The University of New South Wales

School of Mathematics and Statistics

MATH3521
Algebraic Techniques in Number Theory
2018 S1

Igor Shparlinski

• Igor Shparlinski
• Email: igor.shparlinski@unsw.edu.au
• Office: RC-5112
MATH3521 Algebraic Techniques in Number Theory Igor Shparlinski

§6 The Gaussian Integers

The Gaussian integers are the complex numbers

Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z}
 b b b b b b b b b b b
Z
··· −1 0 1 ···

INTEGERS
 iZ

..
. b

i b

−i b

.. b

.
b

IMAGINARY INTEGERS
 Z[i] = Z + iZ
b b b b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b b b b

GAUSSIAN INTEGERS
 The Gaussian integers are the complex numbers

Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z}

The norm of α = a + ib is

N (α) = αα = a2 + b2

Example. α = 3 + 2i
N (α) = αα = (3 + 2i)(3 − 2i) = 32 − (2i)2 = 32 + 22 = 13

b
3 + 2i
√ 13
The Gaussian integers are the complex numbers
Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z}

The norm of α = a + ib is
N (α) = αα = a2 + b2

Theorem. If α, β ∈ Z[i] and c ∈ Z, then

N (α) ≥ 0
N (α) is a non-negative integer
N (α + β) ≤ N (α) + N (β)
N (αβ) = N (α)N (β)
N (α) ≤ N (αβ) for β 6= 0
2 2

2
N (cα) = c N (α), N (c) = c , and N (N (α)) = N (α)
N (α) = 1 if and only if α ∈ {±1, ±i}
N (α) = 0 if and only if α = 0.
Theorem. If α, β ∈ Z[i] and c ∈ Z, then
N (α) ≥ 0
N (α) is a non-negative integer
N (α + β) ≤ N (α) + N (β)
N (αβ) = N (α)N (β)
N (α) ≤ N (αβ) for β 6= 0
2 2

2
N (cα) = c N (α), N (c) = c , and N (N (α)) = N (α)
N (α) = 1 if and only if α ∈ {±1, ±i}
N (α) = 0 if and only if α = 0.
Theorem. Z[i] is an integral domain.
Theorem. The following are equivalent for α ∈ Z[i]:
α is a unit
N (α) = 1
α ∈ {±1, ±i}.
 Division Algorithm For Gaussian Integers
For all α, β 6= 0, α = qβ + r for some q, r ∈ Z[i] with 0 ≤ N (r) < N (β).
α
Proof. Write β
= x + yi where x, y ∈ Q and choose integers

s = ⌊x⌉ and t = ⌊y⌉

closest to x and y: so that
|x − s| ≤ 1/2 and |y − t| ≤ 1/2
Set q = s + ti and r = α − qβ. Then α = qβ + r. Also,
α



N β − q = N x + yi − (s + ti) = N (x − s) + (y − t)i)
≤ N (x − s) + N (y − t)i = (x − s)2 + (y − t)2

1 2


≤ 2 ) + 2 = 41 + 41 = 12
1 2

Therefore,
α
α

1
N (r) = N (α − qβ) = N ( − q)β = N β
− q N (β) ≤ 2
N (β) < N (β) .
β
Example.
Consider α = 4 + 4i and β = 2 − i.
Calculate
α 4 + 4i 4 + 4i 2 + i 4 + 12i 4 12
= = × = = + i
β 2−i 2−i 2+i 5 5 5

Set    
4 12
s= =1 t= =2
5 5
Set q = s + it = 1 + 2i
and let r be the remainder:

r = α − qβ = (4 + 4i) − (1 + 2i)(2 − i) = (4 + 4i) − (4 + 3i) = i

Then 4 + 4i = α = qβ + r = (1 + 2i)(2 − i) + i
and N (i) = 1 < 5 = N (2 − i).
Division Algorithm For Gaussian Integers
For all α, β 6= 0, α = qβ + r for some q, r ∈ Z[i] with 0 ≤ N (r) < N (β).
⋆ There might be several suitable values of q and r.
A greatest common divisor of α and β is a common divisor of α and β that
is divided by every other common divisor.
⋆ This definition is also holds for (normal) positive integers.
The set of greatest common divisors of α and β is denoted by gcd(α, β).
Example. : Non-uniqueness of q and r
Consider α = 3 + 2i and β = 1 + i.
α 3 + 2i 3 + 2i 1 − i 5−i 5 −1
= = × = = + i
β 1+i 1+i 1−i 2 2 2

Set    
5 −1
s= =2 t= = −1
2 2
Set q = s + it = 2 − i
and let r be the remainder:

r = α − qβ = (3 + 2i) − (2 − i)(1 + i) = (3 + 2i) − (3 + i) = i

Then 3 + 2i = α = qβ + r = (2 − i)(1 + i) + i
and N (i) = 1 < 2 = N (1 + i).
Set    
5 −1
s= =2 t= =0
2 2
Set q = s + it = 2
and let r be the remainder:
r = α − qβ = (3 + 2i) − 2(1 + i) = (3 + 2i) − (2 + 2i) = 1
Then 3 + 2i = α = qβ + r = 2(1 + i) + 1
and N (1) = 1 < 2 = N (1 + i).

We have
3 + 2i = (2 − i)(1 + i) + i and 3 + 2i = 2(1 + i) + 1
In both
N (i) = 1 < 2 = N (1 + i) and N (1) = 1 < 2 = N (1 + i)
Division Algorithm For Gaussian Integers
For all α, β 6= 0, α = qβ + r for some q, r ∈ Z[i] with 0 ≤ N (r) < N (β).
A greatest common divisor of α and β is a common divisor of α and β that
is divided by every other common divisor.
The set of greatest common divisors of α and β is denoted by gcd(α, β).
We next consider:

The Euclidean Algorithm For Gaussian Integers

The Euclidean Algorithm For Gaussian Integers.
For α, β 6= 0, write r0 = β and use the Division Algorithm to find

q1 , r1 ∈ Z[i] so that α = q1 β + r1 with 0 ≤ N (r1 ) < N (β).

If r1 6= 0, then write β = q2 r1 + r2 with 0 ≤ N (r2 ) < N (r1 ).

Continuing like this while rk 6= 0, we find qk+1 , rk+1 ∈ Z[i] so that

rk−1 = qk+1 rk + rk+1 , with 0 ≤ N (rk+1 ) < N (rk ) .

Then rn+1 = 0 for some n ≥ 0, and gcd(α, β) = {± rn , ± rn i}.

⋆ Remarkably, all ways of using the algorithm lead to the same answers.
 An ideal I in Z[i] is principal if I = hai for some a ∈ Z[i]
Theorem. Every ideal in Z[i] is principal.

Proof. The ideal {0} is principal, so consider an ideal I 6= {0} in Z[i].

Choose an element γ ∈ I with smallest positive norm N (γ) > 0
and consider any α ∈ I.
By the Division Algorithm,
α = qγ + r for some elements q, r ∈ Z[i] with 0 ≤ N (r) < N (γ).
Then r = α − qγ ∈ I.
Since N (γ) is the smallest positive norm for elements of I and N (r) < N (γ),
we have N (r) = 0 and so r = 0.
Hence, α = qγ ∈ hγi. Therefore, I ⊆ hγi.
Since αγ ∈ I for all α ∈ Z[i], we also see that hγi ⊆ I.
It follows that I = hγi.
 An ideal I in Z[i] is principal if I = hai for some a ∈ Z[i]
Theorem. Every ideal in Z[i] is principal.
Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Proof. By the previous theorem, hα, βi = hδi for some δ ∈ Z[i].

Then δ | α and δ | β, so δ | γ.
Hence, γ ∈ hδi = hα, βi, so hγi ⊆ hα, βi.
Therefore, γ = mα + nβ for some elements m, n ∈ Z[i].
Since γ | α and γ | β, we also have that hα, βi ⊆ hγi, so hα, βi = hγi.
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = ×(4 − 7i) +

 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = ×(4 − 7i) +

2 − 11i
4 − 7i
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = ×(4 − 7i) +

2 − 11i 2 − 11i 4 + 7i
= ×
4 − 7i 4 − 7i 4 + 7i
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = ×(4 − 7i) +

2 − 11i 2 − 11i 4 + 7i 85 − 30i

= × =
4 − 7i 4 − 7i 4 + 7i 65
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = ×(4 − 7i) +

2 − 11i 2 − 11i 4 + 7i 85 − 30i 17 6

= × = = − i
4 − 7i 4 − 7i 4 + 7i 65 13 13
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = ×(4 − 7i) +

2 − 11i 2 − 11i 4 + 7i 85 − 30i 17 6

= × = = − i
4 − 7i 4 − 7i 4 + 7i 65 13 13
   
17 −6
=1 =0
13 13
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) +

2 − 11i 2 − 11i 4 + 7i 85 − 30i 17 6

= × = = − i
4 − 7i 4 − 7i 4 + 7i 65 13 13
   
17 −6
=1 =0
13 13
(2 − 11i) − 1 × (4 − 7i) = −2 − 4i
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

4 − 7i = ×(−2 − 4i) +

4 − 7i 4 − 7i −2 + 4i 20 + 30i 3
= × = = 1+ i
−2 − 4i −2 − 4i −2 + 4i 20 2
 
3
⌊1⌉ = 1, =2
2
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

4 − 7i = (1 + 2i) ×(−2 − 4i) +

4 − 7i 4 − 7i −2 + 4i 20 + 30i 3
= × = = 1+ i
−2 − 4i −2 − 4i −2 + 4i 20 2
 
3
⌊1⌉ = 1, =2
2
(4 − 7i) − (1 + 2i) × (−2 − 4i) = −2 + i
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

4 − 7i = (1 + 2i) ×(−2 − 4i) + (−2 + i)
−2 − 4i = ×(−2 + i) +

−2 − 4i −2 − 4i −2 − i
= ×
−2 + i −2 + i −2 − i
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

4 − 7i = (1 + 2i) ×(−2 − 4i) + (−2 + i)
−2 − 4i = ×(−2 + i) +

−2 − 4i −2 − 4i −2 − i 10i
= × =
−2 + i −2 + i −2 − i 5
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

4 − 7i = (1 + 2i) ×(−2 − 4i) + (−2 + i)
−2 − 4i = ×(−2 + i) +

−2 − 4i −2 − 4i −2 − i 10i
= × = = 2i
−2 + i −2 + i −2 − i 5
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

4 − 7i = (1 + 2i) ×(−2 − 4i) + (−2 + i)
−2 − 4i = 2i ×(−2 + i) +0
 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:

2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)

4 − 7i = (1 + 2i) ×(−2 − 4i) + (−2 + i)
−2 − 4i = 2i ×(−2 + i) +0

Therefore, −2 + i is a greatest common divisor of 2 − 11i and 4 − 7i, and

h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii = h−2 + ii

 Theorem. For α, β ∈ Z[i], let γ ∈ gcd(α, β).
Then hα, βi = hγi and so γ = mα + nβ for some m, n ∈ Z[i].

Example. Find a generator for the ideal h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii.

Use the Euclidian algorithm to find a greatest common divisor:
2 − 11i = 1 ×(4 − 7i) + (−2 − 4i)
4 − 7i = (1 + 2i) ×(−2 − 4i) + (−2 + i)
−2 − 4i = 2i ×(−2 + i) +0
Therefore, −2 + i is a greatest common divisor of 2 − 11i and 4 − 7i, and

h2 − 11i, 4 − 7ii = h−2 + ii

We can also find m, n ∈ Z[i] so that −2 + i = m(2 − 11i) + n(4 − 7i):

−2 + i = 4 − 7i − (1 + 2i) × (−2 − 4i)

= 4 − 7i − (1 + 2i) × (2 − 11i) − (4 − 7i)

so −2 + i = (−1 − 2i) × (2 − 11i) + (2 + 2i) × (4 − 7i).

 If π ∈ Z[i] with π 6= 0, ±1, ±i, then
π is irreducible if and only if

α or β is a unit whenever π = αβ

π is prime if and only if

π | α or π | β whenever π | αβ

The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.

Example. 7 and 1 + i are Gaussian primes but 2 = (1 + i)(1 − i) is not.

If π ∈ Z[i] with π 6= 0, ±1, ±i, then
π is irreducible if and only if

α or β is a unit whenever π = αβ

π is prime if and only if

π | α or π | β whenever π | αβ

The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.

Lemma. Every prime element of an integral domain is irreducible.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
 The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.
Lemma. Every prime element of an integral domain is irreducible.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
Theorem. Gaussian integers factor uniquely into Gaussian primes.

Example. 5 factors uniquely into Gaussian primes as 5 = (2 + i)(2 − i)

but also as 5 = (2 − i)(2 + i) or 5 = (2i − 1)(−2i + 1), for instance.
 The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.
Lemma. Every prime element of an integral domain is irreducible.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
Theorem. Gaussian integers factor uniquely into Gaussian primes.
Theorem. Integer prime p is a Gaussian prime if and only if p ≡ 3 (mod 4).

Example. 7 is a Gaussian prime but 5 = (2 − i)(2 + i) is not.

 The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
Theorem. Gaussian integers factor uniquely into Gaussian primes.
Theorem. Integer prime p is a Gaussian prime if and only if p ≡ 3 (mod 4).

Proof. =⇒
Suppose that an integer p is a Gaussian prime.
Now, pb 6= ±1 if b ∈ Z, so x ± i 6= pa ± pbi = p(a ± bi) for all a, b, x ∈ Z.
Therefore, p ∤ x ± i.
Since p is a Gaussian prime, p ∤ (x − i)(x + i) = x2 + 1,
so x2 ≡ −1 (mod p) has no solution, and p ≡ 3 (mod 4).
 The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
Theorem. Gaussian integers factor uniquely into Gaussian primes.
Theorem. Integer prime p is a Gaussian prime if and only if p ≡ 3 (mod 4).

Proof. ⇐=
Conversely, suppose that p ≡ 3 (mod 4).
If p = βγ, then p2 = N (p) = N (β)N (γ).
Since p is prime, either N (β) = N (γ) = p or {N (β), N (γ)} = {1, p2 }.
Write β = c + di for some c, d ∈ Z.
Since x2 ≡ 0, 1 (mod 4) for all x ∈ Z,
N (β) = c2 + d2 ≡ 0, 1, 2 6≡ 3 (mod 4).
Therefore, N (β) 6= p, so either N (β) = 1 or N (γ) = 1,
and p is a Gaussian prime.
 The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
Theorem. Gaussian integers factor uniquely into Gaussian primes.
Theorem. Integer prime p is a Gaussian prime if and only if p ≡ 3 (mod 4).
Theorem. A Gaussian integer α ∈ Z[i] is prime if and only if
N (α) is a prime integer or
α = ǫp for a unit ǫ ∈ Z[i] and a prime p ∈ Z with p ≡ 3 (mod 4).

Example.

(1 + i) is a Gaussian prime since N (1 + i) = 2 is a prime

7 is a Gaussian prime since 7 is an integer prime and 7 ≡ 3 (mod 4).
2 is not a Gaussian prime since N (2) = 4 is not a prime and 2 6≡ 3 (mod 4).
 The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
Theorem. Gaussian integers factor uniquely into Gaussian primes.
Theorem. Integer prime p is a Gaussian prime if and only if p ≡ 3 (mod 4).
Theorem. A Gaussian integer α ∈ Z[i] is prime if and only if
N (α) is a prime integer or
α = ǫp for a unit ǫ ∈ Z[i] and a prime p ∈ Z with p ≡ 3 (mod 4).

Example. Factorise 15 into primes.

15 = 3 × 5 = 3(2 + i)(2 − i)
3 and 2 ± i are primes
since 3 is a prime integer and 3 ≡ 3 (mod 4), and N (2 ± i) = 5 is prime.
 The primes of Z[i] are called Gaussian primes.
Theorem. A Gaussian integer is prime if and only if it is irreducible.
Theorem. Gaussian integers factor uniquely into Gaussian primes.
Theorem. Integer prime p is a Gaussian prime if and only if p ≡ 3 (mod 4).
Theorem. A Gaussian integer α ∈ Z[i] is prime if and only if
N (α) is a prime integer or
α = ǫp for a unit ǫ ∈ Z[i] and a prime p ∈ Z with p ≡ 3 (mod 4).

Example. Factorise 24 − 3i into primes.

Factorise the norm:
N (24 − 3i) = 242 + 32 = 585 = 32 × 5 × 13 = N (3)N (2 ± i)N (3 ± 2i)


= N 3(2 ± i)(3 ± 2i)
By testing the signs by trial and error, we find that
24 − 3i = 3(2 + i)(3 − 2i)
 Theorem. If m and n are both the sum of two squares, then so is mn.
Example. 5 and 13 are both sums of two squares:

5 = 22 + 12 = N (2 + i)
13 = 32 + 22 = N (3 + 2i)

Therefore, 65 is also the sum of two squares:

65 = N (2 + i)N (3 + 2i) = N (2 + i)(3 + 2i) = N (4 + 7i) = 42 + 72

We could also write 5 = N (2 − i):

65 = N (2 − i)N (3 + 2i) = N (2 − i)(3 + 2i) = N (8 + i) = 82 + 12

 Theorem. If m and n are both the sum of two squares, then so is mn.
Theorem. For an odd integer prime p, the following statements are equiv-
alent:
p is the sum of two integer squares
p is not a Gaussian prime
p ≡ 1 (mod 4).

Example.
29 ≡ 1 (mod 4), so 29 is the sum of two squares.
19 ≡ 3 6≡ 1 (mod 4), so 19 is not the sum of two squares.
 Theorem. If m and n are both the sum of two squares, then so is mn.
Theorem. For an odd integer prime p, the following statements are equiv-
alent:
p is the sum of two integer squares
p is not a Gaussian prime
p ≡ 1 (mod 4).

Proof. We have already shown that the last two statements are equivalent.
• If p = a2 + b2 , then p = (a + bi)(a − bi), so p is not a Gaussian prime.

• Conversely, if p is not a Gaussian prime,

then p = αβ for some non-unit elements α = u + vi, β = x + yi ∈ Z[i].
Then N (p) = N (α)N (β), so p2 = (x2 + y 2 )(u2 + v 2 ).
Hence, p = x2 + y 2 .
Theorem. If m and n are both the sum of two squares, then so is mn.
Theorem. For an odd integer prime p, the following statements are equiv-
alent:
p is the sum of two integer squares
p is not a Gaussian prime
p ≡ 1 (mod 4).
Theorem. If p is an odd prime, then
x2 ≡ −1 (mod p) has a solution if and only if p is a sum of two squares.
 Theorem. A positive integer n is the sum of two integer squares
if and only if
p ≡ 1 (mod 4) for all odd primes p that divide n an odd number of times.

Example. Is 792 a sum of two squares?

Factorise:
792 = 23 × 32 × 11
11 divides 792 an odd number of times and 11 ≡ 3 6≡ 1 (mod 4)
Therefore, 792 is not the sum of two squares.
 Theorem. A positive integer n is the sum of two integer squares
if and only if
p ≡ 1 (mod 4) for all odd primes p that divide n an odd number of times.

Example. Is 29250 a sum of two squares? Yes

29250 = 2 × 32 × 53 × 13 = N (1 + i)N (3)N (5)N (1 + 2i)N (2 + 3i)


= N (1 + i) × 3 × 5 × (1 + 2i)(2 + 3i)
= N (−165 + 45i) = 1652 + 452
29250 = 2 × 32 × 53 × 13 = N (1 + i)N (3)N (5)N (1 − 2i)N (2 + 3i)


= N (1 + i) × 3 × 5 × (1 − 2i)(2 + 3i)
= N (135 + 105i) = 1352 + 1052
Two Squares: Summary

Theorem. If m and n are both the sum of two squares, then so is mn.
Theorem. For an odd integer prime p, the following statements are equiv-
alent:
p is the sum of two integer squares
p is not a Gaussian prime
p ≡ 1 (mod 4).
Theorem. A positive integer n is the sum of two integer squares
if and only if
p ≡ 1 (mod 4) for all odd primes p that divide n an odd number of times.

Question: How about Three Squares?

Two and Three Squares: Summary
Theorem. If m and n are both the sum of two squares, then so is mn.
Theorem. For an odd integer prime p, the following statements are equiv-
alent:
p is the sum of two integer squares
p is not a Gaussian prime
p ≡ 1 (mod 4).
Theorem. A positive integer n is the sum of two integer squares
if and only if
p ≡ 1 (mod 4) for all odd primes p that divide n an odd number of times.
Theorem. A positive integer n is the sum of three integer squares
if and only if n 6= 4k (8m + 7) for all integers k, m.

Example. If n ≡ 7 (mod 8), then n is not the sum of three integer squares.
Question: How about Four Squares?
Two, Three and Four Squares: Summary
Theorem. If m and n are both the sum of two squares, then so is mn.
Theorem. For an odd integer prime p, the following statements are equiv-
alent:
p is the sum of two integer squares
p is not a Gaussian prime
p ≡ 1 (mod 4).
Theorem. A positive integer n is the sum of two integer squares
if and only if
p ≡ 1 (mod 4) for all odd primes p that divide n an odd number of times.
Theorem. A positive integer n is the sum of three integer squares
if and only if n 6= 4k (8m + 7) for all integers k, m.
Lagrange’s Four-Square Theorem.
Every positive integer is the sum of four integer squares.
Question: End of story?

–No! How about sums of cubes? fourth powers? etc.?

Waring Problem [Edward Waring, 1770]:

Is it true that for any integer k ≥ 1 there is a number g(k) such that every
positive integer is the sum of g(k) integer k-th powers?

For example:

g(1) = 1 — trivially: n = n1
g(2) = 2 — Lagrange’s Four-Square Theorem

Hilbert’s Theorem [David Hilbert, 1909]:

For any integer k ≥ 1 the number g(k) exists
Question: End of story?
–No! There are many interesting questions.
For example, what is the size of g(k)?

Conjecture (Still Open):

g(k)) = 2k + ⌊(3/2)k ⌋ − 2
For example:

g(1) = 2 + ⌊(3/2)⌋ − 2 = 1
g(2) = 22 + ⌊(3/2)2 ⌋ − 2 = 4 + ⌊9/4⌋ − 2 = 4
Nowadays, this is a very active area of research in
Analytic Number Theory