‘What’s The Buzz’:

A study of the validity of the term ‘Rock Musical’ as a legitimate

genre in Musical Theatre with specific reference to Andrew Lloyd
Webber’s Jesus Christ Superstar and Jonathan Larson’s Rent.

Alex Segal
Student ID: 275268

University of Portsmouth
School of Creative Arts, Film and Media

April 2007

Dissertation submitted in part-fulfilment

for the requirements of
the BA (Hons) Film Studies and Creative Arts
ABSTRACT

This paper will aim to find out whether the use of the term ‘rock musical’ is

an accurate representation of the musicals that incorporate rock music as a new,

original concept. It is the validity of claiming that a show is a ‘rock musical’ that

will be under scrutiny. This will be discussed using two already established and

successful ‘rock musicals’ (Jesus Christ Superstar and Rent) as a means of

analysing this term.

Through research, it is clear that musical theatre is a form that is constantly

updated to appeal to the needs and wants of a contemporary society. In this case, the

use of the additional ‘rock’ titling is seemingly not necessary. Yet, when studying

rock music, one must take into consideration its socio-cultural and ideological

connotations as well as its musical implications, which in turn could validate the

‘rock musical’ phrasing. Although these shows include rock music, they also

include various other popular and musical theatre styles, which could possibly dilute

the impact of the rebellious music that, in part, founded the historically important

1950’s teenage subculture.

In analysing the musical aesthetics, rock theory and the lifestyles of the

composers through Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of social distinction, this paper shows

that ‘rock musicals’ are ostensibly titled as such to emphasize social status, shrewd

advertising and appealing to societal groups rather than due to its creative aesthetics.

This results in ‘rock musicals’ seemingly being ‘musicals with rock’ rather than the

misrepresentation of the titling that this genre has grown accustomed to.

2
CHAPTERS

INTRODUCTION

Tell Me What’s A-Happening [Page 4]

CHAPTER ONE

i: The Power & The Glory [Page 8]

ii: To Days of Inspiration [Page 14]

CHAPTER TWO

i: Do You Think You’re What They Say You Are? [Page 21]

ii: Connection: In An Isolating Age [Page 28]

CHAPTER THREE

i: You’ve Begun To Matter More Than The Things You Say [Page 32]

ii: I’m A New Yorker! Fear’s My Life! [Page 38]

CONCLUSION

Think Twice [Page 49]

APPENDIX

i: Interview with Jon Robyns [Page 53]

ii: Musical References [Page 56]

BIBLIOGRAPHY [Page 60]

3
INTRODUCTION
Tell Me What’s A-Happening
(What’s The Buzz; Jesus Christ Superstar)

The influence of Gerome Ragni and James Rado’s Hair (1968) created what

is now known as the ‘rock musical’. Hair, labelled: The American Tribal Love/Rock

Musical, ‘has been universally accepted as the first example of the genre’ (Warfield,

2002, p.231). The show ‘marked a deliberate attempt to create a viable alternative to

the musicals of the older generation’ (Knapp, 2006, p.154). The spontaneous and

somewhat alternative content set it apart from any of the musicals that had been

previously seen on Broadway.

Since Hair, many musicals have emerged with the additional titling of ‘rock’

and have been met with critical negativity and a subsequent failure in longevity,

examples being Dude (1972), Via Galactica (1972), The Wiz (1975) and Time

(1986). The ability to capture the right formula in moulding rock music and musical

theatre is seemingly problematic due to their sociological, aesthetic and ideological

differences. ‘Whereas the creators of Hair flaunted its rock influence’ (Wollman,

2006, p.174), those who are responsible for marketing these shows made efforts to

avoid being categorised as specifically ‘rock’ due to its negative connotations.

Therefore, there have been attempts at crafting a ‘different’ brand of ‘rock musical’,

for example: glam rock (The Rocky Horror Show (1973)), rock opera (Tommy

(1993)) and those that utilize the songs of mainstream artists (We Will Rock You

4
(2002)) in an effort to create a musical that can contain rock music and still be

considered a valid genre.

From a generic perspective, musicals have always come intact with

recognisable elements: an orchestra, a distinct vocal style, which combines

choreography and often dialogue. These elements are intertwined during a rehearsal

period and performed in virtually the same way in every performance. The era of

musicals that include Anything Goes (1934) and Annie Get Your Gun (1946) by the

composers of Tin Pan Alley who were ‘talented, original, stylish, and literate’

(Engel, 2006, p.5) for example, is the accepted period within musical theatre which

is now considered to be ‘traditional’ and the ‘golden age of American musical

theatre’ (Swain, 2002, p.8). Songs from these shows were contemporary at the time

of their release and the persons that would be targeted to enjoy these shows in the

modern day would be that of the older generation who, in their youth, would have

enjoyed ‘the ostentatiously “popular” genre of American song’ (Knapp, 2006, p.71).

Rock concerts pride themselves on distinctly opposite ideologies. A fan of

rock music would expect the compelling, unknown danger of spontaneity from a

genre that arrived out of teenage rebellion. ‘It was a rock musicians ability to

display “real” emotion in composition and in performance’ (Wollman, 2006, p.26)

that symbolised the motifs of rock music. The youthful and defiant nature is let out

in full flow through eccentric performers, electric guitars and drums.

5
 There are seemingly more socio-cultural, aesthetic and ideological

differences between rock music and musical theatre than there are similarities. One

reason for this is that ‘the older generations bought albums of recordings by the old

and established artists… younger generation bought rock-and-roll singles’ (Walsh

& Platt, 2003, p.147). This then begs the question, why do creators feel the need to

attempt to bring together two contrasting formats that are far apart in wants and

needs?

Wollman (2006) writes that ‘despite widespread use of the term… no formal

definition of “rock musical” has ever appeared in print’ (p.2) and many ‘began to

employ the term… to identify any stage work with even the slightest hint of popular

styles’ (Warfield, 2002, p.231). Therefore, to what extent does the use of

contemporary idioms really transform the term ‘musical’?

Using two different examples of the ‘rock musical’ as case studies, this

paper will attempt to find a valid purpose for this term and rock music within the

realm of the traditional Broadway musical.

As case studies, this paper will focus specifically on two shows credited as

‘rock musicals’: Jesus Christ Superstar (1971) and Rent (1996). Jesus Christ

Superstar (shortened to Superstar in this paper for ease) is one of the earliest

6
examples of rock music in a theatrical setting. The show revolves around the final

week in the life of Jesus Christ before the crucifiction and was composed by

Andrew Lloyd Webber with lyrics by Tim Rice. In terms of its creation and use of

rock music, this paper will focus specifically on Lloyd Webber as the composer.

Rent, as a contemporary and to some extent new ‘rock musical’, has music and

lyrics by Jonathan Larson. It focuses on a group of youthful, artistic bohemians

struggling to survive disease in New York City. Both are critical and commercial

successes although their socio-cultural, aesthetic and ideological associations differ

in various ways.

7
CHAPTER ONE
The Power & The Glory
(Simon’s Song; Jesus Christ Superstar)

During the post-war years, America experienced a boom in the economy; a

rise in modern capitalism and a sixty percent increase in middle-class citizens.

Many saw 1950’s society as a place to embrace a sense of optimism and

togetherness. ‘Conformity became the essential feature of social behaviour’ (Wicke,

1990, p.29). However, ‘not everyone was caught up in the culture of conformity

during the 1950’s; rebels, especially young people, rejected the manners and mores

of the affluent society’ (Moss, 2000, p.357). Across America, the younger, more

affluent generation became self-expressive in terms of their identity, which evoked

a feeling of rebellion and acted as a catalyst in creating the term ‘teenager’.

Teenagers were influenced by new possibilities that were created purely for a target

audience of their age group, ‘underlining the extent to which… venues like drive-in

cinemas contributed to the formation of… a “teen culture”’ (Neale, 2000, p.122).

This unruly nature against social values was enhanced through the hostility towards

the government, schooling, and parents. ‘The protests it engendered among the

nation’s youth, the civil rights movement… increased sexual promiscuity and

recreational drug use among the teenage generation’ (Knapp, 2006, p.153). With a

newfound affluence, teenagers began to set popular trends, and subsequently mass

media and consumer spending revolved around popular, expressive music.

8
 Rock ‘n’ roll, a term coined by radio disc jockey Alan Freed, began with

performers like Little Richard (‘Good Golly Miss Molly’), Chuck Berry (‘Johnny B.

Goode’) and Buddy Holly (‘Peggy Sue’). However, the distinction between this and

other genres is somewhat hazy due to the diverse origins of rock ‘n’ roll and its

eclectic style. It ‘has been influenced by country music… classical music…

calypso… traditional folk styles’ (Belz, 1972, p.vii) as well as bebop, jazz, swing

and rhythm ‘n’ blues. These styles, performed and created on the most part by black

performers, soon acted as inspiration for teenage, white American performers such

as Elvis Presley. The first record that is considered to have defined this genre and

achieved national popularity was ‘Rock Around The Clock’ by Bill Haley and His

Comets in 1954 (Belz, 1972, p.37).

The emergence of rock 'n' roll signified a change in previous resistance to

this culture because the songs weren’t deemed to be commercially viable by music

producers. It was a genre of music that highlighted the attempt to break free from

the structure of society. ‘The sixties counterculturalists claimed rock as “liberating”,

the means by which the young would free themselves from adult hangups and

repression’ (Frith & McRobbie, 1990, p.372). Rock 'n' roll’s themes lyrically

articulated teenage angst: school, parents, cars, and love. Its success amongst

teenagers led to the rebranding of the genre as simply, rock - a hard hitting, forceful

and potent word.

9
 The influence of rock is far-reaching, and has had significant impact on

social attitudes, openly broaching alternative activities. This is due to the rebellious

nature of the genre, where all taboo subjects that have been prevalent throughout

American culture are explored in a positive manner. The discussion of these

prohibitied topics pushed rock music into a ‘countercultural age-based solidarity’

(Weinstein, 1999, p.107), whose aim it was to create self-expression and build a

barrier between the young and old:

The problems of the young seem important largely because they are
symptomatic of the society as a whole. The shift in sexual attitudes… draws
attention in itself not only because it contrasts sharply with the code of
behaviour subscribed to by adult society… but also because it illuminates in
a striking way the confusion about these questions among people of all ages
and all backgrounds.
(Hall & Whannel, 1990, pp.27-28).

Two of the most exposed topics in rock are its relationship with drugs and

sex/sexuality.

‘Rock, youth’s politics and pleasure, meshed with… drugs’ is an example of

resistance ‘to the "disciplinization" of the increasingly global hegemonic authority’

(Weinstein, 1999, pp.107-109). Jimi Hendrix, as a successful and popular

practitioner of rock music, is widely known for his association with the use of drugs

(Welch, 1982). A common opinion, although never officially confirmed, is that

Hendrix's drug use was an integral part of his creative process with his songs ‘Are

10
You Experienced?’, ‘Stone Free’ and ‘Purple Haze’, and personified the use of

drugs in music:

Purple haze all in my brain,

Lately things just don’t seem the same.

Actin’ funny, but I don’t know why,

’Scuse me while I kiss the sky.

(Knowles Bromell, 2002, p.104).

The positive interpretation of drugs by Hendrix, intentionally or not,

produced a ‘perception that the world was suddenly… changed’ (Knowles Bromell,

2002, p.104) due to an idealistic glorification of such illegality. This made the act

acceptable and a necessity for teenagers. If teenagers see Jimi Hendrix - an idolised

star and a so-called leader of this counterculture - admitting to drug use as a form of

creative fulfillment, it inspires them, as a form of rebellion, in a bid to become like

their idol. This epitomized the influence not only of artists, but also of fans who are

merged as a society through music. ‘Rock would not be possible, would be

unimaginable, without youth’ (Weinstein, 1999, p.102).

Rock music is predominantly known as a male-performed genre and ‘one

that involves a high degree of eroticisation of certain stances and attributes’ (Straw,

1990, p.105). Sexual promiscuity adds an object of desire and power. Eroticism

within music is most commonly associated with Elvis Presley - an icon of American

11
pop culture, who swung his hips and pelvis whilst singing to attract attention from

female fans to illustrate his masculinity. Artists like Elvis ‘present a spectacle of

male power and offer a musical means through which men can demonstrate their

manhood’ (Cohen, 2001, p.232). However, Presley’s ‘direct relationship between

the body and a 4:4 beat’ (Frith & Goodwin, 1990, p.370) shows that the sexual

rhythm of rock ‘n’ roll is another example of teenage defiance. The visual display of

sexuality rather than the social display of drugs through rock music is epitomized in

its instrumentation. For example, electric guitars are synonymous with rock music.

It is a long instrument that is played by the area containing the genitals. Steve

Waksman recalls Hendrix’s performance of the song ‘Wild Thing’ where he ‘turns

away from the crowd to simulate intercourse with his guitar and amplifier,

aggressively thrusting his hips’ (Waksman, 2006, p.68). Moreover, it creates a

phallocentric symbol. Its use as a tool of desire produces a sexual subtext of power.

The drums are another traditionally used instrument in rock music, where

the idea of beating a stick against an object releases aggressive tension. The

confrontational aspect of this music, ever present in music by artists such as

Jefferson Airplane, The Who and Jimi Hendrix, coincides within the rebellious

nature of breaking free against conservative, middle-class America making ‘‘rock

‘n’ roll… a revolution of attitude rather than content’ (Steyn, 2000, p.218). Rock

music is not only an aesthetic product but also, in itself, forms a new society and

new relationships between diverse elements of an existing society.

12
 Although rock music very quickly cemented its place as one of the most

influential genres, theatrical composers at that time ‘dismissed the new popular style

as a noisy, vulgar fad’ (Wollman, 2004, p.312). However, since the subsequent

emergence of concept albums like The Who’s Tommy and following that, the first

musical to amalgamate rock music and musical theatre – Hair, others have arrived

and attempted to create a new niche within the musical using the rock genre. Steyn

(2000) claims that ‘Broadway was the last hold-out against rock and its

‘revolution’’ (p.213). After detailing the theory of rock music, it is clear to see it

combines music with a performance – something prevalent in musical theatre. Why,

in that case, do ‘rock musicals’ need to use the additional ‘rock’ label? Does the

answer lie in its aesthetics or its intention?

13
 To Days of Inspiration
(La Vie Boheme; Rent)

Rock music is often depicted as a voice of the oppressed attempting to break

free from the restrictions of conventional society. Musicals that are considered part

of the ‘rock musical’ category set out to achieve this goal through their narrative.

For instance, The Rocky Horror Show and Hedwig & The Angry Inch (1998)

explore alternative sexual lifestyles, whilst Jonathan Larson’s autobiographical tick,

tick… BOOM! (2001) depicts his vision of leaving his monotonous restaurant job to

become the next greatest musical writer. Two of the most successful ‘rock musicals’

to have appeared on Broadway, Jesus Christ Superstar (1971) and Rent (1996), both

aim to achieve a sense of freedom whether it be a contemporary re-telling of the

story of Jesus Christ or a group of taboo, underground artists.

Superstar (Jesus Christ Superstar) highlights the political and cultural

struggles from Judas’ perspective and portrays Jesus as a fallible human rather than

an omniscient, divine figure. The story is intertwined with a ‘through sung rock

idiom’ (Steyn, 2000, p.220) libretto emphasizing the contemporary, counter-culture

sensibilities. Superstar was one of the first shows to specifically target the younger

generation by releasing the music as a concept album prior to turning it into a

theatrical production and secondly, through its use of rock star fandom. Andrew

Lloyd Webber creates a connection between modern day life and the biblical story

14
through the fan worship as shown in Simon Zealotes’ song where he and the rest of

Jesus’ disciples launch praise on him:

There must be over fifty thousand;

Screaming love and more for you…

Keep them yelling their devotion.

(Lloyd Webber, 1971, p.24).

Superstar depicts Jesus through the lifestyle of a modern rockstar, scattered

amongst the depiction of biblical events. ‘Webber sees Mick Jagger as his…

Jesus… “the passion of our counterculture,” another rock star who buckles under

the demands of his followers’ (Huffman, 1972, p.264). Here, the intent is that of a

rock connotation: a star performer who has thousands of fans in awe of him. He is

associated with women and freedom, and subsequently, like Jimi Hendrix and other

rock stars, Jesus dies at a young age. Tim Rice’s satirical references plant Superstar

firmly in the then-modern day, as the camp King Herod sings:

You are all we talk about,

The wonder of the year…

I only ask what I'd ask any superstar;

What is it that you have got,

That puts you where you are?

(Lloyd Webber, 1971, pp.51-52).

15
 A subversive, more loaded rock score than Lloyd Webber’s other biblical

musical, Joseph and The Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (1982), is prevalent: it

incorporates ‘distorted guitars, aggressive drumming, and bad attitude’ (Keightley,

2001, p.109). The show begins with a riff of an electric guitar that lasts until Judas

screeches the name “Jesus” with an unapologetic, forceful voice as if he was

screaming the word “Rock”. ‘Judas’s concern… is expressed in the very first

number… with panicked shrieks’ (Wollman, 2006, p.96). Immediatly, the audience

will know that they are watching a different type of show as it is from Judas’ point-

of-view, which is not in the same mould as traditional biblical retellings or the witty

comedies from Tin Pan Alley.

Yet Lloyd Webber still brings Superstar back to musical theatre traditions.

He uses popular styles yet the song ‘I Don’t Know How To Love Him’ ‘is a

traditional theatre ballad’ (Engel, 2006, p.88). Mary Magdalene’s ‘Everything’s

Alright’ is essentially a jazz song (Steyn, 2000, p.221) although, as previously

detailed, jazz is one of the founding origins of rock music. Superstar also features

gospel and pop amongst other genres that are connected in the history of rock

music. It is questionable as to whether the use of jazz music, for example, can be

considered as non-rock or indeed, part of a rock collective. Even with this possible

link, Superstar is still generically categorised as a ‘rock musical’. It can be said that,

on the surface, Lloyd Webber is removing Superstar from the style of traditional

Broadway shows with the use of rock music, rock stars and rock fandom in a

16
biblical setting no matter how much is actually incorporated, and consequently, is

breaking free from the norm.

Many consider Jonathan Larson’s Rent as a revolutionary ‘rock musical’

(Warfield, 2002, p.243). Rock groups of the past had sung only of sex with a

harmless, perfect attitude as in Hendrix’s ‘Foxy Lady’. Here, within a traditionally

conservative theatrical setting, Larson moves towards the opposite direction using

the AIDS virus – a new and dangerous part of 1990’s American culture that

emerged through sexual promiscuity. In 1996, the year of Rent’s Broadway debut,

rock music was unquestionably the mainstream and textually, Larson still utilizes

contemporary taboo subjects, explored originally in early rock music, by using

tabooed character traits: homosexuals (Collins), sexual promiscuity (Maureen),

cross-dressers (Angel) and drug users (Roger and Mimi) whose lifestyles break

away from social, middle class expectations – much like rock’s original impact. An

example of this can be seen in the song ‘La Vie Boheme’. The characters go into a

restaurant with no money, jump on the tables, create a commotion, and release all of

rock’s theoretical connotations by singing:

To going against the grain;

Going insane…

To riding your bike;

Midday past the three-piece suits…

17
 To any passing fad;

To being an ‘us’ for once, instead of a ‘them’!

(Larson, 1996, p.20).

The singing ventures into shouting, and turns into ‘a noisy celebration of youth and

non-conformity’ (Wollman, 2006, p.171). Like Superstar, although Rent features

rock songs, it also offers an influx of ‘other’ genres. The shows most celebrated and

recognisable song, ‘Seasons of Love’, is essentially a piano-based gospel song. Both

shows offer a variety of styles yet they are still titled ‘rock musical’. Jon Robyns,

who played Mark Cohen in Rent at the English Theatre in Germany, believes that

the acclaimed ‘rock musicals’ are as much about their intentions than the music they

are producing, rock or other:

People like musicals and people like rock music and it’s an opportunity to
enjoy both at the same time. They're also successful because the well written
ones have a good story and something to say about the topics that they
involve.
(J. Robyns, Personal Communication, August 24, 2006).

This would point to the intent of the show being based in rock theory rather than the

music itself. As with the teenage era of the 1950’s, these shows ask questions of

their society (and audience) to challenge social acceptances. Rent emerged on

Broadway at a time of glamorous, visual spectacles like Disney’s Beauty and the

Beast (1994) (Prece & Everett, 2002, p.263) whilst Superstar opened alongside the

revival of a traditional Broadway show: Bernstein’s On The Town (1944). Not only

were Lloyd Webber and Larson challenging Broadway’s traditionalism by using

rock music but also their intentions to defy the theatregoing, middle class society

18
and develop alternative ideologies meant that the musical itself was, in essence,

being challenged.

‘Rock musical’ composers seem to rely heavily on intent in their work.

However, this seemingly innovative plan of barrier-breaking dramatics is not new.

Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma! (1943), is heralded as one of the first

musicals in which every song had a direct relation and integration to the story, a

revolutionary idea amongst the revues of the 1940’s (Sears, 2002, p.122-124).

Although the intent of these shows differ, they come together in that fact that both

rock music and musical theatre are forms of entertainment that appeal to an

audience. Yet the reason ‘rock musicals’ are most associated as being part of a

revolution is because:

In trying to appeal to musical theatre and rock fans… the rare commercially
and critically successful rock musical is celebrated as a work of genius that
has managed to breathe new life into the musical theatre without negating
the raw energy and excitement that makes rock appealing in the first place.

(Wollman, 2004, p.313).

In this sense, the fact that creators have managed to amalgamate expressive, unruly

rock music in the traditionally conservative world of musical theatre is seemingly an

unfeasible challenge where very few succeed.

19
 If finding a successful balance is rare, why do writers feel the need to

express these alternative thoughts through a musical theatre format? Rock music

possesses a ‘creative integrity that “pop” lacks’ (Frith & McRobbie, 1990, p.373)

where ‘musicians are often viewed as uncompromised artists who bare their souls in

composition and performance, who share their “true” selves more completely with

the audience’ (Wollman, 2004, p.312). Traditionally, musical theatre has every

moment blocked with specific timing and then performed to a conservative musical

theatre audience, usually targetting the middle class, older generation who were

most likely the conformist parents of the teenager. This leaves fans of musicals not

truly accepting the influx of rock and rock musicians refusing to accept the forced

structure of the musical. Don Summa, the press agent for Rent, argues that:

For the people who really care about the music and know about the
difference … they’re not going to see this as rock music. It certainly has
rock motifs … but … my problem with “rock musical” is that it doesn’t get
the people who like rock to come, and it doesn’t get the people who like
musicals to come. So who’s gonna come?
(Summa (1998) cited in Wollman, 2006, p.174).

This theory has proven to be true with shows such as Via Galactica which failed to

find a successful unification and therefore lacked longevity as a musical.

Consequently, the risk of alienating both sets of target audiences when creating a

‘rock musical’ is a problem that creators need to overcome within its aesthetics.

20
CHAPTER TWO
Do You Think You’re What They Say You Are?
(Superstar; Jesus Christ Superstar)

My whole thing is that American popular music used to come from

theatre and Tin Pan Alley, and there’s no reason why contemporary
theatre can’t reflect real contemporary music… I love Kurt Cobain…
Leonard Bernstein, Sondheim. I absolutely love them.
(Larson (1996) cited in Istel, 1996, pp.13-17).

In devising a ‘rock musical’, creators need to overcome the ‘rock’ issue that

is considered problematic within musicals. Although they are often depicted as

being at opposite ends of the musical spectrum, ‘rock musicals’ do tend to

incorporate traditionally accepted Broadway traits. They both incorporate plot,

which although is realised through different styles, still contain ‘situations, time and

place, actions, characters’ (Frankel, 2000, p.9). Song is used in both to heighten the

action and develops the plot, such as with the I Am and I Want songs that ‘cover the

great majority of show songs’ (Frankel, 2000, p.95). Also, to varying degrees, ‘rock

musicals’ and musicals both use additional music for dramatic purposes: reprises,

overtures, interludes, segues and underscoring. The fact that ‘rock musicals’ use

aesthetic devices common in traditional shows helps us to move towards a view of

establishing a meaning and validity for the otherwise critically judged ‘rock

musical’. Are ‘rock musicals’ and traditional shows actually different? This chapter

will look at the aesthetic structure and narratives of Rent and Superstar – both

shows that are arranged differently yet retell previously written stories and use, in

part, traditionally accepted musical forms to achieve this.

21
 Rent possesses a traditionally incorporated form – the integrated musical.

Larson ‘wanted to do something that has almost never worked: combine the energy

of rock with the power of live theatre’ (Lipsky, 1996, p.106). It interlaces drama and

music as seen with shows such as Oklahoma! (1943), yet it is another Rodgers and

Hammerstein musical, The King and I (1951), that parallels Larson’s narrative in

Rent. ‘The King and I features a first act that spans a year and a second act that

spans a day’ whilst Larson mirrors this by having a one day first act and a year long

second act (Wollman, 2006, p.171). The show is an adaptation of Giacomo

Puccini’s opera La Bohéme (1896) with modern variations being that the East

Village is the setting rather than 1830’s Paris and AIDS replaces consumption as the

deadly illness. La Bohéme character names are also used and updated

(Colline/Collins, Rodolfo/Roger and Benoît/Benny). Rent’s Mimi, whose character

in La Bohéme is updated from a mischievous seamstress to a drug-addicted, HIV

positive erotic dancer, survives illness with a traditionally upbeat Broadway musical

ending unlike her Puccini counterpart.

Growing up, Larson attempted to follow in the footsteps of legendary

composers such as Cole Porter and more notably, Stephen Sondheim. He focused

his composing on musicals and not rock music, thus making him a theatrical writer

more than a rock musician obtaining a grant from ‘his mentor Stephen Sondheim,

and … the Richard Rodgers Award from the American Acadamy of Arts and

Letters’ (Sullivan, 1996, p.3). Larson and Sondheim met on several occasions, with

22
the latter sending out recommendations to various producers in an effort to help his

protégé (McDonnell & Silberger, 1997). Rent’s eclectic score pays homage to his

heroes as the song recites the names of places, activities and artists that serve as a

symbol of rebellion. Steyn (2000) notes that Larson’s ‘La Vie Boheme’ proceeds

with ‘a Porteresque laundry list of downtown pleasures’ (p.208) much like ‘Seasons

of Love’. Steyn’s perspective is that Jonathan Larson’s word play suffers from a

lack of Cole Porter’s talent. Indeed, Porter was one of the most successful

composers in creating lyrical rhymes and references in songs ‘You’re The Top’

(Anything Goes (1934)) and ‘Brush Up Your Shakespeare’ (Kiss Me, Kate (1949)).

Yet, Larson’s research into what was created in the Golden Age of Broadway

reinforces his own compositions. However, most influentially, it is Larson’s

Sondheim connections that are most apparent within Rent, for example, in the title

song the cast of Bohemians sing:

How can you connect in an age where

strangers, landlords, lovers

your own blood cells betray?

What binds the fabric together when

the raging, shifting winds of change

keep ripping away.

(Larson, 1996, p.6).

This lengthened, list-like structure is what makes the work of Sondheim so

innovative, making him a musical auteur. His elongated, inverted sentences of

23
sharp, quick wording are evident in his catalogue of work, such as his fairytale-

themed musical, Into The Woods (1987) where The Witch exclaims in the prologue:

He was robbing me, raping me,

rooting through my rutabaga,

raiding my arugula and ripping up the rampion…

I should have laid a spell on him right there.

Could have turned him into stone,

Or a dog or a chair.

(Sondheim & Lapine, 1987, p.19).

Dramatically, it is evident that Larson, whether purposely or subconsciously,

constructed parts of Rent in homage to his favourite composers. He attempted to

combine his eclectic taste in music with a strong basis in musical theatre whilst

using a rock band. ‘Larson’s music… is written in the styles of electric rock, salsa,

Motown, bebop, and reggae, with homage to Stephen Sondheim’ (Barranger, 2005,

p.340). He uses musical theatre (‘I’ll Cover You’), rock music (‘One Song Glory’)

and styles in between (‘Tango Maureen’). In this sense, the huge gap that

supposedly differentiates rock musicals and musical theatre has become slightly

blurred within the use of other genres.

The use of different genres shows the eclectic nature of the composer and his

attempts to amalgamate ‘rock’ and ‘musical’ by incorporating the styles ‘in

24
between’ but, in contrast, using a purely rock-based score can possibly pinpoint the

negatives of a ‘rock musical’. If a show uses only one genre of music from overture

to finale, there is no heightening of emotion or any low, reflective points. Frankel

(2000) states that musicals need ‘dramatic diversity’ (p.59). Jule Styne says, in

reference to ‘rock musicals’, that ‘it’s the same percussive beat… happiness or

sadness, it’s all the same. That’s not dramatic’ (Styne (n.d.) cited in Steyn, 2000,

p.218). Although generic in his claim, Styne pinpoints a feasible explanation as to

why ‘rock’ in musicals may therefore be unsuitable for theatre.

Like any show attempting to be innovative, Rent does possess some

intentional dramatic differences. Such a difference lies in its juxtaposition of the

‘rags to riches’ storytelling structure that is prevalent in traditional Broadway

shows. These musicals take the audience out of their own everyday, monotonous

world and make them feel happy because of the show’s heightened and often

utopian nature, which possess fairytale endings and glamorises aspects of social

negativity, for example, gambling in Guys and Dolls (1950) and choreographed

dance-fights in West Side Story (1957). Rent, nevertheless, manipulates this

approach and makes the audience feel happy about feeling sad. It possesses an

‘upbeat, ultimately unthreatening depiction of squatting, drug addiction, and AIDS’

(Wollman, 2006, p.176).

Although, Larson has brought Puccini’s opera into the ‘Generation X’

(Weinstein, 1999, p.109), his dramatic themes are based in musical theatre. If there

25
is a vast difference between both genres, the evidence supporting Larson’s work as

a musical composer not a rock musician pushes the ‘rock musical’ away from being

a completely alternative format but more an updating of the traditional musical.

Andrew Lloyd Webber, on the other hand, created Superstar with a different

technique. It was first released as a concept album to intrigue fans of rock music

before it was presented in a musical framework. The album, which followed the

successful release of The Who’s Tommy, wasn’t a recording of the complete

musical, but it was united by the running theme of the build up to Jesus’s last days

before the crucifixion. Snelson (2004) claims that Superstar ‘was a reflection of the

times, annexing to a classically informed style hard rock’s driving rhythms and riffs,

and progressive rock’s acceptance of and experimentation with a wide variety of

stylistic references’ (p.64). It is seemingly the case, as detailed previously, that

because Lloyd Webber does use distinctly recognisable rock music aesthetics from

popular culture within his score it is immediatly categorized as ‘rock musical’

without further consideration. For many years, ‘other’ genres such as gospel

(‘Hosanna’) have featured in the scores of musicals and, as mentioned previously,

Superstar is no different. Like Rent, although rock music is featured there is a

strong, pervading sense of continuation through other styles.

This is also evident in Superstar’s use of solely telling its story through

music – an idiom recognisable in opera but that alone does not constitute it as an

opera. Music pervades from the repetetively tense overture to the emotional finale.

26
Although the story has a linear narrative, it removed the need of a book to tell the

story as Lloyd Webber felt the power of the show laid directly within the music and

lyrics. Whilst he has enjoyed multiple successes by using this sung through format,

when he has attempted a conventional book musical, for example with Jeeves

(1975), the results haven’t been as positive (Snelson, 2004, p.26). Therefore,

although using an operatic idiom gives the rock music in Superstar a traditional

link, it has also reinfornced Mark Steyn’s view that this is the only way to

legitimately use rock in musicals (Steyn, 2000, 217).

In reference to the plot and songs, the term ‘rock musical’ seems to be

loosely applied. The inspiration for the work of Andrew Lloyd Webber and

Jonathan Larson is, in part, routed within history and therefore, reasoning for

wanting to blend rock music into the musical becomes logical. By using traditional

ideas and adding a socio-culturally modern element into the composition, these

musicals follow the same path musical theatre has consistently undergone: a sense

of revision. This would seemingly validate and subsequently eradicate the problems

of creators wanting to combine musical theatre and rock music in an attempt to

create a successful and legitimate piece of theatrical art. In the application of

underlying traditional references as well as various additional genres that have been

continuously used in a musical format, it validates the use of rock to make the show

modern and innovative, thus making it a ‘musical with rock’ rather than a ‘rock

musical’.

27
 Connection: In An Isolating Age
(What You Own; Rent)

If the only complete aesthetic separation between musical theatre and ‘rock

musicals’ is in the dynamics of its drama, then this needs to be studied in more

depth to find why such a difference occurs and why it is used. Angst-ridden

characters are givens within rock music and rock musicals. Is this character trait an

integral part of a ‘rock musical’? Does the apparent destitution of the character and

their environment legitimise a rock theme to be explored within a musical setting?

From his opening scream, Judas’ perspective is ridden with torment and

anxiety. His character arc is the only one in Superstar that contains a rock score

from beginning (‘Heaven On Their Minds’) to end (‘Superstar’). Judas’s anger and

frustration never departs and thus, the rock never departs. The characters in Rent

illustrate their anger and frustration from the beginning with the title song, followed

by other songs about suffering: ‘Will I’, ‘Life Support’ and ‘Take Me or Leave Me’.

In the ‘rock musical’ Hedwig and The Angry Inch, Hedwig’s anger arises through

an operation that has gone wrong whilst tick… tick… BOOM! features Larson as a

distressed, unsuccessful individual. The mood of each piece is that of unhappiness

and therefore, each character attempts to release themselves of their anger. The

unglamorous, harsh vocal qualities of rock music tie in with their unglamorous and

harsh positions in life. This fits in with the ethos of the rebellious rock star and

breaking free from anything that is ‘current’. This refers back to an earlier point that

28
‘rock ‘n’ roll is a revolution of attitude rather than content’ (Steyn, 2000, p.218).

Albeit such personalities are reminiscent of famous characters like Jud Fry from

Oklahoma! and Joey Evans in Pal Joey (1940), their negative personalities and

faults are, however, still heightened in a conventional Broadway style. From this

perspective, if a musical were being judged solely on the mood of the piece, then

labelling these shows as ‘rock musicals’ and not the ‘musicals with rock’ titling

mentioned above, becomes valid, as it is the characteristics, emotion and tone that is

considered ‘rock’ rather than simply, the music:

What makes a bad musical for me, in any genre, rock or otherwise, is when
the performers place the music and emotion before the words and story. I
think that doing the latter rather than the former is the difference between
rock music and successful rock musical theatre.
(J. Robyns, Personal Communication, August 22, 2006).

Other factors that reinforce the dynamics of the drama are that of extra-

textual elements such as set and costume. Rent’s sparse set of scaffolding, tables

and chairs with no bright colours and flying backdrops enhances the dirty and ailing

nature of the show’s theme. The Nederlander Theatre, where Rent has been housed

since its move from Off-Broadway, is away from the main canon of Broadway

theatres. The theatre is ‘badly in need of renovation. Because of its fraying carpets,

fading curtain, peeling paint, worn seat covers, and unfortunate location – the

dilapidated Nederlander… made the perfect home for Rent’ (Wollman, 2006,

p.175).

29
 Superstar, although set in the same timeframe as in the Bible, is consistently

updated to reflect the wants and needs of an ever changing society in an attempt to

appeal to the contemporary, theatregoing public. The 2000 Broadway revival

version of Superstar has Jesus’ disciples dressed in modern clothing: jeans and

colourful t-shirts. Vivid colours of the cast penetrate the stage and nothing blends

in, as the disciples are individual and stand out amongst the crowd (Wollman, 2006,

pp.215-216). Tony Vincent, who played Simon Zealotes in the newest film version

(Edwards & Morris, 2000) and Judas in the revival, had bleached blond hair, a

leather jacket and tattoos – a style that would relate to a young, rock audience.

Similarly in Rent, each character has their own style to emphasize their bohemia.

Maureen wears skin-tight outfits, Angel is a cross dresser and Roger wears a leather

jacket, which is an artistic motif of rock artists.

In continuing a contemporary outlook, Jesus is treated as a modern day

superstar, as if he was the Kurt Cobain of his time. Alexander Walker (1974) says

that ‘stars… are the direct or indirect reflection of the needs, drives and dreams of…

society’ (p.xi). His disciples, as a fan culture, reach out for Jesus as a celebrity. The

disciples are the rebellious youth of the rock culture. Fighting for Jesus with

machine guns, taking photos of him as if he was a Hollywood film star emphasizes

Lloyd Webber’s attraction to a superstar. This features consistently in his other

musicals with the characters of Evita and Joseph. This effect gives Superstar an

innovative viewpoint. The constant reworking appeals to the generation of ‘now’

rather than ‘yesteryear’ and therefore, works in alignment with the contemporary

music that is used. ‘It is impossible to imagine how a more conventional Broadway

30
score could tell [these stories] as well’ (Warfield, 2002, p.244). The music ‘is not

suitable for other… cultures. It would seem out of place in… Guys and Dolls or The

King and I’ (Engel, 2006, p.89).

The musicals narrative, tone and other aesthetics create a valid use of the

term ‘rock musical’, rather than specifically the eclectic music. Whether this

eclecticism devalues the use of rock or aids it is questionable. Either way, rock

music is used as an additional layer. In this sense, the ‘rock musical’ seems

appropriate however ignoring the music aspect still poses questions. However, the

fear of alienating both sets of target audiences, as documented by Don Summa, is on

the surface avoidable as audiences with different likes and attitudes will be able to

find a connection within the performance whether it be through rock music,

traditional Broadway songs or other styles.

31
CHAPTER THREE
You’ve Begun To Matter More Than The Things You Say
(Heaven On Their Minds; Jesus Christ Superstar)

In 1984, French social theorist Pierre Bourdieu assessed the theory of

consumption and its influences. The significance of Bourdieu’s work relates to the

concept of symbolic capital, which can be described as the structures that create a

person’s social distinction. He uses it to create differences between individuals and

their classification through different types of consumption: social, cultural and

economic. Such consumption is established in early life and family upbringing; then

cultivated further through education and continues into adulthood (Bourdieu,

1979/1986, p.1). Bourdieu’s ‘theory demands that all artworks should be equally

devoid of intrinsic aesthetic value, deriving their power solely from their operation

as markers of social class’ (Carey, 2006, p.119). One must consider in what ways

the writing of Andrew Lloyd Webber and Jonathan Larson establishes themselves

through their consumption and social behaviour. Do their cultural upbringing and

preferences align themselves with their artistic visions and in doing so speak to the

people around them?

Andrew Lloyd Webber was brought up in a middle class household with

upper class values. His family lived ‘in London’s South Kensington… his father…

was a professional organist and composer’ (Snelson, 2004, p.5). From an early age,

opera and classical music, two forms that are socially recognised as high culture,

32
were constant household themes (Prece & Everett, 2002, p.251). He states that ‘the

first two records I ever heard were the Nutcracker Suite and Elvis Presley’s

Jailhouse Rock’ (Richmond, 1995, p.13). The recognition of a rock ‘n’ roll song

from childhood acts as a foreboding of his rock compositions, yet it is the

recollection of classical music like the Nutcracker Suite which has cemented his

status. Taste in culture is referred to by Bourdieu as one’s habitus, which relates to

the ‘mechanisms which control access to… and produce a particular class’

(Bourdieu, 1979/1986, p.102). These mechanisms are a set of choices made by the

person that subsequently evoke a sense of self definition. As a consequence of being

labelled only in a certain hierarchal position within society, a person reacts and

experiences the position which they hold. Bourdieu suggests that ‘humans inter-

generationally create the conditions within which they are conditioned’ (Robbins,

1991, p.171). Being raised in a musical family, attending the highly reputable

Westminster School and Oxford University, and being exposed to operatic

compositions (Coveney, 1999, pp.43-44) means that Lloyd Webber’s way of life is

an act of personal construction and moulded ‘by the ‘habitus’ of [his] class’

(Robbins, 1991, p.120).

Throughout his career, Lloyd Webber has maintained and expanded his

upper class image: ‘his great passions are essentially those of an English country

gentlemen – country churches, bell-ringing, horses and Pre-Raphaelite paintings’

(Bradley, 2004, p.109). Engulfing himself in this way of life has brought Lloyd

Webber social and economic success: along with being made a peer of the realm to

become Lord Lloyd-Webber (Coveney, 1999, p.302). Such developments, including

33
the economic value of his musical successes and artwork, reinforce Lloyd Webber’s

preferences and activities reflective of an upper class person.

However, in an attempt to appeal to a mass audience, Lloyd Webber

undermines his higher class ideology by deciding to include rock music – the

dominant form of expression within the subculture of society. Due to its rebellious

symbolism and vivid language it is not associated with a high society that contains a

conservative and rigid structure, and in attempting to establish Superstar as a

successful musical Lloyd Webber felt he needed to appeal to the mainstream of

teenagers. Lloyd Webber is seemingly confronting his own placing in society and

undermining the ideology that has shaped his life and higher class ideals. He

reinforces this through his admission to listening to Elvis Presley as a child even

though he has followed a classical and operatic pathway, thus claiming a contrast to

validate his eclectic melding.

By social definition, Andrew Lloyd Webber is not a rock star and evidently

neither did he want to be one. But in using forms of opera and rock, and ultimately

‘the collisions and comparisons… of both vernacular and high culture’ (Snelson,

2004, p.191), he is making a social statement by trying to appeal to a mass audience

through what Bourdieu describes as social agents, which in this scenario are rock

music and theatrical entertainment (Lechte, 1994, pp.45-48). He takes his operatic

and musical knowledge and dresses it up with ‘rock’ statements and in claiming that

Jesus Christ Superstar is both ‘rock’ and ‘opera’, he is trying to target a wider,

34
eclectic audience. He acknowledges the musical construction and impact of the rock

genre without ever consuming the youthful, rebellious philosophy of people that

utilise this music and in turn, doesn’t move away from the socio-cultural position

that he holds.

Although Lloyd Webber uses these methods to attract a mass audience, he

does not opt to remove himself from a higher class platform and consume an ‘other’

culture. He never makes any attempt to be seen as a member of the rock subculture

and doesn’t relate to the people of this society on a personal level. Seemingly, he

would be aware of rock icons such as Jimi Hendrix and Kurt Cobain, being

conscious of the construction of their music and the effects that it creates socially.

However, Lloyd Webber would probably not attend rock concerts as he is not part

of a society that follows a rock lifestyle. For that reason his undermining of opera

through rock is minimised and is not seen as adopting a constructed lifestyle to

consume this social ‘other’. Therefore, Andrew Lloyd Webber is ostensibly allowed

to produce works in any form and still legitimately call it ‘opera’ or ‘high art’.

Jonathan Larson, alternatively, symbolises and embodies the subculture that

Rent depicts. From an early age, Larson consumed both popular rock music and

theatrical performance in the middle class suburb of White Plains, New York. His

talent for the arts was rewarded when ‘two awards in 1988-89 brought him to the

notice of Stephen Sondheim… and a $45,000 Richard Rodgers Development Grant

in 1994’ (Warfield, 2002, p.243). Bourdieu’s analysis of Larson would conclude

35
that his ‘aesthetic judgement is an eminently social faculty, resulting from class

upbringing and education’ (Wacquant, 2000, p.115) and he was destined to replicate

these intrinsic factors within his art.

However, it was Larson’s move to Manhattan in an attempt to be closer to

the home of musical theatre where he attached himself to the countless other

poverty stricken, lower class, sometimes homeless, struggling artists and saw an

affinity with this lifestyle change. Larson, ‘whose loft space apartment in downtown

Manhattan had a leaking roof, worn-out furniture and a doorbell which did not

work,’ (Bradley, 2004, p.174) was a person and an artist who lived and acted with a

sense of freedom in relation to conventional guidelines. More significantly, this

lifestyle was a choice and not forced.

His family were middle class Americans, yet Larson enjoyed this bohemian

existence, and adapted to this new ethos and social status. His friend Ann Egan

claims that he had ‘an artist’s lifestyle. He was as poor as we all were when we

decided our art came first’ (Egan (n.d.) cited in McDonnell & Silberger, 1997,

p.11). Bourdieu’s theory suggests that Larson developed his symbolic capital

through his subconscious social and economic standard of living. Larson’s

development was by no means a subconscious choice, however, it is apparent that

much of what Larson wrote about in his music was of a social hierarchy that he

joined and felt that he belonged to. The socio-cultural ideology that Jonathan Larson

36
represents and Pierre Bourdieu analyses, is allowing him to justifiably classify his

work as ‘bohemian’.

Lloyd Webber and Larson have taken dissimilar personal routes in their

behaviour and utilisation of the ideology, both theoretically and socio-culturally,

that relates to rock music. Yet through this social difference, they have both created

mainstream ‘rock musicals’ that appealed to theatregoers and were successful in

achieving their individual intentions.

37
 I’m A New Yorker! Fear’s My Life!
(Life Support; Rent)

Where the creators of Jesus Christ Superstar and Rent differ further is in the

application of this consumption to their writings meaning. The story that Lloyd

Webber is trying to tell, the final week before Jesus Christ’s crucifixion, is purely a

retelling of an already established, biblical story. Lloyd Webber would suggest that

although his life didn’t shape the story he is telling, his upbringing did inspire him

into focusing on Jesus Christ as a topic to explore:

If one had had religion sort of rammed down one’s throat when one was in

school… it was inevitable, I should think, that Christ would be one of the

first subjects one would choose.

(Lloyd Webber (1973) cited in Bradley, 2004, p.121).

However, it is how he tells this story that has been affected by his symbolic

capital. In keeping in line with his status, Lloyd Webber’s sung-through technique

(Swain, 2002, p.317), for example, has been a constant within his musicals deeming

him original for a contemporary society and an auteur for an era that generically

doesn’t use operatic idioms. This is because musicals in the twentieth century

generically contain a book to complement the songs. Frankel states that ‘book

38
musicals are musical theatre’s core’ (2000, p.2). For example, 42nd Street (1980)

and Dreamgirls (1981) are internationally recognised and award winning musicals

that intertwined music and dialogue in the 1980’s, however, Lloyd Webber’s

through-composed Cats (1981) and then The Phantom of the Opera (1986) became

two of the longest running shows on Broadway in and amongst the conventional

book musical (Frankel, 2000, pp.xi-xii). Lloyd Webber is continuously referencing

his priviliged upbringing where ‘there is a relation between culture and class’

(Zeuner, 2003, p.173) and his use of techniques that reference the operatic form

emphasise this.

He gave the story a contemporary feel to make it relevant to the 1960’s

younger generation that had been ‘ignoring God and organized Christian religion’

(Morrow, 1973, p.155). Superstar was produced at a time when Jesus was being

reinvented for the younger generation in popular culture through the Jesus-Rock

Movement. Patrick Morrow believes Jesus’ ‘legitimisation to the youth culture

through appearances in songs’ (Morrow, 1973, p.155), specifically exploited by

rock musicians, gave Jesus a new impetus to the teenage lifestyle and more notably,

a social connection between religion and popular culture. Artists who had a strong

teenage following at that period such as George Harrison (‘My Sweet Lord’), Billy

Joel (‘Travelin’ Prayer’) and Kris Kristofferson (‘Jesus Was A Capricorn’) launched

Jesus into the music industry. Nevertheless, with the Christian revivalism, it makes

the emergence of Lloyd Webber’s work come ‘at a time when a young audience can

accept Jesus’ spirituality as real and valid’ (Morrow, 1973, p.165). This is present in

Superstar through Caiaphas who labels him ‘cool’ (Lloyd Webber, 1971, p.18)

39
whilst there is contextual reference to this revivalism through the use of the term

‘Jesus-mania’ (Lloyd Webber, 1971, p.19).

Lloyd Webber ‘seemed to be equating the founder of Christianity with the

idols of pop music and show business’ (Bradley, 2004, p.122). As a result of

religion being used as a form of contemporary entertainment, Superstar garnered a

greater social value and therefore, a larger audience, thus making it the perfect time

for this piece of work to materialize: ‘Any artist who manages to gain a mass

audience must be “cynical” in exploiting the current trends’ (Huffman, 1972,

p.260).

Although Rent uses La Bohéme as inspiration, the story is ostensibly an

autobiographical account of Jonathan Larson’s own life and also the life of the

people around him, friends and strangers, in New York City in the 1990’s. When

the characters question society, for example, when Mark Cohen asks “How do you

document real life, when real life’s getting more like fiction each day?” (Larson,

1997, p.7), Larson ‘poses a central challenge for artists living and creating in a

consumer dominated world, and a terribly perplexing question for young people

searching for identity’ (Sullivan, 1996, p.3). The same could be asserted with the

question “Jesus Christ. Who are you? What have you sacrificed?” (Lloyd Webber,

1971, p.58) put to Jesus in the title song in Superstar as well as more forcefully in

‘The Arrest’:

40
 Do you feel that you’ve had the breaks?

What would you say were your big mistakes?

Do you think that you may retire?

Did you think you would get much higher?

How do you view your coming trial?

Have your men proved at all worthwhile?

(Lloyd Webber, 1971, p.48).

In this instance, they are ‘much more interested in asking questions than in

providing answers’ (Wollman, 2006, p.95) in the position of a social commentator.

Larson would also place himself within this role, confirming that ‘when I write my

own work, I have something I need to say’ (Larson (1996) cited in Istel, 1996,

pp.13-17). In ‘bringing the cast downstage to sing anthemically into our faces’

(Steyn, 2000, p.211) Rent ‘depicts a side of the “Bohemian life” Puccini never

gave… direct or implicit social commentary’ (Jones, 2003, p.349). However, how

much of an impact do the lyrical questions in both shows possess?

Although Lloyd Webber is assigning questions, he does not answer them.

He is telling people that they exist but does not seek to engage in a form of debate

or discussion. The questioning in the scene ‘The Arrest’, something that he believes

‘might have happened’ (Lloyd Webber (1973) cited in Swain, 2002, p.315),

attempts to find a modern relevancy to religion. However, Lloyd Webber is

seemingly eradicating its own importance and meaning because his Jesus is a rock

star with emotion rather than a biblical, omniscient figure and therefore any link

41
between this contemporary interrogation style of social commentary and religion is

ostensibly unfounded.

Nevertheless, where Lloyd Webber does successfully use these questions, as

a form of social commentary, is when Jesus asks God about his crucifixion through

the song ‘Gethsemane’. Illustrating a fearful and nervous Jesus who condemns and

queries Gods decisions is more passionate and forceful than the characters

questioning Jesus’ motives in ‘The Arrest’, when the character is subversive and

modern (1970’s) in attitude. Therefore, in giving Jesus an uncertainty that causes

him to ask genuine questions of God and therefore, valid religious questions at a

time of Christian revivalism, Superstar is, at this point, commentating socially

through religion. In the ‘Gethsemane’ scene, Jesus asks:

If I die, what will be my reward?

Why, why should I die?

Can you show me now that I will not be killed in vain?

Why then am I scared to finish what I started.

What you started – I didn’t start it.

(Lloyd Webber, 1971, pp.44-48).

Robert Brustein remarks that ‘religion was the one thing missing from Jesus Christ

Superstar’ (Brustein (1979) cited in Swain, 2002, p.316). Although a broad

42
statement, religion does indeed hold a minimal interest in the narrative. It could be

said that Lloyd Webber’s aim wasn’t to create a new religion but rather write a

modern take on the events and in doing so, question the intentions of the characters

from a human point of view.

Jonathan Larson, alternatively, is not making any original interpretations of

the social problems presented in Rent. Steyn suggests, although somewhat broadly,

that ‘Larson doesn’t produce a single original thought – on sex, Aids, poverty,

American capitalism’ (2000, p.209) as they were topics that, during the 1990’s,

were already prevalent in the news and media. Additionally, the use of social

statements in musical theatre is not a new idea either. ‘Musicals, like all popular

texts and forms of art, have an explicitly reflexive relationship with the societies

from which they stem’ (Walsh & Platt, 2003, p.1). Hair created a socio-cultural

connection between the hippy characters and its like-minded audience (Knapp,

2006, p.154) whilst the depictions of homosexuality in La Cage Aux Folles (1983)

are notable examples (Jones, 2003, p.340). The struggle to be accepted socially was

illustrated in the decade previous to Rent in the 1960’s-based Nine (1982) which

revolved around a midlife crisis (much like Larson’s tick… tick… BOOM!). Whilst

Falsettoland (1990), reworked as Falsettos in 1992, depicted the then-unnamed

AIDS disease (Jones, 2003, p.338). Although what Larson is saying isn’t an

‘original thought’ nor is the use of it in a ‘rock musical’ new, his questioning - like

Lloyd Webber’s – is lacking an answer to the fundamental problems of society.

43
 Whilst he may not make new points, Larson does uses the song ‘What You

Own’ in Rent to make ‘firm points about modern living and selling out to the

establishment’ (J. Robyns, Personal Communication, August 24, 2006):

You're living in America,

At the end of the millennium,

You're living in America,

Leave your conscience at the tone…

So I own not a notion,

I escape and ape content,

I don't own emotion - I rent!

(Larson, 1996, p.30).

The line ‘I don't own emotion - I rent!’ (Larson, 1996, p.30) is an interesting

addition. Typically, the use of the term own is about a possession of a physical item.

In this instance, the term is used as ownership of a psychological state. Larson is

suggesting that, as a lower class subculture, they can’t afford to have feeling let

alone items. He is in a social position, surrounded by AIDS, that whatever they do

own in life, physically and emotionally, is only brief. Even the title of the show,

Rent, is a word associated with temporality and not fixed. ‘Everything is ephemeral,

inconstant, passing away: “Everything is rent”’ (Metzer, 2001, p.82) especially love

and emotion.

44
 Yet, where Rent does make a significant impact on a social level lies in

Larson’s death. Whilst analysis of his death in reference to the effect it had on the

musical as a whole will be critiqued later in this paper, he became a respected social

commentator through media labelling. ‘The media took great interest… Rent thus

became central to countless human-interest stories’ (Wollman, 2006, p.172). In a

subculture filled with disease, death and this idea of temporality, Larson became a

casualty of the society that he questions and therefore, garnered a greater social

importance.

‘What You Own’ is sung (in part) by Mark Cohen: a character who is

autobiographically comparable to Larson himself. Larson uses segments from his

own life and stories from his friends’ lives, some of whom he ‘lost… to Aids’

(Bradley, 2004, p.174), as part of storylines and character names. For example,

Mark takes part in an AIDS support group with Collins and Angel. Whilst there

Mark hears stories from other sufferers called Gordon and Pam, characters created

from Larson’s life:

When my friends Gordon and Pam and Matt all became HIV-positive, they
asked me to go to meetings… I just responded to how they viewed life and
death… I wrote the Life Support scene as an attempt to capture what goes
on.
(Larson (n.d.) cited in Rapp, 2006, p.109).

However, Rent not only approved Bourdieu’s ideas on consumption’s

influence, but also paralleled it when Larson died after watching the final dress

45
rehearsal before its off-Broadway debut ‘due to an undiagnosed aortic aneurysm’

(Warfield, 2002, p.243). The show is a symbol for enjoying life in the midst of

dying young and Larson’s sudden death at the age of 35 as he was about to see Rent

released to a mass audience, achieved ‘a darkly exquisite synthesis of life and art’

(Steyn, 2000, p.208). The autobiographical connection that blurs the line that

separates Larson from Rent resonated even more with audiences causing each

performance to sell out. This begs the question, would the musical have connected

as much with its audience as a show by itself if Larson’s untimely death had not

occurred? Jon Robyns considers that:

Rent hadn't been developed from workshop status when Larson died… Had
Larson lived longer to develop the show… would it have been so
successful? My guess is probably not as the uncut diamond quality is what
made Rent stand out originally. Unfortunately, this is near impossible to
recreate and so Rent has become a photocopy of a photocopy… and been
performed by cast that weren't around to witness the conception of Larson’s
ideas.
(J. Robyns, Personal Communication, August 24, 2006).

From Robyns’ point of view, the sentiment that Rent emotes might have gone astray

over time because new casts may struggle to fully understand the autobiographical

nature, and the intense media publicity due to Larson’s death would, in time, fade

away. However, as one of Broadway’s longest running musicals and with the

emergence of international productions that have spanned over a decade since

Larson’s death, it is clear that Rent’s appeal as a stand alone ‘rock musical’ still

exists. ‘Rent feels as if Larson poured everything he had into it: it was his world, the

only world he knew’ (Steyn, 2000, p.210). Bourdieu’s ‘concern to analyse

inequality and class distinction at a structural rather than at an ideological level’

(Lechte, 1994, p.45) means that class structures in society are influenced by human

46
consumption. Rent is made up of the life that Larson had led: his society and the

people around him as well as autobiographical situations. ‘I wrote this show about

my life. About the lives of my friends’ (Larson (n.d.) cited in Rapp, 2006, p.102).

Bourdieu’s conclusion is ‘that taste has nothing to do with intrinsic aesthetic

values in the objects it chooses. It is a marker of class, reflecting educational level,

social origin and economic power’ (Carey, 2006, p.118). Through different

applications of social distinction, both Larson and Lloyd Webber have found the

right balance and mix between aesthetics and socio-cultural significance to create a

successful formula for the ‘rock musical’ to work.

Due to the many differences between the two shows, it begs the question:

what is the link between the success of Superstar and Rent? Superstar, as a concept

album initially, marketed the music to the public so that they could listen in their

homes. ‘Only after their enormous commercial success as albums were they put into

stage production’ (Swain, 2002, p.317). Following Superstar, musicals promoting

already established music have been successful in drawing in audiences, for

example, with the popular music of Abba in Mamma Mia! (1999). Rent’s media

exploitation of an unexpected happening, Larson’s death, along with the stencilled,

unglamorous logo advertisements that as a ‘minimalist campaign helped sell

$750,000 worth of tickets… [and] at roughly the same time, a line of clothing

inspired by the musical was placed on sale in… Bloomingdales’ (Wollman, 2006,

p.173). The link in creating a success is not found within their aesthetics or the

47
social analysis of their creation but a strong possibility is in the way each show has

been shrewdly marketed.

48
CONCLUSION
Think Twice
(You’ll See; Rent)

The problems that creators might face when trying to mould rock music and

musical theatre is alleviated by their categorisation as ‘musical’ but increase when

they are credited as ‘rock musicals’. In using Jesus Christ Superstar and Rent as

case studies, it is apparent that when analysed both fall into the category of the

former and not the latter. They both incorporate many different styles of traditional

musical theatre and contemporary music albeit with strong influences of rock music.

However, as far back as The Beggar’s Opera (1728) and its use of folk music,

musical theatre has always incorporated contemporary music of the era. ‘Composers

routinely acknowledged popular idioms – jazz and ragtime, for example – by

appropriating them for theatrical purposes’ (Wollman, 2006, p.1). Therefore the use

of rock music in a musical setting is valid and at the time of its socio-cultural

expansion within America, was the right time in history for Andrew Lloyd Webber

to release Jesus Christ Superstar and years later, the emergence of Jonathan

Larson’s Rent thus making each musically credible.

However, as noted in chapter two, affixing the title ‘rock musical’ is

seemingly a misrepresentation of the aesthetics of each musical due to the

recognisable “other” styles that are integrated. Tom Viertel argues that these shows

are an example of ‘a theatrical composer utilizing rock forms’ (Viertel (1998) cited

49
in Wollman, 2006, p.173). Therefore, each show is purely a ‘musical with rock’

rather than a ‘rock musical’.

Similarly, Lloyd Webber and Larson have often referred to their work as

both a ‘rock opera’ and a ‘rock musical’. Often the words ‘opera’ and ‘musical’ are

interchangeable in describing these shows, yet these words themselves do not have

the same meaning. Although a sung-through format is implemented to a varying

degree, this is not the only idiom of what is considered to be an opera, for example,

the use of leitmotifs and arias. Therefore, the use of the term ‘opera’ in terms of

content is somewhat problematic.

Nevertheless, the reasoning behind assigning shows a title that says more

than just the generic ‘musical’ could be deemed necessary if used for specific

motives. Firstly, as simply a way of trying to make money in marketing the show to

a wider audience by using these catchy, new terms to entice people. These creators

like any others who try to sell their work, attempt to stand out and this alternative

titling is possibly used as purely an economical function. More significantly, and as

detailed in chapters one and two, the use of the theory of rock music and the

application of such theory in the tone and characteristics of each show are distinctly

‘rock’. Both musicals, as well as other examples like The Rocky Horror Show and

Hair, incorporate the connotations of what rock music is about: its rebellious,

youthful and sexual expression. Lloyd Webber is making a statement of how his

50
show is ‘rock’ because it’s a ‘rock’ approach to this biblical story. He is using the

theory of rock music more than just simply rock music to create Superstar.

Using the theory of ‘rock’ as a way of appealing to the bohemian youth is

debatably more justifiable than exploiting the sung through format and labelling it

‘opera’ as an attempt to appeal to the high societies. This is because the ideology

behind high art, opera in particular, is that it isn’t accessible to or understood by the

lower class society. In moulding both high art and low art, the use of the term opera

as a theoretical function becomes somewhat diluted by its openness to other (rock)

cultures.

The application of Pierre Bourdieu’s study in chapter three confirms the

importance of both Andrew Lloyd Webber’s and Jonathan Larson’s social

distinction. Larson, as a self-styled bohemian, autobiographically relates to the

people that share the same lifestyle, while Lloyd Webber is appealing to multiple

hierarchies in societies possibly due to his own life of living in a middle class

family with upper class sensibilities whilst striving to be groundbreaking. Although

their consumption and lifestyles differ, both fall within Bourdieu’s framework of

‘deriving their power… from their operation as markers of social class’ (Carey,

2006, p.119) and in turn, act as a spokesperson for society, something that is tried

and tested throughout the history of the musical.

51
 Through the analysis of rock theory, aesthetic and social distinction, both

Jesus Christ Superstar and Rent, as examples of the ‘rock musical’, are simply

‘musicals’. The eclectic score and the varying social distinctions of the composers

cancel out the use of the theoretical approaches to rock. Don Summa suggests that

‘is why Rent is successful – because it’s not really a rock musical’ (Summa (1998)

cited in Wollman, 2006, p.174). It is their work as a creator and more specifically,

their use of rock music that is validated by their theoretical intentions and musical

theatre traditions. The use of the prefix ‘rock musical’ is ostensibly a

misrepresentation of the work and is only a viable term through a theoretical

approach to the connotations of rock music and as a marketing tool to appear

original and distinctive.

Word Count: 10,937

52
APPENDIX 1

Interview with Jon Robyns

Jon Robyns has performed in The Welsh National Youth Opera; National Youth
Choir of Great Britain; Sweeney Todd (1979) at the Judi Dench Theatre, London;
UK Tour of Miss Saigon (1989); Rent at the English Theatre, Frankfurt and
currently performing in the Original London Cast of Avenue Q (2003).

Interview conducted through e-mail on August 24, 2006.

Q: For an actor, what is the difference between being in a Rock Musical and a
traditional Broadway show?

A: Dramatically there's no real difference. I still go through the same process

of characterisation and storytelling but because of the difference in vocal
sound required, and sometimes scale of the music, the audience has altered
expectations of the style of singing and acting performed. So, for me, I only
alter parts of how I sing in vowel sound and placement of the sound
produced.

Q: Do you believe Rock Musicals are only successful because they are a popular,
commercial genre?

A: Not the only reason but it definitely helps that people like musicals
and people like rock music and it’s an opportunity to enjoy both at the same
time. They're also successful because the well written ones have a
good story and something to say about the topics that they involve.

Q: Do you believe there is a place for rock in theatre or is there too much rebellion
and anarchy for the self-satisfied world of the musical?

A: Firstly, musical theatre is not always self-satisfied. To be honest, if you're

writing a rock musical, there's going to very little anarchy involved. Musical
theatre is not traditionally a hot bed of social rebellion, but if the writers
are clever then they can use the rock genre to convey a point and still
legitimately call the music they write "rock". For example, ‘What You Own’
from rent is defiantly a rock song but if performed well it makes quite firm

53
 points about modern living and selling out to the establishment.

Q: Jonathan Larson has been branded everything from ‘lucky’ to ‘genius’. What is
your opinion on his work?

A: Jonathan Larson had a lot to say about the world he lived in at the time.
His music is very accomplished in my opinion, and his shows are well
constructed. As to whether he would have been as successful had he not died
and his legacy be what it is, I'm not so sure. Rent hadn't been developed
from workshop status when Larson died and has therefore remained in the
style and raw state it was at in its first performance. Had Larson lived longer
to develop the show and money been put into it to add polish, would it have
been so successful? My guess is probably not as the uncut diamond quality
is what made Rent stand out originally. Unfortunately, this is near
impossible to recreate and so Rent has become a photocopy of a photocopy
etc., and been performed by cast that weren't around to witness the
conception of Larson’s ideas. So, due to this, Larson's work becomes a ‘love
it’ or ‘hate it’ issue for many people.

Q: As a performer, how did your time in Rent as a rock musical differ to that of
Miss Saigon, Avenue Q or others?

A: For me, every show has different demands on each performer. So, it's
difficult to compare one to another. The part of Mark that I played in Rent is
a difficult part as he acts as the narrator for the piece and that required me to
constantly engage with the audience in a very personal way. This was the
main challenge for me and also the main difference. Vocally, again, it's a
different sound required - harsher and closer to speech quality (i.e. not so
produced, in relation to say, opera).

Q: In the book Broadway Babies Say Goodnight, Jule Styne comments that when it
comes to telling a story through character ‘it’s useless… happiness or sadness – it’s
all the same. That’s not dramatic’ (Styne (n.d.) cited in Steyn, 2000, p.218). Would
you agree with his assessment?

A: I would agree that when a character sings a song that emotes rather than
moves the story on, it becomes less interesting for an audience to engage in
as they do want to see a story not a lot of tears. However, there's a fine line
to be drawn between over-emoting and letting the audience in on how the
events unfolding in the story are affecting the character in question. What is
"dramatic" for actors, is the ability to make clear choices about how the
events are affecting their character and how best to present this to the
audience so that those choices remain active and real.

54
Q: As a performer in the industry, are there any grudges that come with being
associated with certain types of shows, for example, a rock musical? Are you ever
warned away from certain genres for fear of not finding a success critically or
commercially?

A: No, I've never been warned from any genre. There is bias and "grudges"
towards all types of theatre, but that's just personal preference and not
critically worthwhile. I guess each piece of theatre should be judged on its
own merit and if the success of rock musicals highlights anything, it's that
two genres of entertainment can co-exist and be flexible enough to allow
space for the other one to breathe. What makes a bad musical for me, in any
genre, rock or otherwise, is when the performers place the music and
emotion before the words and story. I think that doing the latter rather than
the former is the difference between rock music and successful rock musical
theatre.

55
APPENDIX 2
Musicals Reference

42nd Street (1980) Book by Michael Stewart and Mark Bramble, Music by Harry
Warren and Lyrics by Al Dubin. Adapted from the novel 42nd Street by Bradford
Ropes.

Annie Get Your Gun (1946) Book by Herbert and Dorothy Fields, Music and Lyrics
by Irving Berlin.

Anything Goes (1934) Book by Guy Bolton, P.G. Wodehouse, Howard Lindsay and
Russel Crouse, Music and Lyrics by Cole Porter. Additional material by Timothy
Crouse and John Weidman.

Avenue Q (2003) Book by Jeff Whitty. Music and Lyrics by Robert Lopez and Jeff
Marx.

Beauty and the Beast (1994) Book by Linda Woolverton, Music by Alan Menken,
Lyrics by Howard Ashman and Tim Rice. Adapted from the film Beauty and the
Beast by Walt Disney.

Beggar's Opera, The (1728) Composed and Written by John Gay.

Cats (1981) Music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Lyrics by T.S. Eliot. Additional
Lyrics by Trevor Nunn and Richard Stilgoe. Adapted from the poems of T.S. Eliot.

Dreamgirls (1981) Book and Lyrics by Tom Eyen, Music and Lyrics by Henry
Krieger.

Dude (1972) Book and Lyrics by Gerome Ragni, Music by Galt MacDermot.

Falsettoland (1990) Book by James Lapine, Music and Lyrics by William Finn.

56
Guys and Dolls (1950) Book by Jo Swerling and Abe Burrows, Music and Lyrics
by Frank Loesser. Adapted from the stories of Damon Runyon.

Hair (1968) Book and Lyrics by James Rado and Gerome Ragni, Music by Galt
MacDermot.

Hedwig & The Angry Inch (1998) Book by John Cameron Mitchell, Music and
Lyrics by Stephen Trask.

Into The Woods (1987) Book by James Lapine, Music and Lyrics by Stephen
Sondheim.

Jeeves (1975) Book and Lyrics by Alan Ayckborn, Music by Andrew Lloyd
Webber. Adapted from the stories of P.G. Wodehouse.

Jesus Christ Superstar (1971) Music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Lyrics by Tim
Rice.

Joseph and The Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (1982) Music by Andrew Lloyd
Webber, Lyrics by Tim Rice.

King and I, The (1951) Book and Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II, Music by
Richard Rodgers. Adapted from the novel Anna and The King of Siam by Margaret
Landon.

Kiss Me, Kate (1949) Book by Samuel and Bella Spewack, Music and Lyrics by
Cole Porter.

La Bohéme (1896) Composed by Giacomo Puccini, Libretto by Luigi Illica and

Giuseppe Giacosa.

La Cage Aux Folles (1983) Book by Harvey Fierstein, Music and Lyrics by Jerry
Herman. Adapted from the play La Cage Aux Folles by Jean Poiret.

Mamma Mia! (1999) Book by Catherine Johnson, Music and Lyrics by Abba
(Benny Andersson, Agnetha Fältskog, Anni-Frid Lyngstad & Björn Ulvaeus).

57
Miss Saigon (1989) Book by Alain Boublil and Claude-Michael Schönberg, Music
by Claude-Michael Schönberg and Lyrics by Alain Boublil and Richard Maltby Jr.
Adapted from the opera Madame Butterfly by Giacomo Puccini.

Nine (1982) Book by Arthur Kopit, Music and Lyrics by Maury Yeston. Adapted
from the film 8½ by Federico Fellini.

Oklahoma! (1943) Book and Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II, Music by Richard
Rodgers. Adapted from the play Green Grow The Lilacs by Lynn Riggs.

On The Town (1944) Book and Lyrics by Betty Comden and Adolph Green, Music
by Leonard Bernstein.

Pal Joey (1940) Book by John O’Hara, Music and Lyrics by Richard Rodgers and
Lorenz Hart.

Phantom of the Opera, The (1986) Music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Lyrics by
Charles Hart and Additional Lyrics by Richard Stilgoe. Adapted from the novel The
Phantom of the Opera by Gaston Leroux.

Rent (1996) Book, Music and Lyrics by Jonathan Larson. Adapted from the opera
La Bohéme by Giacomo Puccini.

Rocky Horror Show, The (1973) Book, Music and Lyrics by Richard O’Brien.

Sweeney Todd (1979) Book by Hugh Wheeler, Music and Lyrics by Stephen
Sondheim. Adapted from the play Sweeney Todd by Christopher Bond.

tick… tick… BOOM! (2001) Book, Music and Lyrics by Jonathan Larson. Adapted
by Stephen Oremus and Scott Schwartz.

Time (1986) Book by Dave Clark and David Soames, Music by Dave Clark and Jeff
Daniels, Lyrics by Dave Clark and David Soames. Additional Music and Lyrics by
John Christie, David Pomeranz, Hans Poulsen and Jessica St. John.

Tommy (1993) Book by Des McAnuff, Music and Lyrics by Pete Townshend.
Adapted from the concept album Tommy by The Who (Roger Daltrey, John
Entwistle, Keith Moon & Pete Townshend).

58
Via Galactica (1972) Book by Christopher Gore and Judith Ross, Music by Galt
MacDermot and Lyrics by Christopher Gore.

We Will Rock You (2002) Book by Ben Elton, Music and Lyrics by Queen (John
Deacon, Brian May, Freddie Mercury & Roger Taylor).

West Side Story (1957) Book by Arthur Laurents, Music by Leonard Bernstein and
Lyrics by Stephen Sondheim.

Wiz, The (1975) Book by William F. Brown, Music and Lyrics by Charlie Smalls.
Adapted from the novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum.

59
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