter 2: this chapter presents the literature review of the previous researches on battery electric
vehicles, regenerative braking systems and bidirectional DC-DC conversions and its control strategy,
including PWM techniques.

Chapter 3: this chapter contains description of the study and background of the research study.

Chapter 4: modeling the BLDC motor, control buck-boost converter and basic principle of DC-DC
topologies are explained.

Chapter 5: presents the simulation results and the discussion.

Chapter 6: discusses Conclusion and Future work.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with reviewing of a literature related with this work mainly focusing with on
Bidirectional DC-DC Converter drive System for increasing efficiency with the help of regenerative
braking for battery electric vehicle. The major challenges in the electrical vehicles are also studied with
special reference to battery performance parameters. A Wide array of research works on BEVs is
available.

Loi Wei Ch. June (2012) presented regenerative braking. It involved a study of the main parameters and
components of battery electric vehicles theory in modeling and designing with a view of implementing it
smoothly and orderly. A recent trend of electric vehicles vs. conventional vehicles was also studied. It
also describes various battery models like electrochemical model, equivalent circuit model, simple
battery model, bidirectional DC-DC converter model and regenerative braking model [3].

Regenerative braking system (RBS) is an efficient system to reduce vehicle emission and fuel
consumption. RBS is a system which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy during braking
action. It will become an important system for future vehicle such as hybrid and electric car. This study
will start with literature review about the regenerative braking system. The basic design and
components used in the regenerative braking for current vehicles will also be reviewed. Through the
study, a RBS model can be designed or developed for further study. The working mechanism was
studied to understand how the RBS converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The important
components used in RBS will be determined such as electric motor, motor controller and battery [3].

Joao Silvestre et al. (2015) designed a bidirectional DC-DC converter for a small electric vehicle. The DC-
DC converter designed and tested is capable of raising the voltage from the battery pack (96V nominal)
to 600V necessary to feed the variable frequency drive that controls the induction motor. This converter
is also capable of working in the opposite direction (600V to 96V) in order to capture energy from
regenerative braking and downhill driving [4].

Hua Bai et al. (2015) conducted a study on bidirectional DC-DC converter in a hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV). This DC-DC converter is a high-power converter that links the high voltage battery (HV) at a lower
voltage with the high voltage DC bus. The typical voltage of a battery pack is designed at 300 to 400V.
The best operating voltage for a motor and inverter is around 600V. Therefore, this converter can be
used to match the voltages of the battery system and the motor system. Other functions of this DC-DC
converter include optimizing the operation of the power train system, reducing ripple current in the
battery, and maintaining DC link voltage, hence, high power operation of the power train [5].

Paul W. and Nic L. (2016) pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are also referred to as battery-only
electric vehicles (BOEVs). BEVs have no engine and are propelled by electricity that comes from one or
several onboard high-energy batteries. Modern models use a regenerative braking system to save
energy. Examples include the Renault Zoë and the Nissan Leaf. The Zoe has a 22 kWh Li-ion battery, and
an energy consumption of 14.6 kWh per 100 km, which yields a range of about 140 km to 210 km per
battery charge on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). The 2015 Leaf comes with a 24 kWh battery
(plus a 30 KWh option for the 2016 model), and an official consumption of 15 kWh per 100 km [6].

Javier V. March (2012) also presented a design of a 30kW 250V/530V bidirectional DC-DC converter to
be used in an electrical car. A detailed explanation of the design is given. The system uses two phase-
shifted half bridge (boost and buck) topologies to reduce the ripple current in the output capacitor. The
converter has an efficiency of 95% at nominal power. It works as a constant voltage in one direction and
as a constant current in the other to charge the batteries. Simulations and measurement were done at
high power to test the efficiency [7].

Alex Van den B. and Mulugeta G. (2015) also dealt with the interdependence of the electric vehicles and
the energy mix powering them in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The discussion in the entire article
bases mainly on the grid mix of 15 top African countries (based on installed electric power) and a focus
has been given to the case of Ethiopia. It is obvious to observe that the climate benefit of vehicle
electrification is not equally shared among countries [8].

Yoong M.K.et al. (2013) Studied regenerative braking in electric vehicle, the research have been made
on formulating the principles of braking system function. It also explains how the braking energy is used
to store and utilizes back to minimize the energy losses in the electric vehicle. Basically, the braking
system for electric vehicle establish on hydraulic braking technology. This type of braking will produce
unclaimed heating during braking and cause a lot of energy wasted. This wasted energy can be applied
back to overcome the weakness of the vehicle and moreover it helps in saving energy and provide
higher efficiency for electrical vehicles. When motor acts as a generator (regenerative mode) the motor
will produce kinetic energy at the armature and the energy will be converted to electrical energy to
restore the batteries or capacitor. During the regenerative mode, the brake controller observes the
speed of the wheels and calculates the torque and at the same time a wider energy produced from the
rotational force will be covered into electrical energy and distribute to the batteries for storage. Today,
the technology in automotive industry heading towards regenerative braking is improving the system.
By using ultra-capacitor with added DC-DC convertor parallel with it has improved the regenerative and
the electric vehicle performance [9].

Shih-Jyun K and Chih-Chain H.(2013) presented a regenerative braking system for electric bicycle based
on digital signal processing(DSP). In this work, regenerative braking recovery energy for electrical bicycle
has been used to charge the battery. This system does not add any extra converter or ultra-capacitor
while it has been using only DSP controller as a control unit. DSP controller far known as TMS320IF2407
is a controller used to adjust the switching sequence of the inverter. They propose controlling this
inverter so that the braking energy can be returned to charge up the battery. With the help of DSP
control unit and regenerative braking energy recovery technologies, the braking energy produced when
motor acts as generator will be converted to electrical energy and return to battery [10] .

The kinetic energy produced at the armature of the motor when motor acts as generator will be
converted to electrical energy by using DSP controller. When the battery power is send to drive the
motor, the power will flow through the armature inductor and store the energy. The stored energy will
increase the armature current. When this happens, the current back EMF also will increase affecting the
performance of the battery charging in regenerative braking. To overcome this problem, the charge
armature current will be released by the discharge circuit mode.

Motor will be in generator mode when the system receives braking signal. The back EMF of the BLDC
motor will be used to charge up the battery. However, a problem arises when using back EMF energy in
this condition. The back EMF energy is still being less than battery power even if the motor generates at
a higher rate. Moreover, the current produced during power switching operations will be distributed to
motor armature and will make the power at DC motor side bigger than the battery power. On this
condition, the circuit will change mode similar with the boost convertor where the braking energy of DC
motor will charge the battery. The changing mode of the inverter is controlled by DSP control unit.
Through this regenerative braking storage, the system can improve the traveling range of the bicycles
where the losses battery power has been minimize and also have improved the performance [10].

Hao Zhang et.al (2013) worked on Fuzzy Logic Control in regenerative braking system for electric
Vehicle. The paper discussed a regenerative braking energy recovery control system based on fuzzy logic
control method. Because of low energy production when braking performance in regenerative braking
energy recovering, this paper has established a new method by using surgeon fuzzy logic controller (FLC)
to improve this problem. This system got several inputs that include the driver braking force, vehicle
speed (torque performance) and battery state of charge (SOC). One of the outputs takes braking force
form the regenerative braking energy. This system using a strategy distributes regenerative braking
force and frictional braking force sensibly during braking. This makes use of regenerative breaking
features of a motor increase as much as possible. The increase of motor features will increase the kinetic
energy as well and this energy can be converted to be used as storage energy either in battery or ultra-
capacitor. So this research tells that the fuzzy logic control method can produce more braking energy
and increase the overall electrical vehicle efficiency and also the system is more feasible to use [11].
Suthakaran S. (2013) presented regenerative braking is one of the important features for electric
vehicles. It serves to convert part of mechanical energy known as kinetic energy into electric energy
during braking. This energy can be stored in device such as rechargeable battery or any storing devices
such as super-capacitor for EV improvement. So regenerative braking plays an important role in
reducing the energy consumption of EV. It also increases the driving range and improves its
performance. The paper focuses on electrical vehicles due to the energy crisis. The regenerative braking
energy was used to improve the efficiency of an electric vehicle as it recovers energy that otherwise
could go to waste. A new method of regenerative braking system was tested for a small scale electrical
remote control car. The proposed system used an ultra-capacitor bank to absorb and store energy which
could be used to regenerate back to the motor to reduce the battery usage due to higher voltage and
higher starting current required by the brush DC motor for starting. When motor accelerates in
regenerative mode, the switching frequency of the current play an important role in controlling the
negative torque applied by the motor. The research showed that the proposed regenerative braking
system is important in recovering energy losses and improve the torque performance than before by
40% [12].

R.K. Singh, R.K. Tripathi Premananda Pany (2011) explained that batteries are the primary energy-
storage devices in ground vehicles. Nowadays, battery fed electric drives are commonly used for electric
vehicles applications, due to various advantages, such as: nearly zero emission, guaranteed load
leveling, good transient operation and energy recovery during braking operation. To fulfill these
requirements converters with bidirectional power flow capabilities are required to connect the
accumulator (battery) to the dc link of the motor drive system. Battery fed electric vehicles (BFEVs) are
required to function in three different modes namely: acceleration mode, normal (steady-state) mode
and braking (regenerative) mode. During acceleration and normal modes the power flow is from battery
to motor whereas during braking or regenerative mode the kinetic energy of the motor is converted into
electrical energy and fed back to battery. They reported closed loop operation of bi-directional dc-dc
converter feeding a dc motor and its energy recovery due to regenerative braking. The characteristics of
battery operated electric vehicle under different drive conditions are also presented. The effectiveness
of the system is verified through the simulations using Simulink/ MATLAB [13]. They demonstrated the
performance of a battery operated electric vehicle system and it showed satisfactory performance at
different driving conditions. The proposed control technique with PI controller is found suitable for the
electric drive. The performance of the battery fed electric vehicles (BFEV) is verified under forward
motoring mode, regenerative mode and when there is step change in speed command. The overall cost
and volume of the battery operated electric vehicle is less with the least number of components used in
the system.

Steve Danielak May 5, (2014) presented that electric vehicles have become a viable alternative form of
transportation and discussed many engineering challenges. This paper developed a bidirectional DC-DC
converter drive system for an electric vehicle which consists of a battery, motor, DC-DC converter,
charger and control system. The DC-DC converter is required to perform mainly two functions: first to
match the battery voltage to the motor rated voltage, and second to control the power flow under
acceleration and braking conditions. During acceleration and normal modes the power flows from
battery to motor, and during braking or regenerative mode the kinetic energy of the motor is converted
into electrical energy and fed back to the battery. In this work, operation of the bidirectional DC-DC
converter powering a DC motor and energy recovery with regenerative braking was accomplished.
Simulations of the design were presented to confirm that the design is functioning properly.
Confirmations of the simulation designs then were discussed during construction and testing of a
physical working prototype [14].

DC Motors are specifically used for variety of industrial applications like traction drive and electric
vehicle application and heating ventilation system because their higher efficiency, high torque and low
volume. Positioning control is mostly needed in BLDC motor. Due to over-weighing merits of this motor
modeling is done in order to enhance the performance of the system. The paper presented the
applications, various control schemes used and modeling of BLDC motor in MATLAB/Simulink
environment [15].

Phani Gopal D.S Nov. (2013) worked on a bi-directional DC-DC converter drive with PI controller. Speed
output is used as feedback for significantly improving the dynamic performance of DC-DC converter
drive. Bidirectional DC-DC converters allow transfer of power between two dc sources, in either
direction. Due to their ability to reverse the direction of flow of power, they are being increasingly used
in many applications such as battery charger/dischargers, dc uninterruptible power supplies, electrical
vehicle motor drives, aerospace power systems, telecom power supplies, etc. In step-up mode, the
primary and secondary windings of the coupled inductor are operated in parallel charge and series
discharge to achieve high step-up voltage gain. A Simulink based model was developed and the
simulation results for the proposed model were obtained by using MAT LAB [16].

Ziyad M. and Salamech Ambrosio B. Aug. (2012) also reported the design of a bidirectional DC-DC power
converter specifically for a distributed energy application. The existing two different DC voltage battery
bank of the distributed generation needs to interlink each other using a bi-directional DC-DC converter
in order to minimize the unbalance of the output load currents of the three inverters connected to
electric grid system. Through this connection, a current can flow from one system to another or vice
versa depending on which systems need the current most. Thus, unbalanced currents of the grid line
have been minimized and the reliability and performance of the distributed energy resource (DER) grid
connected system has been increased. A detailed mathematical analysis of the converter under steady
state and transient condition were presented. Mathematical models for boost and buck modes were
being derived and the Simulink model was constructed in order to simulate the system. Moreover, the
model has been validated on the actual operation of the converter, showing that the simulated results
in MAT LAB/ Simulink were consistent with the experimental ones [17].

Tabish S.March (2016) presented the RBS of EVs which were driven by the BLDC motor. The
performance of the EVs’ regenerative brake system has been realized by the control scheme which was
implemented both in the simulation and in the experiments. By combining fuzzy control and PID control
methods which are both sophisticated methods, RBS can distribute the mechanical braking force and
electrical braking force dynamically. PID control is a very popular method in electric car control, but it is
difficult to obtain a precise brake current. Braking force is affected by many influences such as SOC,
speed, brake strength, and so on. In this paper, three most important factors were chosen: SOC, speed,
and brake strength as the fuzzy control input variables. It was found out that RBS can obtain appropriate
brake current, which is used to produce brake torque. At the same time, PID control was adopted to
adjust the BLDC motor pwm duty to obtain the constant brake torque. PID control is faster than fuzzy
control, so the two methods, combined together, can realize smooth transitions. Similar results are
obtained from the experimental studies. Therefore, it can be concluded that the RBS has the ability to
recover energy and ensure the safety of braking in different situations [18].

2.2 Summary of Literature Review

The battery electric vehicles (BEV) research mainly focuses on regenerative braking. How-to improve the
efficiency of battery power utilization and increase vehicles’ driving range is a crucial problem. One is to
control the regenerative braking force and the other is to improve the recovery efficiency of
regenerative braking energy. Then, the main operating mode of regenerative braking system is
presented. On this basis, regenerative braking controller that is based on DC-DC controller is designed
and implemented in Simulink software. The results show that the regenerative braking control strategy
can effectively control the regenerative braking force during braking and increase driving range of
electric vehicles.

It will become an important system for future vehicle such as hybrid and electric car. This study will start
with literature review about the regenerative braking system. The basic design and components used in
the regenerative braking for current vehicles were also reviewed. Through the study, a RBS model can
be designed or developed for further studies. The working mechanism was studied to understand how
the RBS converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. When vehicle brakes, the motor can also be
used as a generator that produces electricity and charges the battery (regenerative braking).

CHAPTER THREE

REGENERATIVE BRAKING OF BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES

3.1 Introduction

Regenerative braking is one of the unusual technologies for electric vehicle. It serves to convert part of
mechanical energy known as kinetic energy into electric energy during braking. This energy can be
stored in devices for EV improvement. So regenerative braking plays an important role in reducing the
energy consumption of EV. It also will increase the driving range and improve its performance [9].

This technology is mostly used in cars because the traditional braking system always use mechanical
friction to split the kinetic energy as heat energy cause of stopping. When operating a vehicle, one third
to one half of energy is used by the vehicle during braking. The kinetic energy is an excessive energy
when the electric motor is in the braking state since it dissipates the energy and causes a loss of the
overall energy. This wasted energy can be converted to useful energy. This project was initiated taking in
to consideration the energy crisis in electric vehicle (EV) which has a lot of issues on power
consumption. This system is designed to improve the issues on power consumption and overall increase
the performance of EV.

This project deals with this wasted energy to be used back and overall improvement of the EV
performance and reduces the power losses in battery [10]. Electric vehicles are by many seen as the cars
of the future as they are highly efficient, produces no local pollution, are silent, and can be used for
power regulation by the grid operator.

However, electric vehicles still have critical issues which need to be solved. The three main challenges
are limited driving range, long charging time, and high cost [10]. The three main challenges are all
related to the battery package of the car. The battery package should both contain enough energy in
order to have a certain driving range and it should also have a sufficient power capability for the
accelerations and decelerations. In order to be able to estimate the energy consumption of electric
vehicles it is very important to have a proper model of the vehicle. The model of an electric vehicle is
very complex as it contains many different components, e.g., transmission, electric machine, power
electronics, and battery. Each component needs to be modeled properly in order prevent wrong
conclusions. The design or rating of each component is a difficult task as the parameters of one
component affect the power level of another one. There is a risk that one component is rated
inappropriate which might make the vehicle unnecessarily expensive or inefficient [10].

3.2. Regenerative Braking System

3 .2.1 Working Principle

Regenerative braking is a brake method to use mechanical energy from the motor and convert kinetic
energy to electrical energy and give it back to the battery. This means regenerative braking is a way of
diverting the kinetic energy of a moving motor/vehicle back into the battery so that it re-charges the
battery and provides a braking effect. In the regenerative braking mode, the motor slows downhill the
car. When we apply force to the pedal of brake, then car gets slow down and motor works in reverse
direction. When running in opposite direction motor acts as the generator and thus charge the battery
as shown in figure 3.1 below. Thus in the car which is running in normal condition the motor goes
forward and takes energy from the battery. In an electric vehicle, regenerative breaking helps to
conserve energy by charging the battery, thus extending the driving range of the vehicle [19].

Figure 3.1: Normal driving condition [19]

When using regenerative braking in electric vehicles, it reduces the cost of fuel, increasing the fuel
financial system and emission will be lowered. The regenerative braking system provides the braking
force when the speed of vehicles is low, and hence the traffic stops therefore the deceleration required
is less in electric vehicles [19, 36]

Figure 3.2: Regenerative action during braking. [22, 36]

This regenerative braking works so effectively in driving in such environment so as to stop in cities. The
braking system and controller is the feeling of the structure because it controls the whole part of
vehicles of the motor. The brake controller functions are monitoring the speed of the wheel, hence
calculate the torque, electricity which is to be generated and rotational force thus to be fed back to
batteries. When we apply brakes the brake controller, it controls and direct the electrical energy which
is formed by the motor to the batteries [20].

3.2.2 Control System for EVs

The motor which is used in electric vehicles is BLDC (Brushless DC motor). This motor is the heart of the
whole electric vehicles. BLDC motor control is the main control of inverter, the commutation which is
achieved to control the order of conduction on the inverter arm bridge. If BLDC motor to get control,
we must know the rotor location, thus it can determine the commutation. Hall Effect sensors are the
sensors which are used commonly to predict the rotor position. The voltage vector of BLDC motor is
divided in six parts, which is just a one-to-one association with Hall signal in six states [15].

3.2.3 Switching Model of the Regenerative Braking

Figure 3.3 shows the drive circuit of BLDC motor for electric vehicles.

Figure 3.3: Drive circuit of brushless DC motor [22]

The process of regenerative braking is shown by the arm under the MOSFET whose switched
movements are correspondent to the working module of the motor. In regenerative braking mode, all
six commutation transistors are turned off and the motor generates a three phase alternating output
voltage proportional to its rotational speed. Voltage output from the motor is rectified through the body
diodes across each of the six transistors to convert to a DC voltage. This DC voltage is sent to the battery
via the bidirectional DC-DC converter [22].

3.2.4 Switching Modification and Control Scheme

Figure 3.4 shows the driving mode of electric vehicles. The armature current flows through the positive
side to the negative side of source battery. The diode is linked in parallel with every MOSFET. These
diodes can be used as freewheeling diode such that PWM can be useful to switch devices, thus the
efficiency of system is nearly perfect [22].

Figure 3.4: Driving mode

When we apply brakes to the vehicles and the vehicle is in motion the system switches to braking mode.
The braking mode is converted in to two types of conduction stages. During the first stage of brake the
back emf and battery goes in series. In this type Q_2,Q_3 are switched on and Q_1, Q_4 are switched
off, so as to change the direction of armature current easily [38].

Figure 3.5: Initial braking mode [21]

To change the direction of armature current, in first stage of initial braking mode the back-emf and the
battery connected series as shown in figure 3.6. In this mode of initial braking, Q_2 and Q_3 are
switched on Q_1 and Q_4 are switched off so that armature current can change its direction
automatically. When armature current increases and changes the direction itself, the state of MOSFETs
comes back automatically to its position as shown in figure below and battery will get charged
automatically. This is how regenerative braking gets implemented [22].

Figure 3.6: Regenerative braking modes [22]

3.2.5 Functional Block Diagram of Regenerative Braking System (RBS)

Figure 3.7: Block diagram of Regenerative braking system

Electric vehicles are powered by motors connected to batteries. When one is driving along, energy flows
from the batteries to the motors, turning the wheels and providing them with the kinetic energy they
need to move. When they stop and hit the brakes, the whole process goes into reverse: electronic
circuits cut the power to the motors now, the kinetic energy and momentum makes the wheels turn the
motors, so the motors work like generators and start producing electricity instead of consuming it.
Power flows back from these motor generators to the batteries, charging them up so good proportion of
the energy lost by braking is returned to the batteries and can be reused when it starts off again.

3.2.6. Electric Vehicle Drive Train

The electric vehicle drive train generally consists of an energy storage system and a motor drive. The
energy available from the energy storage system is transformed into mechanical energy by the motor
drive, for vehicle propulsion. A motor drive comprises of a traction motor and a power electronic
converter. If a DC motor is used, a DC/DC converter is used to regulate the power flow according to the
driver pedal input. Similarly, DC/AC converters are used to regulate the power flow if AC motors are
used [33].

If regenerative braking is employed, bi-directional converters are needed to process the power flow in
reverse direction from the wheels to the battery pack. A battery charger was used to recharge the
battery pack, from a standard 110 VC power outlets. Figure 3.8 shows a general configuration of electric
vehicle drive train components [33].

Figure 3.8: Block diagram of battery electric vehicle components [28]

The basic components of a BEV consist of a charger to charge the battery. The charger can either be a
build-in charger or a standalone charger at a charging station. The battery is one of the most important
parts of the vehicle. The different batteries that can be used in a BEV are discussed. After the battery an
inverter is installed to convert the DC in the battery to the required current needed for the electric
motor. A Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and Power Distribution Unit (PDU) are placed to control all the
electronics in the car. A DC/DC inverter is installed to convert the battery voltage to lower the voltage
for the 12V electronics in the car [28].

3.2.7. Bidirectional DC- DC Converter

Bidirectional dc-dc converters are the key components of the traction systems in electric vehicles. The
use of a bi-directional dc-dc converter fed dc motor drive devoted to electric vehicles (EVs) application
allows a suitable control of both motoring and regenerative braking operations, and it can contribute to
a significant increase in the drive system overall efficiency [23].

For many power electronics applications, the basic requirement for efficient control is that the circuit
should be capable of handling bidirectional power flow. Energy transfer should be possible from the grid
to battery during charging mode and battery to grid in discharging mode. A bidirectional charger will
need to function smoothly in both directions [14].

The bidirectional DC-DC converter key performances are as follows

Single converter

Simplicity using minimal storage elements

Allowing bi-directional current flows or charging and discharging modes

Control battery charging and discharging current

Bidirectional DC-DC converters are used in places where battery charging and regenerative braking is
required. The power flow in a bi-directional converter is usually from a low voltage end such as battery
or a super capacitor to a high voltage side and is referred to as boost operation. During regenerative
braking, the power flows back to the low voltage bus to recharge the batteries known as buck mode
operation [14]. The bidirectional DC-DC converter then steps up the voltage to that of the battery to
ensure a proper charging voltage. In discharge mode, the charging mode is reversed [24].

Figure 3.9: Block diagram of bidirectional dc-dc converter power flow [14]

Bidirectional dc-dc converter is also required to regulate the power drawn from the battery to boost the
high voltage bus during vehicle starting and accelerate to achieve hill climbing. The bidirectional dc-dc
converters are increasingly being used for power transfer in reverse direction when the vehicle goes
downstream and also during breaking time. So the power transfer between two dc power sources in
either direction is achieved in this method [25].

Figure 3.10: Bi-directional converter

Bi-directional converter is interfaced with the battery to allow the charging and discharging of the BEV
system. The bi-directional converter consists of two switches which control what mode the bidirectional
converter is in. The bi-directional converter has two modes: a buck converter or boost converter. When
the switch T_1 is ON, the bidirectional converter is in buck mode. The switch T_2 can act as a diode
when it can also act as a boost converter for the system [24].

To charge the battery the Bi-directional converter will in buck mode. When the system is in buck mode,
the output voltage will be lowered going to the input of the battery. This allows the battery to be safe
charged to its full capacity. When the system is not charging, the converter switches to its second mode.
In this mode the battery discharges and boosts the voltage to a level that will drive the load.

The need for a bidirectional dc-dc converter in the electric vehicle is due to the following reasons

The system is operating at the high power and low voltage making the current to rise too high,
which causes high electrical and thermal stresses in the passive as well as the active components of the
system. It also increases the ohmic losses and hence decreases efficiency.

Device voltage and current stresses is even further increased up by the wide variation in the
input voltage range of the system. Since device stresses depend on the output to input voltage ratio,
input voltage variation further increases the components ratings to be used.

Further along with the above two factors, the parasitic ringing due to the parasitic components
causes EMI emission and, therefore, proper shielding has to be provided. All above three factors make
the converter packaging bulky, heavy and expensive. Thus there is a need for an efficient DC-DC
converter to deal with this issue.
 To be able to recharge the electrical energy storage system during the re-generative braking,
there should be a provision for bidirectional power flow.

3.2.8. Control Strategy of Bi-directional Converter

The control circuit of the bidirectional converter is to control the speed of the dc drive; one possible
control option is to control the output voltage of the bidirectional converter. To control the output
voltage of the bidirectional converter for driving the vehicle at desired speed and to provide fast
response without oscillations to rapid speed changes when a PI controller is used and it shows
satisfactory result. In this control technique the motor speed is sensed and compared with a reference
speed.

3.3. Regenerative Braking System for BEV

3.3.1. The Control Object of Regenerative Braking

There are four control objects for regenerative braking: the maximum regenerative power, the
maximum regenerative efficiency, the constant regenerative torque, and the constant regenerative
current. If the energy source of the BEV consists of a single lead acid battery, the maximum charging
current should be limited within the range of 0.15 C (C is the rated value of the battery) to prevent too
large a current from damaging the battery. Sometimes, the BEV will brake for a long time when it runs
on a long slope, and the regenerative braking will produce too large a current to be within the range of
0.15 C.

However, the first two control objects ignore the problem of the battery, which could damage the
battery even with more regenerative efficiency [26].

Figure 3.11: The configuration of the braking system [26].

They can be applied for the BEV with hybrid energy sources, such as a battery and super capacitor or an
ultra-speed flywheel. For the D.C. motor, the constant regenerative torque is equal to the constant
motor current, which is suitable for controlling the brake performance with lower energy-recovery
efficiency. With the restriction of the battery and the application of the d.c motor, the constant
regenerative current is controlled for regenerative braking of BEV also called the charging current. The
upper limit of the charging current is 40 A [26].
3.3.2 The Scheme and Principle of Regenerative Braking

The use of a bidirectional power converter in motor drives is devoted to BEV which allows suitable
control of both the motoring and the regenerative braking operations. During the motoring operation,
the power converter is used to adjust the motor current to follow the torque reference signal, which is
proportional to the sensor voltage of the accelerating pedal. On the other hand, the bidirectional
arrangement of the converter is needed for the reversal of the power flow, to recover the vehicle kinetic
energy in the battery by means of regenerative braking operation. The topology of the power converter
is derived directly from the traditional buck–boost scheme, as shown in figure 3.12, where i_m is the
current passing through the motor armature, u_m and u_b are the voltages of the back electromotive
force (BEMF) of the motor and the voltage of the main source, respectively, u_c is the voltage of the
main filter capacitor, i_b is the charging current to the main source, and D is the duty cycle of pulse-
width modulation (PWM). The converter mainly consists of the metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFET) T_1 and T_2as shown below figure circuit.

Figure 3.12: Electrical circuit of the power converter system

The two MOSFETs are never operated at the same time, the switch T_2 being always off during the
motoring operation, whereas the switch T_1 is kept off continuously whenever the regenerative braking
operation is commanded. The motoring and regenerative braking operations are decided by the driver’s
decision on the pedals; the accelerating pedal means the motoring operation, and the braking pedal
means the regenerative braking operation. The driver delays moving between the pedals, this means
that the transition from the T_1 switching operation to the T_2 switching operation has a delay time
between the gate signals of the two switches, to avoid a cross conduction current through the two
switches. During the driving, the motor current refers to the sensor voltage of the accelerating pedal
and can be adjusted by the duty cycle of the PWM of the MOSFET T_1 [7].

According to the reference current, the main source provides energy to the vehicle. T_2 Switches off and
T_1 switches on the PWM mode. The power converter works as d.c–d.c buck converter. The direction of
the traction current is as follows: the main source →T_1→the motor.

During the braking, the rotating assembly, such as the motor, the transmission shaft, and the wheel,
cannot stop suddenly because of the mechanical inertia and tends to rotate in the original direction.
Therefore, the BEMF of the motor armature continues to hold its magnitude and polarity, and the motor
works in an energy-resuming braking mode and regenerative braking mode alternately [7].

During the energy-resuming braking mode, T_1 switches off and T_2 switches on. The current is
motivated by the BEMF of the motor. With increase in the motor current, the inductance of the motor
armature begins to store energy. The current direction is as follows: the positive polarity of
BEMF→T_2→the negative polarity of BEMF. As the direction of the motor current is inverted to the
traction current, the motor generates a braking torque to decelerate the vehicle. During the
regenerative braking mode, the charging current to the main source refers to the sensor voltage of the
braking pedal and depends on the duty cycle of PWM of the MOSFET T_2, The MOSFET T_1 and T_2
switch off, Because the current of the motor armature cannot disappear suddenly, the inductance
pumps the storage energy to the main source as a result of the power converter working as a booster.
The storage energy is delivered to the main source. The current direction is as follows: the positive
polarity of BEMF → T_1 → the main source→ the negative polarity of BEMF.

3.3.3. Limitations of Regenerative Braking Systems

The main limitation of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the need to closely
match the electricity generated with the supply. With DC supplies this requires the voltage to be closely
controlled and it is only with the development of power electronics that it has been possible with AC
supplies where the supply frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an
AC supply is rectified for DC motors).

Regenerative braking is necessarily limited when the batteries are fully charged. Because the additional
charge from regenerative braking would cause the voltage of a full battery to raise above a safe level,
our motor controller will limit regenerative braking torque in this case.

CHAPTER FOUR

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Materials and Methods

The materials used in this thesis work were a lead acid battery type, a BLDC motor and a unit of inverter
and modeling of electric vehicle. In the implementation of battery electric vehicle that uses parameter
should be tested. From the data obtained by physical observation includes specification of electric
vehicle and battery data type as shown in table 4.1 and table 4.3 respectively.

Table 4.1 the parameters of the BLDC Motor for the BEV

Parameter value

Rated voltage 72v

Rated Power 5 Kw

Mass 83 kg

Inductance(H) 9.4 mH

No-load current 10A

Maximum voltage 78V

Maximum power 2KW

Time constant 1.78ms

Resistance(Ω) 1.43

Rated speed 1500rpm

Table4.2. Proposed data of battery electric vehicle performance

Number of batteries 6

System voltage (V) 72V, AC

Maximum current(A) 200

Auto select dual input 220v, 50Hz, 13A

Out put 72V, 25A, 2KW

Rated Motor power 5KW

Overall dimension 5050×1525×2050mm

Maximum climbing capacity(loaded) 20%

Max. braking distance at a speed of (20km/h) ≤4m

Range per charging (fully-loaded vehicle moving on a flat-level road at a fixed speed of 20km/h >70km

Max. Loading Capacity 640 kgs

Net Weight 1100 kgs

Max. loaded weight with battery 1120 kgs

4.2 Electric Vehicle Modeling

For modeling purposes, the recommended EV drive train is as shown in Figure 4.1. The drive train
consists of six components: the electrical motor, power electronics, battery, motor controller, battery
controller and vehicle interface. The vehicle interface provides the interface for the sensors and controls
which communicate with the motor controller and battery controller. The motor controller normally
controls the power supplied to the motor, while the battery controller controls the power from the
battery. The battery is for energy storage, usually lead acid which provides more than 200V and high
current to the power electronics. The power electronics manipulate the voltage, current and frequency
provided to set-up the motor requirements [33].

Figure 4.1: Block diagram of battery electric vehicle drive train [33]

4.2.1. Four Quadrant Operations

Fig. 4.2: Four quadrant motoring & braking operations in the torque-speed plane [27]

For a BLDC motor to operate in the 2nd quadrant, the value of the back EMF generated by the BLDC
motor should be greater than the battery voltage (DC bus voltage). This ensures that the direction of the
current reverses, while the motor still runs in the forward direction [27].

By considering both directions of operation (clockwise and anti-clockwise) and both modes (acceleration
and deceleration), the motor’s operation can be described in four quadrants of operation. This can be
visualized by plotting the motor speed and the applied torque on the x–y axis as shown in figure 4.2. The
drive train is in motoring mode when the speed and torque values having the same polarity (first
quadrant & third quadrant), and in regenerating mode when the speed and torque values differ in
polarity (second quadrant & fourth quadrant). In the first quadrant, with both positive polarities, the
motor moves forward, but in the 3rd quadrant, the motor moves backward. In the second quadrant,
when the torque is positive and speed is negative, the motor is decelerating returning energy to the
battery in reverse braking, while in the 4th quadrant, the energy returns to the battery during forward
braking. The battery energy is decreased during motoring mode, but is increased in regenerating mode
during regenerative braking when the motor is operating as a generator [28].

4.3 Battery

Battery is essential to supply DC power for the alternator rotor and for the storage of generated power.
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive terminal, or cathode, and a negative
terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals, which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work using 12V Battery, 10 Ah rating.

The battery is a two-terminal device that provides DC supply to the inverter section when the AC mains
are not available. This DC is then converted into 220V AC supply and output at the inverter output
socket. It is pertinent to state that lead-acid batteries used in automobiles are very good for this
purpose as they provide good quality power for a long duration and can be recharged once the power
stored in them are consumed. The backup time provided by the inverter depends on the battery type
and its current capacity.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are
irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights
and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary (rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and
recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current.

4.3.1 Current Batteries for BEVs

4.3.1.1 Lead-Acid Batteries:

These batteries are the oldest type of rechargeable batteries existing from as far back as the 1800s.
Lead-acid batteries consist of spongy lead as the negative cathode, lead dioxide as the positive anode
and diluted sulphuric acid as the electrolyte. The cell reaction is shown by equation 4.1 below. During
discharging process, lead sulphate is formed at both the electrodes and during charging lead and lead
dioxide are reformed. During the overcharge process there is production of hydrogen at the positive
electrode due to which the Lead-acid batteries suffer from water loss. [37]

Using six 12V Lead-Acid batteries connected in series, a total voltage of 72V will be created to drive the
entire system. The main reason for choosing this battery is because it features an adequate run time,
measured in Ampere hours (Ah). This consideration is necessary for the system to run for a sufficient
time interval. Another good characteristic about this battery is that it is able to maintain charge for
approximately 3 months with only 9% of capacity lost [37].

The battery capacity was found to be 50 Ah. Therefore, the energy needed for the battery to charge is
70Ah. Since the charger will be standard, the energy needed will be divided by 17.50A, which is the
initial charge current. This gives a charging time of 4 hours, which is reasonable for this system. Both
chargers will be standard [37].

Table 4.3.Parameters of the lead- acid battery

Parameter Value

Specific power 150 W/kg

Specific energy 35 Wh/kg

Nominal Voltage 72V

Rated value 245Ah

Mass 55kg

Discharge current <800A

Type 245H52

Recommended charge current 20A

Size 515mmx275mmx265mm

Life cycle 700

Charge current <200A

Soc (%) 80

For this battery, a male adapter will be needed to allow the battery to connect to the AC charging
source.

Selecting a battery type is determined based on six factors. The first factor is design energy over
autonomy time, which is the period of time that the battery can supply power to the system without
needing further charging. The second factor is battery aging factor, which is the decrease in battery
performance due to its age. The third factor is the temperature correction factor, which is part of IEEE
standard 485 for Lead-Acid cells. The fourth factor is capacity rating factor, which adjusts for voltage
depression (battery holds less charge) when the battery is being discharged. The fifth factor is nominal
battery voltage, which is the no load voltage of a fully charged battery. The sixth factor is maximum
depth of charge, which is the amount the battery has been discharged until it needs charged again.

The overall reaction is:

(4.1)

Lead-acid batteries are low cost which make them attractive for various applications which are cost
sensitive. They were the predominant batteries used for BEVs in the 1970s and 1980s, however there
limited specific energy makes them unsuitable for modern long range BEVs. In addition to their limited
energy, their cycle life is also limited which would warrant a change in batteries every 2-3 years. Lead-
acid batteries commonly have specific energy of about 35 Wh/kg, specific power of about 150 W/kg and
cycle life of around 700. (See Table 4.3).

A lead-acid battery charger is most popular though it has very large size than others battery type. But
have advantage such as low cost, easy to buy and long life if correctly used.

Figure 4.3: Battery of electric vehicles (photo from Bishofitu Automotive Industry)

4.3.1.2 The Capacity of Battery:

The battery puts electric energy to the motor when driving, namely the battery in the discharging
process; when braking, motor put brakes recycling energy to the battery and the battery is in charging.
The main performances of a battery reflected in maximum charging power and state of charge (SOC).
Limited by the battery charging power, the recycling braking power must not exceed the maximum
charging power of the battery. Furthermore, the regenerative braking system can no longer charge for
battery when its SOC is more than a certain value, or it will be adverse to the battery [39].

4.4. Battery Charger

A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a cell or (rechargeable) battery by forcing an
electric current through it. Lead-acid battery chargers typically have two tasks to accomplish. The first is
to restore capacity, often as quickly as practical. The second is to maintain capacity by compensating for
self-discharge.
In both instances optimum operation requires accurate sensing of battery voltage. When a typical lead-
acid cell is charged, lead sulphate is converted to lead on the battery’s negative plate and lead dioxide
on the positive plate. Over-charge reactions begin when the majority of lead sulphate has been
converted, typically resulting in the generation of hydrogen and oxygen gas. At moderate charge rates,
most of the hydrogen and oxygen will recombine in sealed batteries. In unsealed batteries however,
dehydration will occur. The onset of over-charge can be detected by monitoring battery voltage [39].

Figure 4.4: Battery charger of electric vehicle (photo from Bishofitu Automotive Industry)

Over charge reactions are indicated by the sharp rise in cell voltage. The point at which over-charge
reactions begin is dependent on charge rate, and as charge rate is increased, the percentage of returned
capacity at the onset of over-charge diminishes. For overcharge to coincide with 100% return of
capacity, the charge rate must typically be less than 1/100 amps of its Ampere hour capacity. At high
charge rates, controlled over-charging is typically as quickly as possible. To maintain capacity on a fully
charged battery, a constant voltage is applied. The voltage must be high enough to compensate for self-
discharge, yet not too high as to cause excessive over-charging.

4.5. Proportional Integral (PI) Controller

PI Controller (proportional-integral controller) is a special case of the PID controller in which the
derivative (D) of the error is not used. The PI control is the most popular control system; it is versatile
and can be tuned adjusting three constants. PI is a well proved and successfully applied in many control
systems [40].

PI controller compares the motor speed with reference speed and the speed error is processed to
control the motor. The PI controller accepts the B_ERR signal from the Battery Model and uses
proportional (K_p) and integral (K_i) to calculate the gain K value that is used by the Motor Controller
[33].

4.5.1 Conventional PI Controller

Conventional PI controller is used as a speed controller for recovering the actual motor speed to the
reference. The Ziegler-Nichols method is used to determine the K_P and K_i values.

The target from any controller is to minimize the error between the actual output, which needed to be
controlled, and the desired output, which is called the set point. The PI term stands for Proportional
Integral, so any PI controller can be divided into two parts each part has its Gain, the first part is the
proportional part witch is the error multiplied by a constant gain which is K_P. The second part is the
integral part, which is the integration of error with time multiplied by a constant gain, which is K_i. The
PI controller equation can be expressed as the following.
 (4.2)

Where u(t) is the PI output K_P, is the proportional gain, K_i is the integral gain and e(t) is the error
function shown in equation (4.2). The following function block diagram shown in figure 4.5 explains the
operation of the PI controller [33].

Figure.4.5: PI controller block diagram

There are four main parameters which should be minimized by the control system:

Rise time (T_r): defined as the time taken to go from 10% to 90% of the targeted set point value.

Settling time (Ts): defined as the time required for the response curve to reach and stay within a range
of certain percentage (usually 5% or 2%) of the final value.

Steady state error: defined as the difference between the steady state output and the desired output.

Overshooting: defined as the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from the desired
response of the system. Overshooting is the maximum value in the response curve minus the targeted
value divided by the targeted value, and can be calculated as shown in equation 4.3.

(4.3)

There are more parameters which should be taken into account in case of motor speed control, like start
up current, startup torque, and speed variation percentage.

So, as mentioned above, PI controller objective to reduce the rise time, settling time, steady error and
overshoot.

In most applications do not use the derivative part in the PID. In this paper a PI controller is proposed.
The BLDC motor parameters are shown in table 4.1 above.

4.6. Power Modules

Power modules consist of 6 MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor). When driving

the electric vehicle, the electric motor in the motoring condition, the power is supplied to the electric
motor by the power module; while the electric vehicle in braking mode, the motor in the power
generation state, AC produced by motor is rectified into a DC. Because the internal MOSFET has a
parasitic diode in parallel, the power module equivalent rectifying circuit [23].

Figure 4.6: Power module of circuit diagram

4.6.1 DC-DC Controller

DC-DC controller consists of four MOSFETs and a large inductor, achieving buck boost of input and
output:

Input Buck

〖VT〗_3 is fully on, VT_2 and 〖VT〗_4 are off, 〖VT〗_1 chops. At this point, super capacitor is in the
charge status. Input buck is mainly used for high-speed braking station. In the station, motor counter
potential is larger, while the capacitor voltage is less. It suits for input buck charge.

Input Boost

〖VT〗_1 and 〖VT〗_3 are fully on; VT_2 is off, VT_4 chops. At this point, the super capacitor is
charging.

Input boost is mainly used for low speed braking station, then the motor counter potential is smaller,
the capacitor voltage is high by the pre-charging. It is suitable for boost charging;

Output Buck: - 〖VT〗_1 is fully on; VT_2 and VT_4 are off, 〖VT〗_3 chops.

Output Boost: - 〖VT〗_1 and 〖VT〗_3 are fully on; VT_4 is off, VT_2 chops. At this point
super-capacitor is in the discharge state. The output boost is mainly used to acceleration and start-up
phase. In this phase, the electrical motor needs high-power input. If depending fully on battery, battery
output current will be high, while super capacitors and batteries supply power at the same time will
reduce the battery load.
4.7. DC-DC Converter Topologies

There are many types of Dc-Dc converter topologies with different applications

a)

b)

Figure 4.7.: Circuit diagram of a) boost converter b) buck converter

4.7.1. DC-DC Buck-Boost Converter

The operating point of the BEV varies when the load condition varies. The power may be achieved
through appropriate load selection. In most cases, the load is not likely to be optimal (regarding power
delivered from the battery). Power from the battery may be attained by incorporating an intelligent
mechanism to alter the load resistance observed from the BEV. Power converters are widely used to
adjust operating conditions to attain the maximum power.

Assuming that the buck-boost converter is operating in the continuous conducting mode with 100%
efficiency, the relationship of the voltage and current at the load terminal and those at the battery
under steady-state conditions.

Buck-boost DC-DC converter is an important element in battery system since buck-boost converter is
able to regulate the output voltage that may be less or greater than the input voltage. Buck-Boost
converter allows more flexibility in modulating the energy transfer from the input source to the load by
varying the duty cycle D.

The operation of the buck-boost converter can be divided into two modes, namely “on” state and “off”
state. During the “on” state the IGBT is turned on and the diode ' is reverse biased then current will flow
through the inductor from the input source. When IGBT is turned off during “off” state, the energy
stored in the inductor will be transferred the load until the next “on” state.by varying duty cycle D, the
output voltage is changed accordingly. The duty cycle however can be delivered by PWM control unit. In
buck-boost converter, the output polarity is opposite to the input polarity.

(4.4)

The voltage across the inductor in this stage is given as:

(4.5)

It is known that for steady-state operation, the net change in the inductor current must be zero over
one switching cycle. By applying volt-second balance we get:
 (4.6)

Where D is the duty cycle of the converter which is given as:

(4.7)

The relation between the input voltages to the output voltage of the buck-boost converter is given as: ;
, ,

Where: D is the duty cycle (0< D< 1)

The output voltage relation to the duty cycle (D) is:

If 0 <D <0.5 the output is smaller than the input.

If D =0.5 the output is the same as the input.

If 0.5 <D <1 the output is larger than the input

If the converter is designed with an efficiency of 90%, the output power of the converter can be
determined from

(4.8)

The buck-boost converter will be designed to output 72V since it will give an output power of 2000w
and Its output current be calculated by

The minimum value for inductor and capacitor can be determined by using a duty cycle of 0.5 applied to
the following equations:

(4.9)

(4.10)
(4.11)
4.8 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

PWM signals are pulse trains with fixed frequency and magnitude and variable pulse width. However,
the width of the pulses (duty cycle) changes from pulse to pulse according to a modulating signal as
illustrated in figure 4.8 shown below. When a PWM signal is applied to the gate of a power transistor, it
causes the turn on and turns off intervals of the transistor to change from one PWM period to another
according to the same modulating signal [23].

Figure 4.8: pulse width modulation

The Pulse width modulation (PWM) technique is used to generate the switching pulses to drive the
MOSFET switches. The desired back-boost converter without controller is depicted here. The duty cycle
can vary manually and now it is at 50% that means D=0.5.

Figure 4.9: charging and discharging of inductor current

Figure 4.10: Simulink model of buck –boost converter

The input voltage of the buck boost converter is maximum voltage available of the battery and output
voltage is equal to the input when the duty cycle is D=50% at a voltage of 72V.

4.9. Component Selection

The first step in choosing component values, such as those for the output ripple capacitor and inductor,
is to outline the necessary operating parameters of the system. The following parameters were realized
based on the specific brushless DC motor specifications as well as nominal battery supply voltage and
ratings.

1. Input voltage range:

This can be described as the voltage supplied by the battery pack at the minimum and maximum states
of charge in which the system can safely operate, as well as the nominal state of charge. Or 50% of the
nominal state of charge,
 = nominal battery voltage

2. Nominal output voltage:

The nominal output voltage desired in this case will be the maximum voltage rating of the motor given
as

3. Maximum output current:

The maximum output current is determined by motor ratings, as well as how much current that can be
continuously supplied by the battery source in a safe manner. It is given as

4. Estimated efficiency: η

The efficiency of the converter is estimated from how much power is lost through switch on resistance,
other impedances throughout the system, leakage flux from the inductor, as well as rise and fall times of
switching components [2]. A realistic efficiency of power throughout has been estimated to be 90%.

4.10. Duty Cycle Calculations

To calculate a capacitor value that will be sufficient to operate the converter over necessary ranges, the
optimal duty cycle in boost mode, and optimal duty cycle in a buck regenerative mode is used. The
maximum and minimum duty cycle during a regenerative phase given a maximum voltage across the
motor should be:

(4.12)

(4.13)

The maximum and minimum duty cycle during a motor drive phase with various battery states of charge
should be

(4.14)

D_boostmin= 1-V_battmin/Vmotor x η x 1.1

 (4.15)

The following equation estimates a reasonable minimum inductance value for the regenerative mode of
operation.

fs = switching frequency

I_Lripple = Inductor ripple current (approximately 30 percent of the output current)

(4.16)

The following equation estimates a reasonable minimum inductance value for the boost, motor drive
mode of operation:

(4.17)

Since the inductor will be shared during all modes of operation, the value of 12.73µH is used as an
inductor minimum value.

4.11. Input/ Output Capacitor Selection

The following equations estimate appropriate values for input and output ripple capacitors in the
converter. The maximum value derived from the following four equations is used for both the input and
output capacitors.

An appropriate ripple capacitor for regenerative mode is calculated using the following equations, the
largest of which is used:

V_ripple = Desired output voltage ripple (should be as small as possible)

(4.18)

The following equation can be used to find the minimum capacitor required during an overshoot
situation in which the load is removed.
 (4.19)

The following equations are used to adjust output voltage ripple during a motor drive boost mode of
operation

(4.20)

The value of 4125μF is used as a guideline for selecting the output ripple capacitor. The closest
commercially available capacitor value is 4000 μF

4.12. Modeling of BLDC Motor

Figure 4.11.: BLDC motor for an inverter drive system

4.12.1. Motor Control

A control of permanent-magnet BLDC motor is PWM current control. It is based on the assumption of
linear relationship between the phase current and the torque, similar to that in a brushed dc motor.
Therefore, by adjusting phase current, the electromagnetic torque can be controlled to meet the
requirement.

4.12.2. Voltage and Current Control PWM Mode

It is possible to control the switches in PWM chopping mode for controlling voltage and current
continuously at the machine terminal. Current controlled operation of the inverter. There are essentially
two chopping mode: feedback (FB) mode and freewheeling mode. In both these modes devices are
turned on and off on duty cycle basis to control the machine average current I_AV and the machine
average voltage〖 V〗_AV.

4.12.3. MOSFET Control

During deceleration period regenerative braking can be achieved by the reversal of current in the
motor-battery circuit, in merits of drives acting as a generator, return the current flow into the supply
battery. With the low speed of the BLDC motor, winding back EMF cannot reach the voltage across the
battery. The recovery of energy also cannot be achieved. Due to the presence of inductances in motor
windings, these inductances of drive circuit can consists of the boost circuit. In order to achieve the
recovery of energy, we have to increase the voltage on the dc bus through the inductor accumulator.
We turn off all MOSFET on the high arms of H-bridge and control the low arms of H-bridge with PWM.
Armature current of the BLDC motor and in which there is only one power switch is operated within
each commutation state on bidirectional dc/ac converter switching signals. According to the principle of
the volt-second balance and one can conclude that change in the equivalent inductor voltage is zero
over one electric circuit. The MOSFET can be used in high power application. In turn off time and leakage
current also less in compared into IGBT devices.

DC Motor has more demand in automotive application because of high power density, low maintenance
cost and high efficiency. A Controller of Brushless DC Motor for EV developed by using
MATLAB/Simulink. Simulation results obtained from developed model are discussed which give the
requisite performance of the model with various loading conditions.

The BLDCM has three stator windings and a permanent magnet rotor on the rotor. Rotor induced
currents can be neglected due to the high resistivity of both magnets and stainless steel.

Figure 4.12: Electrical model of BLDC motor

(4.21)

Where V_as, V_bs and V_cs are the stator phase voltages; R_s is the stator resistance per phase , i_a 〖
,i〗_(b,) and,i_c are the stator phase currents; L_aa , L_bb and,L_cc are the self-inductance of phase A,
B and C, L_ac, L_bc and L_ac are the mutual inductances between phase A, B and C; e_a 〖,e〗_b, and
e_c are the phase back electromotive forces. It has been assumed that resistance of all the winding is
equal. It also has been assumed that if there is no change in the rotor reluctance with angle because of
no a salient rotor and then

(4.22)

(4.23)

Substituting equation(4.22) and (4.23) in equation (4.21) gives the PMBLDC model as

(4.24)

WhereV_as, V_bs and V_cs are phase voltages and may be designed as

(4.25)

WhereV_ao, V_bo, and V_co are three phase and neutral voltages referred to zero reference potential
at the mid- point at dc link.

The stator phase currents are constrained to be balanced i.e.

(4.26)
This leads to the simplifications of the inductances matrix in the models as

(4.27)

Therefore, in state space

(4.28)

It has been assumed that back EMF e_a,e_(b and ) e_c are having trapezoidal wave form

(4.29)

Where ω_m is the angular rotor speed in radians per seconds, λ_m is the flux linkage, θ_r is the rotor
position in radians and the functions (f_as f_bs, and f_cs) have the same shape as e_a , e_b and, e_c
with a maximum magnitude of ±1 .The induced emfs do not have sharp corners because these are in
trapezoidal nature.

The emfs are the result of the flux linkages derivatives and the flux linkages are continuous functions.
Fringing also makes the flux density function smooth with no abrupt edges.

The electromagnetic toque in Newton meter is defined as

(4.30)

It is significant to observe that the phase voltage-equation is identical to armature –voltage equation of
dc machine. That is one of the reasons for naming this machine the PM brushless dc machine.

The moment of inertia is described as

(4.31)

The equation of the simple motion system with inertia J, friction coefficient β, and load torque T_l is

(4.32)

The electrical rotor speed and position are related by

(4.33)

The damping coefficient β is generally small and often neglected in this system. The rotor position θ in
the above equation repeats every 2π. The potential of the neutral point with respect to zero potential
(v_no) is required to be considered in order to avoid imbalance in the applied voltage and simulate the
performance of the drive. This obtained by substituting equation in the volt-ampere equation and
adding then gives as

(4.34)

Substituting equation in equation we get

Thus

(4.35)

The set of differential equations mentioned in equations (4.28), (4.32), and (4.33) defines the developed
model in terms of the variables i_a,i_b,i_c ,w_m and θ_r time as an independent variable.

Combining the all relevant equations, the system in state-space form is

Where

(4.37)

A= (4.38)

(4.39)

(4.40)

(4.41)

(4.42)

Where

Where, the component values are given as,

So in matrix form
4.12.4. Modeling and Simulation of Bidirectional DC/DC Converter

Bidirectional DC/DC converter is usually inserted between the battery and the inverter, in order to
match the different voltage rating of these two elements.

Figure 4.13: Emplacement of the DC/DC converter in the traction system of an EV

This DC/DC converter has to be bidirectional in order to enable power delivery from the battery to the
motor (step-up motor) and battery recharging during regenerative braking (step-down mode).
Generally, DC/DC converter is used in the power train of the electric vehicles in boost-type converters.

4.12.5 DC-DC Boost Converter System Simulink Model

Figure 4.14: DC-DC boost converter MATLAB Simulink model

DC-DC boost converter is used to step up the input voltage to a required output voltage without the use
of a transformer. The control strategy lies in the manipulation of the duty cycle of the switch which
results in obtaining a variable DC output voltage. The circuit diagram of the boost converter is shown in
4.14. The active switch in the boost converter is a MOSFET. A fast recovery diode is used as the
freewheeling diode. The input capacitor is selected as C=795.6 μF, while the inductance value is, 7.5 mH
and R=100Ω and 72 V. For a DC-DC boost converter, the conversion gain for continuous conduction
mode is given by:

Where V_O the output voltage of the converter, V_in is the input voltage of the converter and D is the
duty cycle of operation.

Figure 4.15 SOC (%), current and battery voltage of dc-dc boost converter system
Figure 4.16: output voltage of dc-dc boost converter system

The simulations above to find out the performance of electric vehicle in DC-DC boost converter and to
increase the voltage level as shown. The input voltage is 72V and the boosted voltage is about 459V
whereas the current is 4.59A by using the duty cycle of the switch.

Figure 4.17: output current of dc-dc boost converter system

Figure 4.15 shows the battery state-of-charge initially set at 80%, when the simulation is running for 1.0
sec. and the battery voltage is set at 72V. Figure 14.16 shows simulation result of the output voltage
boosted around 459V and figure 14.17 shows the output current of about 4.59A.Therefore, the DC-DC
boost converter is step up the input voltage to the required output voltage by using the duty cycle of the
switch.

CHAPTER FIVE

SIMULATION RESULT AND DISSCUSION

5.1 Simulation of BLDC Motor

The designed model of Brushless DC motor is simulated in MATLAB/Simulink having specifications given
below. The machine parameter are Phase resistance 𝑅𝑠= 1.43 ohm, Phase inductance L = 9.4 mH, J =
1.5e-3 kg/m², β = 2x10-3 N-ms, Back-emf flat area = 120˚, Flux = 0.2158 wb, No. of poles P = 4. These
parameters are used in the modeling of BLDC Motor with no-load torque and 31.8 Nm load torque
conditions [Table 4.1].
Figure 5.1: Brushless DC motor fed by three-step inverter MATLAB Simulink model

The model that is proposed in figure 5.1 is to get a performance of the electric vehicle. The model used
lead acid batteries of 72 V, PWM inverter and three phases BLDC motor 220V with 60 Hz line frequency.
With the above design considerations the simulation has been done and the result is presented. Speed is
set at 1500 rpm and SOC (%) is 80%. The back Emf and stator waveform are show by the simulation
waveform and it shows that back-Emf and phase voltage are both displaced by 120 degrees each and
stator current are of quasi sinusoidal in nature and also displaced by 120 degrees. The simulation results
of electric vehicle system modeling are shown below.

Figure 5.2 SOC (%), current and battery voltage wave form

Figure 5. 3: Rotor speed and stator current waveform

Figure 5.4: electromotive force waveform

Figure 5.5: line to line voltage waveform

Figure 5.6: Electromagnetic torque waveform

The simulation above shows the performance of electric vehicle in normal driving conditions with
constant speed. The battery which is used as energy source is lead acid battery with a value 72 V in total.
They often are found in the market with relatively reasonable prices. The output of this battery is dc
voltage/current.

5.2 MATLAB Simulink Model without Regenerative Braking

Fig.5.7. MATLAB Simulink model without regenerative braking

The above figure represents the Simulink model the vehicle at normal driving mode and energy flows
from the batteries to the motor turning the wheels and providing the kinetic energy that the vehicle
needs to move. When the brake is applied, the whole process goes into reverse. In this mode the speed
and torque values have the same polarity. The Simulink model given in Figure 5.15 explains with
regenerative braking systems.

Figure 5.8: SOC (%), battery voltage wave for

Figure 5.9 MATLB/Simulink model of battery voltage wave form

Figure 5.10Simulink model of electromagnetic torque waveform

Figure 5.11 Simulink model of Rotor speed waveform

Figure 5.12: Stator Back electromotive force (e_a)