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UNIT 2. GENERAL THEORIES ON LEARNING AND ACQUISITION OF A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. THE CONCEPT OF
INTERLANGUAGE. THE TREATMENT OF ERROR.
The aim of this study is to provide a thorough account of what is known about the way people learn
languages. A historical background will give a framework for general theories on learning from its origins to
present-day trends, in an attempt to depict the major and minor approaches and theories in language learning. At
this point, key issues will be useful to review so as to clarify the nuances between some concepts such as
acquisition and learning, or terms such as mother, second, and foreign language within a theory of learning. The
same overview approach is used to set the link between a language learning theory and the concept of
interlanguage. Furthermore, the treatment of error will be described from ancient roots to present-day trends
within a positive framework. According to the learner’s needs, new contributions on a language learning theory
are offered through current applied linguistics journals. A final section will conclude with an overview of the
development of most influential theories on language learning.
1. A HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING.
1.1. THE NATURE AND ORIGINS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
The history of foreign language teaching goes back to the earliest educational systems whose main aim
was to teach religion and to promote the traditions of the people. These practices trace back to the temple
schools of ancient Egypt where the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture were taught.
In ancient India, much of the education was carried on by priests with the Buddhist doctrines that later spread to
the Far East.
In ancient China, philosophy, poetry and religion were taught regarding Confucius and other philosophers’
teachings. The Greeks focused on the state and society in repairing intellectually citizens and the concepts they
formulated served in later centuries as the basis for the liberal arts, philosophy, aesthetic ideals, and gymnastic
training. Roman education provided the Western world the Latin language, classical literature, engineering, law,
and the administration and organization of government.
The ancient Jewish traditions of the Old Testament also played an important role in formation of later
education systems. The foundation of Jewish education is the Torah (the Biblical books of mosaic law) and the
Talmud, which set forth the aims and methods of education among Jews. Jewish parents were urged by the
Talmud to teach their children such subjects as ethics, vocational knowledge, swimming, and a foreign language.
During the Middle Ages (15th-16th century), the early educational systems of the nations of the Western world
emanated from the Judea-Christian religious traditions, which were combined with traditions derived from
ancient Greece philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
1.2. THE INFLUENCE OF GREEK AND LATIN ON LANGUAGE TEACHING.
In the context of language teaching and learning, a clear influence of the Greek and Latin language is
present. In Greece, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics examined carefully the structure of language as part of the
general study of ‘dialectic’. This study had a major influence on subsequent grammatical thinking which was taken
over by the Romans with very little change.
In the sixteenth century the status of Latin changed from a living language that learners needed to be able
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to read, write in, and speak, to a dead language which was studied as an intellectual exercise (Richards & Rodgers
1992). The analysis of the grammar and rhetoric of Classical Latin became the model language teaching between
the 17th and 19th centuries, a time when thought about language teaching crystallized in Europe.
It was not until the eighteenth century that “modern” languages began to enter the curriculum of
European schools where they were taught using the same basic procedures that were used for teaching Latin. Still
nowadays, many of the features of modern language learning theories can be traced back to this early period, and
are considered beneficial legacies from the past.
2. GENERAL THEORIES ON LEARNING AND ACQUISITION OF A FOREIGN LANGUAGE.
2.1. KEY ISSUES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING.
A relevant characteristic of contemporary second and foreign language teaching is the proliferation of
approaches, methods and theories so as to search for more efficient and effective ways of teaching languages.
Many theories about the learning and teaching of languages have been proposed from a historical
perspective, and have been influenced by developments in the fields of linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and
sociology. The study of these theories and how they influence language teaching today is called applied
linguistics. As we have seen in the preceding sections, many of our modern practices find their roots, or at the
least are inspired, in the practices of our predecessors.
The extent and importance of the teaching of English as a foreign language, and therefore, the
development of language learning theories, make it reasonable to define some key concepts within this issue.
2.1.1. Acquisition vs learning.
These two concepts underlie a theory of learning, and are one of the main tenets of Stephen Krashen’s
theory of second language acquisition. For him, there are two distinctive ways of developing skills and knowledge
(‘competence’) in a second language. Thus, acquisition refers to the “natural” way of picking up a language by
using it in natural, communicative situations. This term is used to refer to an unconscious process by which
language is acquired similarly as children acquire their first language, and probably second languages as well.
The term learning, by contrast, means having a conscious knowledge about grammar, and conscious rules
about a language are developed. In this context, formal teaching and correction of errors are necessary for
“learning” to occur. We refer to conscious grammar rules only to make changes when correcting. It is important
to bear in mind that learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition
2.1.2. Mother tongue, second, and foreign language acquisition.
In learning languages, a distinction is usually made when referring to mother tongue, second language,
and foreign languages. In the seventeenth century, the theologian Jan Amos Komensky (1592 - 1670), commonly
known as Comenius, already established a distinction referring to those terms. Thus, he claimed that man fell
from his original state due to the loss of the original tongue, at the Tower of Babel. For him, the beginning is the
learning of the mother-tongue (first language acquisition); there is no point in learning another language if one
has not mastered one's own. After that, one should learn the languages of one's neighbours (second language);
and only after that should one take on the learning of one of the classic languages, such as Latin, Hebrew, Greek
or Arabic (foreign language).
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At this point, it is relevant to define these concepts in modern terms. For instance, a mother tongue is
considered to be the first language one learns as a child whereas a second language is acquired under the need of
learning the language of another country. On the other hand, when languages are acquired in school, it is
considered as a foreign language. The acronyms ESL and EFL stand for the learning of English as a Second and as a
Foreign Language.
2.1.3. Competence vs performance.
A distinction is often made between competence and performance in the study of language. According to
Chomsky (1965), competence consists of the mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the
speaker-hearer’s internalized grammar whereas performance consists of the comprehension and production of
language. Language acquisition studies –both first and second- are interested in how competence is developed.
However, because second language acquisition focuses on performance, there is no evidence for what is going on
inside the learner’s head. This is one of the major weaknesses of second language acquisition research.
2.2. GENERAL THEORIES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING.
2.2.1. First approaches.
From a historical perspective foreign language learning has always been an important practical concern.
Whereas today English is the world’s most widely studied foreign language, five hundred years ago it was Latin,
for it was the dominant language of education, commerce, religion, and government in the Western world. In the
mid- late nineteenth century, opportunities for communication increased among Europeans and there was a high
demand for oral proficiency in foreign languages.
Second language learning has always tended to follow in the footsteps of first language acquisition and, in
fact, throughout the history of language teaching, we find several attempts to make second language learning
more like first language learning. The importance of meaning in learning, and the interest on how children learn
languages as a model for language teaching were the first approaches to a language learning theory. Thus, if we
trace back to the sixteenth century, we find out that the Frenchman Montaigne described his own experience on
learning Latin for the first years of his life as a process here he was exclusively addressed in Latin by a German
tutor. In the nineteenth century, he was followed by individual language teaching specialists like the Frenchman
C. Marcel, the Englishman T. Prendergast, and the Frenchman F. Gouin (Howatt 1984).
Prendergast was one of the first to record the observation of children in speaking, followed by Gouin, one
of the best known representatives of language teaching due to his observations of children’s use of language. In
1880 Gouin attempted to build a methodology around observation of child language learning when publishing
L'art d'enseigner et d'étudier les langues, which turned out to be a total failure. However, his turning to
observations of how children learn a second language is one of the most impressive personal testimonials in the
recorded annals of language learning.
Attempts to develop teaching principles from observation of child language learning were made but these
new ideas were not sufficient within the educational movement at that time. However, toward the end of the
nineteenth century, the interests of reform-minded language teachers, and linguists, coincided and first attempts
to language learning theories were to be taken into consideration.
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2.2.2. Present-day approaches.
Regarding the learning of languages, three main theories have approached, from different perspectives,
the question of how language is learnt. Thus, behaviourism emphasizes the essential role of the environment in
the process of language learning whereas mentalist theories give priority to the learners’ innate characteristics
from a cognitive and psychological approach. A third approach claims for relevant concepts such as a
comprehensible input and a native speaker interaction in conversations for students to acquire the new language.
Hence, mentalist accounts of language acquisition originated in the rejection of behaviourist explanations
of. Chomsky emphasized the role of mental processes rather than the contribution of the environment in the
language acquisition process. This "Chomskian revolution" initially gave rise to eclecticism in teaching, but it has
more recently led to two main branches of teaching approaches: the humanistic approaches based on the
charismatic teaching of one person, and content-based communicative approaches, which try to incorporate
what has been learned in recent years about the need for active learner participation, about appropriate
language input, and about communication as a human activity.
Following Richards & Rodgers (1992), prominent figures in this field, such as Stephen Krashen, Tracy D.
Terrell, and Noam Chomsky developed the language learning theories which are the source of principles in
language teaching nowadays. A psycholinguistic and cognitive approach is necessary to understand learning
processes, such as habit formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalization..
The advances in cognitive science and educational psychology made by Jean Piaget and Vygotsky in the
first half of the century strongly influenced language teaching theory in the 1960s and 1970s. Their theories were
intended to explain the ineffectiveness of the traditional prescriptive and mechanistic approaches to language
teaching and later serve as a basis for the new natural-communicative approaches. Beginning in the 1950s, Noam
Chomsky and his followers challenged previous assumptions about language structure and language learning,
taking the position that language is creative (not memorized), and rule governed (not based on habit), and that
universal phenomena of the human mind underlie all language.
In addition to Chomsky's generativism, new trends favouring more humanistic views and putting a greater
focus on the learner and on social interaction, gave way to the Natural (USA) and Communicative (England)
approaches. Psychologist Charles Curran's Community Language Learning and Krashen's and Terrell's Natural
Approach (in the 1980s) are very representative of this latest trend in language teaching. Stephen Krashen and
Tracy D. Terrell have proposed ideas that have influenced language teaching. Thus, Krashen studied the way that
children learn language and applied it to adult language learning. He proposed the Input Hypothesis , which states
that language is acquired by using comprehensible input (the language that one hears in the environment) which
is slightly beyond the learner's present proficiency. Learners use the comprehensible input to deduce rules.
Krashen's views on language teaching have given rise to a number of changes in language teaching, including a
de-emphasis on the teaching of grammatical rules and a greater emphasis on trying to teach language to adults in
the way that children learn language. While Krashen's theories are not universally accepted, they have had an
influence.
Most recently, there has been also a significant shift toward greater attention to reading and writing as a
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complement of listening and speaking, based on a new awareness of significant differences between spoken and
written languages, and on the notion that dealing with language involves an interaction between the text on the
one hand, and the culturally-based world knowledge and experientially-based learning of the receiver on the
other.
2.3. GENERAL THEORIES ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
According to Ellis (1985), second language acquisition is a complex process, involving many interrelated
factors. The term ‘Second language acquisition’ (SLA) refers to the subconscious or conscious processes by which
a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural or a tutored setting. It covers the development of
phonology, lexis, grammar, and pragmatic knowledge, but has been largely confined to morpho-syntax.
According to research in this field, it is thought that acquisition can take place only when people
understand messages in the target language, focusing on what rather than how it is said. There are affective
prerequisites to acquisition such as a positive orientation to speakers of the language, and at least some degree of
self-confidence, as well as a silent period before any real spoken fluency develops. The amount of skills and know
ledge, called competence, will be acquired through input, and certainly the initial production will not be very
accurate. The study of SLA is directed at accounting for the learner’s competence but in order to do so has set out
to investigate empirically how a learner performs when he or she uses a second language.
2.3.1. Six theories of Second Language Acquisition.
2.3.1.1. The Acculturation Model.
The term “acculturation” is defined as ‘the process of becoming adapted to a new culture’ (Ellis1985). This
is an important aspect of Second Language Acquisition since language is one of the most observable expressions
of culture and because in second language settings, the acquisition of a new language is seen as tied to the way in
which the learner’s community and the target language community view each other. A central premise on this
model is that a learner will control the degree to which he acquires the second language.
2.3.1.2. Accommodation Theory.
This theory derives from the research of Giles and focuses on the uses of language in multilingual
communities such as Britain. It operates within a socio-psychological framework and its primary concern is to
investigate how intergroup uses of language reflect basic social and psychological attitudes in interethnic
communication.
2.3.1.3. Discourse Theory.
This theory is proposed by Halliday (1975) and his view of first language acquisition. It derives from
Hymes’s description of communicative competence in which communication is treated as the matrix of linguistic
knowledge. Hence, language development should be considered in terms of how the learner discovers the
meaning potential of language by participating in communication. Halliday shows in a study how his own child
acquired language and puts forward that the development of the formal linguistic devices for basic language
grows out of the interpersonal uses to which language is put. One of its main principles is that there is a ‘natural’
route in syntactical development.
2.3.1.4. The Monitor Model.
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Krashen’s Monitor Model is one of the most prominent and comprehensive of existing theories in second
language acquisition. It is an account on language-learner variability within the framework of the Monitor Model.
It consists of five central hypotheses, and related to them, a number of factors which influence second language
acquisition. Although this model will be discussed in next sections, we will offer a brief account of it.
The five hypotheses are first, the acquisition- learning hypothesis where the terms acquired’ and ‘learnt’
are defined as subconscious and conscious study of language; secondly, the natural order hypothesis which
affirms that grammatical structures are ‘acquired’ in a predictable order; thirdly, the monitor hypothesis, where
the monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language performance; fourth, the input hypothesis by
which ‘acquisition’ takes place as a result of the learner having understood input a little beyond the current level
of his competence; and finally, the affective filter hypothesis, where the filter controls how much input the
learner comes into contact with, and how much is converted into intake. The term affective deals with
motivation, self- confidence, or anxiety state factors (Ellis 1985). This theory will be approached in detail in the
following section.
2.3.1.5. The Variable Competence Model.
This model is proposed by Ellis (1984) and extends on the work of Tarone and Bialystok. It claims that the
way a language is learnt is a reflection of the way it is used. Therefore, two distinctions form the basis for this
model, one refers to the process of language use, and the other to the product.
The product of language use deals with unplanned and planned discourse. Unplanned discourse is related
to the lack of preparation or forethought, and also to spontaneous communication. On the other hand, planned
discourse requires conscious thought and gives priority to expression rather than thought. The process of
language use is to be understood in terms of rules and procedures, that is, linguistic knowledge and the ability to
make use of this knowledge. (Ellis 1985)
2.3.1.6. The Universal Hypothesis.
In the words of Ellis (1985), this hypothesis states that second language acquisition is determined by
certain linguistic universals. Those working on this tradition argue that there is a Universal Grammar that
constrains the kind of hypotheses that the learner can form and that it is innate. The relationship between
Universal Grammar and acquisition of the first language is, in fact, a necessary one, as Chomsky’s primary
justification for Universal Grammar is that it provides the only way of accounting for how children are able to
learn their mother tongue.
2.3.2. The Natural Approach and Language Acquisition.
In 1977, a teacher of Spanish, Tracy Terrell, and an applied linguist, Stephen Krashen, both from
California, developed a language teaching proposal that incorporated the statements of the principles and
practices of second language acquisition. In their book, The Natural Approach (1983), we find theoretical sections
prepared by Krashen and sections on classroom procedures, prepared by Terrell.
Their method focuses on teaching communicative abilities and the primacy of meaning, following a
communicative approach. Since they see communication as the primary function of language, they rejected
earlier methods of language teaching which viewed grammar as the central component.
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Krashen and Terrell’s view of language consists of lexical items, structures, and messages.
This method has been identified with “traditional” approaches based on the use of language in
communicative situations without recourse to the native language. The term “natural” refers to the principles of
language learning in young children in the Natural Method, and similarly in Krashen and Terrell’s principles found
in successful second language acquisition.
However, the fact that the Natural Approach was related to the older Natural Method does not mean that
they are synonymous terms. In fact, the Natural Method became known as the Direct Method by the turn of the
century. Although they share the same tradition and the same term “natural”, there are important differences
between them. Thus the Direct Method places emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetition, and formal
questions and answers, focusing on accurate production of target language sentences. In the Natural Approach
there is an emphasis on exposure, or input, rather than practice, that is, what the language learners hear before
they try to produce language. Moreover, there is an emphasis on the central role of comprehension (Richards &
Rodgers (1992).
The theory of the Natural Approach is grounded on Krashen’s views of language acquisition, which is
based on scientific studies (Krashen and Terrell 1983). Therefore it is relevant to present first, the fourth
principles on which this theory is based on, and then, the five hypotheses that account for this method.
The first principle is that comprehension precedes production. The second general principle accounts for
production to emerge in stages, where students are not forced to speak before they are ready. The third general
principle is that the course syllabus consists of communicative goals, organizing classroom activities by topics, not
grammatical structures. The final principle is that activities must foster a lowering of the affective filter of the
students, encouraging them to express their ideas, opinions, emotions and feeling. A good atmosphere must be
created by the instructor. The five hypotheses represent the principal tenets of Krashen’s theory and are
examined in the next section.
2.3.2.1. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis.
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory
and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
claims that there are two independent systems of second language performance: the acquired system and the
learned system. Acquisition refers to a natural and subconscious process very similar to the process children
undergo when they acquire their first language in order to develop a language proficiency. Speakers are, then,
concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act through a meaningful interaction
in the target language or natural communication.
According to Krashen (1983), learning refers to a process of conscious rules for meaningful
communication which results in conscious knowledge about the language. This produces a non-natural way, as a
product of formal instruction. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.
2.3.2.2. The Monitor Hypothesis.
The Monitor Hypothesis emphasizes the role of grammar, as the learned knowledge to correct ourselves
when we communicate, but through conscious learning, in both first and in second languages. This may happen
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before we actually speak or write. However, the Monitor use itself is limited to three specific requirements. Thus,
the performer first, has to have enough time to think about rules; secondly, the learner has to focus on form , on
what rather than how; and finally, the learner has to know the rule.
According to Krashen (1983), the role of the monitor should be used only to correct deviations from
speech and to polish its appearance. Hence, it appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in
second language performance.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance.
According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct
deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. Krashen, then, establishes an
individual variation analysis among language learners regarding their monitor use.
2.3.2.3. The Natural Order Hypothesis.
According to the Natural Order Hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures takes place in a
predictable order in which errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes. This order seems to be
independent of the learners’ age, first language background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement
between individual acquirers was not statistically similar. All these features reinforced the existence of a natural
order of language acquisition.
In general, certain structures tend to be acquired early such as grammatical morphemes, or “function
words” and others to be acquired late such as the third person singular morpheme or the ‘s possessive marker.
However, Krashen (1983) points out that this hypothesis is not a language program syllabus, and in fact, he rejects
grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
2.3.2.4. The Input Hypothesis.
The Input Hypothesis is Krashen’s explanation of how second language acquisition takes place, and is only
concerned with acquisition , not learning. This hypothesis points out the relationship between the learner’s input
and the language acquisition process, where the speaking fluency emerges after the acquirer has built up
competence through comprehending input. This hypothesis claims that listening comprehension and reading are
of primary importance in a language program, and that speaking fluently in a second language come on its own
with time.
According to this hypothesis, learners improve and progress along the natural order when receiving
second language input. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same
time, Krashen (1983) suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this
way that each learner will receive the appropriate input for their current stage of linguistic competence.
2.3.2.5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis.
In the Affective Filter Hypothesis, Krashen (1983) gives a framework to the learner’s emotional state or
attitudes that may pass, impede, or block the necessary input to acquisition. These affective variables are usually
related to success in second language acquisition and they contribute to the concept of “low affective filter”.
Among the positive variables, we may include motivation, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety. It means
that the performer is open to input, and that having the right attitudes, such as confidence and encouragement,
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second language acquisition will be a complete success.
On the contrary, low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to raise the
affective filter and form a mental block that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In
other words, when the filter is up, it impedes language acquisition.
2.3.3. Factors which influence second language acquisition.
The five hypotheses seen in the preceding section form the core of the second language acquisition
theory that underlies the Natural Approach. We will consider now the implication of the theory to several issues
such as second language “aptitude”, the role of the first language, the role of routines and patterns, individual
variation, and age differences in second language rate and attainment (Krashen & Terrell 1983).
2.3.3.1. Second Language Aptitude.
Supported by empirical studies, the idea of second language aptitude is related to rapid progress in
second language classes, and for those students that have this aptitude, a better performance in foreign language
classes. The speed of learning is measured by grammar-type tests that involve a conscious awareness of language,
where the ability to consciously “figure out” grammar rules will lead students to success. Aptitude differences
play a large role if grammatical accuracy is emphasized.
2.3.3.2. The Role of the First Language.
The role of the first language in second language performance is closely related to the term interference,
which can recast as a learner ‘strategy’ (Corder 1981). This concept implies that second language acquisition (SLA)
is strongly influenced by the learner’s first language (L1) when we try to speak a second language (L2).
It was claimed that there is a “fall back” on first language grammatical competence when students have
to produce in second language. It should not be thought, according to Krashen (1983) that any approach will
completely eliminate this mode of production. When students try to express themselves in the target language
beyond their acquired ability, they will tend to fall back on the L1.
During the last decades, there has been considerable disagreement among researchers about the extent
of the role of L1 due to behaviourism which sees SLA as a process of habit-formation. Hence, according to this
theory, errors were the result of interference from the habits of the L1. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis was
an attempt to predict the areas of difficulty that learners experienced, and eliminate the chance of error. But it
did not prove to be successful. As the learner’s proficiency grows, L1 influence will become less powerful.
2.3.3.3. Routines and Patterns.
Routines and patterns are sentences spoken by performers who have not acquired or learned the rules
involved, thus ‘What’s your name?’ They may be helpful for encouraging input in the real world, as well as to
manage conversations. Patterns are partially memorized and may be of considerable indirect benefit. Correctly
used, routines and patterns can help acquirers gain more input and manage conversations, and on the contrary,
they can lead to trouble if not used effectively as they cannot be used for every situation.
2.3.3.4. Individual Variation.
The theory of second language acquisition posits a basic uniformity in the way we all acquire language. It
also predicts that acquirers will vary only in certain ways, thus in the rate and extent of acquisition. This is due to
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two factors: the amount of comprehensible input an acquirer obtains, and the strength of the affective filter. We
can also observe variation with respect to routines and patterns use with respect to classroom activities. Students
who have no aptitude for grammar or who simply are not interested in grammar, will concentrate almost
completely on acquisition activities.
2.3.3.5. Age Differences.
Age is the variable that has been most discussed when dealing with second language acquisition because
of the belief that children are better language learners than adults. There has been considerable research on the
effect of age on this field. The available evidence suggests that age does not alter the route of acquisition, and
according to Ellis (1985), child, adolescent, and adult learners go through the same stages irrespective of how old
they are.
However, rate and success of SLA appear to be strongly influenced by the age of the learner. Where rate
is concerned, it is the older learners who reach higher levels of proficiency. Literature research shows that
although age improves language learning capacity, performance may peak in the teens, and that age was a factor
only when it came to morphology and syntax. Where success of SLA is concerned, the general finding is that the
longer the exposure to the L2, the more native- like L2 proficiency becomes.
3. CONCEPT OF INTERLANGUAGE.
In this section we will relate the concept of interlanguage to its background in mentalist views on
language acquisition and the sequence of development in second language acquisition. Closely related to
interlanguage is the nature of errors, but we will examine it in next section.
The term interlanguage was first coined by Selinker (1972) and refers to the systematic knowledge of a
second language which is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language. The term is
related to a theory of learning that stresses the learner-internal factors which contribute to language acquisition,
and it was the first attempt to examine empirically how a learner builds up knowledge of a language.
Interlanguage was a construct which identifies the stages of development through which L2 learners pass
on their way to proficiency. The question was to what extent the order of development paralleled that in L1
acquisition. Mentalist accounts of first language acquisition (FLA) stressed the active contribution of the child and
minimized the importance of behaviourist concepts, such as interference, imitation and reinforcement. One of
the most prominent figures in this field, Noam
Chomsky, claimed that the child’s knowledge of his mother tongue was derived from a Universal
Grammar which consisted of a set of innate linguistic principles to control sentences formation.
Another mentalist feature that needs mentioning is that the child builds up his knowledge of his mother
tongue by means of hypothesis-testing. Corder (1981) suggests that both L1 and 2 learners make errors in order
to test out certain hypotheses about the nature of the language they are learning. He saw the making of errors as
a strategy. This view was in opposition to the view of the SLA presented in the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
where L2 errors are the result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. In the
following section, we will offer an account of the treatment of error.
4. THE TREATMENT OF ERROR.
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Earlier records on error treatment trace back to the early seventeenth century, when universities of most
European countries started to exchange and spread their scientific and cultural knowledge. Children entering
“grammar schools” were initially given a rigorous introduction to Latin grammar (Howatt 1984) and errors were
often met with brutal punishment.
Since then, error analysis has been approached from a quite different perspective. Prior to the early
1970s, it consisted of little more than collections of ‘common’ errors and linguistic classification. In the first half of
the twentieth century, behaviourist accounts approached the concept of error as a sign of non- learning, as they
were thought to interfere with the acquisition of second language habits. The goals of traditional Error Analysis
were pedagogic, in order to provide information to be used for teaching or to devise remedial lessons. There were
no serious attempts to define ‘error’ in psychological terms.
Error Analysis declined because of enthusiasm for Contrastive Analysis proposed by Chomsky. The strong
form of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claims that differences between learner’s first language and the
target language can be used to predict all errors whereas the weak form claims that differences are only used to
identify some of the errors that arise. In accordance with behaviourism, the prevention of errors was more
important than mere identification.
It was not until the late 1960s that there was a resurgence of interest in Error Analysis. It involves
collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in the sample, describing and classifying then
according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating their seriousness. One of the dominant figures in this field,
Corder (1981), helped to give this error treatment a new direction., elevating the status of errors from
undesirability to that of a guide on language learning process. According to the Natural Order Hypothesis,
proposed by Krashen (1983), the acquisition of grammatical structures takes place in a predictable order in which
errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes. Errors are no longer seen as ‘unwanted forms’ but an
active learner’s contribution to second language acquisition. This is one of the main tenets of our current
educational system where errors are seen as a positive contribution to language learning, and give LOMCE
students an active role on language learning process.
5. NEW DIRECTIONS ON LANGUAGE LEARNING ACQUISITION.
Current research questions are approached from a wide range of interdisciplinary subjects. Thus,
language acquisition current research has brought about an exceptionally concise portrayal of changes in
language teaching methodology and a focus on form. During the 1970s previous methodological approaches, such
as audiolingualism or grammar-translation were under pressure from more communicative approaches. In
addition, approaches to second language acquisition research were added to emphasize the need to engage
acquisitional processes within an interaction- driven approach to interlanguage development, and special
attention to the concept of interference when dealing with languages in contact from a sociolinguistic
perspective.
There has also been a longstanding concern among researchers, educators, and parents about the
intellectual development of children and a focus on cognitive processes. Current research focus on actual effect
that bilingualism has on children’s cognitive development across a number of areas of thought. The attempt is to
 SECUNDARIA INGLÉS. TEMA 2. PÁG. 12 DE 13.
identify what aspects of cognition are affected by childhood.
On learning and acquisition of languages, we find an interest on Spanish Language approaches, writing
analysis of second language performance, the role of second and foreign language classroom settings, and
research on advanced learners’ interaction in a foreign language context, where the concepts of input and
feedback are addressed.
There is a considerable interest on curriculum design and language teaching approaches within the
classroom context. The terms acquisition and learning are still present in most articles on language teaching
methodology regarding writing and EBAU test skills.
Another current concern turns on new technologies, such as practising language learning on the web for
distance courses. The traditional home study methods for distance learning have been replaced in the last few
years by the use of computers and CD -ROMs. New exciting possibilities become available via Internet and much
literature is being written about it as a way to enhance learning through technology.
To conclude with, I would like to say that over the centuries, many changes have taken place in language
learning theory with the same specific goal, the search of a language teaching method or approach that proves to
be highly effective at all levels. In the preceding sections we have examined the main features of language
learning proposals in terms of approach and theories from the most traditional approaches to the present-day
trends.
We have been concerned in this presentation about the approach to second language learning on adults
following language learning theories on children. One set of schools (e.g., Total Physical Response, Natural
Approach) notes that first language acquisition is the only universally successful model of language learning we
have, and thus that second language pedagogy must necessarily model itself on first language acquisition. An
opposed view (e.g., Silent ay, Suggestopedia) observes that adults have different brains, interests, timing
constraints, and learning environments than do children, and that adult classroom learning therefore has to be
fashioned in a way quite dissimilar to the way in which nature fashions how first languages are learned by
children.
Another key distinction turns on general theories on language learning, and language acquisition, paying
special attention to those theories that have developed into present-day methods for second language
acquisition, such as the Natural Approach. The concept of interlanguage has been approached in order to
understand its current importance in the field of language teaching, and hence, the treatment of error as an
important part in the process of learning.
Chomsky challenged the behaviourist model of language learning with a cognitive approach. He proposed
a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar, according to which learners do not acquire an endless list
of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again. For Chomsky, behaviourism
could not serve as a model of how humans learn language, since much of that language is not imitated behaviour
but is created anew from underlying knowledge of abstract rules. In his own words, language is not a habit
structure.
Chomsky’s theory of tranformational grammar proposed that the fundamental properties of language
 SECUNDARIA INGLÉS. TEMA 2. PÁG. 13 DE 13.
derive from innate aspects of the mind and from how humans process experience through language (Richards &
Rodgers 1992). His theories brought about the mental properties on language use and language learning existing
within the learner’s competence, that is, his ability to generate sentences from abstract rules.
A historical background to language learning
Baugh, A. & Cable, T. 1993. A History of the English Language. Prentice-Hall Editions.
Crystal, D. 1985. Linguistics. Harmondsworth, England. Penguin Books.
Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English Language teaching . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
On approaches to the teaching of English as a foreign language
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. 1992. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Rivers, W. 1981. Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
On general theories on second language acquisition and learning
Krashen, S. D. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. D., and Terrell, T. D. 1983. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Oxford:
Pergamon.
On the concept of interlanguage and error treatment
Corder, S. 1981a. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
New directions in language teaching
Revistas de la Asociación Española de Lingüística Aplicada (AESLA): De la Cruz, Isabel; Santamaría, Carmen;
Tejedor, Cristina y Valero, Carmen. 2001. La Lingüística Aplicada a finales del Siglo XX. Ensayos y propuestas.
Universidad de Alcalá.
Celaya, Mª Luz; Fernández-Villanueva, Marta; Naves, Teresa; Strunk, Oliver y Tragant, Elsa. 2001. Trabajos en
Lingüística Aplicada . Universidad de Barcelona. 6/ 16