International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)

Published online 24 February 2011 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1247

Tooth Wear Related to Marine Foraging,

Agro‐Pastoralism and the Formative
Transition on the Northern Chilean Coast
J. T. WATSON,a* B. ARRIAZA,b,c V. STANDENc AND I. MUÑOZ OVALLEc
a
Arizona State Museum and School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, PO Box 210026, Tucson,
AZ 85721, USA
b
Instituto de Alta Investigación and Centro de Investigaciones del Hombre en el Desierto, Universidad
de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
c
Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile

ABSTRACT Occlusal surface wear scores were examined in a sample of 200 Formative period (1500 BC–AD 500)
skeletons from the lower Azapa Valley in northwest Chile. Wear rate and plane (angle) were additionally
evaluated using a subsample of paired first and second mandibular molars. The Formative period represents
the transition from marine foraging to agro‐pastoral dependence in the region, and differences in oral
pathology indicate that diet varied by site location (coast vs valley interior) but not by archaeological phase
(early vs late). We predicted that occlusal wear would demonstrate similar patterns, resulting from
differences in food consistency, and therefore hypothesised that in coastal groups consuming greater
quantities of foraged foods, occlusal surfaces should wear faster and exhibit flat molar wear, whereas among
valley interior groups consuming greater quantities of agro‐pastoral products, these should wear slower but
exhibit more angled molar wear. Heavier posterior tooth wear was identified among coastal residents, but
rate and angle of molar occlusal attrition did not differ significantly by location. Heavier overall wear and a
steeper molar wear plane were identified during the early phase indicating that food consistency varied
somewhat over the course of the Formative period. Overall, the results indicate that, although limited
differences in tooth wear exist by site location, wear varied more over time likely reflecting a gradual transition
from foraging to agro‐pastoral dependence in the lower Azapa Valley. Although oral health indicators point to
differences in dietary investment by location, maintenance of a mixed subsistence economy likely sustained
a comparative consistency of foodstuffs. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: Chile; Formative period; marine foraging; occlusal wear plane; tooth wear

Changes in diet and subsistence patterns associated
with the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ (Childe, 1925) had
profound effects on the oral health of past populations
on a global scale (Cohen & Armelagos, 1984; Steckel &
Rose, 2002; Cohen & Crane‐Kramer, 2007). The
adoption of agriculture often caused a reduction in
dietary breadth and created a softer, more processed diet
that resulted in increased oral disease, uneven tooth wear
and malocclusion (Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1984; Larsen,
1997; Hillson, 2002). In addition, the aetiologies of oral
diseases and differential tooth wear frequently interact
and co‐contribute to the advancement of each other
(Hillson, 2002). However, they can also be quantified
individually in skeletal samples and used to aid in the
* Correspondence to: Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, PO
Box 210026, Tucson, AZ 85721-0026, USA.
e-mail: watsonjt@email.arizona.edu
reconstruction of dietary behaviours of past populations,
refining our understanding of the health consequences of
the agricultural transition (Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1984;
Sciulli, 1997; Pechenkina et al., 2002; Chattah & Smith,
2006; Watson, 2008a, 2008b; Deter, 2009; Fujita &
Ogura, 2009; Liu et al., 2010).
Wear of the occlusal tooth surface is a multifactorial
process that results from three main interacting
mechanisms: attrition, abrasion and erosion (Kaidonis
et al., 1988; Miles, 2001; Hillson, 2002). Attrition is
caused by wear of the tooth surface through friction
resulting from tooth‐on‐tooth contact (Larsen, 1981,
2002; Milner & Larsen, 1991; Lukacs, 1992; Hillson,
2002). Abrasion is the loss of surface detail from friction
with exogenous material (Kaidonis et al., 1988; Hillson,
2002). Erosion is the reduction of dental surfaces due to
non‐bacterial exogenous or endogenous chemical
substances (Kieser et al., 2001). Each of these processes

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 16 July 2010
Revised 31 December 2010
Accepted 19 January 2011
288
is continuous, unidirectional and age progressive
(Miles, 2001; Hillson, 2002). A number of studies have
successfully correlated differences in the rates and
patterns of these wear processes to differences in overall
subsistence practices among pre‐industrial populations,
where occlusal wear is generally severe (Molnar, 1971;
Smith, 1984; Larsen, 1997; Kaifu, 1999; Kieser et al.,
2001; Deter, 2009; Fujita & Ogura, 2009; Liu et al.,
2010). Food consistency and the presence of foreign
abrasives have been shown to significantly influence the
rate of occlusal tooth wear (Hillson, 2002).
The wear plane (or angle) of the occlusal surface has
similarly been shown to differ measurably between
skeletal samples of diverse subsistence economies
(Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1984; Pechenkina et al., 2002;
Chattah & Smith, 2006; Watson, 2008b). Erosion has
also been documented to play an important role in the
differential destruction of tooth surfaces with various
diets (Kieser et al., 2001). Additional factors have been
considered as potential secondary contributors to
tooth wear including tooth form and structure, occlusal
relationships, enamel quality, ingestion of grit and
cultural activities such as the use of teeth as tools (Milner
& Larsen, 1991; Sciulli, 1997). However, it has been
shown that dietary composition and food processing
methods have the greatest effect on patterns of occlusal
surface wear observed in archaeological samples
(Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1984; Kieser, 1990; Larsen,
1997; Sciulli, 1997; Kaifu, 1999; Hillson, 2002). The
application of these concepts has been particularly
successful in observing changes related to subsistence
and diet in prehistoric skeletal samples (e.g. Larsen,
1981, 2002; Milner & Larsen, 1991; Lukacs, 1992;
Kieser et al., 2001; Chattah & Smith, 2006; Deter, 2009;
Fujita & Ogura, 2009; Liu et al., 2010).
Both wear rate and wear plane of the occlusal sur-
face show dramatic changes when human groups alter
their food behaviours, in overall subsistence, consump-
tion or processing techniques (Molnar, 1971; Smith,
1972; Scott, 1979a, 1979b; Larsen, 1981; Smith, 1984;
Pechenkina et al., 2002; Chattah & Smith, 2006; Watson,
2008a). Molnar (1971) documented consistent differ-
ences in wear rate between skeletal samples of food
foragers and agriculturalists from North America. He
suggested that because foraging groups consumed a
wider variety of less processed foods than agricultural
groups, tough, fibrous diets caused powerful chewing
and extensive lateral movements of the jaw, producing
flat occlusal wear at relatively rapid rates. Reinhardt
(1983) has shown that dietary consistency produces
significantly enough force on the dental arch that it
can create zero to negative overjet (overbite) in groups
exhibiting heavy attrition.
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
J. T. Watson et al.
Occlusal wear angle in the molar region is shaped by
differential wear of the buccal and lingual cusps
(Reinhardt, 1983; Hillson, 2002). With progressive
wear, steeper occlusal planes develop from lingual to
buccal in mandibular molars and buccal to lingual in
maxillary molars, with each molar generating steeper
angles or wear planes in order of molar eruption
sequence, eventually resulting in a reversed curve of
Monson (Osborn, 1984). This pattern becomes more
apparent in agricultural groups where the consumption
of a narrower dietary breadth and heavily processing
foodstuffs reduces chewing resistance and lateral
movements, increasing the amount of contact between
cusps and creating steeper occlusal plane angles at
faster rates (Smith, 1984). Smith (1984) documented
this pattern of flatness of molar wear plane in
comparisons of archaeological samples of food foragers
to dedicated agriculturalists. These studies provide
evidence for the correlation between molar occlusal
wear and subsistence, which has allowed researchers to
draw inferences about dietary behaviours of past
populations (e.g. Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1984; Larsen,
1997; Kaifu, 1999; Chattah & Smith, 2006; Deter,
2009; Fujita & Ogura, 2009).
The formative transition in the lower
Azapa Valley
The Andes is one of the global centres of
independent domestication (Smith, 1998; Pearsall,
2008), but the suite of domesticates that formed the
foundation of Formative cultures in the area include
both local species such as quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa),
potatoes (Solanum tuberosum, Tropaeolum tuberosum, Oxalis
tuberosa and Ullucus tuberosus), manioc (Manihot esculentum),
llama (Lama glama), alpaca (Lama pacos) and guinea pig
(Cavia porcellus and other species), and foreign species
from North America such as corn (Zea mays), beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris) and squash (Cucurbita pepo and other
species) (Smith, 1998). This is important to the
cultural development in South America because many
scholars have argued that foreign domesticates such
as maize played a major role in stimulating the
development of early Andean civilization, such as at
Chavin de Huantar (Mangelsdorf & Reeves, 1939;
Kidder, 1962; Kidder et al., 1963; Finucane, 2009). A
great deal of the evidence for domestication of local
plant species and the arrival of foreign species
appears just prior to about 2000 BC throughout the
Andean region but would likely have been used in
various capacities well beforehand (Smith, 1998;
Pearsall, 2008).
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
Tooth Wear in Northwest Chile
Along much of the Andean coast, there is evidence that
the first attempts by coastal residents to produce food are
accompanied by intensification in the exploitation of
marine resources (Rivera et al., 1974; Focacci, 1980;
Rivera, 1984, 1991; Stanish, 2001; Muñoz, 2004; Arriaza
& Standen, 2008; Pearsall, 2008; Finucane, 2009;
Watson et al., 2010). This new economic contribution
also perhaps produced intensification in meat and
wool for the manufacture of textiles (Kidder, 1962;
Focacci, 1980; Santoro, 1980a, 1980b; Muñoz, 1981,
1983; Pearsall, 2008; Finucane, 2009). The incorpor-
ation of camelids into the economies of these groups is
reflected in several cultural expressions, such as in
textile motifs and in rock art of the region (Focacci,
1980; Muñoz, 1989, 2004; Finucane, 2009). The
period just prior to the formation of agricultural
villages and larger socio‐ceremonial centres along the
central Andean coast demonstrates that the process
was not a violent interruption of existing foraging
adaptations in the region but instead fitted into a
larger gradual process of cultural development and
increasing complexity whereby the actors integrated
Figure 1. Location of sites in the lower Azapa Valley.
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
289
new resources and technologies into the primary
economic system.
The Formative period (1500 BC–AD 500) in the lower
Azapa Valley (Figure 1) is principally demarcated from
the preceding Archaic period (8000–1500 BC) by the
cessation of artificial mummification as a typical burial
practice, the appearance of sand‐tempered ceramics,
incipient agricultural production and pastoralism, and
the establishment of villages in the valley interior
(Focacci, 1974; Santoro, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c; Muñoz,
1981, 1983, 1989, 2004). Previous settlements in the
area, known as the Chinchorro culture, comprised
approximately 6000 years of stable marine and some
limited terrestrial foraging (Allison et al., 1984; Arriaza,
1994, 1995). Although there is evidence for continuous
contact between the coast and altiplano throughout
prehistory (Rivera, 1984), the Chinchorro maintained a
sedentary lifestyle heavily reliant on the rich marine
resources that are available along the Pacific coast
(Arriaza, 1994, 1995; Arriaza et al., 2005; Arriaza &
Standen, 2008). During the early part of the second
millennium BC, groups along the coast began to
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
290
cultivate domesticated crops including quinoa, potato,
manioc, corn, beans, squash and chillies (Muñoz, 2004).
Some of the populace relocated in the interior of the San
José River valley and began practising animal husbandry
with domesticated camelids, such as llama and alpaca
(Muñoz, 2004). The beginning of the Formative period
therefore represents a major shift in subsistence strategy
from that practised by the area’s previous inhabitants.
Formative period sites in the lower Azapa Valley can
be separated into two groups based on location: coastal
and valley interior sites. Coastal sites (Playa Miller‐7
and Quiani‐7—Figure 1; Camarones‐15—Figure 2) are
located directly adjacent to the shoreline and close to
the marshy mouths of the San José and Camarones
rivers (Focacci, 1974, 1980). Although evidence for
cultigens and low level agro‐pastoral investment is
plentiful, the dietary base focused on exploitation of
readily accessible marine resources (Muñoz et al., 1991;
Watson et al., 2010). Valley interior sites (Azapa‐14,
70, 71 and 75—Figure 1) are located adjacent to the
San José River floodplain approximately 12 km from
Figure 2. Location of the Camarones‐15 site in lower Camarones Valley.
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
J. T. Watson et al.
the coast (Focacci & Erices, 1972–1973; Focacci, 1980).
These sites also present considerable evidence for
exploitation of marine resources, especially shellfish;
but archaeological evidence indicates that the dietary
base focused equally on agro‐pastoral production and
the exploitation of marsh resources along the river
(Santoro, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c; Muñoz, 1981, 1983,
1989, 2004; Watson et al., 2010).
The Formative period can additionally be divided
into concurrent archaeological phases at both loca-
tions in the lower Azapa Valley. The early phase
(1500–500 BC) is termed Faldas de Morro in coastal
sites (Dauelsberg, 1963) and Azapa in valley sites
(Santoro, 1980b). The late phase (500 BC–AD 500) is
termed El Laucho in coastal sites (Focacci, 1974) and
Alto Ramirez in valley sites (Santoro, 1980b). Subtle
differences in artefact assemblages define the arch-
aeological phases, but they are basically analytical
tools used to highlight variability observed in the
archaeological record (Arriaza & Standen, 2008).
Material culture recovered from these sites is similar
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
Tooth Wear in Northwest Chile
in the broader sense that cultigens and items
representing agricultural technology are present in
both areas (Rivera, 1984, 1991). Although differ-
ences are present, they are minor compared with
the unmistakable impact the arrival of domesti-
cated cultigens had on subsistence strategy, as ob-
served in the archaeobotanical record of these sites
(Muñoz, 2004).
Several scholars suggest that the Formative transi-
tion in the lower Azapa Valley is the result of demic
diffusion of highland agriculturalists into the area
(Santoro, 1980b; Rothhammer et al., 1982, 2002;
Muñoz, 1983, 1989). They often cite the appearance
of altiplano ceramics and textile motifs during the
Formative period to support the conclusion that the
agro‐pastoralist subsistence strategy was brought in by
migrants from the cordillera (Rivera, 1984, 1991;
Varela & Cocilovo, 2002). If this were the case, one
would expect to find greater archaeological differences
between contemporaneous coastal and valley interior
sites, and the evidence for mixed subsistence practices
from both locations would be somewhat counter-
intuitive. Other researchers document continuous
cultural and biological continuity in the lower Azapa
Valley (Sutter, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2005a, 2005b, 2006;
Rothhammer & Santoro, 2001). Most of Sutter’s work
with the Azapa Valley samples has involved defining
local, regional and temporal genetic distances using
discrete dental traits (Sutter, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2005a,
2005b, 2006; Sutter & Mertz, 2004). In every case, his
results demonstrate genetic continuity within groups of
the lower valley, a pattern that generally persists
through time (Sutter, 1997).
In a recent related study, we identified that markers
of oral health varied significantly by site location but
not by archaeological phase during the Formative
period in the lower Azapa Valley (Watson et al., 2010).
Fewer caries (3.8%) and lost teeth (9.6%) were
observed in skeletal samples from the coast, whereas
numerous caries (19.7%) and more lost teeth (13.4%)
were observed in skeletal samples from the valley
Table 1. Skeletal sample from lower Azapa Valley
Site N Location
AZ‐14 30
AZ‐70 25
AZ‐71 5 Valley
AZ‐71 18
AZ‐75 27
CAM‐15 11
PLM‐7 80
QUIANI‐7 4 Coast
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
291
interior (p < 0.05). These percentages reflect the
frequency or ‘observed rate’ [caries rates were corrected
using Lukacs' (1995) formula to account for tooth
loss], which describe the percentage of teeth or
alveolar segments affected and are calculated by
dividing the number of carious or missing teeth by
the total number of locations observed.
Although the archaeological evidence indicates that
both groups practised a shared mixed subsistence
economy, residents along the coast placed greater
investment in foraging marine resources whereas
residents in the valley placed greater investment in
agro‐pastoral production. We concluded that these
patterns reflect niche construction and differences in
dietary base between the coast and valley interior
(Watson et al., 2010). This pattern of differential
investment could also produce measurable variability
in tooth wear and further affect patterns of oral
disease observed in the samples. Here, we examine
occlusal surface wear in the same skeletal samples of
incipient agriculturalists from the lower Azapa Valley
to test the hypothesis that, concomitant with
differences observed in oral pathology, in coastal
groups consuming a greater percentage of foraged
foods, occlusal surfaces should wear faster and exhibit
flat molar wear plane angles, whereas among valley
interior groups consuming a greater percentage of
agro‐pastoral products, these should wear slower but
exhibit more angled molar wear.
Materials
The skeletal samples analysed for this study are part of
the osteological collection held in repository at the
Universidad de Tarapaca Museo Arqueológico de San
Miguel de Azapa, Arica, Chile. We examined maxillary
and mandibular dentition from crania of 200 adult
individuals (age ≥ 15 years) from seven Formative
period sites (Table 1) in the lower Azapa Valley
(Figure 1) and one contemporaneous site from the
Phase (culture)
Valley Late (Alto Ramirez)
Valley Late (Alto Ramirez)
Early (Azapa)
Valley Late (Alto Ramirez)
Valley Late (Alto Ramirez)
Coast Early (Faldas de Morro)
Coast Late (El Laucho)
Early (Faldas de Morro)
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
292
Camarones Valley coast (Figure 2) in northern Chile.
Eleven individuals from the Camarones‐15 site were
added to the coastal sample to bolster the limited
number of individuals dating to the early phase.
Biological and archaeological variables all suggested a
shared history and connection between the Azapa and
Camarones Valley residents prior to, and during, the
Formative period (Muñoz, 1989, 2004; Muñoz et al.,
1991; Arriaza & Standen, 2008). The dental sample
consists of a total of 1268 teeth. Preservation of the
dentition is generally excellent; however, a number of
individuals were missing teeth because of postmortem
loss. Pearson chi‐square cross‐tabulations identify that
the distribution of teeth does not differ significantly
between coast and valley interior locations
(χ2 = 13.252, df = 15, p = 0.583) or between the early
and late archaeological phase (χ2 = 6.050, df = 15,
p = 0.979).
Sex was estimated for individuals in the sample by
examining standard macroscopic aspects of the pelvis
and/or cranium (Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994). The sample
is comprised of relatively even numbers of men (n = 101)
and women (n = 99). Age was estimated for the sample
using dental eruption (after Ubelaker, 1978), epiphyseal
fusion, cranial suture closure and macroscopic degen-
erative changes in the pubic symphysis following
standards described by Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994).
The sample was classified into four ordinal 9‐year age
cohorts (15–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45–54 years). Individuals
assigned to the oldest age group generally had the
most severe attrition, were more often affected by
tooth loss or damage resulting in uneven wear and
therefore were eliminated from the sample. Miles
(2001) identified that age estimation using attrition
scores tends to underestimate older individuals in
skeletal samples and coincides with greater tooth loss.
Most relevant to this study is the fact that extreme
wear that compromises the integrity of the crown and
crosses the cemento‐enamel junction results in faster,
more unpredictable wear than in earlier stages or
younger individuals (Miles, 2001; Hillson, 2002).
Teeth exhibiting severe dental pathology or extreme
wear (incisor, canine, premolar: wear scores >8; molar:
wear scores >32), resulting in loss of crown integrity,
and teeth with opposing occlusal teeth missing
antemortem were therefore eliminated from analysis.
This additionally functioned to eliminate numerous
teeth representing the oldest individuals in the
sample and resulted in an equal distribution of the
sample between the remaining three adult age
groups (χ2 = 2.583, df = 2, p = 0.275). However,
two‐tailed Mann–Whitney U‐tests showed that the
differences in the estimated age compositions of the
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
J. T. Watson et al.
adult subsamples between the coast and valley
interior locations, and between early and late
archaeological phases, were significant at the 5%
level. Given that attrition is principally associated
with age and the duration a given tooth is in
occlusion, it is therefore important that we control
for age in the analyses that follow.
Methods
Three analyses were conducted on the dental sample
from the lower Azapa Valley comparing attrition by
location and archaeological phase in order to test the
central hypothesis that in coastal groups consuming
greater quantities of foraged foods, occlusal surfaces
should wear faster and exhibit flat molar wear,
whereas among valley interior groups consuming
greater quantities of agro‐pastoral products, these
should wear slower but exhibit more angled molar
wear. These analyses included comparisons of (i) raw
average wear, (ii) molar wear rate and (iii) molar wear
angle.
Raw average wear
Raw average wear scores were compared for each tooth
using independent samples t‐tests to identify if gross
differences in wear exist across the dentition. This is a
measure of the amount of wear on each tooth and can
be used for a general comparison to identify if
differences in the amount of wear exist between
samples and which teeth specifically exhibit these
differences. Heavy wear (significant loss of the crown)
is more commonly associated with groups practising a
dedicated foraging economy and is often found to be
greatest on the anterior teeth (anterior loading),
whereas dedicated agriculturalists often exhibit lighter
or more variable wear in general, yet the heaviest wear
is often associated with the posterior teeth among
agriculturalists (Molnar, 1971; Reinhardt, 1983; Smith,
1984; Milner & Larsen, 1991; Kaifu, 1999; Deter, 2009).
Occlusal surface wear was recorded for both sides of
adult maxillary and mandibular dentition in the
sample, but only the left side was used in the
analyses. Occlusal wear was scored using ordinal
scales following Smith (1984) for incisor, canine and
premolar teeth and following Scott (1979a) for molar
teeth. No significant differences in wear rate were
observed between right and left dentitions using
paired‐samples t‐test; therefore, if a tooth was missing
from the left side, the antimere was used to facilitate
a larger comparative sample size.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
Tooth Wear in Northwest Chile
Molar wear rate
A subsample of 112 paired first (M1) and second (M2)
mandibular molars (n = 224) was selected to assess rate
and angle of occlusal surface wear using attrition scores
between site locations and archaeological phases. Total
wear scores were compared between paired molars
using principle axis analysis to identify if the rate of
wear differed. This test is designed to measure the rate
(or speed) of occlusal surface wear exerted on the
molars and identify if differences exist in how fast
molars wear on average between samples. Faster rates
of molar wear are often associated with harder diets
resulting from foraging wild foods and minimal
processing, whereas slower although more variable
rates of wear are more commonly associated with
softer diets and the consumption of agricultural
products such as domesticated cultigens, which are
often heavily processed (Smith, 1982, 1984; Larsen,
1997; Lukacs, 1996; Sciulli, 1997; Kieser et al., 2001;
Fujita & Ogura, 2009).
Occlusal wear was scored on each quadrant of the
molar surface using the 10‐point ordinal scale devel-
oped by Scott (1979a). In this method, each of the
four molar surface quadrants is given a wear score
ranging between 1 and 10 based on relative enamel
loss. Scores for all four quadrants are added to give the
overall wear score for the tooth, ranging from 4 to 40.
Smith (1972) proposed the use of a method modified
from Miles (1963, 2001) to determine wear rate in
skeletal samples that avoids the problems of age
dependency inherent with dental attrition. Smith
(1972) used correlation and regression analysis to
compare the differences in wear between the paired
first and second molars, utilising the staggered
approximate 6‐year interval timing of molar eruption
as a proxy for age. As all of the teeth used from the
sample represent adult individuals, Smith’s (1972)
system provides an age‐independent assessment of
wear rates.
Scott (1979b) further built upon Smith’s (1972)
approach and proposed the use of principle axis
analysis and successfully demonstrated that the slope
of the principle axis equation could be used as an
indicator of the rate of wear, whereby a steeper slope
indicates a rapid rate of wear. Although interval data
would be preferable for statistical treatment, Benfer &
Edwards (1991) were able to demonstrate that results
of principle axis analyses using the Scott scoring
system are similar to those produced using measure-
ments of crown height and suggest that it is therefore
an effective tool for assessing rates of occlusal surface
wear. Principal axis analysis (Scott, 1979b) was applied
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
293
to wear rates of left mandibular M1 and M2 between
coast and valley interior sites and between early and
late archaeological phases within the lower Azapa
Valley sample.
Molar wear angle
Summed wear scores were compared between buccal
cusps of the first molar (M1) and lingual cusps of the
second molar (M2) using principle axis analysis
following Chattah & Smith (2006) to identify if the
angle of occlusal wear differed between locations or
archaeological phases. This test is designed to measure
the angle of occlusal surface wear exerted on the molars
and to identify if differences exist in how molars wear on
average between samples. The development of the
occlusal surface wear plane, or angle, is largely the result
of the juxtaposition of hard versus soft diets and the
consistency of foods consumed regularly. Flat molar
wear angles are often the result of harder diets associated
with foraging wild foods and minimal processing,
whereas steeper molar wear angles are often the result
of softer diets and increased tooth‐on‐tooth contact
associated with the consumption of agricultural prod-
ucts that are often heavily processed (Molnar, 1971;
Scott, 1979b; Smith, 1984; Chattah & Smith, 2006;
Watson, 2008b; Deter, 2009; Fujita & Ogura, 2009).
This methodology is a further modification of
Scott’s (1979b) approach and has the advantage of
comparing both the rate and angle of molar occlusal
surface wear. It employs the functional differential in
wear based on order and timing of eruption between
M1 and M2 and measures the differential in wear rate
between paired buccal versus lingual cusps. The
potential exists to underestimate the degree of wear
angle in younger individuals where M2 exhibits
minimal wear; however, this also makes the test robust
and less susceptible to the affects of idiosyncratic wear
on M1. This technique was also chosen because of its
flexibility, ease of application and comparability in the
place of more technically complex or time‐consuming
techniques such as morphometric (i.e. Bailey, 2004) or
three‐dimensional surface or image analysis (i.e.
Mayhall & Kageyama, 1997). More specifically, these
results are directly comparable with that of similar
studies in other regions of the world that have
considered the effects of dietary changes associated
with the introduction of agriculture using wear rates
and planes (Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1984; Pechenkina
et al., 2002; Chattah & Smith, 2006; Watson, 2008b;
Deter, 2009).
Principal axis analysis was employed in the last two
analyses because it does not assume a causal relationship
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294 J. T. Watson et al.

between variables and does not assume that the X‐axis is
uniformly measured without error (Scott, 1979b;
Chattah & Smith, 2006). Bivariate normality (p > 0.10)
was found for all subsamples. In comparing wear rate,
the principal axis equation was determined by
plotting the wear score of M1 on the Y‐axis and
M2 on the X‐axis. For the comparison of wear plane,
the principal axis equation was determined by
plotting the wear score of the M1 buccal surface on
the Y‐axis and the wear score of the M2 lingual
surface on the X‐axis. A steeper principal axis slope
(b) indicates a faster wear rate or steeper wear plane
angle. Following Scott (1979b), bivariate plots of the
data were prepared.
Intra‐observer error was assessed by repeating
analysis on 30 random dentitions 4 months after the
originals were conducted. The mean difference in wear
scores of the occlusal surface was two (standard
deviation of 2). In each case, error variances were less
than 10% of total observed variation, confirming that
they were small and unlikely to bias results. All
statistical tests were performed using the SPSS 14.0 for
Windows programme (Statistical Package for Social
Sciences, Chicago, IL).
Results
Raw average wear
Tables 2 and 3 summarise descriptive statistics and
hypotheses tests for attrition scores of left maxillary
and mandibular dentitions. The t‐test comparisons
identify several teeth for which attrition differs
significantly between subsamples. Wear scores were
higher on average among coastal residents, but only
the molars (UM1, UM2, UM3, LM2 and LM3)
demonstrated statistically significant differences. This
pattern of greater wear on the molars is indicative of
differential loading on the posterior teeth among
coastal residents. However, most prehistoric foraging
populations present differential loading in the anterior
dentition, much of which is commonly associated with
the non‐masticatory use of anterior teeth, such as
grasping fibres (Molnar, 1971; Reinhardt, 1983; Smith,
1984; Milner & Larsen, 1991; Kaifu, 1999; Deter,
2009). The pattern of posterior loading observed in the
coastal samples may reflect a difference in the specific
foraged resources consumed (i.e. marine resources) or
in processing techniques compared with other groups
principally invested in foraging, specifically compared
with terrestrial foragers.
When the samples were pooled across locations and
compared by archaeological phase, raw average wear
scores were generally higher in the early phase, with
differences in wear on three posterior maxillary teeth
(UP1, UP2, UM2) and four mandibular teeth (LC,
LP1, LP2, LM2) being statistically significant. Despite
smaller sample sizes, and although attrition scores vary
across more teeth by archaeological phase, to some
extent the pattern is indicative of greater total wear at
the beginning of the Formative period in the lower
Azapa Valley. Other studies of dental attrition and
subsistence patterns typically associate greater overall
wear with foraging and limited processing of consumed
resources (Smith 1982, 1984; Sciulli, 1997; Kieser et al.,
2001; Deter, 2009; Fujita & Ogura, 2009). The pattern
of greater overall wear observed during the early phase
may reflect greater investment in foraging resources at
the beginning of the Formative period, which
eventually gave way to a more balanced, mixed
subsistence economy.
Molar wear rate
Table 4 shows the results of the principle axis analyses
on paired left mandibular molar wear scores. The rate of
average molar occlusal surface wear, as measured on M1

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and t‐tests for left maxillary attrition by site location and archaeological phase

Coast Valley p‐value Early Late p‐value

n Mean SD n Mean SD n Mean SD n Mean SD

UI1 16 3.63 1.20 30 3.50 1.33 0.756 9 3.56 1.33 36 3.56 1.30 0.999
UI2 21 3.48 1.12 36 3.78 1.46 0.418 10 3.40 1.26 47 3.72 1.36 0.493
UC 37 3.54 1.22 51 3.57 1.53 0.926 11 3.82 1.40 77 3.52 1.40 0.510
UP1 42 3.90 1.39 53 3.64 1.73 0.426 12 4.75 1.54 83 3.61 1.55 0.020*
UP2 46 3.89 1.35 57 3.86 1.72 0.919 12 4.75 1.48 91 3.76 1.54 0.037*
UM1 59 5.83 1.54 61 5.02 1.47 0.004* 12 5.94 1.54 108 5.36 1.55 0.223
UM2 56 4.93 1.50 65 3.63 1.34 0.001* 14 5.13 1.80 107 4.11 1.49 0.021*
UM3 30 3.83 1.16 43 2.28 1.23 0.001* 9 3.47 1.16 64 2.84 1.44 0.213

*Significant at the 0.05 level.

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
Tooth Wear in Northwest Chile 295

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and t‐tests for left mandibular attrition by site location and archaeological phase

Coast Valley p‐value Early Late p‐value

n Mean SD n Mean SD n Mean SD n Mean SD

LI1 15 3.87 1.06 27 3.96 1.81 0.851 5 4.60 1.67 37 3.84 1.55 0.314
LI2 18 4.28 1.36 33 3.79 1.47 0.250 6 4.83 0.98 45 3.84 1.46 0.115
LC 27 3.96 1.13 36 3.69 1.39 0.415 8 4.75 1.04 55 3.67 1.26 0.025*
LP1 39 4.00 1.24 42 3.81 1.70 0.568 10 5.00 0.94 71 3.75 1.49 0.012*
LP2 38 4.03 1.26 49 3.67 1.52 0.251 10 5.00 1.15 77 3.68 1.38 0.005*
LM1 41 5.71 1.31 40 5.20 1.41 0.098 10 6.25 1.34 71 5.35 1.35 0.051
LM2 45 4.85 1.48 40 4.00 1.53 0.011* 11 6.00 1.50 74 4.22 1.43 0.001*
LM3 38 3.60 1.17 37 2.95 1.38 0.032* 6 3.46 1.08 69 3.26 1.34 0.732

*Significant at the 0.05 level.

against M2, mirrors those trends observed in attrition
scores between locations. Residents of the coastal sites
had a steeper principle axis slope compared with those
from valley interior sites (Figure 3(a)) indicating a
slightly faster rate of wear; however, the difference was
not statistically significant (p > 0.05). A faster rate of
wear is consistent with other studies of dental attrition
among prehistoric foraging groups (Smith 1982, 1984;
Walker & Erlandson, 1986; Larsen, 1997; Lukacs, 1996;
Sciulli, 1997; Kieser et al., 2001; Deter, 2009; Fujita &
Ogura, 2009) and, although non‐significant, may
reinforce the results observed in the raw average wear
scores.
When samples were pooled across locations and
compared by archaeological phase, the early phase
displayed a slightly higher, but non‐significant, rate of
wear when compared with that of the late phase
(Figure 3(b)). This pattern also matches the greater
overall wear observed in the raw average scores
observed in the early‐phase samples and suggests that
although the rate of wear may be similar over time, it is
generally greater early in the cultural sequence. Again,
although non‐significant, a faster rate of wear is mostly
seen among foraging groups that consume a minimally
processed diet and therefore could be indicative of
greater investment in foraging resources during the
early phase in the lower Azapa Valley.
Molar wear angle
Wear was greater on the molar buccal cusps in groups
for all comparisons (Table 4). Principle axis analysis of
M1 buccal cusps wear scores against M2 lingual cusps
wear scores demonstrate a steeper principle axis slope
and therefore a greater occlusal wear angle in molars
from coastal sites (Figure 4(a)). There is considerable
variability in the wear plane angles of both coastal and
valley interior residents; therefore, the difference in
slope by site location is not statistically significant
(p > 0.05). However, it is interesting that the molar
wear angle is steeper among the coastal group because
most studies of attrition patterns associate flat molar
wear with foraging and limited processing of consumed
foods compared with more angled molar wear among
agriculturalists consuming softer, more processed diets
(Smith 1982, 1984; Larsen, 1997; Sciulli, 1997; Kieser
et al., 2001; Watson, 2008b; Deter, 2009; Fujita &
Ogura, 2009). Although non‐significant, the pattern
observed here is suggestive of dissimilarity in dietary
consistency among the coastal foragers of the lower
Azapa Valley compared with terrestrial foragers in
other parts of the globe.
The principle axis analysis also demonstrated a
steeper slope and therefore greater occlusal wear angle
in molars associated with the early phase (Figure 4(b))

Table 4. Principle axis slope (b), equation and 95% confidence limits

b Principle axis equation CL (95%)

Coast M1 vs M2 0.726 2.499 + 0.726y 0.487 < b < 0.966

Valley M1 vs M2 0.664 2.492 + 0.644y 0.446 < b < 0.882
Early M1 vs M2 0.745 2.977 + 0.745y 0.246 < b < 1.244
Late M1 vs M2 0.683 2.476 + 0.683y 0.520 < b < 0.846
Coast M1 buccal vs M2 lingual 0.809 6.676 + 0.809y 0.481 < b < 1.138
Valley M1 buccal vs M2 lingual 0.613 7.557 + 0.613y 0.367 < b < 0.859
Early M1 buccal vs M2 lingual 1.050 5.842 + 1.050y 0.216 < b < 2.190
Late M1 buccal vs M2 lingual 0.662 7.363 + 0.662y 0.472 < b < 0.852

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
296 J. T. Watson et al.

among the coastal residents. Steeper molar wear during

the early phase may instead be interpreted to indicate a
difference in dietary consistency compared with other
foraging groups, specifically compared with terrestrial
foragers.
The limited sample size for the early phase,
particularly from the valley interior (n = 5), could
contribute to the results obtained here, whereby
heavier wear, experienced by coastal foragers during
the early phase, could be masked when pooled with
later‐phase coastal samples but reflect a stronger signal
over the valley interior sample of the early phase.
Unfortunately, sample sizes are too small to compare
early‐phase with late‐phase coastal samples and early‐
phase with late‐phase valley interior samples. However,
given that sample sizes are somewhat limited,

Figure 3. (a) Scatterplot of average wear scores of M1 and M2

by site location, shown with regression lines. (b) Scatterplot of
average wear scores of M1 and M2 by archaeological phase,
shown with regression lines.

in the lower Azapa Valley. Although similar variability

can be observed in early‐phase and late‐phase group-
ings, the respective principle axis slopes are sufficiently
dispersed from each other to be statistically significant
(p < 0.05). As mentioned above, steeper molar wear
planes are principally associated with an agricultural
lifestyle and a softer, more processed diet (Smith,
1984; Sciulli, 1997; Deter, 2009). If the patterns
observed in this study reflect similar adaptations, then
one could conclude that the residents of the lower
Azapa Valley were heavily invested in domesticated
products or were heavily processing foods at the
beginning of the Formative period but reverted to
utilise more foraged resources or limited processing Figure 4. (a) Scatterplot of M1 buccal cusps and M2 lingual
during the late phase. This seems like an unlikely cusps wear scores by site location, shown with regression lines.
(b) Scatterplot of M1 buccal cusps and M2 lingual cusps wear
interpretation given heavier wear and slightly faster scores by archaeological phase, shown with regression lines.
rates and angles during both the early phase and Note steeper slope for early‐phase subsample.

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
Tooth Wear in Northwest Chile
particularly for the early phase, those differences
observed in attrition that are statistically significant
are likely strong and therefore meaningful.
Figure 5 shows a typical pattern of wear common
among Formative period coastal groups versus valley
interior groups in the lower Azapa Valley. The figure
illustrates those patterns observed in the data: heavy
posterior wear, at a relatively faster rate and with a
slightly steeper molar occlusal angle at coastal sites,
compared with overall less severe wear, at a slower rate
and with more cupped, but less angled, molar occlusal
surface wear at valley interior sites. These patterns also
hold true—and are statistically significant—during the
early phase. An additional phenomenon that was
observed to differ between locations was an extensive
amount of chipping (damage) to dental crowns among
the coastal residents (37.9%) compared with those
from the valley interior (5%; p < 0.001). Damage to the
crown can further exacerbate differential wear, espe-
cially between molar surfaces (Scott & Winn, 2011).
Enamel chipping was recorded as part of the larger
dental analysis by simply counting the number of chips
present that were clearly antemortem (those with some
wear on the edges of the damaged surface compared
with sharp edges likely due to postmortem damage).
Chipping of the crown can be observed on the lingual
edge of the lingual–distal cusp of M1 in Figure 5. In
addition, the figure displays exposure of the pulp
cavity in a molar from both dentitions; however, the
exposure in the individual from the coast is the result
of heavy wear, whereas the exposure in the individual
Figure 5. Photo of right mandibular posterior teeth highlighting
wear and damage typical of Formative period sites in the lower
Azapa Valley. Top is of a 35‐ to 45‐year‐old man from the late‐
phase coastal site of Playa Miller‐7 (individual CR‐133). Bottom
is of a 30‐ to 40‐year‐old man from the late‐phase valley site of
Azapa‐75 (individual T‐123).
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
297
from the valley interior is the result of destruction by a
carious lesion.
Discussion
In a recent related study, we identified higher
frequencies of caries and lost teeth among samples
from the valley interior and subsequently proposed
that this differential expression of oral pathology in
closely related groups was likely the result of greater
investment in agro‐pastoral resources and niche
construction by residents of the valley interior
(Watson et al., 2010). This conclusion formulated the
original impetus for this investigation, and we tested
the hypothesis here that, concomitant with differences
observed in oral pathology, in coastal groups consum-
ing a greater percentage of foraged foods, occlusal
surfaces would have worn faster and exhibit flat molar
wear, whereas among valley interior groups consuming
a greater percentage of agro‐pastoral products, these
would have worn slower but exhibit more angled molar
wear. The results of our analyses demonstrated greater
average tooth wear among coastal residents but limited
differences (not statistically significant) in rates of
attrition and wear angle in the molars compared with
that of the residents of the valley interior. Although we
identified some differences in wear, we reject our
hypothesis, with some caveats, that molar wear rate
and angle demonstrated significant differences by
location (coast vs valley interior). Instead, we found
significantly greater average wear and steeper molar
wear angles and a minimally faster wear rate (not
statistically significant) in dentitions from the early
phase of the Formative period.
Two important patterns were therefore identified
from the analyses conducted on the dental sample from
the lower Azapa Valley: (i) coastal residents exhibited
differential loading on the posterior dentition; and (ii)
dentition from the early phase exhibited greater average
wear over the dental arch and steeper molar wear angles.
Archaeological evidence (Dauelsberg, 1963, 1974;
Muñoz & Chacama, 1982; Muñoz, 1989, 2004; Muñoz
et al., 1991; Arriaza & Standen, 2008) and patterns of oral
disease (Watson et al., 2010) indicated that the residents
of the coast continued to principally invest in marine
foraging throughout the Formative period. In addition,
the limited sample of early‐phase individuals from the
valley interior sites basically creates a ‘coastal’ signature
for the subsample, one largely based on foraging marine
resources. Therefore, the significant patterns of attrition
observed in both the coastal and early‐phase samples
can principally be attributed to a marine‐based diet.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
298
This is significant because our results are partially
opposed to patterns observed in most studies of dental
attrition among foraging groups, which are attributed to
anterior loading, heavy overall wear and flat wear molar
wear planes.
Differences in occlusal surface wear have been shown
to generally correspond with subsistence practices
among pre‐industrial populations (Molnar, 1971; Smith,
1984; Larsen, 1997; Kaifu, 1999; Kieser et al., 2001;
Deter, 2009; Fujita & Ogura, 2009; Liu et al., 2010). The
observation that coastal groups exhibit more extensive
posterior tooth wear lends support, at least superficially,
to dietary specialisation and the premise that coastal
groups were more heavily invested in marine foraging.
However, most studies identify that foragers exhibit
greater anterior tooth wear relative to molar wear
compared with agricultural groups (Molnar, 1971;
Smith, 1984; Kaifu, 1999; Deter, 2009), the reverse of
what was observed in the coastal samples examined in
this study. Greater anterior loading is commonly
associated with using the front teeth for tool fabrication
among foragers (Macchiarelli, 1989; Larsen, 1997), but
the Azapa coastal sample lacks heavy anterior wear and
evidence of task‐specific wear.
Heavier and flatter tooth wear is also fundamentally
associated with the particularly tough nature of
consuming minimally processed foraged resources
(Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1984; Larsen, 1997; Deter,
2009). Our results not only certainly identified heavier
wear among the residents of the coast from the lower
Azapa Valley (similarly for the early phase) but also
determined that they exhibited steeper molar wear
angles more similar to agricultural groups consuming a
soft, heavily processed diet, largely the result of greater
tooth‐on‐tooth contact. Unlike tougher fibrous diets
common to terrestrial foragers, foraging aquatic
resources (Yesner, 1980) has been shown to create
variable, less predictable patterns of tooth wear
(Walker & Erlandson, 1986; Macchiarelli, 1989;
Littleton & Frohlich, 1993). The patterns of dental
attrition observed in coastal samples (and early phase)
in the lower Azapa Valley samples are similar to those
documented among coastal groups in other parts of the
world (Walker & Erlandson, 1986; Macchiarelli, 1989;
Littleton & Frohlich, 1993).
We propose that a marine diet can be a variably
tough—or simultaneously soft and gritty—and can
lead to more unpredictable tooth wear including heavy
wear, at variable rates, and greater molar wear angles
(Macchiarelli, 1989; Littleton & Frohlich, 1993). For
example, crustaceans, shell fish and meat from sea
mammals provide considerable resistance during
mastication, whereas meat from fish and sea urchin
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
J. T. Watson et al.
provide almost no resistance and promote contact
between opposing tooth surfaces. In addition, grit and
using teeth for processing hard components of the diet
such as shells and fish bones can contribute to damage
of the tooth crown and enamel chipping (Scott &
Winn, 2011) as also demonstrated to be more
common among the coastal residents of the lower
Azapa Valley.
Another possible explanation for the patterns of
tooth wear observed in the lower Azapa Valley samples
could lie in the integration of agricultural products and
food processing technology that accompanied the
beginning of the Formative period in the region. The
addition of domesticated cultigens to existing foraging
subsistence strategies increased carbohydrate consump-
tion and created an increase, although minor, in the
incidence of caries compared with the preceding coastal
Archaic groups (Kelley et al., 1991; Watson et al., 2010).
The relationship between dental caries and tooth wear is
still unclear, but Larsen (1997) suggested that groups
with high attrition rates often have low caries rates.
Hillson (2002) was more cautious and advised that this
does not necessarily indicate a causal relationship.
Populations with heavy attrition have been shown to
maintain greater frequencies of cervical caries, an area
that attrition is less likely to effect. This was not found
to be the case in the lower Azapa Valley where the
residents of the valley interior had significantly higher
rates of cervical caries than the residents adjacent to
the coast (Watson et al., 2010). Occlusal attrition has
the potential to remove fissure caries, but the normal
progression of fissure lesions is rapid and attrition can
often do little to prevent them. Although the
relationship between dental disease and tooth wear
is still unclear, the possibility does exist that a change
in dietary proportions could have functioned to
similarly alter wear patterns among the residents of
the lower Azapa Valley, particularly with those living
along the coast.
In a study of oral pathology and dental attrition in
prehistoric groups along the Arabian coast, Littleton
& Frohlich (1993) identified distinctive patterns
among groups practising mixed subsistence econo-
mies. These were additionally unique from patterns
observed in dedicated coastal foragers and later
intensive farmers. They noted (i) high–moderate
rates of attrition, calculus and abscesses, and low rates
of caries and antemortem tooth loss among mixed
fisher–agro‐pastoralists; and (ii) low–moderate rates of
attrition and high rates of caries, calculus and abscesses
with severe antemortem tooth loss among mixed fisher–
farming populations (Littleton & Frohlich, 1993). In both
cases, the practice of a mixed subsistence economy
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
Tooth Wear in Northwest Chile
resulted in reduced and more variable attrition
compared with the dedicated fishers. It is most
interesting that the pattern observed among Arabian
fisher–agro‐pastoralists closely mirrors that observed
among the fisher–agro‐pastoralists of the Formative
period in the lower Azapa Valley (Watson et al., 2010).
Changes in subsistence technology, such as the
introduction and use of ceramics, as well as dietary
composition could have played an equally important
role in altering wear patterns during the Formative
period along the coast. Crude ceramic vessels are
introduced relatively early in the Formative period
along with the suite of domesticates (Rivera et al.,
1974; Santoro, 1980b, 1980c; Muñoz, 1989, 2004;
Rivera, 1991). New technology in food processing
using ceramic vessels, even within the confines of
marine foraging, would certainly affect grit content
and food consistency. Mølleson et al. (1993) and
Sciulli (1997) found that dental wear rates declined
markedly with the development of ceramic cooking
vessels. The use of ceramic vessels for cooking
dramatically decreases food consistency and causes
more tooth‐on‐tooth contact that functions to create
steeper molar occlusal surface wear planes, such as
those observed in the early phase of the lower Azapa
Valley. However, it is curious that the angle decreases
in the samples over the course of the Formative period.
Although the introduction of ceramic vessels may be a
contributing factor to the wear patterns observed here,
greater investment in foraging marine resources along
the coast, as is likely the case among the early‐phase
samples, appears to be a more parsimonious explan-
ation in this case.
The variability in patterns of dental wear observed
among the residents of the lower Azapa Valley appears
to fundamentally be the result of an extremely dynamic
subsistence adaptation. The variable consistency of a
marine diet, perhaps in conjunction with changes in
food processing (i.e. the introduction of ceramic
cooking vessels), could have produced the heavy wear
and steep molar occlusal surface angles observed
among the coastal and early‐phase residents of the
area. The introduction and investment in domesticated
cultigens and animals, while still maintaining a
considerable degree of reliance on marine resources
as suggested by bioarchaeological data, could have
limited wear rate and angle among residents of the
valley interior (and the late phase) while simulta-
neously creating more dental decay. What is most
likely in both cases is that the variability in wear
observed among these groups can be specifically related
to the amalgamation of a marine–agro‐pastoral econo-
my. It is important to also note that the Andean coast is
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
299
the only location in the Americas where these
circumstances occur. The remaining shoreline of the
Americas lacked investment in pastoralism. It is also
likely that the interplay of investment in these varied
resources changed over the course of the Formative
period, and as control over, and of, these resources (old
and new) stabilised, groups in the lower Azapa Valley
canalised production roles in their respective niches by
the later phase.
Conclusions
This study used wear scores from 200 Formative period
individuals from the lower Azapa Valley along the
northern Chilean coast to test the hypothesis that,
concomitant with differences in dental pathology,
occlusal surfaces would wear faster and exhibit flat
molar wear in coastal groups consuming greater
quantities of foraged foods, compared with slower
wear rates but more angled molar wear among valley
interior groups consuming greater quantities of agro‐
pastoral products. Differences in overall wear patterns
between coastal and valley interior locations and in
molar wear plane were observed between the early and
late archaeological phases. Traditional explanatory
models failed to encompass the multidimensional
patterning identified in the data. Initially, the results
do not appear to support significant differences in
tooth wear by site location, and we reject our
hypothesis. However, these results are significant
because they indicate a great deal of complexity to
the interaction between tooth wear, dental disease and
diet, particularly among groups that regularly exploit
marine resources.
People living along the Andean coast practised
stable marine foraging for several thousand years prior
to and after the Formative transition. However, the
introduction of agriculture added new dimensions and
resources for exploitation in existing subsistence
systems. There are clear links between coastal and
valley interior groups, with little distinction for the
duration of the Formative period. Both groups
practised a mixed subsistence economy, utilising the
rich marine resources along the coast and investing in
agro‐pastoral production in the fertile river valleys.
Here, we argue that the nuances of tooth wear
observed in the data result from the variability inherent
in a marine foraging diet and the incorporation of a
more inclusive mixed subsistence adaptation. Moreover,
the appearance and use of pottery among coastal groups
could have played an additional significant role in
affecting patterns of wear in these samples.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 287–302 (2013)
300
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the William J. Fulbright
Visiting Scholar Grant, the Commission for the
International Exchange of Scholars, the Fulbright
Commission Chile, the Universidad Tarapaca de Arica
and the Museo Arqueológico San Miguel de Azapa.
Study of the collections from Azapa was conducted
under the auspices of the project ‘Túmulos funerarios:
Monumentos del paisaje desértico indicadores de la
organización territorial de las poblaciones Formativas
de los valles occidentales del norte de Chile y sur del
Perú’ (Fondecyt 1085106; Universidad de Tarapacá,
Chile). We are grateful to Raul Rocha for producing
Figures 1 and 2 and to Misty Fields, Alexis Gray and
Nathan Harper for providing comments on earlier
versions of the manuscript. We would also like to
thank the journal editor and the anonymous reviewers
for providing critical review and insightful comments
that greatly improved the manuscript.
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