Sie sind auf Seite 1von 95

Ice

Page issues

Ice is water frozen into a solid state.


Depending on the presence of impurities
such as particles of soil or bubbles of air,
it can appear transparent or a more or
less opaque bluish-white color.
Ice

Ice sample cored in Antarctica, containing air


bubbles that are thousands of years old.

Physical properties

Density (ρ) 0.9168 (g/cm3)[1]

Refractive index (n) 1.309

Mechanical properties

Young's modulus (E) 3.4 to 37.5 (103


kg/cm3)[1]

Tensile strength (σt) 5 to 18 (kg/cm2)[1]

Compressive strength 24 to 60 (kg/cm2)[1]


(σc)

Poisson's ratio (ν) 0.36 ± 0.13[1]

Thermal properties
Thermal conductivity 0.0053(1 + 0.105 θ)
(k) (cal/cm-sec-degree), θ
= temperature in °C[1]
Linear thermal 5.5 × 10−5[1]
expansion coefficient
(α)

Specific heat capacity 0.5057−0.001863 θ


(c) (cal/g-degree), θ =
absolute value of
temperature in °C[1]

Electrical properties

Dielectric constant (εr) ≈3.15

The properties of ice vary substantially with


temperature, purity and other factors.

In the Solar System, ice is abundant and


occurs naturally from as close to the Sun
as Mercury to as far away as the Oort
cloud objects. Beyond the Solar System,
it occurs as interstellar ice. It is abundant
on Earth's surface – particularly in the
polar regions and above the snow
line[2] – and, as a common form of
precipitation and deposition, plays a key
role in Earth's water cycle and climate. It
falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as
frost, icicles or ice spikes.

Ice molecules can exhibit seventeen or


more different phases (packing
geometries) that depend on temperature
and pressure. When water is cooled
rapidly (quenching), up to three different
types of amorphous ice can form
depending on the history of its pressure
and temperature. When cooled slowly
correlated proton tunneling occurs below
20 K giving rise to macroscopic quantum
phenomena. Virtually all the ice on
Earth's surface and in its atmosphere is
of a hexagonal crystalline structure
denoted as ice Ih (spoken as "ice one h")
with minute traces of cubic ice denoted
as ice Ic. The most common phase
transition to ice Ih occurs when liquid
water is cooled below 0 °C (273.15 K,
32 °F) at standard atmospheric pressure.
It may also be deposited directly by water
vapor, as happens in the formation of
frost. The transition from ice to water is
melting and from ice directly to water
vapor is sublimation.

Ice is used in a variety of ways, including


cooling, winter sports and ice sculpture.

Physical properties

The three-dimensional crystal structure of H2O ice Ih


(c) is composed of bases of H 2O ice molecules (b)
located on lattice points within the two-dimensional
hexagonal space lattice (a). [3][4]

As a naturally occurring crystalline


inorganic solid with an ordered structure,
ice fits the properties of a mineral.[5] It
possesses a regular crystalline structure
based on the molecule of water, which
consists of a single oxygen atom
covalently bonded to two hydrogen
atoms, or H–O–H. However, many of the
physical properties of water and ice are
controlled by the formation of hydrogen
bonds between adjacent oxygen and
hydrogen atoms; while it is a weak bond,
it is nonetheless critical in controlling the
structure of both water and ice.

An unusual property of ice frozen at


atmospheric pressure is that the solid is
approximately 8.3% less dense than
liquid water. The density of ice is 0.9167
g/cm3 at 0 °C,[6] whereas water has a
density of 0.9998 g/cm3 at the same
temperature. Liquid water is densest,
essentially 1.00 g/cm3, at 4 °C and
becomes less dense as the water
molecules begin to form the hexagonal
crystals[7] of ice as the freezing point is
reached. This is due to hydrogen bonding
dominating the intermolecular forces,
which results in a packing of molecules
less compact in the solid. Density of ice
increases slightly with decreasing
temperature and has a value of 0.9340
g/cm3 at −180 °C (93 K).[8]

When water freezes, it increases in


volume (about 9% for fresh water).[9] The
effect of expansion during freezing can
be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic
cause of freeze-thaw weathering of rock
in nature and damage to building
foundations and roadways from frost
heaving. It is also a common cause of
the flooding of houses when water pipes
burst due to the pressure of expanding
water when it freezes.

The result of this process is that ice (in


its most common form) floats on liquid
water, which is an important feature in
Earth's biosphere. It has been argued that
without this property, natural bodies of
water would freeze, in some cases
permanently, from the bottom up,[10]
resulting in a loss of bottom-dependent
animal and plant life in fresh and sea
water. Sufficiently thin ice sheets allow
light to pass through while protecting the
underside from short-term weather
extremes such as wind chill. This creates
a sheltered environment for bacterial and
algal colonies. When sea water freezes,
the ice is riddled with brine-filled
channels which sustain sympagic
organisms such as bacteria, algae,
copepods and annelids, which in turn
provide food for animals such as krill and
specialised fish like the bald notothen,
fed upon in turn by larger animals such
as emperor penguins and minke
whales.[11]
When ice melts, it absorbs as much
energy as it would take to heat an
equivalent mass of water by 80 °C.
During the melting process, the
temperature remains constant at 0 °C.
While melting, any energy added breaks
the hydrogen bonds between ice (water)
molecules. Energy becomes available to
increase the thermal energy
(temperature) only after enough
hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice
can be considered liquid water. The
amount of energy consumed in breaking
hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice
to water is known as the heat of fusion.
As with water, ice absorbs light at the red
end of the spectrum preferentially as the
result of an overtone of an oxygen–
hydrogen (O–H) bond stretch. Compared
with water, this absorption is shifted
toward slightly lower energies. Thus, ice
appears blue, with a slightly greener tint
than liquid water. Since absorption is
cumulative, the color effect intensifies
with increasing thickness or if internal
reflections cause the light to take a
longer path through the ice.[12]

Other colors can appear in the presence


of light absorbing impurities, where the
impurity is dictating the color rather than
the ice itself. For instance, icebergs
containing impurities (e.g., sediments,
algae, air bubbles) can appear brown,
grey or green.[12]

Phases

Pressure dependence of ice melting

Ice may be any one of the 17 known solid


crystalline phases of water, or in an
amorphous solid state at various
densities.
Most liquids under increased pressure
freeze at higher temperatures because
the pressure helps to hold the molecules
together. However, the strong hydrogen
bonds in water make it different: For
some pressures higher than 1 atm
(0.10 MPa), water freezes at a
temperature below 0 °C, as shown in the
phase diagram below. The melting of ice
under high pressures is thought to
contribute to the movement of
glaciers.[13]

Ice, water, and water vapour can coexist


at the triple point, which is exactly 273.16
K (0.01 °C) at a pressure of
611.657 Pa.[14][15] The kelvin is in fact
defined as 1/273.16 of the difference
between this triple point and absolute
zero.[16] Unlike most other solids, ice is
difficult to superheat. In an experiment,
ice at −3 °C was superheated to about
17 °C for about 250 picoseconds.[17]

Subjected to higher pressures and


varying temperatures, ice can form in 16
separate known phases. With care, all
these phases except ice X can be
recovered at ambient pressure and low
temperature in metastable form.[18][19]
The types are differentiated by their
crystalline structure, proton ordering,[20]
and density. There are also two
metastable phases of ice under pressure,
both fully hydrogen-disordered; these are
IV and XII. Ice XII was discovered in
1996. In 2006, XIII and XIV were
discovered.[21] Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are
hydrogen-ordered forms of ices Ih, V, and
XII respectively. In 2009, ice XV was
found at extremely high pressures and
−143 °C.[22] At even higher pressures, ice
is predicted to become a metal; this has
been variously estimated to occur at 1.55
TPa[23] or 5.62 TPa.[24]

As well as crystalline forms, solid water


can exist in amorphous states as
amorphous ice (ASW) of varying
densities. Water in the interstellar
medium is dominated by amorphous ice,
making it likely the most common form
of water in the universe. Low-density
ASW (LDA), also known as
hyperquenched glassy water, may be
responsible for noctilucent clouds on
Earth and is usually formed by deposition
of water vapor in cold or vacuum
conditions. High-density ASW (HDA) is
formed by compression of ordinary ice Ih
or LDA at GPa pressures. Very-high-
density ASW (VHDA) is HDA slightly
warmed to 160K under 1–2 GPa
pressures.

In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice


(the predominant form found on Earth) is
extremely rare. Amorphous ice is more
common; however, hexagonal crystalline
ice can be formed by volcanic action.[25]

Log-lin pressure-temperature phase diagram of


water. The Roman numerals correspond to some ice
phases listed below.

An alternative formulation of the phase diagram for


certain ices and other phases of water [26]
Phase Characteristics

Amorphous ice is an ice lacking crystal structure. Amorphous ice exists in three
forms: low-density (LDA) formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, high
density (HDA) and very high density amorphous ice (VHDA), forming at higher
Amorphous
pressures. LDA forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water
ice
("hyperquenched glassy water", HGW), by depositing water vapour on very cold
substrates ("amorphous solid water", ASW) or by heating high density forms of
ice at ambient pressure ("LDA").

Normal hexagonal crystalline ice. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice Ih, with
Ice Ih
the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic.

A metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice. The oxygen atoms are arranged in
a diamond structure. It is produced at temperatures between 130 and 220 K,
Ice Ic
and can exist up to 240 K,[27][28] when it transforms into ice Ih. It may
occasionally be present in the upper atmosphere.[29]

A rhombohedral crystalline form with highly ordered structure. Formed from ice
Ice II Ih by compressing it at temperature of 190–210 K. When heated, it undergoes
transformation to ice III.

A tetragonal crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa.
Ice III
Least dense of the high-pressure phases. Denser than water.

A metastable rhombohedral phase. It can be formed by heating high-density


Ice IV amorphous ice slowly at a pressure of 810 MPa. It doesn't form easily without a
nucleating agent.[30]

A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa.


Ice V
Most complicated structure of all the phases.[31]

A tetragonal crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa.


Ice VI
Exhibits Debye relaxation.[32]

A cubic phase. The hydrogen atoms' positions are disordered. Exhibits Debye
Ice VII
relaxation. The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices.

A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed
Ice VIII
positions. It is formed from ice VII, by cooling it below 5 °C (278 K).

A tetragonal phase. Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from 208 K to
Ice IX 165 K, stable below 140 K and pressures between 200 MPa and 400 MPa. It
has density of 1.16 g/cm3, slightly higher than ordinary ice.

Ice X Proton-ordered symmetric ice. Forms at about 70 GPa.[33]

Ice XI An orthorhombic, low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice. It is


ferroelectric. Ice XI is considered the most stable configuration of ice Ih.[34]

A tetragonal, metastable, dense crystalline phase. It is observed in the phase


space of ice V and ice VI. It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous
Ice XII
ice from 77 K to about 183 K at 810 MPa. It has a density of 1.3 g cm−3 at 127
K (i.e., approximately 1.3 times more dense than water).

A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to below 130 K at


Ice XIII
500 MPa. The proton-ordered form of ice V.[35]

An orthorhombic crystalline phase. Formed below 118 K at 1.2 GPa. The


Ice XIV
proton-ordered form of ice XII.[35]

The proton-ordered form of ice VI formed by cooling water to around 80–108 K


Ice XV
at 1.1 GPa.

The least dense crystalline form of water, topologically equivalent to the empty
Ice XVI
structure of sII Clathrate hydrates.

Friction properties

Frozen waterfall in southeast New York

The low coefficient of friction


("slipperiness") of ice has been attributed
to the pressure of an object coming into
contact with the ice, melting a thin layer
of the ice and allowing the object to glide
across the surface.[36] For example, the
blade of an ice skate, upon exerting
pressure on the ice, would melt a thin
layer, providing lubrication between the
ice and the blade. This explanation,
called "pressure melting", originated in
the 19th century. It, however, did not
account for skating on ice temperatures
lower than −4.0 °C, which is often skated
upon.

A second theory describing the


coefficient of friction of ice suggested
that ice molecules at the interface
cannot properly bond with the molecules
of the mass of ice beneath (and thus are
free to move like molecules of liquid
water). These molecules remain in a
semi-liquid state, providing lubrication
regardless of pressure against the ice
exerted by any object. However, the
significance of this hypothesis is
disputed by experiments showing a high
coefficient of friction for ice using atomic
force microscopy.[37]

A third theory is "friction heating", which


suggests that friction of the material is
the cause of the ice layer melting.
However, this theory does not sufficiently
explain why ice is slippery when standing
still even at below-zero temperatures.[36]

A comprehensive theory of ice friction


takes into account all the above-
mentioned friction mechanisms.[38] This
model allows quantitative estimation of
the friction coefficient of ice against
various materials as a function of
temperature and sliding speed. In typical
conditions related to winter sports and
tires of a vehicle on ice, melting of a thin
ice layer due to the frictional heating is
the primary reason for the slipperiness.

Natural formation
Feather ice on the plateau near Alta, Norway. The
crystals form at temperatures below −30 °C
(−22 °F).

The term that collectively describes all of


the parts of the Earth's surface where
water is in frozen form is the cryosphere.
Ice is an important component of the
global climate, particularly in regard to
the water cycle. Glaciers and snowpacks
are an important storage mechanism for
fresh water; over time, they may
sublimate or melt. Snowmelt is an
important source of seasonal fresh
water. The World Meteorological
Organization defines several kinds of ice
depending on origin, size, shape,
influence and so on.[39] Clathrate
hydrates are forms of ice that contain
gas molecules trapped within its crystal
lattice.

On the oceans

Ice that is found at sea may be in the


form of drift ice floating in the water, fast
ice fixed to a shoreline or anchor ice if
attached to the sea bottom. Ice which
calves (breaks off) from an ice shelf or
glacier may become an ice berg. Sea ice
can be forced together by currents and
winds to form pressure ridges up to 12
metres (39 ft) tall. Navigation through
areas of sea ice occurs in openings
called "polynyas" or "leads" or requires
the use of a special ship called an
"icebreaker".

On land and structures

Ice on deciduous tree after freezing rain

Ice on land ranges from the largest type


called an "ice sheet" to smaller ice caps
and ice fields to glaciers and ice streams
to the snow line and snow fields.

Aufeis is layered ice that forms in Arctic


and subarctic stream valleys. Ice, frozen
in the stream bed, blocks normal
groundwater discharge, and causes the
local water table to rise, resulting in
water discharge on top of the frozen
layer. This water then freezes, causing
the water table to rise further and repeat
the cycle. The result is a stratified ice
deposit, often several meters thick.

Freezing rain is a type of winter storm


called an ice storm where rain falls and
then freezes producing a glaze of ice. Ice
can also form icicles, similar to
stalactites in appearance, or stalagmite-
like forms as water drips and re-freezes.

The term "ice dam" has three meanings


(others discussed below). On structures,
an ice dam is the buildup of ice on a
sloped roof which stops melt water from
draining properly and can cause damage
from water leaks in buildings.

On rivers and streams

A small frozen rivulet


Ice which forms on moving water tends
to be less uniform and stable than ice
which forms on calm water. Ice jams
(sometimes called "ice dams"), when
broken chunks of ice pile up, are the
greatest ice hazard on rivers. Ice jams
can cause flooding, damage structures in
or near the river, and damage vessels on
the river. Ice jams can cause some
hydropower industrial facilities to
completely shut down. An ice dam is a
blockage from the movement of a glacier
which may produce a proglacial lake.
Heavy ice flows in rivers can also
damage vessels and require the use of
an icebreaker to keep navigation
possible.
Ice discs are circular formations of ice
surrounded by water in a river.[40]

Pancake ice is a formation of ice


generally created in areas with less calm
conditions.

On lakes

Ice forms on calm water from the shores,


a thin layer spreading across the surface,
and then downward. Ice on lakes is
generally four types: Primary, secondary,
superimposed and agglomerate.[41][42]
Primary ice forms first. Secondary ice
forms below the primary ice in a direction
parallel to the direction of the heat flow.
Superimposed ice forms on top of the ice
surface from rain or water which seeps
up through cracks in the ice which often
settles when loaded with snow.

Shelf ice occurs when floating pieces of


ice are driven by the wind piling up on the
windward shore.

Candle ice is a form of rotten ice that


develops in columns perpendicular to the
surface of a lake.

In the air
Ice formation on vehicle windshield

Rime ice

Rime is a type of ice formed on cold


objects when drops of water crystallize
on them. This can be observed in foggy
weather, when the temperature drops
during the night. Soft rime contains a
high proportion of trapped air, making it
appear white rather than transparent, and
giving it a density about one quarter of
that of pure ice. Hard rime is
comparatively dense.

Ice pellets
An accumulation of ice pellets

Ice pellets are a form of precipitation


consisting of small, translucent balls of
ice. This form of precipitation is also
referred to as "sleet" by the United States
National Weather Service.[43] (In
Commonwealth English "sleet" refers to a
mixture of rain and snow). Ice pellets are
usually smaller than hailstones.[44] They
often bounce when they hit the ground,
and generally do not freeze into a solid
mass unless mixed with freezing rain.
The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.[45]
Ice pellets form when a layer of above-
freezing air is located between 1,500 and
3,000 metres (4,900 and 9,800 ft) above
the ground, with sub-freezing air both
above and below it. This causes the
partial or complete melting of any
snowflakes falling through the warm
layer. As they fall back into the sub-
freezing layer closer to the surface, they
re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the
sub-freezing layer beneath the warm
layer is too small, the precipitation will
not have time to re-freeze, and freezing
rain will be the result at the surface. A
temperature profile showing a warm layer
above the ground is most likely to be
found in advance of a warm front during
the cold season,[46] but can occasionally
be found behind a passing cold front.

Hail

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.4 in) in d iameter

Like other precipitation, hail forms in


storm clouds when supercooled water
droplets freeze on contact with
condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt.
The storm's updraft blows the hailstones
to the upper part of the cloud. The
updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall
down, back into the updraft, and are lifted
up again. Hail has a diameter of 5
millimetres (0.20 in) or more.[47] Within
METAR code, GR is used to indicate
larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4
millimetres (0.25 in) and GS for
smaller.[45] Stones just larger than golf
ball-sized are one of the most frequently
reported hail sizes.[48] Hailstones can
grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh
more than 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[49] In
large hailstones, latent heat released by
further freezing may melt the outer shell
of the hailstone. The hailstone then may
undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid
outer shell collects other smaller
hailstones.[50] The hailstone gains an ice
layer and grows increasingly larger with
each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes
too heavy to be supported by the storm's
updraft, it falls from the cloud.[51]

Hail forms in strong thunderstorm


clouds, particularly those with intense
updrafts, high liquid water content, great
vertical extent, large water droplets, and
where a good portion of the cloud layer is
below freezing 0 °C (32 °F).[47] Hail-
producing clouds are often identifiable by
their green coloration.[52][53] The growth
rate is maximized at about −13 °C (9 °F),
and becomes vanishingly small much
below −30 °C (−22 °F) as supercooled
water droplets become rare. For this
reason, hail is most common within
continental interiors of the mid-latitudes,
as hail formation is considerably more
likely when the freezing level is below the
altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m).[54]
Entrainment of dry air into strong
thunderstorms over continents can
increase the frequency of hail by
promoting evaporational cooling which
lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm
clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow
in. Accordingly, hail is actually less
common in the tropics despite a much
higher frequency of thunderstorms than
in the mid-latitudes because the
atmosphere over the tropics tends to be
warmer over a much greater depth. Hail
in the tropics occurs mainly at higher
elevations.[55]

Snow

Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902.

Snow crystals form when tiny


supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm
in diameter) freeze. These droplets are
able to remain liquid at temperatures
lower than −18 °C (255 K; 0 °F), because
to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet
need to get together by chance to form
an arrangement similar to that in an ice
lattice; then the droplet freezes around
this "nucleus." Experiments show that
this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud
droplets only occurs at temperatures
lower than −35 °C (238 K; −31 °F).[56] In
warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice
nucleus" must be present in (or in
contact with) the droplet to act as a
nucleus. Our understanding of what
particles make efficient ice nuclei is
poor – what we do know is they are very
rare compared to that cloud
condensation nuclei on which liquid
droplets form. Clays, desert dust and
biological particles may be effective,[57]
although to what extent is unclear.
Artificial nuclei are used in cloud
seeding.[58] The droplet then grows by
condensation of water vapor onto the ice
surfaces.

Diamond dust

So-called "diamond dust", also known as


ice needles or ice crystals, forms at
temperatures approaching −40 °C
(−40 °F) due to air with slightly higher
moisture from aloft mixing with colder,
surface-based air.[59] The METAR
identifier for diamond dust within
international hourly weather reports is
IC.[45]

Ablation
Ablation of ice refers to both its melting
and its dissolution.

In fresh ambient melting describes a


phase transition from solid to liquid. To
melt ice means breaking the hydrogen
bonds between the water molecules. The
ordering of the molecules in the solid
breaks down to a less ordered state and
the solid melts to become a liquid. This
is achieved by increasing the internal
energy of the ice beyond the melting
point. When ice melts it absorbs as much
energy as would be required to heat an
equivalent amount of water by 80 °C.
While melting, the temperature of the ice
surface remains constant at 0 °C. The
velocity of the melting process depends
on the efficiency of the energy exchange
process. An ice surface in fresh water
melts solely by free convection with a
velocity that depends as (T∞ - 4 °C)4/3 on
the water temperature, T∞, for
intermediate temperatures.[60]

In salty ambient conditions, dissolution


rather than melting often causes the
ablation of ice. E.g. the temperature of
the Arctic Ocean is generally below the
melting point of ablating sea ice. The
phase transition from solid to liquid is
achieved by mixing salt and water
molecules, similar to the dissolution of
sugar in water, even though the water
temperature is far below the melting
point of the sugar. Hence dissolution is
rate limited by salt transport whereas
melting can occur at much higher rates
that are characteristic for heat
transport.[61]

Role in human activities


Humans have used ice for cooling and
food preservation for centuries, relying
on harvesting natural ice in various forms
and then transitioning to the mechanical
production of the material. Ice also
presents a challenge to transportation in
various forms and an setting for winter
sports.

Cooling

Ice has long been valued as a means of


cooling. In 400 BC Iran, Persian
engineers had already mastered the
technique of storing ice in the middle of
summer in the desert. The ice was
brought in during the winters from nearby
mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in
specially designed, naturally cooled
refrigerators, called yakhchal (meaning
ice storage). This was a large
underground space (up to 5000 m3) that
had thick walls (at least two meters at
the base) made of a special mortar
called sarooj, composed of sand, clay,
egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in
specific proportions, and which was
known to be resistant to heat transfer.
This mixture was thought to be
completely water impenetrable. The
space often had access to a qanat, and
often contained a system of
windcatchers which could easily bring
temperatures inside the space down to
frigid levels on summer days. The ice
was used to chill treats for royalty.
Harvesting

Harvesting ice on Lake St. Clair in Michigan, c. 1905

There were thriving industries in


16th/17th century England whereby low-
lying areas along the Thames Estuary
were flooded during the winter, and ice
harvested in carts and stored inter-
seasonally in insulated wooden houses
as a provision to an icehouse often
located in large country houses, and
widely used to keep fish fresh when
caught in distant waters. This was
allegedly copied by an Englishman who
had seen the same activity in China. Ice
was imported into England from Norway
on a considerable scale as early as
1823.[62]

In the United States, the first cargo of ice


was sent from New York City to
Charleston, South Carolina in 1799,[62]
and by the first half of the 19th century,
ice harvesting had become big business.
Frederic Tudor, who became known as
the "Ice King", worked on developing
better insulation products for the long
distance shipment of ice, especially to
the tropics; this became known as the ice
trade.

Trieste sent ice to Egypt, Corfu, and


Zante; Switzerland sent it to France; and
Germany sometimes was supplied from
Bavarian lakes.[62] The Hungarian
Parliament building used ice harvested in
the winter from Lake Balaton for air
conditioning.

Ice houses were used to store ice formed


in the winter, to make ice available all
year long, and early refrigerators were
known as iceboxes, because they had a
block of ice in them. In many cities, it
was not unusual to have a regular ice
delivery service during the summer. The
advent of artificial refrigeration
technology has since made delivery of
ice obsolete.

Ice is still harvested for ice and snow


sculpture events. For example, a swing
saw is used to get ice for the Harbin
International Ice and Snow Sculpture
Festival each year from the frozen
surface of the Songhua River.[63]

Mechanical production

Layout of a late 19th-Century ice factory


Ice is now produced on an industrial
scale, for uses including food storage
and processing, chemical manufacturing,
concrete mixing and curing, and
consumer or packaged ice.[64] Most
commercial icemakers produce three
basic types of fragmentary ice: flake,
tubular and plate, using a variety of
techniques.[64] Large batch ice makers
can produce up to 75 tons of ice per
day.[65] In 2002, there were 426
commercial ice-making companies in the
United States, with a combined value of
shipments of $595,487,000.[66] Home
refrigerators can also make ice with a
built in icemaker, which will typically
make ice cubes or crushed ice. Stand-
alone icemaker units that make ice
cubes are often called ice machines.

Transportation

Ice can present challenges to safe


transportation on land, sea and in the air.

Land travel

Road ice decreases tire traction, thereby affecting


driving safety.
Ice forming on roads is a dangerous
winter hazard. Black ice is very difficult to
see, because it lacks the expected frosty
surface. Whenever there is freezing rain
or snow which occurs at a temperature
near the melting point, it is common for
ice to build up on the windows of
vehicles. Driving safely requires the
removal of the ice build-up. Ice scrapers
are tools designed to break the ice free
and clear the windows, though removing
the ice can be a long and laborious
process.

Far enough below the freezing point, a


thin layer of ice crystals can form on the
inside surface of windows. This usually
happens when a vehicle has been left
alone after being driven for a while, but
can happen while driving, if the outside
temperature is low enough. Moisture
from the driver's breath is the source of
water for the crystals. It is troublesome
to remove this form of ice, so people
often open their windows slightly when
the vehicle is parked in order to let the
moisture dissipate, and it is now
common for cars to have rear-window
defrosters to solve the problem. A similar
problem can happen in homes, which is
one reason why many colder regions
require double-pane windows for
insulation.
When the outdoor temperature stays
below freezing for extended periods, very
thick layers of ice can form on lakes and
other bodies of water, although places
with flowing water require much colder
temperatures. The ice can become thick
enough to drive onto with automobiles
and trucks. Doing this safely requires a
thickness of at least 30 cm (one foot).

Water-borne travel

Channel through ice for ship traffic on Lake Huron


with ice breakers in background
For ships, ice presents two distinct
hazards. Spray and freezing rain can
produce an ice build-up on the
superstructure of a vessel sufficient to
make it unstable, and to require it to be
hacked off or melted with steam hoses.
And icebergs – large masses of ice
floating in water (typically created when
glaciers reach the sea) – can be
dangerous if struck by a ship when
underway. Icebergs have been
responsible for the sinking of many
ships, the most famous being the Titanic.
For harbors near the poles, being ice-free
is an important advantage. Ideally, all
year long. Examples are Murmansk
(Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly
Finland) and Vardø (Norway). Harbors
which are not ice-free are opened up
using icebreakers.

Air travel

Rime ice on the leading edge of an air craft wing,


partially released by the black pneumatic boot.

For aircraft, ice can cause a number of


dangers. As an aircraft climbs, it passes
through air layers of different
temperature and humidity, some of which
may be conducive to ice formation. If ice
forms on the wings or control surfaces,
this may adversely affect the flying
qualities of the aircraft. During the first
non-stop flight across the Atlantic, the
British aviators Captain John Alcock and
Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown
encountered such icing conditions –
Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto
the wing several times to remove ice
which was covering the engine air
intakes of the Vickers Vimy aircraft they
were flying.

One vulnerability effected by icing that is


associated with reciprocating internal
combustion engines is the carburetor. As
air is sucked through the carburetor into
the engine, the local air pressure is
lowered, which causes adiabatic cooling.
Thus, in humid near-freezing conditions,
the carburetor will be colder, and tend to
ice up. This will block the supply of air to
the engine, and cause it to fail. For this
reason, aircraft reciprocating engines
with carburetors are provided with
carburetor air intake heaters. The
increasing use of fuel injection—which
does not require carburetors—has made
"carb icing" less of an issue for
reciprocating engines.
Jet engines do not experience carb icing,
but recent evidence indicates that they
can be slowed, stopped, or damaged by
internal icing in certain types of
atmospheric conditions much more
easily than previously believed. In most
cases, the engines can be quickly
restarted and flights are not endangered,
but research continues to determine the
exact conditions which produce this type
of icing, and find the best methods to
prevent, or reverse it, in flight.

Recreation and sports


Skating fun by 17th century Dutch painter Hendrick
Avercamp

Ice also plays a central role in winter


recreation and in many sports such as
ice skating, tour skating, ice hockey,
bandy, ice fishing, ice climbing, curling,
broomball and sled racing on bobsled,
luge and skeleton. Many of the different
sports played on ice get international
attention every four years during the
Winter Olympic Games.

A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to


ice yachting. Another sport is ice racing,
where drivers must speed on lake ice,
while also controlling the skid of their
vehicle (similar in some ways to dirt track
racing). The sport has even been
modified for ice rinks.

Other uses

Ice cubes or crushed ice can be used


to cool drinks. As the ice melts, it
absorbs heat and keeps the drink near
0 °C (32 °F).
Ice can be used to reduce swelling (by
decreasing blood flow) and pain by
pressing it against an area of the
body.[67]
Ice pier during 1983 cargo operations. McMurdo
Station, Antarctica

Engineers used the formidable


strength of pack ice when they
constructed Antarctica's first floating
ice pier in 1973.[68] Such ice piers are
used during cargo operations to load
and offload ships. Fleet operations
personnel make the floating pier during
the winter. They build upon naturally
occurring frozen seawater in McMurdo
Sound until the dock reaches a depth
of about 22 feet (6.7 m). Ice piers have
a lifespan of three to five years.
Structures and ice sculptures are built
out of large chunks of ice or by
spraying water[69] The structures are
mostly ornamental (as in the case with
ice castles), and not practical for long-
term habitation. Ice hotels exist on a
seasonal basis in a few cold areas.
Igloos are another example of a
temporary structure, made primarily
from snow.
In cold climates, roads are regularly
prepared on floating ice of lakes and
archipelago areas. Temporarily, even a
railroad has been built on ice.[69]
During World War II, Project Habbakuk
was an Allied programme which
investigated the use of pykrete (wood
fibers mixed with ice) as a possible
material for warships, especially
aircraft carriers, due to the ease with
which a vessel immune to torpedoes,
and a large deck, could be constructed
by ice. A small-scale prototype was
built,[70] but the need for such a vessel
in the war was removed prior to
building it in full-scale.
Ice can be used to start a fire by
carving it into a lens which will focus
sunlight onto kindling. A fire will
eventually start.[71]
Ice has even been used as the material
for a variety of musical instruments,
for example by percussionist Terje
Isungset.[72]
Ice was once used to cool refrigerators
in the 19th century, called "iceboxes."
Ice can be used as part of an air
conditioning system, using battery- or
solar-powered fans to blow hot air over
the ice. This is especially useful during
heat waves when power is out and
standard (electrically powered) air
conditioners do not work.

"Ice" of other materials


The solid phases of several other volatile
substances are also referred to as ices;
generally a volatile is classed as an ice if
its melting point lies above or around 100
K. The best known example is dry ice, the
solid form of carbon dioxide.

A "magnetic analogue" of ice is also


realized in some insulating magnetic
materials in which the magnetic
moments mimic the position of protons
in water ice and obey energetic
constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler
ice rules arising from the geometrical
frustration of the proton configuration in
water ice. These materials are called spin
ice.

See also
Density of ice versus water
Ice famine
Ice jacking
Ice road
Jumble ice
Pumpable ice technology
Ice crystal

References
1. Voitkovskii, K.F., Translation of: "The
mechanical properties of ice" (PDF) (in
English from Russian), Academy of
Sciences (USSR), archived (PDF) from the
original on 10 February 2017
2. Prockter, Louise M. (2005). "Ice in the
Solar System" (PDF). Johns Hopkins APL
Technical Digest. 26 (2): 175. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 19 March 2015.

3. Physics of Ice, V. F. Petrenko, R. W.


Whitworth, Oxford University Press, 1999,
ISBN 9780198518945
4. Bernal, J. D.; Fowler, R. H. (1933). "A
Theory of Water and Ionic Solution, with
Particular Reference to Hydrogen and
Hydroxyl Ions". The Journal of Chemical
Physics. 1 (8): 515.
Bibcode:1933JChPh...1..515B .
doi:10.1063/1.1749327 .
5. Demirbas, Ayhan (2010-02-28).
Methane Gas Hydrate . Springer Science
& Business Media. ISBN 9781848828728.
6. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca
Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-
5.
7. The word crystal derives from Greek
word for frost.
8. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca
Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-
5.
9. Sreepat, Jain. Fundamentals of
Physical Geology. New Delhi: Springer,
India, Private, 2014. 135. Print. ISBN 978-
81-322-1538-7
10. Tyson, Neil deGrasse. "Water, Water" .
haydenplanetarium.org. Archived from
the original on 26 July 2011.
11. Sea Ice Ecology Archived 21 March
2012 at the Wayback Machine..
Acecrc.sipex.aq. Retrieved 30 October
2011.
12. Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William
Charles (2001). Color and light in nature .
Cambridge University Press. pp. 161–.
ISBN 978-0-521-77504-5.
13. National Snow and Data Ice Center,
"The Life of a Glacier" Archived 15
December 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
14. International Equations for the
Pressure along the Melting and along the
Sublimation Curve of Ordinary Water
Substance Archived 3 June 2016 at the
Wayback Machine. W. Wagner, A. Saul and
A. Pruss (1994), J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data,
23, 515.
15. Murphy, D. M. (2005). "Review of the
vapour pressures of ice and supercooled
water for atmospheric applications".
Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorological Society. 131: 1539–1565.
Bibcode:2005QJRMS.131.1539M .
doi:10.1256/qj.04.94 .
16. "SI base units" . Bureau International
des Poids et Mesures. Archived from the
original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved
31 August 2012.
17. Iglev, H.; Schmeisser, M.; Simeonidis,
K.; Thaller, A.; Laubereau, A. (2006).
"Ultrafast superheating and melting of
bulk ice". Nature. 439 (7073): 183–186.
Bibcode:2006Natur.439..183I .
doi:10.1038/nature04415 .
PMID 16407948 .
18. La Placa, S. J.; Hamilton, W. C.; Kamb,
B.; Prakash, A. (1972). "On a nearly proton
ordered structure for ice IX". J. Chem.
Phys. 58: 567–580.
Bibcode:1973JChPh..58..567L .
doi:10.1063/1.1679238 .
19. Klotz, S.; Besson, J. M.; Hamel, G.;
Nelmes, R. J.; Loveday, J. S.; Marshall, W.
G. (1999). "Metastable ice VII at low
temperature and ambient pressure".
Nature. 398: 681–684.
Bibcode:1999Natur.398..681K .
doi:10.1038/19480 .
20. Dutch, Stephen. "Ice Structure" .
Archived from the original on 16 October
2016. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
21. Salzmann, C.G.; et al. (2006). "The
Preparation and Structures of Hydrogen
Ordered Phases of Ice". Science. 311
(5768): 1758–1761.
Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1758S .
doi:10.1126/science.1123896 .
PMID 16556840 .
22. Sanders, Laurua (11 September 2009).
"A Very Special Snowball" . Science News.
Archived from the original on 14
September 2009. Retrieved 11 September
2009.
23. Militzer, B.; Wilson, H. F. (2010). "New
Phases of Water Ice Predicted at Megabar
Pressures" (PDF). Physical Review
Letters. 105 (19): 195701.
arXiv:1009.4722  .
Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105s5701M .
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.195701 .
PMID 21231184 . Archived (PDF) from
the original on 17 December 2011.
24. MacMahon, J. M. (1970). "Ground-
State Structures of Ice at High-Pressures".
Physical Review B. 84 (22).
arXiv:1106.1941  .
Bibcode:2011PhRvB..84v0104M .
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.84.220104 .
25. Chang, Kenneth (9 December 2004).
"Astronomers Contemplate Icy Volcanoes
in Far Places" . The New York Times.
Archived from the original on 9 May
2015. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
26. David, Carl (2016). "Verwiebe's "3-D"
Ice phase diagram reworked" . Archived
from the original on 28 August 2016.
27. Murray, Benjamin J.; Bertram, Allan K.
(2006). "Formation and stability of cubic
ice in water droplets" (PDF). Physical
Chemistry Chemical Physics. 8 (1): 186–
192. Bibcode:2006PCCP....8..186M .
doi:10.1039/b513480c .
PMID 16482260 . Archived (PDF) from
the original on 16 September 2013.
28. Murray, Benjamin J. (2008). "The
Enhanced formation of cubic ice in
aqueous organic acid droplets" (PDF).
Environmental Research Letters. 3 (2):
025008. Bibcode:2008ERL.....3b5008M .
doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/2/025008 .
Archived from the original (PDF) on 14
May 2013.
29. Murray, Benjamin J.; Knopf, Daniel A.;
Bertram, Allan K. (2005). "The formation
of cubic ice under conditions relevant to
Earth's atmosphere". Nature. 434 (7030):
202–205. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..202M .
doi:10.1038/nature03403 .
PMID 15758996 .
30. Chaplin, Martin (10 April 2012). "Ice-
four (Ice IV)" . Water Structure and
Science. London South Bank University.
Archived from the original on 12 August
2011. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
31. Chaplin, Martin (10 April 2012). "Ice-
five (Ice V)" . Water Structure and
Science. London South Bank University.
Archived from the original on 12 October
2003. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
32. Chaplin, Martin (10 April 2012). "Ice-
six (Ice VI)" . Water Structure and
Science. London South Bank University.
Archived from the original on 23
September 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
33. Chaplin, Martin (10 April 2012). "Ice-
seven (Ice VII)" . Water Structure and
Science. London South Bank University.
Archived from the original on 2
November 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
34. Chaplin, Martin (17 February 2017).
"Ice-eleven (ice XI)" . Water Structure and
Science. London South Bank University.
Archived from the original on 23 March
2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
35. Chaplin, Martin (10 April 2012). "Ice-
twelve (Ice XII)" . Water Structure and
Science. London South Bank University.
Archived from the original on 2
November 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
36. Rosenberg, Robert (December 2005).
"Why is ice slippery?" (PDF). Physics
Today. 58: 50–54.
Bibcode:2005PhT....58l..50R .
doi:10.1063/1.2169444 . Archived (PDF)
from the original on 23 February 2014.
Retrieved 15 February 2009.
37. Chang, Kenneth (21 February 2006).
"Explaining Ice: The Answers Are
Slippery" . The New York Times. Archived
from the original on 11 December 2008.
Retrieved 8 April 2009.
38. Makkonen, Lasse; Tikanmäki, Maria
(June 2014). "Modeling the friction of
ice" . Cold Regions Science and
Technology. 102: 84–93.
doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2014.03.002 .
Retrieved 17 October 2015.
39. "WMO SEA-ICE NOMENCLATURE"
Archived 5 June 2013 at the Wayback
Machine. (Multi-language Archived 14
April 2012 at the Wayback Machine.)
World Meteorological Organization /
Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute.
Retrieved 8 April 2012.
40. Moore, Judith; Lamb, Barbara (2001-
10-15). Crop Circles Revealed . Light
Technology Publishing.
ISBN 9781622335619.
41. Petrenko, Victor F. and Whitworth,
Robert W. (1999) Physics of ice. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, pp. 27–29,
ISBN 0191581348
42. Eranti, E. and Lee, George C. (1986)
Cold region structural engineering. New
York: McGraw-Hill, p. 51,
ISBN 0070370346.
43. "Sleet (glossary entry)" . National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration's National Weather
Service. Archived from the original on 18
February 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2007.
44. "Hail (glossary entry)" . National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration's National Weather
Service. Archived from the original on 27
November 2007. Retrieved 20 March
2007.
45. Alaska Air Flight Service Station (10
April 2007). "SA-METAR" . Federal
Aviation Administration via the Internet
Wayback Machine. Archived from the
original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved
29 August 2009.
46. "What causes ice pellets (sleet)?" .
Weatherquestions.com. Archived from
the original on 30 November 2007.
Retrieved 8 December 2007.
47. Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Hail" . American Meteorological Society.
Archived from the original on 25 July
2010. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
48. Jewell, Ryan; Brimelow, Julian (17
August 2004). "P9.5 Evaluation of an
Alberta Hail Growth Model Using Severe
Hail Proximity Soundings in the United
States" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the
original on 7 May 2009. Retrieved 15 July
2009.
49. National Severe Storms Laboratory
(23 April 2007). "Aggregate hailstone" .
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Archived from the
original on 10 August 2009. Retrieved
15 July 2009.
50. Brimelow, Julian C.; Reuter, Gerhard
W.; Poolman, Eugene R. (2002). "Modeling
Maximum Hail Size in Alberta
Thunderstorms". Weather and
Forecasting. 17 (5): 1048–1062.
Bibcode:2002WtFor..17.1048B .
doi:10.1175/1520-
0434(2002)017<1048:MMHSIA>2.0.CO;2
.
51. Marshall, Jacque (10 April 2000). "Hail
Fact Sheet" . University Corporation for
Atmospheric Research. Archived from the
original on 15 October 2009. Retrieved
15 July 2009.
52. "Hail storms rock southern Qld" .
Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 19
October 2004. Archived from the original
on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
53. Bath, Michael; Degaura, Jimmy
(1997). "Severe Thunderstorm Images of
the Month Archives" . Archived from the
original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 15 July
2009.
54. Wolf, Pete (16 January 2003). "Meso-
Analyst Severe Weather Guide" .
University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research. Archived from the original on
20 March 2003. Retrieved 16 July 2009.
55. Downing, Thomas E.; Olsthoorn,
Alexander A.; Tol, Richard S. J. (1999).
Climate, change and risk . Routledge.
pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-0-415-17031-4.
56. Mason, Basil John (1971). Physics of
Clouds. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-
851603-7.
57. Christner, Brent Q.; Morris, Cindy E.;
Foreman, Christine M.; Cai, Rongman;
Sands, David C. (2008). "Ubiquity of
Biological Ice Nucleators in Snowfall"
(PDF) . Science. 319 (5867): 1214.
Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1214C .
doi:10.1126/science.1149757 .
PMID 18309078 .
58. Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Cloud seeding" . American
Meteorological Society. Archived from the
original on 15 March 2012. Retrieved
28 June 2009.
59. Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000).
"Diamond Dust" . American
Meteorological Society. Archived from the
original on 3 April 2009. Retrieved
21 January 2010.
60. Keitzl, Thomas; Mellado, Juan Pedro;
Notz, Dirk (2016). "Impact of Thermally
Driven Turbulence on the Bottom Melting
of Ice". J. Phys. Ocean. 46 (4): 1171–
1187. Bibcode:2016JPO....46.1171K .
doi:10.1175/JPO-D-15-0126.1 .
61. Woods, Andrew W. (1992). "Melting
and dissolving". J. Fluid Mech. 239: 429–
448. Bibcode:1992JFM...239..429W .
doi:10.1017/S0022112092004476 .
62.  Reynolds, Francis J., ed. (1921).
"Ice". Collier's New Encyclopedia. New
York: P.F. Collier & Son Company.
63. "Ice is money in China's coldest city" .
AFP via The Sydney Morning Herald. 13
November 2008. Archived from the
original on 2 October 2009. Retrieved
26 December 2009.
64. ASHRAE. "Ice Manufacture". 2006
ASHRAE Handbook: Refrigeration. Inch-
Pound Edition. p. 34-1. ISBN 1-931862-86-
9.
65. Rydzewski, A.J. "Mechanical
Refrigeration: Ice Making." Marks'
Standard Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers. 11th ed. McGraw Hill: New
York. pp. 19–24. ISBN 978-0-07-142867-5.
66. U.S. Census Bureau. "Ice
manufacturing: 2002." Archived 22 July
2017 at the Wayback Machine. 2002
Economic Census.
67. Deuster, Patricia A.; Singh, Anita;
Pelletier, Pierre A. (2007). The U.S. Navy
Seal Guide to Fitness and Nutrition .
Skyhorse Publishing Inc. p. 117. ISBN 1-
60239-030-4.
68. "Unique ice pier provides harbor for
ships," Archived 23 February 2011 at
Wikiwix Antarctic Sun. 8 January 2006;
McMurdo Station, Antarctica.
69. Makkonen, L. (1994) "Ice and
Construction". E & FN Spon, London.
ISBN 0-203-62726-1.
70. Gold, L.W. (1993). "The Canadian
Habbakuk Project: a Project of the
National Research Council of Canada".
International Glaciological Society.
ISBN 0946417164.
71. Wildwood Survival – Fire From Ice –
Rob Bicevskis Archived 19 June 2008 at
the Wayback Machine..
Wildwoodsurvival.com. Retrieved 30
October 2011.
72. Talkington, Fiona (3 May 2005). "Terje
Isungset Iceman Is Review" . BBC Music.
Archived from the original on 24
September 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2011.

External links
Look up ice in Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media


related to Ice.

Wikisource has the text of The New


Student's Reference Work article Ice.

The National Snow and Ice Data


Center , based in the United States
The phase diagram of water, including
the ice variants
Webmineral listing for Ice
MinDat.org listing and location data for
Ice
The physics of ice
The phase diagrams of water with
some high pressure diagrams
'Unfreezable' water, 'bound water' and
water of hydration
Electromechanical properties of ice
Estimating the maximum thickness of
an ice layer
Sandia's Z machine creates ice in
nanoseconds
Amazing ice at Lac Leman
The Surprisingly Cool History of Ice

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Ice&oldid=839161689"

Last edited 19 hours ago by Hopso…

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless


otherwise noted.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen