RADIOACTIVITY

NUCLEUS
The nucleus consists of the elementary particles, protons and neutrons which are
known as nucleons. A proton has positive charge of the same magnitude as that of electron
and its rest mass is about 1836 times the mass of an electron. A neutron is electrically
neutral, whose mass is almost equal to the mass of the proton. The nucleons inside the
nucleus are held together by strong attractive forces called nuclear forces.

A nucleus of an element is represented as ZXA, where X is the chemical symbol of the

element. Z represents the atomic number which is equal to the number of protons and A,
the mass number which is equal to the total number of protons and neutrons. The number
of neutrons is represented as N which is equal to A−Z. For example, the chlorine nucleus is
represented as 17Cl35. It contains 17 protons and 18 neutrons.

CLASSIFICATION OF NUCLEI

(i) Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic number Z but
different mass number A. The nuclei 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3 are the isotopes of hydrogen.

In other words isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons. As the atoms of isotopes have identical electronic structure, they have
identical chemical properties and placed in the same location in the periodic table..

(ii) Isobars are atoms of different elements having the same mass number A, but different
atomic number Z. The nuclei 8O16 and 7N16 represent two isobars.

Since isobars are atoms of different elements, they have different physical and chemical
properties.

(iii) Isotones are atoms of different elements having the same number of neutrons. 6C14
and 8O16 are some examples of isotones.
NUCLEAR FORCE
The nucleus of an atom consists of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons.
According to Coulomb’s law, protons must repel each other with a very large force, because
they are close to each other and hence the nucleus must be broken into pieces. But this
does not happen. It means that, there is some other force in the nucleus which overcomes
the electrostatic repulsion between positively charged protons and binds the protons and
neutrons inside the nucleus. This force is called nuclear force.
(i) Nuclear force is charge independent. It is the same for all the three types of pairs
of nucleons (n−n), (p−p) and (n−p). This shows that nuclear force is not
electrostatic in nature.
(ii) Nuclear force is the strongest known force in nature.
(iii) Nuclear force is not a gravitational force. Nuclear force is about 1040 times
stronger than the gravitational force.
(iv) Nuclear force is a short range force. It is very strong between two nucleons
which are less than 10−15 m apart and is almost negligible at a distance greater
than this. On the other hand electrostatic, magnetic and gravitational forces are
long range forces that can be felt easily.
Yukawa suggested that the nuclear force existing between any two nucleons may be
due to the continuous exchange of particles called mesons, just as photons, the exchange
particle in electromagnetic interactions. .
However, the present view is that the nuclear force that binds the protons and neutrons
is not a fundamental force of nature but it is secondary.

RADIOACTIVITY
The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896. He
found that a photographic plate wrapped in a black paper was affected by certain
penetrating radiations emitted by uranium salt.
Rutherford showed later that the radiations from the salt were capable of ionizing a
gas. The current produced due to the ions was taken as a measure of activity of the
compound.
 A few years later Madame Marie Curie and her husband Piere Curie discovered the
highly radioactive elements radium and polonium. The activity of the material has been
shown to be the result of the three different kinds of radiations, α, β and γ.
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of highly penetrating radiations such as
α, β and γ rays by heavy elements having atomic number greater than 82 is called
radioactivity and the substances which emit these radiations are called radioactive
elements.
The radioactive phenomenon is spontaneous and is unaffected by any external agent
like temperature, pressure, electric and magnetic fields etc.

ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA RAYS

The existence of the three distinct types of radiations, α, β and
γ−rays can be easily found by the following experiment. A
small amount of radium (R) is placed at the bottom of a small
hole drilled in a lead block, which is kept in an evacuated
chamber (Fig. 8.3).

A photographic plate is placed at a short distance above the

lead block. A strong magnetic field is applied at right angles to
the plane of the paper and acting inwards. Three distinct
traces can be seen on the photographic plate when it is
developed.

The trace towards left is due to positively charged particles.

They are named α-particles. The trace towards the right is
due to negatively charged particles. They are named β-
particles. The undeviated trace is due to neutral radiations
which are called γ−rays. If an electric field is applied, the α-
rays are deflected towards the negative plate, β−rays towards the positive plate and γ−rays
are not deflected.
PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES
1) They are also called alpha rays, designated as α 2+
2) Alpha rays consists of two protons and two neutrons bound tougher into particles.
3) They are identical to the helium nucleus.
4) They are produced by the alpha decay of radioactive materials.
5) They are positively charged particles.
6) Contains 2 positive charges.
7) They have a kinetic energy about 5 MeV.
8) They move with high velocity.
9) The velocity is 1.4 × 109 to 1.7 × 109 cm/second (nearly equal to 5% of velocity of
light.
10) They have high ionization power.
11) The penetration power of alpha particles is very less.
12) Their path can even be blocked by a paper.
13) They are scattered when they pass through metal foil.
14) They are quickly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
15) Due to the positive charge, they deflect towards the negative plates.
16) They affect photographic plates.
17) Alpha rays produce fluorescence and phosphorescence.
18) They can induce mutations in biological organism
19) They can also ionize biological molecules
20) Exposure of alpha rays is 20 times more dangerous than beta and gamma rays.
21) Examples for alpha emitters are Uranium-238, Thorium-227, Plutonium-238,
Polonium-210, and Radon-218.

PROPERTIES OF BETA PARTICLES

1) They are also called as beta rays.
2) Beta rays are high energy and speed electrons.
3) They are emitted from a radioactive material after the beta decay.
4) They are negatively charged particles.
5) They carry one unit negative charge.
 6) They move with a velocity of 2.36 × 108 to 2.83 × 108 cm/second.
7) They are less ionizing. The ionizing power of beta particles is far less than that of
alpha particles.
8) They have more penetration power than alpha particles.
9) They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
10) Due to the negative charge, they are deflected towards the positive plates.
11) Beta rays also affect photographic plates.
12) They produce phosphorescence.
13) They are severely scattered when passing through the matter.
14) Examples of bet emitters are Carbon-14, Phosphorus-32, Nickel-63, Tritium,
Potassium-40, and Strontium-90.

PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS.

1) Gamma rays are better known as gamma radiation
2) Unlike alpha and beta rays, they are not particles.
3) They are electromagnetic radiations with high energy.
4) They are produced from a radioactive material after the gamma decay.
5) Gamma rays have high penetration capacity.
6) The velocity of gamma rays is similar to that of light
7) Gamma rays do not have any charge.
8) Gamma rays are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
9) Their ionization power is very poor.
10) They produce phosphorescence.
11) Gamma rays can affect photographic plates.
12) Examples for gamma emitters are Iodine-131, Caesium-137.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA RAYS

Properties Alpha Rays Beta Rays Gamma Rays

Symbol 2α4 or 2He4 β- γ
Mass 6.65 × 10-27 kg 5.50 ×10-4 kg Negligible
Charge 2 positive charge 1 negative charge No charge
Speed Slow Fast Very fast
Nature Helium nucleus Electrons or Positron Electromagnetic
(Consists of 2 proton radiations (Photon)
and 2 neutron)
Velocity Nearly equal to 5% of Nearly equal to that Equal to the velocity
the velocity of light of light of light
Penetration Low Moderate, 100 times High, 100 times more
Power more than alpha than beta particles
particles
Effect of Deflected towards the Deflected towards Not deflected
magnetic field negative plate the positive plate
and electric
field
Ionizing Greater than beta and Very low Very low
power gamma rays
Luminescence Produce fluorescence Produce Produce
and phosphorescence phosphorescence phosphorescence
Distance 2-4 cm 2-3 meters 500 meters
travelled
Stopped by Paper Aluminium foil Lead sheet
Natural By natural By radioisotopes Excited nuclei
Sources radioisotopes e.g.29Co68 formed as a result of
e.g.92U236 α, β decay
Kinetic 5 Mev 5 keV to 1MeV 100 keV and <10
energy MeV
RADIOACTIVE DISPLACEMENT LAW

During a radioactive disintegration, the nucleus which undergoes disintegration is called a

parent nucleus and that which remains after the disintegration is called a daughter nucleus.
In 1913, Soddy and Fajan framed the displacement laws governing radioactivity.

α-decay
When a radioactive nucleus disintegrates by emitting an α-particle, the atomic number
decreases by two and mass number decreases by four. The α-decay can be expressed as

zXA → z−2YA−4 + 2He4

Example: Radium (88Ra226) is converted to radon (86Rn222) due to α−decay

88Ra226 → 86Rn222 + 2He4

β−decay
When a radioactive nucleus disintegrates by emitting a β−particle, the atomic number
increases by one and the mass number remains the same. β−decay can be expressed as

zXA → Z+1YA + −1e0

Example : Thorium (90Th234) is converted to protoactinium (91Pa234) due to β−decay
At a time, either α or β−particle is emitted. Both α and β particles are not emitted during a
single decay.

γ−decay
When a radioactive nucleus emits γ−rays, only the energy level of the nucleus changes and
the atomic number and mass number remain the same. During α or β− decay, the daughter
Nucleus is mostly in the excited state. It comes to ground state with the emission of γ−rays.
Example: During the radioactive disintegration of radium (88Ra226) into radon (86Rn222),
gamma ray of energy 0.187 MeV is emitted, when radon returns from the excited state to
the ground state.