Exercise 1-4

Attenuation and Distortion

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE

Upon completion of this unit, you will know what attenuation and distortion are, and
how they can affect the shape of the transmitted signal. You will be able to explain
what causes attenuation and distortion. You will know about a method of evaluating
signal quality in high-speed transmission systems.

DISCUSSION

Attenuation

In transmission lines that are lossy, the transmitted signals lose some energy as they
travel down the line. This occurs because the energy gradually dissipates in each
series resistance, R'S, and parallel resistance, R'P, per unit length of the line.

The energy lost in each R'S is by heating of the conductors (I2R losses). The energy
lost in each R'P is by heating of the dielectric material used to construct the
conductors (shunt or dielectric losses), as Figure 1-55 shows.

Figure 1-55. Signals lose some energy in each R'S and R'P.

The energy losses cause the level of the transmitted signal to gradually decrease as
the signal travels down the line, as Figure 1-56 shows. The decrease in signal level
over distance is called attenuation. Attenuation increases as the distance from the
transmission point increases.

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Figure 1-56. Attenuation of a rectangular signal and a sinusoidal signal.

Attenuation is normally expressed in decibels (dB). The formula for calculating the
attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end of a line is as
follows:

where A = Attenuation in signal power (dB);

log = Base-10 logarithm;
PD = Signal power at a distance D from the sending end of the
line (W);
PS = Signal power at the sending end of the line (W).

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Table 1-3 indicates the attenuation, A, for different PD/PS ratios. Each time the ratio
decreases by a factor of 2, the signal power is attenuated by 3 dB.

PD/PS RATIO POWER ATTENUATION (dB)

1 0

0.5 -3

0.25 -6

0.125 -9

Table 1-3. Power attenuation for different PD/PS ratios.

For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio PD/PS is 0.75, will be -1.25 dB.

When voltage measurements, which are most common, are performed instead of
power measurements, the formula for calculating the attenuation in signal power at
a distance D from the sending end of the line becomes:

where A = Attenuation in signal power (dB);

log = Base-10 logarithm;
VD = Signal voltage at a distance D from the sending end of the
line (V);
VS = Signal voltage at the sending end of the line (V).

For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio VD/VS is 0.75, will be -2.5 dB.

Line manufacturers usually provide graphs that indicate the attenuation per unit
length, Į, of a line as a function of signal frequency. They must do this because at
higher frequencies, the attenuation per unit length, instead of being constant,
increases with frequency due, among other things, to a phenomenon known as skin
effect.

The skin effect is illustrated on Figure 1-57. At direct current (DC) or low frequency,
the current density is quite uniform across the conductor. At higher frequencies, the
current density tends to concentrate near the surface (hence the term "skin") of the
conductor, thereby increasing the resistance to current flow and, in turn, the
attenuation per unit length, Į.

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Figure 1-57. The skin effect.

Frequency Components of a Signal

A pure sinusoidal wave is composed of a single frequency component, called a

fundamental. However, periodic signals usually consist of a superposition of several
frequency components.

These components are waves that are all sinusoidal in shape, but are of different
frequencies and amplitudes. They include a fundamental, or first harmonic, at the
frequency of the signal, and several higher-order harmonics whose frequencies are
multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Figure 1-58 shows the time-domain and frequency-domain representations of

different signals. A periodic signal can be expanded as an infinite sum of sines and
cosines of different amplitudes and frequencies, called a Fourier series.

When observing the frequency components of a signal on a spectrum analyzer, we

see that the frequency of the fundamental is the reciprocal of the signal period, T.
The magnitude of the harmonics decreases as the order, or number, of the harmonic
increases.

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Figure 1-58. Time-domain and frequency-domain representations of different signals.

The frequency spectrum differs from one type of signal to another, as Figure 1-58
shows. For example, a rectangular signal consists of a set of odd harmonics, while
a sawtooth signal consists of both even and odd harmonics.

Distortion

In a transmission line, the velocity of propagation of the fundamental and harmonics

that compose a transmitted signal is determined mainly by the relative permittivity
of the line dielectric material.

• In lines that are lossless or that have very low losses, relative permittivity stays
approximately constant with frequency. Consequently, the fundamental and
harmonics of the transmitted signal all propagate at the same velocity along the
line. As a result, the signal at the receiving end of the line is a faithful reproduction
of the transmitted signal, as the left-hand section of Figure 1-59 shows. The
signal is said to be distortionless.

• In lines that are lossy, however, relative permittivity varies with frequency.
Consequently, the fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. This phenomenon is known as dispersion.
Dispersion causes distortion: the signal at the receiving end of the line has a

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shape that is quite different than that of the transmitted signal, as the right-hand
section of Figure 1-59 shows.

If, additionally, the fundamental and its harmonics are of relatively high
frequencies, they will be attenuated differently since, as earlier mentioned, the
attenuation per unit length is frequency dependent at higher frequencies. This will
tend to aggravate distortion in the received signal.

Figure 1-59. An undistorted signal versus a distorted and attenuated signal.

Thus, the change in shape of the transmitted signal in the figure occurs because the
rise time and fall time of the transients in the transmitted signal are longer in the
received signal.

Attenuation and distortion can be significant problems in today's high-speed

transmission systems, due to the high-frequency signals inherently involved in these
systems. Figure 1-60, for example, shows how distortion affects the transmission of
non-return-to-zero (NRZ) data. A comparison of the transmitted data (A) shows that
the recovered data (C) does not truly reproduce the original data, which may
introduce errors.

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Figure 1-60. Attenuation and distortion affect the recovery of the original NRZ data.

A popular method of evaluating signal quality in digital transmission systems is the

eye-pattern method. This method requires that a pseudo-random binary signal
(PRBS) be applied to the vertical input of an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope
horizontal sweep is triggered by a signal of the same frequency as the binary signal.
The time base is adjusted so as to see about one period of the PRBS, as Figure 1-61
shows. In this way, the oscilloscope display is a pattern that resembles an eye, due
to the superposition of the transitions and constant bit levels that occur randomly on
successive periods of the signal. The width of the eye opening indicates the degree
of distortion. The narrower the eye opening, the greater the signal distortion and,
therefore, the lower the probability of error-free data recovery.

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Figure 1-61. The eye pattern.

Procedure Summary

In this procedure section, you will measure the attenuation of the STEP
GENERATOR output signal at the receiving end of a 48-meter (157.4-foot) line. You
will then answer theoretical questions about distortion.

Note: Since the lines used on the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
are not long enough to permit observation of the effects of dispersion,
the procedural section on distortion will consist of theoretical questions.

PROCEDURE

Attenuation

G 1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed

into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

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G 2. Referring to Figure 1-62, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50-ȍ output to

the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a coaxial cable. Connect
the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a coaxial cable. Finally, connect the
receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B to the input of the LOAD section,
using a coaxial cable.

Figure 1-62. Observing the attenuation of the STEP GENERATOR output voltage along the line.

Now, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100-ȍ output to the trigger input of
the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.

Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret

at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using an oscilloscope
probe.

Finally, using another oscilloscope probe, connect channel 2 of the

oscilloscope to the 24-meter (78.7-foot) probe turret at the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B.

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Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five

probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.

G 3. In the LOAD section of the circuit board, make sure all the toggle switches
are set to the O (OFF) position. Then, connect the LOAD-section input to
the common via resistor R3 (50-ȍ resistor) by setting the appropriate
switches in this section to the I (ON) position.

G 4. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:

Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Channel 2
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ȝs/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Mȍ or more

Note: Throughout this course, the oscilloscope settings for the

time base and channel sensitivity are given as a starting point for
guidance and may be modified as necessary to obtain the
maximum possible measurement accuracy.

G 5. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the signal transmitted by the STEP

GENERATOR at the sending end and receiving end of the 48-meter
(157.4-foot) line formed by TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B being
connected end-to-end.

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Figure 1-63. Measuring the attenuation at D = 48 meters (157.4 feet).

Note that the voltage of the pulses in the STEP GENERATOR signal is
lower at the receiving end of the line, as Figure 1-63 shows. This occurs
because

a. of the energy lost in each series inductance and parallel capacitance

per unit length of the line.
b. the pulses at the sending end of the line lost some energy as they
traveled down the line.
c. of a phenomenon known as dispersion.
d. the transmitted signal lost energy in the 50-ȍ characteristic impedance
of the line.

G 6. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the sending end of the line, VS.

VS = V

G 7. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the receiving end of the
line, VD.

VD = V

G 8. Using the measured voltages, VS and VD, calculate the attenuation in pulse
power at the receiving end of the 48-meter (157.4-foot) line by using the
formula below.

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where A = Attenuation in pulse power (dB);

log = Base-10 logarithm;
VD = Signal voltage at a distance D from the sending end of the
line (V);
VS = Signal voltage at the sending end of the line (V).

A= dB

Distortion

G 9. Which of the following signals best correspond to the frequency-domain

representation shown in Figure 1-64?

a. A pure sinusoidal signal having a period of 5 ȝs.

b. A rectangular signal having a period of 5 ȝs.
c. A sawtooth signal having a period of 0.5 ȝs.
d. A rectangular signal having a period of 0.5 ȝs.

Figure 1-64. Frequency-domain representation of a signal.

G 10. If you look at Figure 1-65, which of the following statements could explain
why the received signal has a shape that is quite different than that of the
transmitted signal?

a. The harmonics of higher order in the transmitted signal were less

attenuated than those of lower order as they traveled down the lossy
line.
b. The fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal propagated
at the same velocity along the lossy line.
c. The harmonics of higher order in the transmitted signal were more
attenuated than those of lower order as they traveled down the lossless
line.
d. The fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal propagated
at differing velocities along the lossy line.

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Figure 1-65. The received signal is attenuated and distorted.

G 11. If you look at Figure 1-66, which eye pattern corresponds to the best
probability of recovering the transmitted pseudo-random NRZ data without
error?

a. Eye pattern A
b. Eye pattern B
c. Eye pattern C
d. Eye pattern D

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Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-66. Eye patterns.

G 12. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

CONCLUSION

• Attenuation is a decrease in the level of a transmitted signal as it travels along

a line. Attenuation occurs in lines that are lossy. It is due to the dissipation of
part of the signal energy in the distributed series and parallel resistances of the
line.

• Distortion is a change in the shape of the transmitted signal that also occurs in
lines that are lossy. Distortion is caused mainly by dispersion, a phenomenon by
which the fundamental and harmonics that compose a transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. Distortion can also be caused by the high-
frequency signal components being attenuated differently, since attenuation is
frequency dependent.

• Distortion of the high-frequency components in the transmitted signals increase

the rise time and fall time of the signal transients, causing the signals to be
rounded.

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• In a high-speed transmission system, a popular method of evaluating signal

quality is the eye-pattern method. This method provides an eye-pattern display
that resembles an eye. The width of the eye opening indicates the degree of
distortion.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The attenuation of a transmitted signal in a lossy line

a. is due to the dissipation of part of the signal energy by heating of the load.
b. is a decrease in the signal level as the signal travels down the line.
c. decreases as the distance from the transmission point increases.
d. decreases as the signal frequency is increased.

2. The skin effect causes the

a. current density across the line conductors to remain uniform if the signal
frequency is increased.
b. resistance to current flow of the line conductors to decrease as the signal
frequency is increased.
c. current density to concentrate near the surface of the line conductors at low
signal frequencies.
d. attenuation per unit length to increase as the signal frequency is increased.

3. A periodic signal usually consists of a superposition of several frequency

components that

a. include, among others, harmonics whose frequencies are odd and/or even
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
b. include, among others, a fundamental at twice the frequency of the signal.
c. are all of the same frequency.
d. are all rectangular in shape.

4. The signal at the receiving end of a lossy line is distorted

a. when the low-frequency components of the transmitted signal are

attenuated differently, due to the skin effect.
b. mainly because the frequency components of the transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities.
c. when it does not truly reproduce the signal applied to the line load.
d. when it has the same shape as the transmitted signal.

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5. The eye-pattern method of evaluating signal quality

a. provides an eye-pattern display, the width of the eye opening being

inversely proportional to the degree of distortion.
b. requires that a pseudo-random audio signal be applied to the vertical input
of an oscilloscope.
c. provides a display of the frequency components of the signal as a function
of time.
d. is used with low-speed data transmission systems.

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