Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
27
Commercial/Institutional
Heat Pump Systems in
Cold Climates
By
Doug Cane and Jeremy Garnet
Caneta Research Inc.
ISBN 90-72647-46-7
This report covers a small sample of the heat pump systems that have
been installed in cold climate areas. Nevertheless, the operating
experience presented appears to be representative of the larger population.
In a number of applications, schools for example, geothermal heat pumps
have a very positive reputation and are increasingly seen as the
technology of choice. In making this information available to a wider
audience, it is hoped that this report will result in increased awareness of
geothermal heat pumps, and in wider application of the technology.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the following people in
obtaining information about the demonstration projects:
The authors are also grateful for the contributions made by Michel Lamanque and
Marius Lavoie of Natural Resources Canada, and by members of the CADDET
Energy Efficiency National Teams. Finally, they would like to thank the CADDET
Energy Efficiency Centre staff for their helpful assistance in producing this report.
iv
CADDET
v
Table of Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
CADDET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Glossary and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
vii
4. Review of Heat Pump Systems Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1 Building descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 HVAC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.1 Distributed systems: water-loop heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2.2 Central system with two-pipe fan-coil units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.3 Central system with four-pipe fan-coil units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of system types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.5 Ventilation systems and heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Heat pump system choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.1 Closed-loop water source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.2 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3.3 Ground heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3.4 Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3.5 Air-source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4 Special features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Demonstration Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1. Trustcan Realty Office, Toronto, Ontario, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2. St. Patrick’s High School, Sarnia, Ontario, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3. Tracadie District Office, Tracadie, New Brunswick,
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4. Hydro-Quebec Administrative Centre, Laval, Quebec,
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5. St. Hyacinthe Vocational School, St. Hyacinthe,
Quebec, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6. The Biosphere, Montreal, Quebec, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7. Statoil Research Centre, Trondheim, Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8. Stavanger Military Camp, Stavanger, Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9. Maastricht Government Building, Maastricht,
The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
viii
10. Salem Community College, Carneys Point,
New Jersey, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
11. Wal-Mart Supercenter, Moore, Oklahoma, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
12. Maxey School, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
13. Geneva Lakefront Hotel, Geneva, New York, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
14. Haverhill Public Library, Haverhill, Massachusetts, USA . . . . 105
15. TEPCO District Heating Plant, Takasaki, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
ix
Glossary and Acronyms
Aquifer
An underground layer of porous rock, sand, etc., capable of yielding
groundwater.
Borefield
Collection of boreholes forming a vertical ground heat exchanger.
Desuperheater
A heat-exchanging device located ahead of the condenser which
cools the vaporised and superheated refrigerant to just above its
temperature of condensation, by rejecting its heat to another fluid,
usually service hot water.
xi
Heat exchanger
A device, typically employing tubes or fins, for transferring heat from
a hot source to a region of lower temperature.
Heat pump
A machine that uses a refrigerant to transfer heat energy from a cold
temperature source, such as the ground, air or water, to another
source, such as a building. After absorbing energy from the cold
source, the refrigerant is mechanically compressed to increase its
temperature. The heat is then transferred using a heat exchanger.
Kyoto Protocol
International agreement to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.
Life-cycle cost
The total cost of equipment, including capital cost, maintenance,
service and energy consumption, over the life of the equipment.
Montreal Protocol
International agreement to reduce and eventually eliminate the
production and release of ozone-depleting substances.
Reverse-return
A pipe supply and return loop in which all parallel paths have the
same length, and thus equal pressure drops and flow rates.
xii
Standing column well
A deep well in which groundwater is extracted from the bottom and
returned to the top. The depth of the well ensures sufficient contact
with the ground, and reduces any direct thermal exchange between
the return and supply water within the well.
VAV: variable-air-volume
HVAC distribution systems that control the heating or cooling for a
building zone by varying the air quantity delivered to that zone.
Water-loop
A two-pipe distribution system in which the heat pumps in the
building are connected to a central pumping station and energy
source and sink.
xiii
Part One
Executive Summary
1. Introduction
Delivered heat
Condenser
Expansion valve Motor
Evaporator Compressor
Circulating refrigerant
2. Motivation
Once the heat pump source has been selected, the type of internal
distribution system must be chosen. This can be a collection of single
packaged units, a water-loop system, or a central system with fan-
coils (two-pipe or four-pipe). As the name implies, a single packaged
unit is a heat pump integrated into a single unit that can be rooftop-
mounted or installed at ground level. An alternative is the packaged
terminal unit commonly used in apartments, hotels, and other single-
room applications.
4. Characteristics
For any of these configurations there can be different drive types, for
example the pump can be engine-driven (usually natural-gas-fuelled)
or electric. Absorption cycle heat pumps are also available. They are
usually gas-fired.
5. Analysis
Simple payback periods for the heat pump systems reported by the
sites reviewed in Part Three ranged from immediate to 12 years, with
an average value of 5.2 years. Maintenance costs of most types of
heat pump are similar to those for HVAC systems, but ground-source
6. Case studies
7. Conclusion
1.1 BACKGROUND
In cold climates, where the heating load is significant and where the
cooling load in smaller buildings is small or non-existent (e.g. in Canada,
the northern parts of the United States, Japan and north and west
Europe), the heat pump has been least competitive.
While this report attempts to group heat pump applications from regions
around the world with similarly cold climatic conditions, it is important
that the reader understand that there are other important, non-climatic,
regional factors which must be considered, such as the availability and
price of energy, attitudes towards comfort, and tax regimes. These
non-climatic factors can make an attractive application in one country
In the past, heat pumps have often been a measure or tool of government
policy. For example, during the oil crises of the mid-1970s and early
1980s, governments in some of these cold climate countries encouraged
the use of heat pumps through financial incentives to reduce dependence
on oil and as part of their energy conservation programmes. This may
happen again, as countries sign up to the Kyoto Protocol, and
governments implement measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The types of building examined include offices (5), schools (4), a retail
building, a museum, a military base, a library, a hotel and a district
heating plant.
Their heat pump systems are generally not formal demonstration projects
except for the purpose of this report, but rather a collection of systems
considered by the authors to be fairly representative of the installations
in each country. The heat pumps used are commercially available in all
but two cases. Essentially the report is a state-of-the-art assessment of
heat pump systems for commercial/institutional buildings in cold
climates.
Chapter 2 of this Part Two discusses the reasons for considering heat
pumps in commercial/ institutional buildings – including operation and
maintenance cost savings, comfort, fuel availability, architectural
considerations and environmental benefits.
Chapter 5 analyses the heat pump systems’ energy use, economics and
trends, and likely technical developments in the future.
Heat pump systems have more advantages for commercial buildings than
their low operating costs. They offer improved comfort due to on-demand
year-round heating or cooling. Greater flexibility in the interior layout
of the building is also possible with heat pumps, particularly where a
distributed, water-loop configuration is adopted. In addition, more
exterior architectural diversity is possible with the adoption of ground-
source heat pump systems, due to the absence of external equipment
such as cooling towers. Because of their use of electric power, heat
pumps can also provide a convenient way to heat a building when fossil
fuel is not readily available.
Generally, a building with a heat pump system will have a higher peak
electrical demand in winter than the same building with a fossil-fuel-
Heat pumps have the advantage of offering both heating and cooling.
This is particularly relevant to commercial and institutional buildings
where the size of the building and the high internal heat gains from
lights, computers and equipment make cooling desirable even in
northern climates, often year-round. There is also now a greater public
expectation that commercial buildings will be cooled in summer.
Heat pump supply air is at a lower temperature and the system runs more
continuously than conventional furnaces. Thus the building occupants
experience less local temperature variation as the heating system cycles
on and off. Air flow rates are often higher with heat pumps, however, so
care should be taken to locate supply outlets to avoid discomfort from
draughts.
Where natural gas is available, and only heating is required for the
building, the economic advantage of a heat pump may be uncertain, and
a detailed energy-use analysis advisable. For the same situation where
only fuel oil is available, a heat pump is more likely to be economical
due to the (usually) higher cost of fuel oil. In both cases, however, the
choices will depend on the local fuel price, and the type of heat pump
system being contemplated.
Where back-up fossil-fuel heat is not needed, heat pumps have the
advantage of requiring only a single infrastructural power source
(electricity) for both the heating and cooling. In one country (The
Netherlands), this single infrastructure is considered a social benefit,
as it reduces the cost and environmental impact of commercial
development.
2.5
to deliver 1 MJ of heat (MJ)
2
Gas consumption
1.5
0.5
0
Electric furnace Gas furnace Heat pump
Heating system
Figure 2.1 Gas consumption of alternative heating systems (based on reference [7]).
Typically, heat pumps can transfer three or four times the heat energy
that they consume in electricity. This ratio is known as the coefficient of
performance (COP). This heat pump’s COP can offset the negative effect
of power plant inefficiencies, leading to overall emissions that are lower
than those produced by the direct combustion of fossil fuels for heat
(even where a high-efficiency furnace or boiler is used). Figure 2.1
illustrates this effect for a power plant operating on fossil fuel alone at a
typical thermal efficiency of 45%. Where the electrical generation mix is
not entirely fossil-fuel-based, the emission advantage of heat pumps is
improved still further, since the electrical source itself emits less
pollutants.
Heat pumps contain refrigerants, and there has been concern about their
effect on ozone depletion. Subject to the Montreal Protocol, older
refrigerants are being phased out, and replaced in new equipment with
non-ozone-depleting (zero ODP) substances. Refrigerant leaks also have
a global warming effect, but this is minimal compared to the global
warming effect of the power plant (except where the electrical generation
mix is almost entirely non-fossil-fuel-based).
45
5.3.4 .................................................................... Upcoming technology
46
5.3.5 .................................................................... Integration of systems
46
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
Vancouver Regina Toronto Montreal Halifax
City
Figure 2.2 Total equivalent warming impact (TEWI) of ground-source heat pumps
(GSHP) in primary schools in Canada, compared to central variable-air-
volume (Central VAV) systems.
The selection of the type of heat pump system for a commercial building
in a cold climate is largely dependent on the type of heat source or sink
that is to be used. Several factors, such as the variation in ambient air
temperature, the condition of the soil and the availability of groundwater
or surface water, will determine the choice of source/sink for the system.
These factors are largely site- and location-dependent, so proper
evaluation of the site is the first step in deciding the most suitable type of
system. Table 3.1 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of the
various types of system available. A more detailed discussion of the
characteristics of the different types of heat pump system is presented in
Chapter 4.
For any of these configurations there can be different drive types, for
example engine-driven (usually natural-gas-fuelled) or electric.
Absorption cycle heat pumps are also available. These are usually
gas-fired.
The Demonstration Projects in Part Three are largely drawn from the
CADDET Energy Efficiency Register, and from other sources available
to the authors (see references for each project in Part Three).
The following criteria were used in their selection:
6,000
Heating degree days (18°C)
5,000 Cooling degree days (10°C)
4,000
Degree days
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Site number
Figure 3.1 Heating and cooling degree days for the example sites.
Data was collected for the sites through CADDET and other available
publications and sources. Further information was obtained by writing to
the owner or consulting engineer, stating the additional information
required to complete the data. Some follow-up communication was also
required by telephone and/or e-mail.
There are six sites in Canada, five in the United States, two in Norway,
one in The Netherlands, and one in Japan. The locations are all northern
(with the exception of Wal-Mart - see Section 3.1). Heating and cooling
degree-days for each site are given in Figure 3.1. Most sites have
between 3,000 and 4,000 heating degree days (18°C base) and are
located in North America.
The heat pump systems included in this report are applied to a variety of
commercial buildings. These include office and retail buildings, schools,
a hotel, a library, a college, and an interactive museum. District heating
systems are represented by two sites: a military camp in Norway and a
district heating plant in an urban area of Japan. The floor area of the
buildings varies from 2,600 m2 to 32,000 m2, apart from the Japanese
district heating plant, which serves a total area of 68,569 m2. Buildings
were typically low-rise (of three storeys or less) with a maximum of six
storeys. Table 4.1 describes the buildings, and Table 4.2 their heat pump
systems.
No. Case study name Total heat Number of Central system Internal
pump capacity heat pumps or distributed distribution
[kW] system system
1 Trustcan Realty 211 17 distributed water-loop
2 St. Patrick’s High School 1,516 163 distributed water-loop
3 Tracadie N.B. Power District Office 77 9 distributed water-loop
4 Hydro-Quebec Administrative Centre 563 2 central 4-pipe fan coils
5 St. Hyacinthe Vocational School 590 35 distributed water-loop
6 The Biosphere 793 43 distributed water-loop
7 Statoil Research Centre 900 2 central 4-pipe fan coils
8 Stavanger Military Camp 520 4 central 2-pipe fan coils
9 Maastricht Government Building 250 1 central 2-pipe fan coils
10 Salem Community College 563 32 distributed water-loop
11 Wal-Mart Supercenter 1,934 34 distributed water-loop
12 Maxey School 528 54 distributed water-loop
13 Geneva Lakefront Hotel 1,140 202 distributed water-loop
14 Haverhill Public Library 210 6 central 2-pipe fan coils
15 TEPCO District Heating Plant 6,603 3 central 4-pipe
(to customers)
Generally the heat pump loop will remain within a temperature range of
16oC to 32oC, so it does not normally require thermal insulation [9].
Ground coupling may reduce this temperature, however, resulting in the
need for thermally insulated water-loop piping.
One or more large heat pumps can be combined to cool or heat water,
which is then directed to a two-pipe distribution system. This hot water
or chilled water will typically supply fan-coil units. As a two-pipe
distribution system cannot cool and heat simultaneously, a seasonal
changeover for the system is required. As shown in Table 4.2, three of
the HVAC systems studied here had two-pipe distribution systems.
With increasing public concern about indoor air quality, heat pump
installations should meet or exceed the design criteria outlined in
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 [10], or other applicable local standards.
• Ducted outside air to each heat pump: This is the most reliable way
of ensuring that a fixed amount of outside air is guaranteed for each
zone. The proportion of outside air to return air can then be closely
controlled using balancing dampers. Typically, for buildings lower
than six storeys, a fan is not used to pressurise the ventilation shaft,
so the intake ductwork should be sized for minimum pressure drop
(low air velocity).
• Rooftop units: Rooftop heat pump configurations allow the fresh air
to be directly introduced to the heat pump.
Table 4.3 presents some details of the ventilation systems used in the
demonstration projects.
The type of heat pump system is based on the type of heat source or sink
that is used for the overall system. Table 4.4 lists the heat pump system
type used in each of the demonstration projects.
No. Case study name Heat source/ System type Number of Borehole/
sink boreholes, well depth,
wells or or loop
loops length (m)
1 Trustcan Realty ground GSHP/vertical HX 43 91
2 St. Patrick’s High School ground GSHP/vertical HX 250 28
3 Tracadie N.B. Power District Office groundwater GSHP/well-water 2 46
4 Hydro-Quebec Administrative Centre groundwater GSHP/well-water 4 n/a
5 St. Hyacinthe Vocational School ground GSHP/horizontal HX 32 365
6 The Biosphere groundwater GSHP/well-water 4 91
7 Statoil Research Centre seawater surface water n/a n/a
8 Stavanger Military Camp air air-source n/a n/a
9 Maastricht Government Building river water surface water n/a n/a
10 Salem Community College ground GSHP/vertical HX 50 61
11 Wal-Mart Supercenter internal
water source water-loop n/a n/a
12 Maxey School ground GSHP/vertical HX 120 73
13 Geneva Lakefront Hotel ground GSHP/vertical HX 318 26 & 42
14 Haverhill Public Library groundwater standing column well 2 457
15 TEPCO District Heating Plant groundwater/ n/a 2 120
air
Closed-loop water source heat pump systems are systems where the heat
pumps are interconnected through a water loop (two-pipe), and the net
heat source or sink for the loop is a boiler and closed-circuit cooler (or
similar heat-rejection device), respectively. Unlike an air-source system,
a closed-loop water source system allows energy recovery between the
4.3.2 Groundwater
It is good design practice to separate the groundwater flow from the heat
pump loop flow, through the use of a heat exchanger. This achieves three
goals:
Ground or soil conditions may also dictate the type of heat exchanger
used. Incorporating the heat exchanger into other building functions can
save costs. An example is the integration of a vertical borefield with the
pilings of a building, or the location of a borefield under a school’s
football field.
The total building energy use for the demonstration projects is shown
in Figure 5.1. The average annual energy use of the buildings was
533 MJ/m2. This compares to the national average for commercial
buildings in the United States of 1048 MJ/m2 [12]. Thus the
demonstration projects consume only about 51% of the US national
average. The average building energy demand is similar in Canada and
the United States, due to a similarly extreme climate. The European
average is lower than that of North America, however, due to a more
temperate climate and consequently lower demand for air conditioning.
Thus, the reduction in total annual energy consumption to 51% is not
entirely attributable to the use of heat pumps, since the demonstration
projects include sites at locations where the average total energy use is
lower than that of the United States.
1,200
Annual total energy use [MJ/m2]
1,000
800
600
400
200
Figure 5.1 Total building energy use per square metre of floor area.
This section will attempt to provide the reader with an indication of the
issues and trends in heat pump technology applicable to commercial/
institutional buildings in cold climates.
The one issue that will impact on all heat pumps before long is the
replacement of the almost universally used refrigerant HCFC-22 with
either an HFC or a natural refrigerant such as hydrocarbon or
hydrocarbon blends and ammonia. HCFCs are currently scheduled to be
phased-out by 2020. North American industry favours the use of HFC
replacements. In countries such as Germany and Norway, there is
significant use of hydrocarbon and hydrocarbon blends in heat pump
equipment. HFCs represent a safe, non-ozone depleting, non-flammable
alternative to HCFCs, with little or no performance penalty. They are,
however, greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming.
Hydrocarbons, on the other hand, are flammable in the concentrations
used in commercial/institutional applications, are non-ozone-depleting
and contribute less to global warming. Performance in machines
equipped with hydrocarbons is the same or better than with HCFCs or
HFCs. Ammonia (NH3) is used extensively in industrial refrigeration
applications. It is non-ozone-depleting and has no direct global warming
potential. Concerns about its toxicity and flammability limit its use in
commercial applications, however.
Many current building codes in North America, Europe, and Japan favour
systems such as heat pumps through measures that encourage heat
recovery and the use of renewable energy. Examples are: mandatory heat
recovery for buildings with very large exhaust air quantities, and the
lowering of other requirements where site-recovered energy is employed.
Future codes may mandate building system integration. This type of
directive tends to favour heat pump systems, since heat pumps are well
suited to system integration through their heat recovery capabilities.
Future codes may also require decisions based on complete life-cycle
cost analysis. This will favour heat pumps, since their energy efficiency
makes long-term assessment of their costs more attractive than short-term.
A popular trend today, that will continue in the future, is the integration
of heating and cooling functions in one system rather than separate
systems. The simplest example is provision of water heating by a
desuperheater on a heat pump. In commercial water-loop heat pump
One of the most popular systems used in large buildings in cold climates
is that involving distributed water-to-air heat pumps on a two-pipe
water-loop distribution system. This allows for simultaneous heating
and cooling all year round, offers flexibility in moving heat pump units
around to suit the owner or tenant’s space layout needs, and minimises the
need for mechanical equipment room and ceiling space in comparison to
central systems. Ventilation, with or without heat recovery, can be
readily accommodated into this type of heat pump system.
The future will likely see increased use of natural refrigerants which do
not contribute to global warming. Upcoming heat pump technology will
involve natural gas engine-driven vapour compressors, and natural gas-
fuelled absorption cycles, driven by a need to reduce global warming
through more efficient use of primary energy. Increasingly, systems will
be integrated, combining multiple functions in one machine to reduce
mechanical system duplication, lowering both system first costs and
operating costs.
Table 7.1 US dollar and Euro equivalents* of other currencies used in the
Demonstration Projects.
USD EUR
1 Canadian dollar (CAD) = 0.671 = 0.733
1 Norwegian Krona (NOK) = 1.118 = 1.220
1 Netherlands Guilder (NLG) = 0.416 = 0.454
100 Japanese Yen (JPY) = 0.913 = 0.997
* as of 15 May 2000.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 211 kW
Number of heat pumps: 17
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Installed pump sizes: 2 x 7.5 kW
Additional systems and features:
• Ground heat exchangers are located below parking garage.
• A gas-fired boiler is connected to loop to prevent ground freezing
and structural damage due to borefield.
Energy consumption
Annual electricity used - building: 552 MWh
Annual gas used - building: 58 GJ
Economic analysis
Building HVAC capital costs: CAD 290,500
Annual building energy costs: CAD 50,600
Conventional HVAC capital costs: CAD 212,000
Conventional energy costs: CAD 57,200
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional:
11.9 years
Utility/government incentive: CAD 35,000
Background
The Trustcan Realty Office is located near downtown Toronto. It is a
three-storey building with a total floor area of 2,600 m2. This building is
an example of the application of a ground-source heat pump (GSHP)
system to an urban renewal project. Due to the high-density location, the
borefield is situated under the building itself – a unique layout for a
GSHP system. The building was completed in 1990.
Toronto has a continental climate, with cold winters and warm, humid
summers. The weather extremes are moderated at times due to proximity
to Lake Ontario.
System description
The ground-source system is a closed-loop design incorporating
43 boreholes of 91 m depth. The boreholes are spaced a minimum of
3.0 m apart, and are all at least 4.6 m from the building footings. The
fluid is a propylene glycol solution, which is circulated throughout the
ground loop and building loop by a 7.5 kW pump (the ground-loop and
building loop are continuous, with no separating heat exchanger). The
borefield runouts are located 2.1 m below the floor slab of the parking
garage. The runouts are connected to reverse-return headers, to ensure
even flow to all boreholes.
Due to the location of the ground loop below the building, there was a
concern that if the loop temperature dropped below freezing, damage
could occur to the building’s foundation due to frost.
To prevent this, a gas-fired boiler was installed to maintain the loop
temperature above 0oC.
HP HP HP
Conditioned space
Expansion
tank
Gas-fired
hot water
boiler Circulating
pumps
43 boreholes,
91 m deep
(under building)
Figure 7.1 Schematic diagram of the ground-source heat pump system at the
Trustcan Realty Office.
System performance
Comparing the GSHP system at Trustcan with a conventional HVAC
system (packaged rooftop variable-air-volume (VAV) arrangement with
gas heating and direct-expansion (DX) cooling) gives total annual energy
cost savings of CAD 6,600 or 11.5%. This yields a simple payback
period of 11.9 years. With the incentive received from Ontario Hydro,
this payback period was reduced to 6.5 years.
Operating experience
Information current in 1995 indicates that the GSHP system had not had
any operational difficulties.
Contact name:
Oxford Suburban Group
Mr. Michael Ytsma
855 Matheson Blvd.
Mississauga, Ontario
L4W 4L6 Canada
Tel.: +1-416-2988898
Fax: +1-905-6256242
References
[13] Case studies of three commercial/institutional GSHP systems.
Caneta Research Inc: Prepared for Hydro-Quebec, 1995.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 1,516 kW
Number of heat pumps: 155 water-to-air, 8 water-to-water
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Installed pump sizes: 4 x 30 kW
Additional systems and features:
• Cooling tower provides supplementary heat rejection.
• Air-to-air heat recovery to pre-heat outside air.
• Water-to-water heat pumps provide supplementary conditioning for
outdoor air.
• 21 Portable classrooms are heated with electric resistance heaters.
Ground-source system
Vertical heat exchanger
250 x 28 m boreholes
Heat exchanger pipe: 32 mm polyethylene
Secondary heat transfer fluid: ethanol
Economic analysis
Building HVAC capital costs: CAD 1,938,000
Annual building energy costs: CAD 183,000
Conventional HVAC capital costs: CAD 1,892,000
Conventional energy costs: CAD 187,000
Cost of ground coupling: CAD 275,000
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional:
11.5 years
Utility/government incentive: CAD 261,000
Background
In 1992, St. Patrick’s High School in Sarnia, Ontario was retrofitted with
a ground-source heat pump (GSHP) system. The school consists of a
13,660 m2 main building and 21 portable classrooms. St. Patrick’s is one
of several schools in the region constructed or retrofitted with a GSHP
system. A CAD 261,000 incentive was provided by the provincial utility
for the GSHP system at St. Patrick’s.
System description
The system consist of 155 water-to-air heat pumps ranging in size from
2.6 kW to 45.7 kW, giving a total thermal capacity of 1,516 kW. These
units are located above the suspended ceiling in the rooms located in the
building’s interior zone, and as console units in the exterior (perimeter)
rooms. In addition, there are eight 52.8 kW water-to-water heat pump
units used for service hot water heating and ventilation air heating or
cooling.
Except for the workshop area, the outdoor ventilation air is pre-conditioned
using energy recovery ventilators. It is then further conditioned by
heating/cooling coils from the water-to-water heat pumps. Total fresh air
The ground loop and building loop are directly connected, and the fluid
is circulated by four 30 kW pumps (two operating and two stand-by).
When the building loop is in heat recovery mode (thermal equilibrium),
the ground heat exchanger is by-passed, and only one pump is operated
to save energy. When the heat rejection load is beyond the capacity of
the ground heat exchanger (borefield) it is again by-passed, and heat
from the building loop is rejected through a closed-circuit cooler.
HP HP HP
Conditioned space
Circulating
pumps
Closed circuit
cooler
Expansion
tank
250 boreholes,
28 m deep
(under football field)
System performance
Comparing the energy use of St. Patrick’s High School for a given year
(1994/95) with an estimate of the energy use of a conventional chiller/
boiler system yielded an annual energy cost saving of CAD 4,000. This
gives a simple payback period of 11.5 years. If the utility incentive is
included in the payback analysis, the simple payback period becomes
instantaneous.
Operating experience
Initially, potassium acetate was chosen as the fluid in the loop. This
caused a large number of the threaded joints in the interior piping system
to leak, and these leaks resulted in some external corrosion to iron pipes
and pipe accessories. A change to an ethanol solution eliminated both the
joint leak and corrosion problems.
Contact name:
Lambton County Roman Catholic School Board
Mr. Matt Roop
430 Christina Street South
Sarnia, Ontario
N7T 2N8 Canada
Tel.: +1-519-3366139
Fax: +1-519-3365160
References
[13] Case studies of three commercial/institutional GSHP systems.
Caneta Research Inc. Prepared for Hydro-Quebec, 1995.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 77.4 kW
Number of heat pumps: 9 units - 3.5 to 17.6 kW
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Installed pump size: 1 x 1.5 kW
Additional systems and features:
• HRV across outdoor air and exhaust air
Ground-source system
Groundwater
1 supply well and 1 discharge well
Well depth: 46 m
Well diameter: 150 mm
Isolation of groundwater from bldg. loop: plate frame heat exchanger
Building heat transfer fluid: methanol and water
Well pump size: 1.1 kW
Economic analysis
Estimated HVAC capital costs: CAD 140,000
Annual building energy costs: CAD 21,600
Conventional HVAC capital costs: CAD 99,500
Conventional HVAC energy costs: CAD 27,500
Cost of ground-source system: CAD 11,750
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional:
7 years
Utility/government incentive: No
Background
In order to demonstrate the energy savings and peak electrical demand
reductions attainable with ground-source heat pump (GSHP) systems,
New Brunswick Power decided to specify a ground-source heat pumps
system for their new regional office in Tracadie, New Brunswick.
System description
The system installed is an open-loop, GSHP system, with a 46 m deep
supply well with a casing 150 mm in diameter, and a discharge well of
the same dimensions.
HP HP HP
Conditioned space
Well pump
Figure 7.3 Schematic diagram of the groundwater heat pump system at the
Tracadie District Office.
Project costs
The cost of the entire HVAC system, including the ground-source
wells and an energy management systems (EMS), was estimated to
be CAD 140,000. This compares to the baseline system considered
(a variable air volume rooftop air-conditioner and baseboard electric
heaters) with a cost of CAD 99,500.
System performance
Comparing the energy performance of the installed GSHP systems with
that of a conventional system (packaged rooftop cooling with electric
baseboard heaters) shows a drop in total building energy use of
102,680 kWh. This corresponds to a simple payback period of about
seven years.
Contact name:
New Brunswick Power
Mr. George Dashner
PO Box 2000
Fredericton, New Brunswick
E3B 4X1 Canada
Tel.: +1-506-4583285
Fax: +1-506-4584000
E-mail: gdashner@nbpower.com
References
[16] Monitoring of a groundwater source heat pump system at Tracadie.
University of Moncton and Caneta Research Inc. Prepared for the
Canadian Electricity Association, 1996.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 563 kW
Number of heat pumps: 2 units - 211 kW and 352 kW
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Additional systems and features:
• Heat pumps are standard chillers
• Back-up boiler in loop
Ground-source description
Groundwater system
Number of wells: 2 supply, 2 injection
Depth of wells: n/a
Ground loop flow rate: 6.6 litres/sec
Additional systems and features:
• Groundwater system is separated from the heat pumps by a plate
heat exchanger (except for the heat rejection condenser of the
352 kW unit which is directly connected to the groundwater loop)
Economic analysis
Incremental HVAC capital costs: CAD 50,000
Annual building energy savings: CAD 24,707
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional:
2.0 years
Utility/government incentives: none
Background
The administration centre of Hydro-Quebec at Laval is a two-storey
office building with a total floor area of 12,750 m2. The building is
made up of three main areas: an office area of 4,220 m2, a shop area of
5,300 m2 (for vehicle repair and equipment storage), and a 3,230 m2
unheated ‘shelter block’ for maintenance vehicles. The building was
completed in 1987.
System description
The system consists of a heat pump loop thermally connected (by a plate
heat exchanger) to a groundwater system. In this way the groundwater
acts as a thermal source or sink for the heat pump loop when the energy
exchange within the loop is not balanced. The loop serves two large heat
pumps, one of 352 kW and the other of 211 kW. These heat pumps are
standard chillers which provide both chilled water and hot water to the
building. A back-up boiler for the heating loop is also installed.
The make-up air system supplies fresh air at the rate of 5,660 litres/
second to the office and 14,160 litres/second to the repair shop, parking
garage and warehouse.
HP HP
Plate heat
exchanger
2 injection 2 supply
wells wells
Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram of the groundwater heat pump system at the Hydro-
Quebec Administrative Centre in Laval.
Project costs
The increased cost of the groundwater heat pump system over a
conventional system is estimated to be CAD 50,000. This increase is
based on the cost of the wells, groundwater piping, submersible pumps
and the plate heat exchanger.
System performance
The geothermal system resulted in net energy savings of CAD 24,707
per year, giving a simple payback period of two years, based on the
energy cost of several comparable buildings in the area. Peak power
demand is reduced by 600 kW to less than 700 kW.
Operating experience
Some problems were encountered with corrosion of the groundwater
loop galvanised piping, particularly under the tape used to secure the
wiring to the well pump. The on-off mode of operation of the well
pumps was also cited as a problem. A variable-frequency drive was
judged more suitable.
References
[18] Minea, V., Experimental study of two institutional ground-source
heat pump systems. Third International Conference - Heat Pumps
in cold Climates, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Caneta Research Inc.,
p. 469, 1997.
Interior system
Number of heat pumps: 35 units (12.3 kW to 19.9 kW)
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Installed pump sizes: 1 x 15 kW
Additional systems and features:
• Thermal storage tank in loop with back-up heating from a boiler
(oil).
Energy consumption
Annual electrical consumption - building: 1,327 MWh
Annual gas consumption - workshop section: 2,192 GJ
Annual GSHP system electrical consumption: 519 MWh
Economic analysis
GSHP capital costs: CAD 115/m2
Conventional HVAC capital costs (est.): CAD 155/m2
Annual savings due to GSHP system: CAD 41,000
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system: immediate
Utility/government incentives: none
Background
St. Hyacinthe School is a two-storey building with a total floor area of
11,388 m2. However, only the academic and recreational section
(6,856 m2) is heated and air-conditioned by the heat pump system.
The town of St. Hyacinthe is located in the province of Quebec, just east
of Montreal. The climate is continental, with cold winters and warm,
humid summers.
System description
The ground-source system is a closed-loop design with a horizontal
ground heat exchanger. This heat exchanger consists of 32 loops of
32 mm high-density polyethylene pipe, buried 1.2 m under the field of
a neighbouring farm. Each loop is 365 m long. To prevent freeze-up,
the fluid is a 21% methanol/water solution.
Project costs
The cost of the GSHP system was CAD 114.6/m2, which is about 26%
lower than that of an equivalent conventional system.
System performance
Compared to a similar school with a conventional system, the
St. Hyacinthe School costs CAD 4/m2 less per year to heat and cool.
The payback period is immediate, due to lower capital cost than a
conventional system.
HP HP HP
Conditioned space
Thermal
storage tank
Back-up hot
water boiler (oil)
Horizontal ground
heat exchanger
32 loops, 365 m long
Figure 7.5 Schematic diagram of the St. Hyacinthe School ground-source heat
pump system.
Contact name:
St. Hyacinthe School Board
Mr. Guy Thibault
2255, rue Sainte-Anne
Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec
J2S 5H7 Canada
Tel.: +1-450-7738401 Ext. 533
Fax: +1-450-7736876
References
[18] Minea, V., Experimental study of two institutional ground-source
heat pump systems. Third International Conference - Heat Pumps in
cold Climates, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Caneta Research Inc.,
p. 469, 1997.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 793 kW
Number of heat pumps: 43 units - 2.2 kW and 76.6 kW
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Additional systems and features:
• Heat pumps located in separate mechanical rooms to reduce noise.
Ground-source description
Groundwater system
Number of wells: 2 supply, 2 injection
Depth of wells: 91 m (supply)
Ground loop flow rate: total 22 litres/sec
Energy consumption
Annual energy use of GSHP system: 6,325 GJ
Annual energy use of conventional system:
- with electric boiler: 7,978 GJ
- with gas boiler: 9,634 GJ
Economic analysis
GSHP system capital cost: CAD 525,000
Conventional system (elec. boiler) capital cost: CAD 508,375
Conventional system (gas boiler) capital cost: CAD 532,600
Background
The Biosphere, which opened in 1995, is an interactive museum to
promote awareness of the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes ecosystem.
It is located within the geodesic dome that formed the United States
pavilion at Expo 67. This dome, 76 m in diameter and 63 m high, was
originally fitted with clear acrylic panels, but has been unglazed since
1976 when a fire destroyed these panels.
The building has a floor area of 4,500 m2, and a large window area. Due
to its unique architecture, 80% of the total floor area is in a peripheral
zone. These factors, combined with the severity of the climate, lead to a
demanding heating and cooling load.
System description
The system is an open loop ground-source heat pump system (See
Figure 7.6). The building loop serves 43 heat pumps, varying in size
from 2.2 kW to 76.6 kW, with a total installed capacity of 793 kW.
These heat pumps are located in eight small mechanical equipment
rooms to reduce noise. The building loop is separated from the
groundwater system by two plate heat exchangers of stainless steel
design. The building loop incorporates two (one operating, one standby)
11.2 kW pumps, giving a total flow of 44.2 litres/second.
Project costs
The estimated investment cost of the system is CAD 525,000. This
compares to a chiller/boiler system cost of CAD 508,375 (electric boiler)
or CAD 532,600 (gas-boiler).
HP HP HP HP HP
Figure 7.6 Schematic diagram of the groundwater heat pump system at the
Montreal Biosphere.
Note that the natural gas boiler system has the lowest energy cost of all.
This was known at the outset, but the designers chose the GSHP system
due to its environmental benefits, which are in keeping with the
museum’s theme of ecological preservation.
Operating experience
The location of the heat pumps in separate rooms allows maintenance
of the units during working hours without disturbing the exhibition.
The system is easier to maintain and operate than a conventional system,
but more specialised staff are required.
Contact name:
Bouthillette Parizeau & Associés Inc.
Mr. Jacques Lagacé
9825, Verville
Montréal, Québec
H3L 3E1 Canada
Tel.: +1-514-3833747
Fax: +1-514-3838760
E-mail: bpa@sympatico.ca
References
[25] Geothermal heating and cooling for Montreal’s Biosphere.
CADDET Energy Efficiency Register, Project Number CA-97-503,
1998.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 900 kW (plus 200 kW chiller for
cooling back-up)
Number of heat pumps: 2 units + chiller
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Additional systems and features:
• 2 Propane boilers (250 kW each) fitted to heating loop as back-up.
• Ammonia system (low charge, leak detection, and exhaust air
scrubber reduce risks)
Energy consumption
Annual energy use of HP system: 4,680 GJ
Annual energy use of propane boiler: 3,240 GJ
Economic analysis
HP system capital cost: NOK 3.6 million
Estimated simple payback period: 4.5 years (not including benefit of
seawater cooling)
Utility/government incentives: 20% subsidy
Background
The Statoil Research Centre in Trondheim, Norway, is a 32,000 m2
research office with a staff of about 500. In 1994, two ammonia heat
pumps were installed, each having a capacity of 450 kW. These heat
pumps provide 60% of the maximum (design) heating requirement of
the building.
System description
Figure 7.7 is a schematic diagram of the system. Seawater at 5°C to 6°C
serves as the heat source for the heat pump evaporators. Total heat pump
capacity is 900 kW. The discharge from these evaporators is then routed
to a heat exchanger where it absorbs heat from the space cooling loop.
Before finally discharging back into the sea, this fluid passes through
another heat exchanger where any heat gained from the cooling loop can
be transferred to the heating loop if required. The cooling loop is fitted
with a 200 kW chiller, but this is mainly a back-up.
The heating loop is fitted with a propane boiler to provide back-up heat
when necessary.
The use of ammonia as the heat pump refrigerant imposed some safety
requirements, since the machine room where these heat pumps are
located is within the office building. To address this problem a leak
detection system is fitted, coupled to an alarm system and failsafe
two-stage mechanical ventilation system. As a further precaution,
Water heating
Space heating
Chiller Heat HP HP
exchanger
Space cooling
Heat
exchanger
Seawater
Figure 7.7 Schematic diagram of the heat pump system at the Statoil Research
Centre.
the heat pump units have a low ammonia charge, and the refrigeration
circuits are sectioned, limiting the amount of ammonia that can be
released. As a final precaution against any possibility of transferring high
concentrations of ammonia to surrounding buildings, an ammonia
scrubber system is fitted to the exhaust system.
Project costs
The heat pump system cost NOK 3.6 million. This gives a payback
period of 4.5 years, not including the savings due to cooling by seawater.
System performance
The annual energy consumption of the heat pumps and seawater pumps
totalled 4,680 GJ. The propane boiler consumed 2,160 to 2,880 GJ per
year. Compared to a conventional system (oil-fired heating system and
central air-conditioning), the system saved 8,280 GJ of thermal energy
and 0.4 GWh of electricity for cooling.
Operating experience
Annual maintenance costs on the heat pump compressors average
NOK 120,000. Maintenance intervals are 7,000 hours. The owners are
very satisfied with the installation and report no extra maintenance on
the compressors.
References
[27] Ammonia water-to-water heat pump in a commercial building.
CADDET Energy Efficiency Register, Project Number NO-99-501,
1998.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 520 kW
Number of heat pumps: 4 (air-source)
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Operating pump flowrate: 20 litres/second
Economic analysis
Building HVAC capital costs: NOK 4 million
Annual energy costs savings: NOK 0.4 million
Conventional HVAC capital costs: n/a
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional:
10 years
Utility/government incentive: none
System description
The system uses four air-to-water heat pumps, each with a capacity of
130 kW. These heat pumps serve the main district heating loop of the
camp. Each of these units has two evaporators which are specifically
designed for the climate of western Norway. A large surface area and
high flow rate with a large gap between the fins (8 mm) reduces the
formation of frost and delays the eventual coil blockage, while an epoxy
coating protects the surface of the evaporators from the corrosive effects
of the sea air. When freeze-up does occur, hot-gas defrosting is
employed to rapidly and effectively defrost the evaporators.
These heat pumps use R-134a as the refrigerant, which has zero ozone
depletion potential (ODP).
Project costs
The heat pump system installed at Stavanger cost NOK 4 million.
System performance
The special evaporator design results in only one or two defrost cycles
a day when the ambient temperature is below 4°C. Also, the large
evaporator surface area helps to improve efficiency, due to a lower
temperature difference in the evaporators.
Supply to
buildings
The heat pumps supply about 85% of the total annual heating
requirement of the camp. This includes space heating, domestic hot
water (which accounts for half of the heat pumps’ energy use), and
ventilation air heating. The remaining 15% is met by electric and
oil-fired boilers, which provide the peak heating load requirements,
since the heat pumps can supply only 50% of the maximum load.
The resulting energy savings gave a payback period of six years, with
no subsidy to offset the capital costs.
Operating experience
Initially, heat pump system performance was affected by a flow
balancing problem. Also, it was necessary to add a wall to mask the
sound the units. The cost of the wall is included in the project costs
and payback period calculation given above.
Contact name:
Partner Consult A/S
Mr. Ove Njaa
Torgveien 15a
Stavanger
N-4016
Norway
Tel.: +47-51-585020
Fax: +47-51-585020
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 250 kW
Number of heat pumps: 1
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Installed pump sizes: n/a
Additional systems and features:
• NH3 – H2O gas fired absorption heat pump incorporating the GAX
(temperature overlap) technology to increase efficiency.
Water-source system
• Water from the Maas river.
• Two-stage pumping to reduce risk of freezing when river water
temperature is low.
Economic analysis
Building HVAC capital costs: n/a
Annual building gas use: 9,992 GJ (est.)
Conventional HVAC capital costs: n/a
Conventional energy use: 13,693 GJ
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional: n/a
Utility/government incentive: n/a
Background
A new high-efficiency gas-fired absorption chiller was developed by the
Dutch manufacturer Rendamax in conjunction with the engineering firm
System description
The primary innovation in the system is the heat pump itself. This high-
efficiency absorption heat pump uses ammonia-water as the fluid and
incorporates GAX (generator/absorber heat exchanger), or temperature
overlap, technology.
System performance
The system is estimated to save 3,701 GJ per year, reducing the
gas consumption of the building by 27% from 13,693 GJ/year to
9,992 GJ/year.
GAX absorption
heat pump
NH3 H2O
Intermediate
brine syetem High capacity pump
Low capacity
Heat pump
exchanger
River water
Figure 7.9 Schematic diagram of the GAX heat pump system at the government
building in Maastricht.
Operating experience
n/a
Contact name:
Colibri
Mr. Reinhard Schneider
PO Box 1112
6460 BA Kerkrade
The Netherlands
Tel.: +31-43-3066227
References
[32] Bassols, J., Schneider, R., Ohrt, D., Kuckelkorn, B., Langreck, J.,
Veelken, H: First results of the operation of a gas-fired 250 kW
absorption heat pump. Heat Pumps for Energy Efficiency and
Environmental Progress, pp. 447-452, 1993
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 563 kW
Number of heat pumps: 32 units
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Additional systems and features:
• old air-source HP pre-heats outdoor air in Science and Technology
Building.
Background
Salem Community College is located in Carney’s Point, New Jersey. In
1993/94 two buildings on the college campus were converted to a
ground-source heat pump (GSHP) system. These were the Science and
Technology Building (2,880 m2) and the Donaghay Building (2,973 m2).
System description
The HVAC system uses 16 heat pumps in each building. Three of the
units in the Donaghay Building are fitted with desuperheaters, which use
the waste heat from the condenser to heat water. This supplies more than
50% of the building’s hot water needs. The total capacity of the system
(including both buildings) is 563 kW.
The loops that serve the heat pumps in each building are directly
connected to the ground-source heat exchanger, which has 50 boreholes,
each 61 m deep. The piping in these boreholes is of high-density
polyethylene. The borehole centres are spaced 4.6 m apart. A 10%
methanol solution is used to prevent freezing.
Conditioned space
50 boreholes,
61 m deep
Figure 7.10 Schematic diagram of the ground-source heat pump system at Salem
Community College.
Project costs
The cost of converting the Donaghay Building was USD 94,500. For the
Science and Technology Building the cost was USD 106,000. Money
from granting agencies more than covered these costs.
System performance
The new system resulted in annual savings of USD 28,000 and
USD 31,000 for the Donaghay and Science and Technology Buildings
respectively. There were also savings in maintenance costs of about
USD 8,000 annually (total, including both buildings).
This gives a simple payback period for the entire investment of 3.0 years,
not including the subsidies.
Operating experience
The reduced maintenance costs prove that the system is reliable and
effective. College representatives have indicated (referring to the Science
and Technology Building) that the GSHP system improved occupant
comfort.
References
[34] Operating experiences with commercial ground-source heat
pumps. Caneta Research Inc. ASHRAE Project Number 863, 1995.
HVAC system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 1,934 kW
Number of heat pumps: 34 (6 dual-path, 28 single-path)
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Additional systems and features:
• Waste heat recovery from retail refrigeration.
• Dual-path (return/fresh air). Eliminates reheat and provides better
humidity control.
Energy consumption
Annual electrical use - building: 3.91 GWh (22% below the baseline
design)
Background
In conjunction with the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
Wal-Mart embarked on a project to investigate an energy-efficient and
environmentally friendly superstore design. This project was sponsored
by Oklahoma Gas & Electric Company, one of Wal-Mart’s utility
providers, and is intended to be a prototype for future centres. The
supercenter consist of a department store section and supermarket section.
System description
The system is made up of a water-loop serving all the heat pumps,
air-conditioning and supermarket display case refrigerator condensers.
This water loop is common to both the department store and supermarket
sections of the building, maximising the heat recovery possible. Excess
heat in the water loop is rejected, when necessary, to a cooling tower of
advanced design. Variable speed pumps are employed in the loop to save
energy.
Return air
Variable
speed
Cooling pumps
tower
Operating experience
The system has resulted in consistently low space humidity levels: a
relative humidity of under 40% in the grocery area and under 50% for
the entire space throughout the first year. Also, carbon dioxide levels
have been below 1,000 ppm (ASHRAE Target).
Contact name:
Wal-Mart Corporation
Mr. Charles Zimmerman
701 South Walton Blvd.
Bentonville, AR
72716
United States of America
Tel.: +1-501-2734139
Fax: +1-501-2040151
References
[36] EPRI Integrated Water Loop/Dual Path HVAC System. CADDET
Energy Efficiency Register, Project Number US-99-526, 1999.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 528 kW
Number of heat pumps: 54 units
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Additional systems and features:
• Fresh air quantity meets ASHRAE standard 62-1989 of
7.1 litres/second per person.
Ground-source description
Vertical heat exchanger
Number of boreholes: 120
Depth of boreholes: 73 m
Heat exchanger pipe: 25 mm polyethylene
Heat transfer fluid: 22% propylene glycol
Energy consumption
Annual energy use -building: 1,116 MJ/m2 (includes gas and electricity,
where electrical consumption includes the effect of generation
efficiency, taken as 33%).
Background
Maxey School is a 6,410 m2 primary school located in Lincoln,
Nebraska, USA. This school is one of four new schools built recently
(1995). Each school has 20 classrooms, common areas, a music room,
a gymnasium, and offices. Maxey School opened the fall of 1995.
It accommodates more than 500 pupils.
System description
The cooling and heating load of the school is handled by a total of
54 heat pumps. Of these, 50 heat pumps, varying in size from 4.9 kW
to 15.8 kW, serve the classrooms and offices. The school meets the
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, providing 7.1 litres/second of fresh air per
person. For the classrooms and offices the air drawn from outside is
heated by two 52.8 kW heat pumps. A 35.2 kW unit handling 40%
outside air and a 15.8 kW unit handling 45% outside air serve the
assembly areas (cafeteria, gymnasium etc.). The outdoor air units are
provided with hot water preheat when the outside temperature falls
below 4°C. Four gas-fired boilers, each with a capacity of 96.7 kW,
provide this hot water, which is also used for vestibule and other
perimeter heating.
Project costs
The total cost of the GSHP system for the four new primary schools was
USD 2,632,760. As the school HVAC systems are similar, Maxey’s
GSHP system cost was about one quarter of this value (USD 658,190).
System performance
The average total annual energy consumption of the school over the
years 1996 and 1997 was 1,116 MJ/m2. This figure includes both gas and
electricity consumption, including the effects of overall electricity
generation efficiency (assumed to be 33%). Of all the kindergarten to
grade 12 schools in the Lincoln Public School District, only 30% used
less energy than Maxey School, and many of these did not have 100% of
their floor area cooled.
HP HP HP
Conditioned space
120 boreholes,
73 m deep
Contact name:
Maxey Elementary School
Mr. Rod Bodfield, Building Superintendent
5200 South 75th Street
Lincoln, Ne.
68516
United States of America
Tel.: +1-402-4361153
Fax: +1-402-4361274
References
[39] Fenenbach, R.S. and Bantam, D.D. Going underground (finally),
Engineered Systems, April 1988.
[40] Bantam, D.D. and Benson, S.J. A public utility strategy for
implementing and monitoring a ground coupled heat pump system
in a public school. APPA Energy/Customer Services and
community Workshop – New Tactics for Marketing Heat Pumps,
Kansas City, Missouri, October 16, 1995.
[41] Shonder, J.A., Martin, M.A., Sharp, T.R., Durfee, D.J., Hughes, P.J.
Benchmark for performance: geothermal application in Lincoln
Public Schools. Draft paper for ASHRAE, 1999.
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 1,140 kW
Number of heat pumps: 202 units
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Installed pump sizes: 1 x 37 kW (plus backup)
Additional systems and features:
• 2 enthalpy wheels used for fresh air ventilation heat recovery
(total 4,720 l/s)
Energy consumption
Annual electrical use - building : 1,624 MWh
Annual electrical use for HP system: 414 MWh
Economic analysis
Building HVAC capital costs: USD 900,000 plus USD 250,000 for
underground work.
Annual building energy costs: n/a
Conventional HVAC capital costs: n/a
Conventional energy costs: n/a
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system: n/a
Utility/government incentives: discounted rate from utility
Background
Geneva Lakefront Hotel is a Ramada Inn located in Geneva, New York.
This six-storey, 9,295 m2 hotel has 149 guest rooms, a restaurant,
meeting rooms and common areas. Geneva is located in the north-west
part of New York state. It has a continental climate, with cold winters
and warm, humid summers.
System description
The HVAC system is a vertical heat exchanger, ground-source system
serving 202 heat pumps. Each guest room is fitted with a 2.6 kW heat
pump. The remaining units are used for the space conditioning of the
common areas (lounge etc.), as well as for service hot water (4 units of
35 kW each) and pool water heating. Fresh air is pre-heated using two
enthalpy wheels for energy recovery.
The borefield is divided into two areas, one located under the parking lot,
and one, uniquely, integrated with the building’s pilings. Both these
fields serve the same loop. The parking lot borefield consists of
Project costs
The owner’s estimate of the cost of the heating system, not including the
ground work, is USD 900,000. The underground work is estimated at
USD 250,000 bringing the total cost for the system to USD 1,150,000.
Conditioned space
Figure 7.13 Schematic diagram of the ground-source heat pump system at Geneva
Lakefront Hotel.
Operating experience
Some difficulty was encountered in controlling the two-way valves on
the heat pumps. Also, a fourth heat pump (as reflected in the numbers
above) had to be added to the hot water system as no electric resistance
backup is installed. Two of the heat pumps have required compressor
replacement.
Contact name:
CDH Energy
Mr. Steven Carlson
P.O. Box 641
132 Albany Street
Cazenovia, NY 13035
United States of America
Tel.: +1-315-6551063
Fax: +1-315-6551058
E-mail: carlson@cdhenergy.com
References
[43] Geneva Lakefront Hotel Site Survey - Overview, CDH Energy
Corporation, 1997.
Building description
Occupancy: Library
Location: Haverhill, Massachusetts
Gross floor area: 2,600 m2
Number of storeys: 2
Type of system: Retrofit
System completion date: January 1995
Degree days - cooling (10°C) 1,609
- heating (18°C) 3,134
(Boston)
Interior system
Total installed heat pump capacity: 210 kW
Number of heat pumps: 6 units - 35 kW each
Internal distribution system: Water-loop
Installed pump sizes: n/a
Additional systems and features:
• existing air handlers (3) employed
Ground-source description
Groundwater system
Number of wells: 2
Depth of wells: 457 m
Additional systems and features:
• each well serves as supply and return (supply from bottom and
return to top of well)
• small (about 10% of flow) emergency bleed system to stabilise well
temperature during extreme weather conditions.
Economic analysis
Building HVAC capital costs: USD 209,000
Conventional HVAC capital costs: n/a
Annual building energy savings: USD 11,586
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional: n/a
Utility/government incentives: n/a
Background
The town of Haverhill is located in the north-east part of the state of
Massachusetts, not far from the city of Boston. The original building, a
2,600 m2 two-storey structure, was constructed in 1969. In 1995, a
groundwater heat pump system was added to the building. The original
HVAC system was made up of an air-cooled chiller and an electric
boiler, serving two-pipe air handlers. A major addition to the building
was built in 1997. This report covers the groundwater heat pump system
as applied to the original building.
Haverhill has a continental climate, with warm, humid summers and cold
winters.
System description
The system consists of two standing column wells, 457 m deep. Each well
serves both as supply and return, with supply water drawn from the bottom
of the well, and return water discharged into the top. There is a separate
pump for each well. This well water forms the heat source or sink for the
heat pumps, which are of water-to-water design. There are six heat pumps,
each 35 kW in capacity. These combine to supply chilled or hot water to
the three existing air handlers. In this way existing piping and ductwork
could be used to save costs, and minimise disruption during the retrofit.
The original air handlers were oversized, which suited the heat pump
installation, due to the lower heating water temperatures of the heat pumps.
3 air
handling
units
6 water-to-water
heat pumps HP HP HP
Bleed
discharge
Expansion
tanks (2)
Figure 7.14 Schematic diagram of the ground-source heat pump system at the
Haverhill Public Library.
Project costs
The total cost of the system is USD 209,000.
System performance
The groundwater heat pump system resulted in a reduction in electricity
use of approximately 230 MWh per year. The peak electrical demand of
the building was reduced by 50%.
Operating experience
This application of groundwater heat pump technology has been very
successful. The use of the existing air handlers and ductwork contributed
to the success in providing a more cost-effective and trouble-free
installation.
References
[45] Geothermal heat pump data review, CDH Energy Corporation,
Haverhill Public Library, 1997.
[46] Summary report for geothermal heat pump retrofit. Water and
Energy Systems Corporation, Haverhill Public Library. Prepared
for the Geothermal Demonstration Project of the NEES Companies,
1996.
Economic analysis
(when system had only one heat pump of 520 kW):
Plant system capital costs:
- Plant (including. groundwater system): JPY 900 million
- Service pipeline: JPY 1,050 million )
- Total: JPY 1,950 million
Conventional plant capital costs: Similar system with air-source heat
pumps would be JPY 1,925 million total.
Conventional energy costs: n/a
Cost of ground coupling: JPY 650 million (JPY 25 m more than
equivalent air-source system)
Estimated simple payback period of GSHP system over conventional: n/a
Utility/government incentives: Partial release from capital assets tax for
ten years.
Background
Out of a concern for saving energy and environmental benefits, the
Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) is promoting the use of
alternative energy sources for district heating. As a result of this
initiative, TEPCO chose a groundwater heat pump system for its district
heating plant in Takasaki. Takasaki is located in the Gunma Prefecture in
Japan. The district heating plant serves the ‘Central Area’ of Takasaki,
the commercial, cultural and administrative hub of the city. At present
the district heating plant supplies three buildings, the TEPCO office
building, the City Hall and the Takasaki City Gallery. Future plans
envision an expanded customer base, with a near doubling of plant
output by the addition of an air-source heat pump of 5,626 kW.
The groundwater system is made up of two wells, one supply well and
one re-injection (return) well. These wells reverse their roles twice a year
(at seasonal change-over). Both wells are 120 m deep and 400 mm in
diameter. Testing revealed that two aquifers at different depths were
present at the Takasaki site, one between 30 m and 60 m below ground,
and another between 90 m and 120 m. Since most groundwater users in
the region use the shallower aquifer, the TEPCO installation extracts and
discharges the well water below the 60 m level to avoid interference with
these existing groundwater users.
Customers
Water-to-water
heat pumps HP HP HP
Figure 7.15 Schematic diagram of the TEPCO district heating system in Takasaki.
System performance
The annual electrical energy consumption of the existing plant is
approximately 2,900 MWh. This corresponds to an annual heat supply
of 29,000 GJ.
Operating experience
TEPCO reports no major difficulties with the system. District heating
and cooling systems have the advantage of reducing the amount of
HVAC equipment required by the customers. They are also well suited
to thermal storage, since larger tanks have a smaller surface-area to
volume ratio, reducing the heat loss per unit volume.
Contact name:
Tokyo Electric Power Company
Mr. Koki Nishigaki
1-3, Uchisaiwai-cho 1-chome
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
100-0011
Japan
Tel.: +81-3-35018111
Fax: +81-3-35968521
E-mail: t0647040@pmail.tepco.co.jp
References
[47] First district heat service in Japan using groundwater as a heat
source. CADDET Energy Efficiency Register, Project Number
JP-96-504, 1997.
Figure
Table