Running Head: SIMULATION APPROACH 1

Simulation Approach

Dauran McNeil

The University of West Indies

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Introduction

The evolution of education has introduced many new models and strategies for achieving

educational goals and objectives. More importantly these models and strategies have been

influenced by various theories and philosophies in the field of instructional design, technology

and distance education. One approach in the field that has had significant impact, development

and reach is that of the Simulation approach. This approach has evolved taking advantage of the

ever-changing world of various disciplines. The simulation approach has seen development upon

its inception, impacted how instruction is disseminated and its reach into other disciplines have

delivered phenomenal results. Charles Reigeluth was responsible for creating and developing

the instructional design theory for Simulation. He defined simulation in terms of three major

design aspects: the scenario, the underlying model, and the instructional overlay, which seeks

optimize learning and motivation (Reigeluth, Schwartz,1987).

Figure 1. Charles M. Reigeluth

Personal Life

Charles M. Reigeluth was born December 31, 1946. He became interested in educational

reform from the age of 16. This was a result of the frustration he was forced to endure during his

early years of academia (Simsek, 2013).

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Education & Academic Career

Charles M. Reigeluth studied Economics at Harvard and graduated cum laude in 1969.

After which, he taught high school science for three years. He later received his Doctorate

Degree in Instructional Psychology from Brigham Young University in 1977. He began his first

job as a professor at Syracuse University in the Instructional Design, Development & Evaluation

program in 1978 for 10 years . Following this, he served as professor at Indiana University for

25 years until receiving the position of professor emeritus (Reigeluth, 2013).

Charles M. Reigeluth research in the area of education focused on the paradigm shift in

public education, design of high quality instruction and designs of technology systems for

learner-centered paradigm of education. He has also published over 10 books including the

popular three edited volumes on instructional design theories and models and over 110 journal

articles (Reigeluth, 2013). According to the University of Indiana School of Education (2018)

Charles M. Reigeluth received numerous awards including 2010 Award for Outstanding Book of

the Year from the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Division for

Systemic Change, 2010 Award as first author for Outstanding Publication by an Established

Scholar from the American Educational Research Association Systems Thinking in Education

SIG's and the James W. Brown publication award.

Charles M. Reigeluth Development of the Simulation Approach

Charles M. Reigeluth created and developed the simulation approach to education with

his own purpose to use scenarios or cases which turned into a model before instruction is

delivered or executed. He described a simulation in three major aspects: the scenario, the

underlying model and the instruction overlay (Reigeluth, Schwartz, 1987). Reigeluth and

Schwartz (1987) emphasized that the instructional overlay of the simulation approach should be
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used to optimize learning and motivation. According to Reigeluth and Schwartz (1987) there are

three phases that should be activated by educational simulation. The three phases are acquisition,

application and assessment. Reigeluth and Schwartz (1987) explained the three functions

necessary for instructional simulation.

Acquisition

The first aim should be to teach the content which may be in the form of principles or

procedures. For principles, the learner must acquire meaningful understanding of the natural

processes or cause-effect relationships. For procedures, learners must acquire knowledge of what

steps to follow and how and when to do each step.

Application

Secondly after achievement of acquisition, the learner must learn to apply this knowledge

know as generalization. The learner has to develop the ability to apply the steps of a procedure to

the full range of inputs, relevant cases or situations and conditions that may exist.

Automatization requires mastering a procedure. The learner must develop the ability to perform

sequence of steps or decisions almost without thinking. This is achieved through repetitive

practice. Utilization refers to the ability to use the appropriate performance routine in order to

apply the principle.

Assessment

The assessment of a simulation is determined by what the learner has learned and if the

learner has achieved mastery. Mastery is based upon a criterion for the number of correct

responses, speed of responses, difficulty, previously un-encountered and practice items.

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History of Simulation

Simulation began as a method for training in the early 1900s for civilian and military

personal.As the approach of Simulation evolved, the meaning and definition of the approach has

also sought to emerge. But being grounded in educational underpinnings, Murray, Grant,

Howarth and Leigh (2007) defined Simulation as an approach to teaching and learning where a

device presents a simulated patient and interacts appropriately with the actions taken by the

simulation user. It can also be a method whereby an artificial or hypothetical experience is

created to engage learners in an activity that mimics real life conditions but out of risking taking

consequences of the actual situation. Lateef (2010) defined the approach as a technique for

practice and learning which can be applied to many different disciplines and trainees. On the

contrary to these, Becker and Parker (2012) allotted to a difference in understanding the

approach. Though there are some overlapping realities, education Simulation is different from

Computer Simulations. Education Simulation is referenced as in-class, live action or paper-based

activities where learners are given pre-defined roles and role-play or solve particular scenarios.

On this same argument, Lateef (2010) noted the importance for Simulation-Based learning to be

viewed as a technique and not a technology to replace and amplify real experience with guided

ones, immersed in nature, which evoke or replicate substantial aspects of the real world in a fully

interactive manner. Kistler (1988) states, “most public educators understand simulation to be a

game like exercise of short duration that is competitive and oriented toward role-play.” It was

also noted in the same article that these educators were reluctant to embrace simulation in the

classroom because of the gamelike nature.

The approach of simulation is not a recent invention to approaches of learning and

training as Kristler (1988) reference it as being centuries old where educators would have
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students role-play experiences of identities of predetermined subjects. This model of simulation

was only in its basic form before becoming more complex with the integration of

computers. Computer Simulation on the other hand, seeks to involve the much complexity of the

design process due to the computational nature of the computer. So though many may argue

differences with educational simulation and the computer simulation, it can be known that

education side that exits when computers were being introduced has simply been integrated into

the computer model to introduce a more multi-sensory educational approach through the use of

technology. Kistler (1988) highlighted that computer-based simulation has garnered much

interest of public educators who once was reluctant to the approach before it was computer-

based. Moreover, research into simulation at the time suggested for teachers to consider using the

approach as a viable tool for instruction delivery (Kistler, 1988).

The history of simulation traces back to 1929, Edwin Albert Link who invented the first

flight simulator named Blue Box. The fuselage-like device had the capacity to reproduce flying

motions and sensations. This was the beginning of a multibillion-dollar industry to aide pilots

and future pilots training and instruction replicating real experiences. According to Jones, Nero

and Braghiroli (2015), “The flight simulation creates a controlled and safe environment where

trainees are exposed to high-risk conditions that could be rarely experienced otherwise.” This

example demonstrates how simulation paved the path to provide instruction and training in

various areas.

Simulation in Multiple Disciplines

Simulation approach also made its debut in the history of the medical field as models of

clay and stone was used to replicate features of diseases and their effects on humans. In the 18th

century Paris Grégoire father and son developed an obstetrical mannequin made of the human
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pelvis and a dead baby named phantom. This simulation allowed obstetricians to teach

techniques for delivering babies (Jones, et al., 2015). In the early 1960s, Resusci-Anne and

Harvey were the pioneers of modern medical simulation. These were mannequins used to teach

mouth-to-mouth ventilation and to reproduce almost any cardiac disease by varying blood

pressure, heart sounds, heart murmurs, pulse and breathing through the use of

phonocardiographic records. Mannequins were not the only form of simulation during the early

1960s, the use of actors to portray patients was noted by Howard Barrows in 1964. After this, the

development of simulation for education and training was the beginning of a new era in

medicine.

Figure 2. An example of students conducting a simulation of a surgery for medical training.

As computers became less expensive during the eighties simulation software became

available which then resulted in organizations and groups developing simulator systems. This

was evident in the areas of aviation, military training, nuclear power generation, and space

flights (Lateef, 2010). This development of simulation with the integration of software and

computer systems made it possible to mimic responses and provide feedback. Jones, et al., 2015,
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2015 mentioned how a group led by David Gaba at Stanford University developed a

comprehensive anesthesia simulation environment.

There are several factors to consider with Simulation approach. Studies have noted that

Simulation approach may have a central role to play in student-directed learning according to

Jones, et al. 2015. It was explained how it creates a need to know curiosity given the real life

situations being mimicked which gives students the ability to practice procedures in a safe

controlled environment. Another important aspect of the simulation approach is the need for

constant feedback, which seeks to promote improvement and reinforcement.

Conclusion

The Simulation approach has contributed greatly to disciples beyond education. It has

provided a model to learning and training that is interactive, dynamic, safe and realistic. Without

Simulation approach many advances in aviation, medicine and education would not be possible

today. Jones, et al., 2015 states, “Simulation has unique features, since it provides a safe and

controlled environment to teach a wide variety of not only technical abilities but also non-

technical skills as well, and it is also a reliable educational assessment method.” This approach

will increasing continue to be a popular means to deliver and improve instruction for years to

come.

List of Related Publication

The following is a list of scholarly publications related to the Simulation Approach:

Aldrich, C. (2005). Learning by Doing: A Comprehensive Guide to Simulations, Computer

Games and Pedagogy in E-learning and Other Educational Experiences. San Diego:

Pfeiffer
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Aldrich, Clark (2009). Learning Online with Games, Simulations, and Virtual Worlds: Strategies

for Online Instruction. San Diego: Pfeiffer.

Aleckson, J. (2009). "The Complete Guide to Simulations & Serious Games". Training Media

Review

Brown, A. H. 1999. Simulated classrooms and artificial students: The potential effects of new

technologies on teacher education, Journal of Research on Computing in Education

32(2): 307--318. Retrieved from

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08886504.1999.10782281

Clark, A. (2010). The Complete Guide to Simulations & Serious Games by Clark Aldrich.

Retrieved from https://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/467/book-review-the-

complete-guide-to-simulations--serious-games-by-clark-aldrich

Frey, L., & Reigeluth, C.M. (1986). Instructional models for tutoring: A review. Journal of

Instructional Development, 9 (1), 2-8. Retrieved from

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02908305

Fisher, D. (2007). CMS-based simulations in the writing classroom: Evoking genre through

game play. Computers and Composition. 24 (2): 179–197.

doi:10.1016/j.compcom.2006.06.004.

Gloria, G. (2003). Simulations and the Future of Learning: An Innovative (and Perhaps

Revolutionary) Approach to E-Learning. Retrieved from

https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-411228281.html

Judith Chinonye Umoke, J. C. & Nwafor, C. C. (2014). Effects of Instructional Simulation on

Secondary School Students’ Achievement in Biology. Journal of Education and Practice.

5(19) 101 - 110 Retrieved from

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http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1011.9804&rep=rep1&type=p

df

Keys, B., & Wolfe, J. (1990). The Role of Management Games and Simulations in Education

and Research. Journal of Management, 16(2), 307-336. Retrieved from

http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/014920639001600205

Kincaid, J. P., & Westerlund K. K. (2009). Simulation in Education and Training. Retrieved

from https://www.informs-sim.org/wsc09papers/024.pdf

Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning &

Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall.

Kumar, R. & Lightner, R. (2007). Games as an Interactive Classroom Technique: Perceptions of

Corporate Trainers, College Instructors and Students. International Journal of Teaching

and learning in Higher Education, 19(1), 53-63. Retrieved from

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ901287

Landriscina, F. (2013). Simulation and Learning A Model-Centered Approach. Retrieved from

http://www.tau.ac.il/~ilia1/franco-landriscina---auth-.pdf

Morrison, J. L. (2003). "Simulations and the Learning Revolution: An Interview with Clark

Aldrich". Retrieved from

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c160/fb73f959705202ba2390e3629b52d231212d.pdf?_g

a=2.30606783.1021272250.1525069974-1237735481.1525069974

Randel, J.M., Morris, B.A., Wetzel, C.D., & Whitehill, B.V. (1992). The effectiveness of games

for educational purposes: A review of recent research. Simulation & Gaming, 23(3), 261-

276. Retrieved from http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a259666.pdf

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Reigeluth, C.M. (2003). New instructional theories and strategies for a knowledge-based

society. Educational Technology International, 5 (1), 63-75.Retrieved from

http://www.um.es/ead/red/32/reigeluth.pdf

Reigeluth, C.M., & Schwartz, E. (1989). An instructional theory for the design of computer-

based simulations. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 16 (1), 1-10.Retrieved from

https://www.learntechlib.org/p/170471/

Schuck, P. (2010). Simulation in Education. Retrieved from

https://www.usma.edu/cfe/Literature/Schuck_10.pdf

Tarr, R. W., Morris, C. S., and Singer, M. S. 2002. Low-Cost PC Gaming and Simulation:

Doctrinal Survey, Army Research Institute Research Note, Alexandria, Virginia: Army

Research Institute.
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References

Becker, K. & Parker, J. (2012 ). Serious Instructional Design: ID for Digital Simulations and

Games. Retrieved from

http://minkhollow.ca/becker/lib/exe/fetch.php?media=papers:serious_id_site.pdf

Dyckman, T., Philbrick, D., & Stephan, J. (1984). A Comparison of Event Study Methodologies

Using Daily Stock Returns: A Simulation Approach. Journal of Accounting Research, 22,

1-30. doi:10.2307/2490855

Jones, F., Nero, C. & Braghiroli, O.(2015). Simulation in medical education: Brief history and

methodology. Principles and Practices of Clinical Research, 57-63.

Kistler, J. (1988). Expanding the Simulation: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Educational

Technology, 28(12), 23-25. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44426185

Lateef, F. (2010). Simulation-based learning: Just like the real thing. Journal of Emergencies,

Trauma and Shock, 3(4), 348–352. http://doi.org/10.4103/0974-2700.70743

Murray,C. Grant, M, Howarth,M. And Leigh,J. (2007). The use of simulation as a teaching and

learning approach to support practice learning.Nurse Education in Practice , Volume 8 ,

Issue 1 , 5 - 8

Reigeluth, C. (2013). About Me. Retrieved from http://www.reigeluth.net/

Simsek, A. (2013). Interview with Charles M. Reigeluth: Applying Instructional Design to

Educational Reform. Contemporary Education Technology. Volume 4 , Issue 1 , 81-86

University of Indiana School of Education. (2018). Profile. Retrieved from

http://education.indiana.edu/dotnetforms/Profile.aspx?u=reigelut