CONTROL SYSTEMS

ENGINEERING

J. Prince Antony Joel, M.E;M.B.A;

KiTS Engineering College,
Kottayam.
 MODULE - 3
Introduction to Control Systems Engineering

CONTROL SYSTEM
Control system is a system in which the output quantity is controlled by
varying the input quantity. The output quantity is called controlled variable or
response and the input quantity is called command signal or excitation.

The primary objective of any control system is to maintain the response of a

process at a desired value. For example, we want to maintain the level at a desired
value by controlling the inflow rate by adjusting valve opening.

Fig: Liquid level Control System

The control system compares the desired level (set point) with the present level
(controlled variable). The present level is obtained by a sensor (here Level Sensor). If
any difference (error) between set point and controlled variable, the controller takes
the necessary action to increase or decrease the valve opening. This was shown below
as a block diagram.
 This type of control system is called Closed Loop Control System (feed back
control system). It is also called Automatic Control System. The sensitivity of the
closed loop system may be made small to make the system more stable.

Another division of control system is Open Loop Control System. Any system which
does not automatically correct the variation in its output is called an open loop
system. That is the output has no effect on its input.

In open loop system the output can be varied by varying the input. In open
loop systems the changes in output are corrected by changing the input manually.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Broadly control system can be classified as

1. Open Loop System and

2. Closed Loop System

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM

A system in which the output is dependent on input but input is totally
independent of the output or changes in output of the system, is called an open loop
system. That is any physical system which does not automatically correct for variation
in its output, is called an open loop system. Such a system may be represented by the
block diagram of figure.
 Reference input, r(t) is applied to the controller which generates the actuating
signal (u) required to control the process which is to be controlled. Process is giving
out the necessary desired controlled output c(t).

Usual case there will be no variation in output for a particular input. We can
say for a given input the desired output is obtained. But if disturbances are occurred
in between the controller and process, the output varies. Such an open loop system is
shown below.

Here the controller output will force the system to give the desired response.
Because of the disturbances present in the system, the output may or may not equal to
the desired response. It can be described on the basis of an example shown in figure.

Here the driver wants to drive the car at 80 Km/hr. To achieve the desired
speed, he applies required pressure on the accelerator pedal and the car starts moving
in the desired speed. But after some time due to disturbances like wind velocity and
road conditions, the speed of the car deviated from the desired speed. The car does
not run at the desired speed even though there is no change in the pressure applied to
accelerator pedal. The distinguished characteristic of an open loop system is that it
cannot compensate or take corrective action for any disturbances that affect the
system performance.
CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on
the output or changes in output is called closed loop system. To have dependence of
input on the output, such system uses the feedback property. Feedback is a property
of the system by which it permits the output to be compared with the reference input
to generate the error signal based on which the appropriate controlling action can be
decided. In such system, output or part of the output is feedback to the input for
comparison with the reference input applied to it. Closed loop system can be
represented as shown in figure.

Here the output response (controlled variable) is measured and compared with
the desired value (set point) and the deviation is given to the controller. The controller
generates the manipulated variable that minimizes the deviation between the desired
response and controlled response. If there is no difference between the desired value
and measured value, the error signal becomes zero and the controller does not take
any corrective action and the output of the controlled system is maintained at the
desired response. Usually the output value changes due to external disturbances. In
closed loop systems, the information about the instantaneous state of the output is
feedback to the input and is used to modify it in such a manner as to achieve the
desired output.

The action of a man walking from a starting point to destination point along a
prescribed path is an example for closed loop feedback control systems. Here the
reference input is prescribed path. The eye performs the function of sensor. Brain
compares the actual path of movement with prescribed path and generates an error
signal. Then it amplifies the error signal and transmits a control signal to the legs to
correct the actual path of movement to the desired path.
 Driving a car at the desired speed is another example for closed loop control.
Here the driver compares the speed of the car with the desired speed. If he finds any
deviation in speed from the desired speed due to some disturbances then he may
increase or decrease the speed by increasing or decreasing the pressure on the
accelerator pedal so that the deviation becomes zero. In this case the pressure applied
on the accelerator pedal is manipulated variable or control variable.

Co m p a r iso n b et wee n O p e n Loo p a nd Cl ose d Loo p Co n t ro l Sy s te m

Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System

1 Simple and economical Complex and Costlier

2 Open loop system are stable Closed loop system are unstable

3 Inaccurate and unreliable Accurate and reliable

Open loop systems are affected by Closed loop systems are less affected
5 noise by noise
 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Automatic control systems are a special case of closed loop control systems. Let
us investigate the control aspect of the steering mechanism of an automobile (engine
vehicle). The error between the actual and desired directions of the automobile is
given to the controller (Here steering mechanism). The driver senses this error by
tactile means (body movement) and by visually.

Fig: The driver uses the difference between the actual and desired
direction of travel to adjust the steering wheel accordingly

Additional information is available to the driver from the feel (sensing) of the
steering wheel through his hands, these information’s constitute the feedback signals
which are interpreted by driver's brain, who then signals his hand to adjust the
steering wheel accordingly. This again is an example of a closed loop system where
human visual and tactile measurements constitute the feedback loop. It is shown as a
block diagram (given below).

Fig : Automatic Steering Control System

 Usually closed loop systems involve continuous manual control by a human
operator. So they are also called manually controlled systems. In many complex and fast-
acting systems, the presence of human element in the control loop is undesirable
because the system response may be too rapid for an operator to follow or the
demand on operator's skill may be unreasonably high. Furthermore, some of the
systems e.g., missiles, are self destructive and in such systems human element must be
excluded. Even in situations where manual control could be possible, an economic
case can often be made out for reduction of human supervision. Thus in most
situations the use of some equipment which performs the same intended function as a
continuously employed human operator is preferred. A system incorporating such
equipment is known as automatic control system. In fact in most situations an automatic
control system could be made to perform intended functions better than a human
operator, and could further be made to perform such functions as would be
impossible for a human operator.
The general block diagram of an automatic control system which is
characterized by a feedback loop is shown in figure. An error detector compares a
signal obtained through feedback elements, which is a function of the output
response, with the reference input. Any difference between these two signals
constitutes an error or actuating signal, which actuates the control elements. The
control elements in turn alter the conditions in the plant (controlled member) in such a
manner as to reduce the original error.

Fig : General block diagram of an Automatic Control System

 SERVO MECHANISMS
Servomechanisms are feedback control systems in which the output is
mechanical position (or time derivatives of position, example velocity and
acceleration). Such a servomechanism is shown in figure.

Fig: Position Control System

It is also called position control system. It consists of a servomotor powered by
a generator. The load whose position has to be controlled is connected to motor shaft
through gear wheels. Potentiometers are used to convert the mechanical motion to
electric signals. The desired load position (QR) is set on the input potentiometer and
the actual load position (QC) is fed to feedback potentiometer. The difference between
the two angular positions generates an error signal, which is amplified and fed to
generator field circuit. The induced emf of the generator drives the motor. The
rotation of the motor stops when the error signal is zero, i.e. when the desired load
position is reached.
Few other examples of servomechanism are,
1. Power steering apparatus for an automobile.
2. Machine tool position control.
3. Missile launchers.
4. Roll stabilization of ships.
 TRANSFER FUNCTION
For analysis and design, control systems are usually described by a set of
different equations. The inter relationships of the equations can be pictorially shown
as a block diagram. Each component of the block is described by transfer function. In
actual size, the transfer function is mathematically defined as the ratio of Laplace
transform of the output component to the Laplace transform of the input with all
initial conditions assumed to be zero.
If Laplace transform of input r(t) is represented by R(s), and that of output c(t)
is C(s).
LaplaceTransformof Output

Then Transferfunction,G(s) 
LaplaceTransformof Input allinitial conditions are zero

C(s)
 G(s) 
R(s) all initial conditions are zero

Transfer function is a mathematical model and it gives the gain of the system, G(s). A
transfer function is defined only for a linear, stationary system. A non-stationary
system often called a time-varying system has one or more time-varying parameters
and the Laplace transformation may not be utilized.

Pr o p ert ies o f T r a ns f er Fun c t io n

The properties of the transfer function are given below:

1. The ratio of the Laplace transform of output to input with all initial conditions to
be zero is known as transfer function of a system.
2. The transfer function of a system is the Laplace transform of its impulse response
under assumption of zero initial conditions.
d
3. Replacing ’s’ variable with linear operation D  in transfer function of a
dt
system, the differential equation of the system can be obtained.
4. The transfer function of a system does not depend on the inputs to the system.
5. The system poles and zeros can be determined from its transfer function.
6. Stability can be found from characteristic equation.
7. Transfer function cannot be defined for non-linear systems. It can be defined for
linear systems only.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block diagram is a pictorial representation of the given system. Each element of

a complicated system is represented by a block. Each block is functional block. In
block diagram representation, each block represents the transfer function of an
element in the system. Unidirectional block which represents the transfer function of
the system is known as the block diagram of the system.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

1) Block Diagram: Pictorial representation of the relationship between the input and
output of a physical system is known as block diagram.

2) Output: The value of input multiplied by the block gain is known as output.

C(s) = G(s) R(s)

3) Summing Point: At summing point, two or more signals can be added or

subtracted.

4) Branch Point (Take off Point): A branch point is a point from which the signal
from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing point.
 or Application of one input source to two or more systems is represented by a take
off point as shown at point A in figure.

BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

The block diagram can be reduced to find the overall transfer function of the
system. The following rules can be used for block diagram reduction.

1. Combining the Blocks in Cascade

2. Combining Parallel Blocks (or combining feed forward paths)

3. Moving the Branch Point ahead of the Block

4. Moving the Branch Point before the Block

5. Moving the Summing Point ahead of the Block

6. Moving the Summing Point before the Block

7. Interchanging Summing Point

8. Splitting Summing Point

9. Combining Summing Points

10. Elimination of feedback loop

Output, C  (R - CH) G
C  RG - CHG
C  CHG  RG
C (1 HG)  RG
C
  G
R 1 HG

REPRESENTATION OF CONTROL COMPONENTS AND SUBSYSTEMS

Or
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
To study and examine a control system it is necessary to have some type of
equivalent representation of the system. Such a representation can be obtained from
the mathematical equations, governing the behaviour of the system. Most of such
mathematical equations are different equations whether the system may be electrical,
mechanical, thermal, hydraulic etc.
The set of mathematical equations, describing the dynamic characteristic of a
system is called mathematical model of the system. Most of the control systems
contain mechanical or electrical or both types of elements and components. To analyse
such systems, it is necessary to convert such systems into mathematical models based
on transfer function approach.
ANALYSIS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
In mechanical systems, motion can be of different types, i.e. Translational,
Rotational or combination of both. The equations governing such motion in
mechanical systems are often directly or indirectly governed by Newton’s laws of
motion.
I. MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS
Consider a mechanical system in which motion is taking place along a straight
line such systems are of translation type. These systems are characterized by
displacement, linear velocity and linear acceleration. The model of mechanical
translational systems can be obtained by using three basic elements mass, spring and
dash-pot.

a) Mass
The weight of the mechanical system is represented by the element mass and it
is assumed to be concentrated at the center of the body. If a force is applied to the
mass, displacement takes place and a reaction force is produced which acts in a
direction opposite to that of applied force. This acceleration force is proportional to
the acceleration.

Let F  Applied force and

FM  Opposing force due to mass
then F  FM
and FM α a
or FM  Ma where M is the mass
2
dx
FM  M 2
dt
d2x
or F  FM  M 2
dt
b) Spring
The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by a spring. When we
apply a force on the spring, the spring will offer an opposing force which is
proportional to displacement of the body.

Let F  Applied force and

FK  Opposing force due to elasticity
then F  FK
and FK α X
FK  K X where K is the stiffness of spring; N/m
or F  FK  K X
When the spring has displacement at both ends as shown in figure, then the opposing
force is proportional to differential displacement

 FK  (X1 - X2 )
FK = K (X1 - X2 )
or F = FK = K (X1 - X2 )

c) Dash-Pot (Damper)
The friction existing in mechanical systems can be represented by the dash-pot.
The dash-pot is a piston moving inside a cylinder filled with viscous fluid. The dash-
pot is shown in figure.
 If a force is applied to the shaft, the piston move and press the fluid, this
increase the pressure on side ‘b’ and decreasing the pressure on side ‘a’. As a result,
the fluid flow around the piston from side ‘b’ to side ‘a’.
An ideal dash-pot with one end fixed is shown in figure.

The dash-pot will offer an opposing force which is proportional to velocity of the
body.
Let F  Applied force and
FB  Opposing force due to friction
then F  FB
dX
and FB α
dt
dX
FB  B where B is the viscous friction coefficient; N-sec/m
dt
dX
or F  FB  B
dt
When the dash-pot has displacement at both ends as shown in figure, then the
opposing force is proportional to differential velocity.

 FB α

d
(X 1 - X2 )
dt
d
or FB  B (X 1 - X2 )
dt
d
or F  F  B (X - X )
B
dt 1 2

Procedure to determine the transfer function of Mechanical Translational System

1. Draw the free body diagrams of the system. The free body diagram is obtained by
drawing each mass separately and then marking all the forces acting on that mass.
2. For each free body diagram write one differential equation by equating the sum of
applied forces to the sum of opposing forces.
3. Take Laplace Transform of differential equations. This ratio is the transfer function
of the system.
 II. MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS
The model of rotational mechanical systems can be obtained by using three
elem ents Moment of Inertia (J) of mass, Dash-pot with rotational frictional coefficient
(B) and Torsional spring with stiffness (K).

a) Moment of Inertia (J)

The weight of the rotational mechanical system is represented by the moment
of inertia of the mass. The moment of inertia of the system or body is considered to be
concentrated at the centre of gravity of the body. When a torque is applied to a
rotating body, a reactive torque is produced which acts in an opposite direction to the
applied torque. The reactive torque (opposing torque) due to moment of inertia is
proportional to the angular acceleration.

Let T  Applied torque and

Tj  Opposing torque due to moment of inertia of the body
then T  Tj
d2θ
and Tj α where θ is the angular displacement
dt2
d2 θ
or Tj  J 2 where J is the moment of inertia
dt
d2θ
or T  Tj  J 2
dt

b) Dash Pot with Rotational Frictional Coefficient (B)

The friction existing in rotational mechanical system can be represented by the
dash-pot. The dash-pot is a piston rotating inside a cylinder filled with viscous fluid.
When a torque is applied to the dash-pot, it will offer an opposing torque which is
proportional to the angular velocity of the body.
 Let T  Applied torque and
Tb  Opposing torque due to friction
then T  Tb

and Tb α B dθ where θ is the angular displacement

dt
or Tb  B dθ where B is the rotational frictional coefficient
dt
or T  Tb  B dθ
dt
When the dash-pot h as angular displacement at both ends as shown in figure, the
opposing torque is proportional to the differential angular velocity.

d
Tb α (θ1 - θ2 )
dt
d
or Tb  B (θ1 - θ2 )
dt
d
or T  Tb  B (θ1 - θ2 )
dt

c) Torsional Spring
The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by torsional spring.
When a torque is applied to a spring, it is twisted by an angle θ. The torsional spring
will offer an opposing force which is proportional to angular displacement of the
body.

Let T  Applied torque and

TK  Opposing torque due to elasticity
then T  TK
 and TK α θ where θ is the angular displacement
or TK  K θ where K is the Stiffness of the spring
or T  TK  K θ

When the spring has angular displacement at both ends as shown in figure, the
opposing torque is proportional to the differential angular displacement.

TK α (θ1 - θ2)
or TK  K (θ1 - θ2)
 T  TK  K (θ1 - θ2)

III. ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

The models of electrical systems can be obtained by using resistor, capacitor
and inductor. For modeling electrical systems the electrical network or equivalent
circuit is formed by using R, L and C and voltage or current source. The differential
equations governing the electrical systems can be formed by writing Kirchoff’s current
law equations by choosing various nodes in the network or Kirchoff’s voltage law
equations by choosing various closed path in the network. The transfer function can
be obtained by taking Laplace transform of the differential equations and rearranging
them as a ratio of output to input.

Table.1: Current voltage relation of R, L and C

 Consider a series RLC circuit shown in figure.

The mathematical model of the system is

di 1
V(t)  R i  L  
i d(t)
dt C
Taking Laplace Transform
1
V(s)  R I(s)  L s I(s)  I(s)
Cs
 1 
V(s)  R  L s   I(s)
 Cs 


TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and
inversely proportional to flux in field winding. The desired speed is obtained by
varying the armature voltage. Because of the field is excited by a constant voltage, we
consider only the armature circuit. The mechanical system consists of the rotating part
of the motor and load connected to the shaft of the motor. The armature controlled DC
motor speed control system is shown in figure.

Fig: Armature Controlled DC Motor

The equivalent circuit of armature is shown as

where ia = Armature current

Va = Armature voltage
Ra = Armature resistance

La = Armature inductance

Eb = Back emf

By applying Kirchoff’s Voltage law,

dia
ia Ra La eb  Va 
 (1)
dt
The torque of DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current. Since flux
is constant in this system, the torque is proportional to armature current.

T α ia 
 Torque, T  K t i a 
 (2)

where Kt is the torque constant.

The mechanical system of the motor is shown as

The differential equation governing the mechanical system of motor is given by

d2θ dθ 
J B T 
 (3)
dt2 dt
 The back emf of DC machine is proportional to speed (angular velocity) of shaft.

dθ
 eb α
dt
dθ
Back emf, eb  K b 
 (4)
dt
where Kb is the Back emf constant.

The differential equations governing the armature controlled DC motor speed control
system are
di a
i aR a La e b   Va 
 (1)
dt
Torque, T  Kt i a 
 (2)
d 2θ dθ
J  B  T 
 (3)
2
dt dt
dθ
Backemf, eb  Kb 
 (4)
dt
On taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions we get,

Ra Ia(s)  Las Ia(s)  Eb(s)  Va (s) 

 (5)
T(s)  Kt Ia(s) 
 (6)
J s2 θ(s)  B s θ(s)  T(s) 
 (7)
Eb(s)  Kb s θ(s) 
 (8)
Equating (6) and (7) we get

Kt Ia (s)  J s  Bs θ(s)

2 

 J s  Bs θ(s)
2 
 Ia (s)  
 (9)
Kt
Equation (5) can be written as

R a  Las Ia (s)  E b (s)  Va (s)

substituting Eb(s) and Ia (s) from (4) and (9)
 Ra 
J s 2

 Bs 
Las  θ(s)  K s θ(s)  V (s)
b a
Kt

  R  L s J s2  Bs K K s  
 θ(s)  Va (s)
 
a a t b

 Kt 
θ(s)
 Transfer function will be
Va (s)
θ(s)  K 
  

R  L s  J s2  Bs K K s  
t
V (s)
a  a a t b 

 K 
  R J s2  R Bs  L J st3  s2 L B  K K s 
 a a a a t b 

K
 s  J R s  R B  J L t s2  s L B  K K 
 a a a a t b

K
 s  (J s  B)R  (J s2t B s) L  K K 
 a a t b 

Kt

s(J s  B)Ra  (J s  B) s La  KtKb 
 Kt
s(J s  B) (Ra  s La)  KtKb 

The block diagram of the armature controlled DC motor is shown in figure,
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and
inversely proportional to flux in field winding. In field controlled DC motor the
armature voltage is kept constant and the speed is varied by varying the flux of the
machine. Since flux is directly proportional to field current, the flux is varied by
varying field current. For analysis only field circuit is considered because the
armature is excited by a constant voltage. The mechanical system consists of the
rotating part of the motor and the load connected to the shaft of the motor. The field
controlled DC motor speed control system is shown in figure.

Fig: Field Controlled DC Motor

The equivalent circuit of field is shown as

where if = Field current

Vf = Field voltage

Rf = Field resistance

Lf = Field inductance
By applying Kirchoff’s Voltage law, we can write
dif
R fi f Lf  Vf 
 (1)
dt
The torque of DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and armature current.
Since armature current is constant in this system, the torque is proportional to flux
alone, but flux is proportional to field current.
T α if
 Torque, T  K tf if 
 (2)
where Ktf is the torque constant.
The mechanical system of the motor is shown in figure as

The differential equation governing the mechanical system of the motor is given by
d 2θ dθ 
J B T 
 (3)
dt2 dt
The differential equations governing the field controlled DC motor are
di 
R f if L f  f  Vf 
 (1)
dt
 Torque,T  Ktf if  (2)
d 2θ dθ 
J B T 
 (3)
2
dt dt
On taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions we get,

Rf If (s)  Lf s If (s)  Vf (s) 

 (4)
T(s)  K tf If (s) 
 (5)
J s2θ(s)  B s θ(s)  T(s) 
 (6)
equating (5) and (6) we get

Ktf If (s)  J s2θ(s)  B s θ(s)

(J s2  B s)
 If (s)  θ(s)
Ktf
substituting If (s) in (4)

(Rf Lf s) (J s2 B
s) θ(s)  Vf (s)
Ktf
Transfer function is
θ(s) Ktf

Lf s) (J s  B s)
2
Vf (s) (Rf
The block diagram of the field controlled DC motor is shown in figure,

TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

Thermal systems are those that involve the transfer of heat from one substance
to another. The model of thermal systems is obtained by using thermal resistance and
capacitance which are the basic elements of the thermal system. The thermal
resistance, R for heat transfer between two substances is defined as the ratio of change
in temperature and change in heat flow rate.
Change in Temperature
 Thermal resistance, R 
Change in heat flow rate
Thermal capacitance is defined as the ratio of change in heat stored and change in
temperature.
Changein heat stored
 ThermalCapacitance, C 
Changein temperature
It is also defined as the product of the body’s mass, M and the specific heat of the
body, C.

i.e. ThermalCapacitance, C  MC
Consider a simple thermal system shown in figure. Let us assume that the tank is
insulated to eliminate heat loss to the surrounding air.
The change in output heat flow rate,
q 0  Liquid flow rate, G X Specificheat of liquid, CX Changein temperature,θ
q 0  G C θ 
 (1)

ThermalCapacitance, C  Mass, M Χ Specificheat of liquid,c

 C  Mc 
 (2)

Thermal resistance, R  Change in temperature, θ

Change in heat flow rate, q0
θ
i.e. R  
 (3)
q0
Substitute (1) in (3)

θ 1
 R   
 (4)
G Cθ GC
The rate of change of temperature is directly proportional to change in heat input rate
dθ
 α q i- qo
dt
The constant of proportionality in the capacitance C of the system

dθ  q i - qo 
 (5)
 C
dt
θ θ
(3)  R  or qo  
 (6)
qo R
Substitute (6) in (5)
θ
dθ  qi -
C dt 
R
dθ qR-θ
C dt  i R

dθ
R C dt  R qi - θ
dθ
RC  θ  R qi
dt
Taking Laplace transform
R C s θ(s)  θ(s)  R Q i(s)
θ(s) [R C s  1]  R Q i(s)

θ(s) R

Q i(s) s R C 1

End of Module - 3
 MODU LE - 4
SYSTEM RESPONSES

TIME RESPONSE
The time response of the system is the output of the closed loop system as a
function of time. It is denoted by C(t).

The output in s domain, C(s) is given by the product of the transfer function and the
input R(s).
G(s)
C(s)  R(s)
1 G(s) H(s)
On taking the inverse Laplace transform of this product the time domain response,
C(t) can be obtained.

Closed loop transfer function, C(s)  G(s)

R(s) 1  G(s) H(s)
 G(s)
Response in s-domain, C(s)  R(s)
1  G(s) H(s)

Response in time domain, C(t)  L- -1  

1
[ G(s)
C(s)]  L  R(s) 
1  G(s) H(s) 
 

The time response of a control system consists of two parts.

1) The transient response

2) The steady state response

 The transient response shows the response of the system when the input
changes from one state to another or it is the response before the output reaching the
steady state value.
The steady state response shows the response as time, t approaches infinity.
Therefore the total time response is

TEST SIGNALS
To predict the response of the system, knowledge of input signal is required.
The commonly used test input signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic signals.

a) Impulse Signal
A signal which is available for very short duration is called impulse signal.
Impulse signal is a signal having zero values at all times except at t=0. At t=0, the
magnitude becomes infinite. It is denoted by δ(t).
 It is expressed as
δ(t)  0 for t  0
 t1

dt  1
and Lt
t 1 0  δ(t)
-t1

Laplace transform of the impulse function is unity. The response of the system, with
input impulse signal is called weighting function (impulse response) of the system.
 G(s) 
i.e. C(t)  L-1 R(s) 
 1 G(s) H(s) 
 
G(s)
 L-1   (R(s)  1for impulse )
1 G(s) H(s) 


b) Step Signal
The step signal is a signal whose value changes from zero to A at t = 0 and
remains constant at A for t > 0.

The mathematical representation of the step signal is

r(t)  A u (t)

where u(t)  1; t0

u(t)  0; t0
or r(t)  A; for t  0
r(t)  0; for t  0
The Laplace transform of the step signal is
A
R(s)  L[r(t)] 
s
For a unit step signal (i.e. A = 1)

1
 R(s) 
s

c) Ramp Signal
The ramp signal is a signal whose value increases linearly with time from an
initial value of zero at t=0. The ramp signal resembles a constant velocity input to the
system.

The mathematical representation of the ramp signal is

r(t)  At; for t  0

r(t)  0; for t  0

Laplace transform of the ramp signal is

R(s)  L [r(t)]  L [At]

 A L [t]

R(s)  A
s2

For a unit ramp signal (i.e. A = 1)

1
 R(s) 
s2
d) Parabolic Signal
In parabolic signal, the instantaneous value varies as square of the time from an
initial value of zero at t=0. The parabolic signal resembles a constant acceleration input
to the system.

The mathematical representation of the parabolic signal is

At 2
r(t)  ; for t  0
2
r(t)  0; for t  0
The Laplace transform of the parabolic signal is given by

At 2 
R(s)  L[r(t)]  L  
 2 
A
 L[t 2 ]
2
A 2

2 s3
A

s3
For a unit parabolic signal (i.e. A = 1)

1
 R(s) 
s3
 ORDER OF A SYSTEM
The input and output relationship of a control system can be expressed by a
differential equation. The order of the system is given by the order of the differential
equation governing the system. The order of the system is given by the maximum
power of ‘s’ in the denominator polynomial.
P(s)
TransferFunction,T(s)  K
Q(s)
Order of the system is denoted by ‘n’
K
If n  0; T(s)  ; then the system is Zero Order System
2
K ;
If n  1; T(s)  then the system is First Order System
2s  1
If n  2; T(s)  K (s  2) ; then the system is Second Order System
2s2  s  1
The value of n gives the number of poles in the transfer function.

RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT IMPULSE INPUT

Let the transfer function of a first order system is

C(s)  K
R(s)  Ts  1
where K is the gain constant and T is the time constant of the system.

Time constant indicates how fast the system reaches the final value.
The input is unit impulse, then

r(t)  δ(t) and R(s)  1


K
The response in s domain, C(s)  R(s)
Ts  1
K
 C(s) 
 Ts  1

 K
 1
T s
 T 
 

The response in time domain is given by
 
 K 
C(t)  L-1  
Ts  1 
 


T  

 K e-t/T  L-1  1   e-at

T s a 
  

 K
When t  0, C(t) 
T
K
When t  1 T, C(t)  K e -1  0.3679
T T
K
When t  2 T, C(t)  K e -2  0.1353
T T
K
When t  3 T, C(t)  K e -3  0.0498
T T
K
When t  4 T, C(t)  K e -4  0.0183
T T
K
When t  5 T, C(t)  K e -5  0.0067
T T
 
When t  , C(t)  K e -  0
T

It can be plotted as

The output starts at K/T at t = 0 and decreases exponentially and reaches to zero at
t = ∞.
 RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT

Let the transfer function of a first order system is


C(s)
 Ts  1 
  (1)
1
R(s)

If the input is unit step, then

1
r(t)  1 and R(s) 
s
The response in s domain,

1
C(s)  R(s)
Ts  1

 1 1
s Ts  1
1
  1 
sT s  
 T 
1
 T
 1
s s  
 T 

By partial fraction expansion C(s) can be expressed as

1  
1A s 1
C(s)  T
s s   s B   (2)
  
 

 T   T 

Multiplying (2) by s

1  
T Bs
 1   A   1 
 s    s  
 T   T 


Put s  0
 1A i.e. A  1
  1 
Multiplying (2) by  s  
 T 
 1 1
A s  
  





 
T
T  B
 s s


-1
Put s 
T
1
T
  0 B
-1
T
i.e. B  -1

1 1
 C(s)  s -  1 
s  
 T 

The response in time domain is given by

 
1 
C(t)  L -1
 C (s)   L  -
-1 1 
s s    
1
  
 T  


 C(t)  1 - e -t/T

When t  0, C(t)  1 - e0  0
When t  1 T, C(t)  1 - e-1  0.632
When t  2 T, C(t)  1 - e-2  0.865
When t  3 T, C(t)  1 - e-3  0.95
When t  4 T, C(t)  1 - e-4  0.9817
When t  5 T, C(t)  1 - e-5  0.993
When t  , C(t)  1- e-  1
 It is plotted as

RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT RAMP INPUT

Let the transfer function of a first order system is


C(s)

1 
 (1)
R(s) Ts  1

If the input is unit ramp, then

1
r(t)  t and R(s) 
s2
The response in s domain,
1
C(s)  R(s)
Ts  1

 1 1
s Ts  1
2

1 1
 2
 1 
T s  T 
s
 
1
  T 1 
2
s s  
 T 

By partial fraction expansion C(s) can be expressed as
1
T A B2 C
C(s)   1     
 (2)
s s 1 
s s  
2
s  
 T  T 


Multiplying (2) by s2

1  
2
T   As  B  Cs
 1   1 
s   s  
 T   T 
Put s  0
1
 T  B i.e. B  1
1
T
 1 
Multiplying (2) by  s  
 T 
 1 1 1
A s   B s  

  
 


T   T    T   C
s2 s s2
-1 
Put s 
T 
1
 T  C i.e. C  T
1
T2

Substitute s = 1 in (2)

1 
1 C
1 T   A  B 
1
   1 
  
 T  T 


Substitute the value of B & C

1
T  A  1  T
T 1 T1
T T
 1 T2
 A 1 
T 1 T 1
1 T2
 A  -1-
T1 T 1  
1 - T  1 - T2 2 - T 1 T
  - T - T   -T  A  -T
T 1 T 1 T1
-T 1
So C(s)   T
s2 1
s s
T

 C(s)  12 - T T
1
s s s
T

The response in time domain is given by

  
1 T 
C(t)  L-1  C (s)  -1  2
-  T 
 L s 1 
 s s  
 T 


 C(t)  t - T  Te -t/T

When t  0, C(t)  - T  Te 0  0
When t  1T, C(t)  T - T  Te -1  0.36797
When t  2 T, C(t)  2T - T  Te -2
 T  0.1353 T
When t  , C(t)   - T  Te -
  

It is plotted as
 SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is
given by

C(s) ω2n
= 2
R(s) s + 2 ζ ω n s + ω2n

where wn = natural frequency,

ζ = Damping ratio

The characteristic equation of the second order system is

2 2
s + 2 ζ ωn s + ωn = 0

It is a quadratic equation and the roots of this equation is given by

- 2 ζ ωn ± 4 ζ 2 ω2n - 4 ω2n
s1, s2 =
2
2
- 2 ζ ωn ± 2 ζ2 ω2 n - ωn
=
2
= -ζω ±
n
 
ζ 2 - 1 ω2
n

= - ζ ωn ± ωn ζ - 12

The response C(t) of second order system depends on the value of damping ratio.
Depending on the value of ζ, the system can be classified into the following four cases,

When ζ = 0, Undamped System,

When 0 < ζ < 1, Under damped System,

When ζ = 1, Critically damped System,

When ζ > 1, Over damped System.

Note: Most of the physical systems are of under damped system.

 RESPONSE OF UNDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT

The standard form of a closed loop transfer function of second order system is
given by

C(s) ω2n
= 2
R(s) s + 2 ζ ω n s + ω2n

For Undamped system, ζ = 0

C(s) = ωn 2


R(s) s + ω2n
2

When the input is unit step,

1
r(t)  1 and R(s) 
s

Therefore The response in s-domain will be

C(s) = R(s) ωn2

s2 + ω2n

1 ωn2
C(s) =
s s2 + ω2n

By partial fraction expansion

ω2n A B
C(s) = = +
  s 2 + ωn
2
s s 2 + ω2n s

A Bs + C
Note :- Normal case +
s s2 + ω2n

But here the roots are lie on the imaginary axis. So the value of B = 0.


C(s) = ωn2 A B 
 (1)
= + 2
s  s 2 + ωn2  s s + ω2n
 Multiplying (1) by s

ωn2 = A + B
s
s + ω2
2
s + ω2
2
n n

Put s  0
ωn2
= A  A  1
ω 2n

Multiplying (1) by s + ω  2 2

n


ω 2n = A
s 2
+ ω2
n
 + B
s s
2 2
Put s  - ωn or s  -jωn

ωn2
 =B
jωn

ωn
 B  -jωn  -s
j

B  -s
1 s
 C(s)  -
s s2  ω 2n
The time response C(t) is

C(t)  L-1 C(s)

1 s 
 L-1  - 2 2 
s s  ω n 

s
i.e. C(t)  1 - Cos ωnt  L-1 Cos ω nt 
s  a2
2
The response of undamped second order system for unit step input is shown in figure.

The response of undamped second order system for unit step input is completely
oscillatory. Every practical system has some amount of damping. Hence undamped
system does not exist in practice.

RESPONSE OF UNDER DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT

The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is
given by

C(s) ω2n
 2
R(s) s + 2 ζ ω n s + ω2n

For Under damped system, 0 < ζ < 1 and roots of the denominator (characteristic
equation) are

s1, s2 = - ζ ωn ± ωn
 ζ - 1
2

But ζ  1
So s1, s2  - ζ ωn ± ωn 
- 1 - ζ2 
 - ζ ωn ± jωn 1 - ζ2

The roots are complex conjugate

The response in s-domain,

C(s) = R(s) ωn2

s2 + 2 ζ ω n s + ω2n
  C(s)  1 ωn2
s s2 + 2 ζ ωn s + ωn2
By partial fraction expansion,

ωn2 A Bs  C
C(s)    2 
 (1)

s s  2 ζ ω s  ω2
2

n

n
s s  2 ζ ω s  ω2
n n

Multiplying (1) by s

ωn2  A  Bs
 C s
 s 2  2 ζ ω s  ω2
n n
 s  2 ζ ω s  ω2
2
n n

Put s  0
ωn2
 A  A  1
ω2n
on cross multiplication in (1)
2
 2 2
  
ωn  A s  2 ζ ωns  w n  Bs  C s
2 2 2 2
ωn  s  2 ζ ωns  ωn  Bs Cs

Equating coefficients of s2

1  B 0  B  -1

Equating coefficients of s 
2 ζ ωn  C  0  C  -2 ζ ωn
1 s  2 ζ ωn
 C(s)  -
s s  2 ζ ω n s  ω2n
2

Note:- To take the Laplace transform we want the denominator term (s + a)2 + b2
1 s  2 ζ ωn
 C(s)  - 2
s s  2 ζ ω s  ω2  ζ2ω2 - ζ2ω2
n n n n

1 s + 2 ζ ωn
 -
s + ζ ω  + ω 2 - ζ 2 ω2
2
s
n n n
 1
 - s + 2 ζ ωn
s + ζ ω  + ω2 1 - ζ2 
2
s


n n

Substitute ωd  ω n 1 - ζ 
2

1 s + 2 ζ2 ωn
 -
s  s + ζ ω  + ω2

n d

 s  a
1  e -at
 2
We know L s  a   b
2
Cos bt
 
1
 - s + ζ ωn +2 ζ ωn2
s s + ζ ω  + ω

n d

1 ζ ωn
 - s  ζ ωn 
s s  ζ ω  2  ω 2   s  ζ ω 2  ω 2
n d n d

 1 b   e -at
 
We know L s  a   b
2 2
Sin bt
 
 
1 ζ ωn ω d
 - s  ζ ωn 
s  s  ζ ω 2  ω2  ω s  ζ ω 2  ω2 
d  d 
 n d
 n

On taking inverse Laplace transform



C(t)  1 - e -ζ ωn t Cos ω t - ζ ωn e -ζ ωn t Sin ω t

d d
ωd
ζ ωn e -ζ ωnt Sin ω t
 1 - e -ζ ωnt Cos ω d t - d
ωn 1 - ζ2
 ζ 
 1-e -ζ ωn t
Cos ω t  Sin ω t
 d d

 1 - ζ2 
-ζ ωn t
 1- e  t
1 - ζ2 Cos ω t  ζ Sin ω
1 - ζ2  d d


On constructing a right angle triangle with ζ and 1- ζ2 , we get

The time response C(t) is

e -ζ ω t

Sinθ Cos ωdt  Cosθ Sin ωd t 

n

C(t)  1 -
 1 - ζ2

-ζ ωnt 
 C(t)  1 - e Sin  ωd t  θ  Where θ  tan
-1 1- ζ2
1 - ζ2 ζ

The response of under damped second order system oscillates before settling to a final
value. The oscillations depend on the value of damping ratio. The following figure
shows the response of under damped second order system for unit step input.

Fig : The response of Under damped Second order system for unit step input
 RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR UNIT STEP INPUT

The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is
given by

C(s) ω 2n
 2
R(s) s + 2 ζ ω ns + ω2n
For Critical damping ζ = 1

C(s) ωn2
  2
R(s) s + 2 ω ns + ω2n

ωn2

s + ωn 
2


When input is unit step, then

1
r(t)  1 and R(s) 
s
The response in s-domain will be,

C(s)  R(s) ω2n

s + ωn 
2

C(s)  ωn2
s s  ωn 
2

By partial fraction expansion, we can write

A B C 
C(s)  ωn2    
 (a)
s s + ωn  s + ωn s + ωn 
2 2
s

Multiplying (a) by s

ω 2
n
 A  Bs

Cs
s  ωn  s  ωn s  ωn 
2 2


Put s  0
ω2
ω2n  A
n

 A  1

 s  ω n 
2
Multiplying (a) by


A s  ωn   B  s  ω 
2
ω 2n C
 n
s s
Put s  - ωn

ω2 n
 C
ωn
 C  - ωn

Equation (a) can be written as

ω2  A  s  ω n 2  B s  s  ω n   Cs
n

Put s  1
ω 2  A 1  ω   B 1  ω  C
2

n n n

ω 2  1  ω   B 1  ω 
2
-ω
n n n n

2
1 2ω  ω  2
  
ωn - n n ωn  B 1 ω n

-1 - 2ωn  ωn  B  1 ωn 


   1 ωn 
 B 
1 ωn 


i.e. B  -1

1 1 ωn
 C(s)  - -
s  ω 
2
s s ω
n n
 The response in time domain is expressed as

C(t)  L1 C(s)


 1
1 1 - 
 L ω n
 - 
s s  ωn  s  ωn  
2



 1 - e -ωn t - ω t e -ω n t
n

 C(t)  1 - e
-ωnt
 1 - ω t 
n

The response of critically damped second order system has no oscillations. The
following figure shows the response of critically damped second order system for unit
step input.

Fig : The response of Critically damped Second order system for unit step input.
 TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be

specified in terms of the transient response to a unit step input signal. The response of
a second order system for unit step input with various values of damping ratio is
shown in figure.

The transient response of a system to a unit step input depends on the initial
conditions. The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped
oscillation before reaching steady state.

Fig : Damped Oscillatory response of Second Order System

The transient response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input is
specified in terms of the following time domain specifications

1. Delay time, td
2. Rise time, tr
3. Peak time, tp
4. Maximum overshoot, Mp
5. Settling time, ts

EXPRESSIONS FOR TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

1. Delay time (td)

It is the time taken for response to reach 50% of the final value, for the very first
time.
Expression

Response of second order system for under damped case is given by

e -ζ ωnt
C(t)  1 - Sin  ωd t  θ  
 (1)
1-ζ 2

The time required to reach 50% of output is known as delay time

1
 C(t)  at t  td
2
From equation (1)

e -ζ ω t
Sin  ωd t d  θ 
1 n d

 1-
2 1-ζ 2


Sin  ωd t d  θ 
-ζ ω n t d
1  e 
2 1 - ζ2
The result of this equation is

1 0.7 ζ
td 
ωn
2. Rise time (tr)
It is the time taken for response to rise from 0 to 100% of the final value, for the
very first time.

Expression

Response of second order system for under damped case is given by

e -ζ ω t
n

C(t)  1 - Sin  ωd t  θ  
 (1)
1-ζ 2

At t  t r , C(t)  C(tr )  1 ( Input is Step)

e -ζ ωntr
 C(tr )  1 - Sin  ωd t r  θ   1
1-ζ 2

e -ζ ωntr
i.e. - Sin  ωd t r  θ   0
1-ζ 2

Since -e-ζ ωntr  0, If -e -ζ ωntr

 0, tr   It's not possible
The term, Sin  ω d t r  θ   0

Note:- SinΦ  0 When Φ  0, π, 2π, 3π,...........

 ω d t r  θ  nπ
ωdtr  θ  π - θ Here n  1

 Rise time, t r  π - θ
ωd
 1 - ζ2
Where θ  tan-1 and ω d  ωn 1 - ζ2
ζ
1 - ζ2
π - tan -1

or Rise time, tr  ζ in secs

ωn 1 - ζ2

3. Peak time (tp)

It is the time taken for the response to reach the peak value for the very first
time.

Expression

To find the expression for peak time, tP, differentiate C(t) with respect to ‘t’ and equate
to ‘0’.
d
i.e., C(t) 0
dt ttP

For a function f(t) to be maximum when f (t)  0

The unit step response of second order system is given by

e -ζ ω t
n

C(t)  1 - Sin  ωd t  θ 
1 - ζ2

Differentiating C(t) with respect to t

d  -ζ ωnt -ζ ωnt 
C(t)  0 -  e  ζωn  Sin  ωd t  θ   e Cos  ωd t  θ  ωd 
dt   1 - ζ2  1 - ζ2 
 
d
C(t)  0 
dt   
- e -ζ ωn t
   - ζω n  Sin  ω d t  θ   Cos  ω d t  θ  ω d   0
1-ζ 2

Cosω t  θ ω 1 - ζ2 - ζω Sin ω t  θ  0
d n n d

Cos  ωd t  θ  1 - ζ2 - ζ Sin  ωd t  θ   0

On constructing a right angle triangle with ζ and 1- ζ2 ,

We get Cos  ω d t  θ  Sinθ - Cosθ Sin  ω d t  θ   0

Sin  ω d t  θ  θ   0

Sin  ωd t   0

Note:- SinΦ  0 When Φ  0, π, 2π, 3π,...........

 ω dt p  n π
π
 Peak time, t p 
ωd
π
or t p 
ωn 1 - ζ 2

4. Maximum Overshoot or Peak Overshoot (Mp)
Maximum overshoot is a measure of how much the response exceeds the final
value following a step change.

Let final value = C(∞)

Maximum value = C(tP)

Maximum Overshoot, MP  C(tP) - C()

C()
C(t ) - C()
% Maximum Overshoot, % M P  P X 100 %
C()
where C(tP) = Peak response at t=tP

C(∞) = Final steady state value

Expression
The unit step response of second order system is given by
-ζ ωnt
e
C(t)  1 - Sin  ωd t  θ 
 1 - ζ2
At t  ,
- 
e
C(t)  C()  1 - Sin  ω d    θ 
 1-ζ 2

  1-0

  1
At t  tp,

 
- ζ ωntp
C(t)  C(tp)  1 - e Sin ωdtp  θ
1-ζ 2

Put t  π
p
wd
π
- ζ ωn
e ωd  π 
 C(tp)  1 - Sin  ω d  θ  
1 - ζ2  ωd 



π
- ζ ωn

Sin π  θ
ωd
 1- e
 1 - ζ2
 - ζ ωn
π
2
ωn 1 - ζ
e
 1- -Sinθ
  1-ζ 2

 -ζπ
1 - ζ2
e
 1  Sin θ
1-ζ 2

On constructing a right angle triangle with ζ and 1- ζ2 , we get

-ζπ
1 - ζ2
e
 C(tp)  1  1 - ζ2
1 - ζ2
-ζπ
1 - ζ2
 1  e

 % M P  C(t P ) - C() X 100

C()
-ζπ
1 - ζ2
1  e -1
 X 100
1
-ζπ
1 - ζ2
% MP  e X 100
 5. Settling time (ts)
It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay with in a
specified tolerance band of its final value. The tolerance band is usually 2% or 5% of
the final value.
Expression

The unit step response of second order system is given by

e -ζ ω nt

C(t)  1 - Sin  ω d t  θ 
 1-ζ 2

The response of second order system has two components. They are,

e -ζ ωnt
1. Decaying exponential component,
1 - ζ2

2. Sinusoidal component, Sin  ω d t  θ 






The decaying exponential term damped (or reduces) the oscillations produced
by sinusoidal component. Hence the settling time is decided by the exponential
component.

Allowable tolerance is 2% or 5%.

The settling time for 2% tolerance is at t  ts ,

e -ζ ωnts
 0.02
1-ζ 2
For least values of ζ

 e -ζ ωnts  0.02
On taking natural logarithm we get,

ζ ωn t s  ln 0.02

ζ ωnts  - 4
4
 Settling time, ts  ζω
n

1
If T   Time constant of the system
ζωn
ts  4T; for 2 % error

The settling time for 5% error tolerance is at t  ts ,

e -ζ ω t
n s

 0.05
1-ζ2

For least values of ζ

 e -ζ ωnts  0.05
On taking natural logarithm we get,

ζ ωnts  ln 0.05 

ζ ωnts  - 3

3
Settling time, ts 
ζ ωn

If T  1  Time constant of the system


ζ ωn

t s  3T; for 5 % error

 STEADY STATE ERROR

The Steady state error ess is the difference between the input (or desired value)
and the output of a closed loop system when t tends to infinity. As the steady state
error is an index of accuracy of a control system, therefore, the steady state error
should be minimum as far as possible.

The steady state error is the value of error signal e(t), when ‘t’ tends to infinity.
Consider a closed loop system shown in figure,

The error signal, E(s)  R(s)  C(s) H(s) 

 (1)

The output signal, C(s)  E(s) G(s) 

 (2)
Substitute (2) in (1)

(1)  E(s)  R(s)  E(s) G(s)H(s)

 E(s)  E(s) G(s) H(s)  R(s)

E(s) 1 G(s) H(s) R(s)

 R(s)
The error signal E(s) 
1  G(s) H(s)
But the steady state error is defined as the value of error signal when t tends to
infinity.

Steady state error, ess  lim e(t)

t  


From final value theorem, lim f (t)  lim s F (s)

t   s0

 ess  lim s E (s)

s0

s R(s)
i.e., ess  lim
s 0 1  G(s) H(s)

STEADY STATE ERROR WHEN THE INPUT IS UNIT STEP SIGNAL

1
R(s) 
The input is unit step signal,
s
s R(s)
The steady state error, ess  slim
 0 1 G(s) H(s)

1
s.
 ess  lim s
s  0 1  G(s) H(s)


1
 lim
s 0 1  G(s) H(s)
 1

1  lim G(s) H(s)
s0

1
 ess  1  K
P

Where KP  lim G(s) H(s)

s0

The constant KP is called Positional error constant.

 STEADY STATE ERROR WHEN THE INPUT IS UNIT RAMP SIGNAL

1
The input is unit step signal, R(s) 
s2

s R(s)
The steady state error, ess  lim
s 0 1  G(s) H(s)
1
s.
 e  lim s2
1  G(s) H(s)
ss
s 0

1
 lim s
s  0 1  G(s) H(s)

1
 lim
s0 s  s G(s) H(s)

 1
lim s G(s) H(s)
s0

 e  1
ss
KV

Where KV  lim s G(s)H(s)

s 0

The constant KV is called Velocity error constant.

STEADY STATE ERROR WHEN THE INPUT IS UNIT PARABOLIC SIGNAL

1
The input is unit step signal,
R(s) 
s3

s R(s)
e
The steady state error, ss  lim
s  0 1  G(s) H(s)
 1
s.
 e  lim s3
1  G(s) H(s)
ss
s 0

1
 lim s2
s  0 1  G(s) H(s)

 lim 1
s0 s 2  s2 G(s) H(s)

 1
lims2 G(s) H(s)
s0

 ess  1
Ka

Where K a  lim s2 G(s) H(s)

s0

The constant Ka is called Acceleration error constant.

The error constants are tabulated as

The Positional Error Constant KP  lim G(s) H(s)

s0

The Velocity Error Constant KV  lim s G(s) H(s)

s0

The Acceleration Error Constant K a  lim s2 G(s) H(s)

s0
 STABILITY OF SYSTEMS

The closed loop transfer function can be expressed as a ratio of two

polynomials in s. The denominator polynomial of closed loop transfer function is
called characteristic equation. The roots of characteristic equation are called poles. The
roots of numerator polynomial are called zeros.
2

For e.g. M(s)  s  3s  2

(s  4) (s2  5s  6)
(s 1) (s  2)
M(s) 
(s  4) (s  2) (s  3)
The poles are s = -4, s= -2, s= -3
The zeros are s= -1, s= -2
The poles and zeros are plotted on the s-plane. The poles are represented by the
symbol 'X' and the zeros are represented as 'o'. The x axis of 's' plane is "Real axis"
plots the real part of the complex variable. The y axis is "Imaginary axis" and plots the
imaginary part of the complex number.

The complex variable s  σ  jw is represented in this’s’ plane. The’s’ plane have two
half’s "Left Half" and "Right Half".

When the poles of the transfer function lie in the left half of s-plane, then the system is
said to be stable. or If all the roots of characteristic equation have negative real parts
then the system is said to be a stable system.
 ROUTH HURWITZ CRITERION

The closed loop transfer function of a system is a ratio of two polynomials in s.

The denominator polynomial of closed loop transfer function is called the
characteristic equation of the system. The roots of the characteristic equation of a
stable system should lie on the left of s plane. Hence the roots should have negative
real parts.
The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is an analytical procedure for
determining whether all the roots of a polynomial have negative real parts or not.

ANALYSIS OF STABILITY
Step 1:- Examine the characteristic equation. The necessary condition for stability is
that all the coefficients of the polynomial be positive. If some of the
coefficients are zero or negative it can be concluded that the system is
unstable.
Step 2:- Construct a Routh array. Let the characteristic polynomial be
a 0sn a 1sn -1 a 2 sn - 2 a 3 sn - 3  .......... ...  a n -1s 1 a ns0
The coefficients of the polynomial are arranged in two rows as shown below
sn : a0 a2 a4 a 6 ...................
sn : a1 a3 a5 a7 ...................
Step 3:- Construction of third row in Routh array. Third row is constructed from the
first two rows.

sn-2 : a1  a2 - a0  a3 a 1  a4 - a0  a5
a1 a1
Note:- By the construction of Routh array the missing terms are considered as zeros.

Step 4:- Form rows up to s0

CHECKING STABILITY
i. The necessary condition for stability is that all of the elements in the first column
of the Routh array be positive.
ii. The number of sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh
array corresponds to the number of roots of the characteristic equation in the
right half of the s-plane.
Note:- If the order of first column element is +, +, -, +. Then + to – is considered as one
sign change and – to + is another sign change.

If there is no sign change in the first column of Routh array then all the roots are lying
on left half of s-palne and the system is stable.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF ROUTH’S CRITERION

Adva ntages

Advantages of Routh’s Array methods are:

i) Stability of the system can be judged without actually solving the characteristic

equation.

ii) No evaluation of determinants, which saves calculation time.

iii) For unstable system it gives number of roots of characteristic equation having

positive real part.

iv) Relative stability of the system can be easily judged.

v) By using this criterion, critical value of system gain can be determined hence

frequency of sustained oscillations can be determined.

vi) It helps in finding out range of values of K for stability.

vii) It helps in finding out intersection points of root locus with imaginary axis.

Limitat ions

Limitations of Routh’s Array methods are:

i) It is valid only for real coefficients of the characteristic equation.

ii) It does not provide exact locations of the closed loop poles in left or right half of

s – plane.

iii) It does not suggest methods of stabilizing an unstable system.

iv) Applicable only to linear systems.

 SPECIAL CASES

Case I : A Row of all zeros

A row with all zeros indicates the possibility of roots on imaginary axis.

Solution Method

1. Determine the auxiliary polynomial A(s).

2. Differentiate the auxiliary polynomial with respect to s, to get d A(s) .

ds
3. The row of zeros is replaced with coefficients of d A(s) .
ds
4. Continue the construction of the array in the usual manner.

If there are sign changes in the first column of routh array then the system is
unstable.

The number of roots on imaginary axis can be estimated from the roots of auxiliary
polynomial.

If there is no sign changes in the first column of routh array then the all zeros row
indicate the existence of purely imaginary roots and so the system is immediately
or marginally stable.

Case II : First element of a Row is zero

If a zero is encountered as first element of a row in the Routh array then all the
elements of the next row will be infinite. To over come this problem substitute  for 0
and complete the construction of array in the usual way. Finally let    0 and
determine the values of the elements of the array which are functions of .

Checking for Stability

If there is no sign change in first column of Routh array, then the system is
stable.

If sign change occurs, then the system is unstable.

If there is a row of all zeros after letting  0, then there is a possibility of roots
on imaginary axis (then do like case I)

End of Module - 4
 MODULE - 5
FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

The frequency response is the steady state response (output) of a system when
the input to the system is a sinusoidal signal.

Consider a linear time invariant (LTI) system, H. Let x(t) be an input sinusoidal
signal. The response or output y(t) is also a sinusoidal signal of same frequency but
with different magnitude and phase angle.

The magnitude and phase relationship between the sinusoidal input and the
steady state output of a system is termed the frequency response.

The frequency response of a system is normally obtained by varying the

frequency of the input signal by keeping the magnitude of the input signal at a
constant value.

In the system transfer function T(s), if s is replaced by jω then the resulting

transfer function T(jω) is called sinusoidal transfer function. The frequency response
of the system can be directly obtained from the sinusoidal transfer function T(jω) of
the system.

The frequency response can be evaluated for both open loop system and closed
loop system.

Open Loop Transfer Function, G(jω)  G(jω) G(jω)

Loop Transfer Function is, G(jω) H(jω)  G(jω) H(jω) G(jω) H(jω)
C(jω)
Closed Loop Transfer Function is,  M(jω)  M(jω) M(jω)
R(jω)
 FREQUENCY DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS
The performance and characteristics of a system in frequency domain are
measured in terms of frequency domain specifications. The requirements of a system
to be designed are usually specified in terms of these specifications.

The frequency domain specifi cations are

1. Resonant Peak, Mr

2. Resonant Frequency, ω r

3. Bandwidth

4. Cut-off rate

5. Gain Margin

6. Phase Margin

GAIN MARGIN, Kg
The gain margin, Kg is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of Open Loop
Transfer Function at Phase Cross Over Frequency.

The frequency at which the phase of Open Loop Transfer Function is 1800 is
called the phase cross-over frequency, ω pc.
1
Gain Margin, K 
g
G(jωpc )

The gain margin in db can be expressed as,

1
Kgin db  20 log K g  20 log
G(jωpc)

 -20 log G(jωpc )

Note:- G(jωpc) is the magnitude of G(jω) at ω  ωpc

The Gain Margin indicates the amount by which the gain of the system can be
increased without affecting the stability of the system.
PHASE MARGIN ( γ )
The Phase Margin γ is that amount of additional phase lag at the Gain Cross
over frequency required to bring the system to the verge of instability. The Gain Cross
over frequency ωgc is the frequency at which the magnitude of the Open Loop
transfer function is unity.

The Phase Margin γ is obtained by adding 1800 to the phase angle  of the
open loop transfer function at the Gain Cross over frequency

Phase Margin, γ  1800  Φ gc

where Φgc   G(jωgc)
and  G(jωgc) is the Phase angle of G(jω) at ω  ωgc

FREQUENCY RESPONSE PLOTS

Frequency Response analysis of control systems can be carried either

analytically or graphically. The various graphical techniques available for frequency
response analysis are

1. Bode Plot

2. Polar Plot (or Nyquist Plot)

3. Nichols Plot

4. M and N Circles

5. Nichols Chart

The frequency response plots are used to determine the frequency domain
specifications, to study the stability of the systems and to adjust the gain of the system
to satisfy the desired specifications.

Bode plot, Polar plot and Nichols plot are usually drawn for Open loop
systems. From the Open loop response plot the performance and stability of closed
loop systems are estimated.

M and N circles and Nichols chart are used to graphically determine the
frequency response of unity feedback closed loop system from the knowledge of open
loop response.
 BODE PLOTS

Bode plot is drawn for open loop systems. Sometimes it can be drawn for
closed loop systems also. Bode plot consists of two graphs. One is a plot of the
magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω. The other is a plot of the
phase angle of a sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω. The standard
representation of the logarithmic magnitude of open loop transfer function of
G(jω) is 20 log G(jω) . The unit used in this representation of the magnitude is the
decibel (db). The curves are drawn on semilog paper, using the log scale for frequency
and the linear scale for either magnitude (in decibels) or phase angle (in degrees).

Advantages of Bode Plot

• The main advantage of the bode plot is that multiplication of magnitudes can
be converted in to addition.

• A simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude curve is

available.

Consider the Open loop transfer function,

K(1 sT1)
G(s) 
s(1 sT2 ) (1 sT3 )
put s  jω
K(1 jωT1)
 G(jω) 
jω(1 jωT2 ) (1 jωT3 )
K  0 1 ω2T12  tan-1ωT 1

 ω  90 1  ω2T22  tan-1ωT 2 1 ω2T32  tan-1ωT 3


 The Magnitude of G(jω)

K 1 ω2T12
G(jω) 
 ω 1 ω2T22 1 ω2T23

 The Phase angle of G(jω)

 G(jω)  tan-1ωT 1 - 90 - tan-1ωT2 - tan-1ωT3

The magnitude can be expressed in decibels as

G(jω) in db  20 log G(jω)

 K 1 ω2T2 
 20 log 
ω 1 ω2T2 1 ω2T2 
1

 2 3 
  
K 1 1
 20 log  X 1 ω2T12 X X 
ω 2 2 
 1 ω T22 2
1 ω T3 
K 1 1
 20 log  20 log 1 ω2T12  20 log  20 log
ω 1 ω2T22 1 ω2T32
K
 20 log  20 log 1 ω2T12  20 log 1 ω2T22  20 log 1 ω2T32
ω
So it is clear that, when the magnitude is expressed in db, the multiplication is
converted to addition. To sketch the magnitude plot, knowledge of the magnitude
variations of individual factor is essential.

BASIC FACTORS OF G(jω)

The basic factors that very frequently occur in a typical transfer function G(jω)
are,
1. Constant Gain, K

Let G(s) = K
 G(jω) = K and K  0
Magnitude, A  G(jω) in db  20 log K
Phase,    G(jω)  0
Therefore the Magnitude Plot for a Constant Gain K is a horizontal straight line at the
magnitude of 20 log K db.
The Phase Plot is straight line at 00.
  K 
2. Integral Factor,  
 jω 


K
Let G(s) 
s
K K
G(jω)    -900
jω jω
K
Magnitude, A  G(jω) in db  20 log
ω
Phase, Φ   G(jω)  -90 0

1
When ω  0.1K,  A  20 log  20 db
0.1
When ω  K,  A  20 log 1  0 db
1
When ω  10K,  A  20 log  20 db
10
▪ From the above analysis it is evident that the magnitude plot of the factor is a
straight line with a slope of –20 db/dec and passing through zero db, when
ω = K.

▪ Since the  G(jω) is a constant and independent of ω the phase plot is a straight
line at –900.

K
2.b Integral Factor has multiplicity of n,
 jω 
n

K
Let G(s) 
sn
K K
G(jω)    -90n0
(jω)n
ωn
  K
Magnitude, A  G(jω) in db  20 log
ωn
K  1 n
 K 1n 
  n
 
 20 log   20 n log  ω 
 ω 
   
Phase, Φ   G(jω)  -90 n 0

Now the magnitude plot of the integral factor is a straight line with a slope of
–20 n db/dec and passing through zero db when ω = K1/n. For example let G = K/s2,
then the slope is –40 db/dec. The phase plot is a straight line at –90 n0.

3. Derivative Factor, K(jω)

Let G(s)  Ks
 G(jω)  K  jω   Kω   90
0

Magnitude, A  G(jω) in db  20 log Kω 

Phase, Φ   G(jω)   90 0

When ω  0.1 ,  A  20log 0.1  20 db

K
1
When ω  ,  A  20log 1  0 db
K
10
When ω  ,  A  20log 10  20 db
K

▪ From the above analysis it is evident that the magnitude plot of the derivative
factor is a straight line with a slope of +20 db/dec and passing through zero db,
when ω = 1/K.

▪ Since the  G(jω) is a constant and independent of ω, the phase plot is a

straight line at +900.
 3.b Derivative Factor with a multiplicity of n, [ K(jω) ]
n

Let G(s)  Ksn

G(jω)  K(jω)n  Kωn  90 n 0
Magnitude, A  G(jω) in db  20 log  Kω n 
1
 20 n log (K ω) n

Phase, Φ   G(jω)  90 n 0
Now the magnitude plot of the integral factor is a straight line with a slope of
+20 n db/dec and passing through zero db when ω = 1/K1/n. For example let G = Ks2,
then the slope is +40 db/dec. The phase plot is a straight line at +90 n0.

1
4. First Order Factor in denominator
1  jωT

Let G(s) 
1

1  sT
 1
 G(jω)  1   -tan -1ω T

1  jω T 1  ω 2T 2
1
M agnitude, A  G(jω) in db  20 log
1  ω 2T 2
1
 -20 log
1  ω 2T 2

At very low frequencies ωT  1

 A  -20 log 1  ω2T 2
 -20 log 1  0

At very high frequencies ωT  1

 A  -20 log 1  ω2T 2
 -20 log ω2T 2  -20 log ωT
1
at ω  , A  -20 log 1  0
T
10
at ω  , A  -20 log 10  -20 db
T
 The above analysis shows that the magnitude plot of the factor can be
approximated by two straight lines, one is a straight line at 0db for the frequency
range 0 < ω < and the other is a straight line with slope –20 db/dec for the frequency

range ( < ω < ). The two straight lines are asymptotes of the exact curve. The
frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner frequency or break
frequency. For the factor the frequency ω = is the corner frequency, ωc. It

divides the frequency response curve into two regions, a curve for low frequency
region and a curve for high frequency region.

The Phase Plot is obtained by calculating the phase angle of G(jω) for various values
of ω.
 Phase angle, Φ   G(jω)  -tan -1ωT
1
At the corner frequency, ω  ωc 
T
-1  1 
& Phase angle, Φ  -tan  X T   -tan 1  -450
-1

T 
As ω    0   -tan 0-1
 0
As ω  
    -tan -1  -900

The Phase angle of the factor varies from 00 to –900 as ω is varied from zero
to infinity. The Phase Plot is a curve passing through –450 at ωc.

1
Bode Plot of the factor
1  jωT
 1
4.b. First Order Factor in the denominator has a multiplicity of m;
1  jωT  
m

Let G(s)  1
1  sT 
m

& G (jω )  1
1  jω T 
m

1

 
m
1ω T2 2
 m tan -1ω T

M agnitude, A  G (jω ) in db
1
 20 log

 
m
1  ω 2T 2

 -20 m log 1  ω 2T 2
Phase, Φ   G(jω)
 -m tan -1 ω T
Now the magnitude plot can be approximated by two straight lines, one is a straight
line at zero db for the frequency range 0  w  and the other is a straight line with

slope –20 m db/dec for the frequency range  w  .

The corner frequency ωc = . The phase angle of the factor varies

( ω )
from 00 to –90 m0 as ω is varied from zero to infinity. The phase plot is a curve passing
through –45 m0 at ωc.

5. First Order Factor in the numerator, (1 + jωT)

Let G(s)  1  sT
& G(jω)  1  jω T
 G(jω)  1  ω 2T 2  tan -1ω T

M agnitude, A  G(jω) in db
 20 log 1  ω 2T 2

Phase, Φ   G(jω)
 tan -1 ω T
 By an analysis similar to that of previous section it can be shown that the magnitude
plot of the factor (1+jωT) can be approximated by two straight lines, one is a straight
line at zero db for the frequency range 0  ω  and the other is a straight line with

slope +20 db/dec for the frequency range  ω  .

The corner frequency ωc = . The phase angle of the factor (1+jωT) varies from
00 to +900 as ω is varied from zero to infinity. The phase plot is a curve passing
through +450 at ωc.

Bode Plot of the factor 1  jωT



5. b. First Order Factor in the numerator has a multiplicity of m, (1 + jωT) m

1  sT 
m
Let G(s) 
 1  jωT 
m
& G(jω)

 
m
 G(jω)  1  ω2T 2  m tan-1ωT

Magnitude, A  G(jω) in db

 
m
 20 log 1  ω2T 2

 20 m log 1  ω 2 T 2
Phase, Φ   G(jω)
 m tan-1 ωT
Now the magnitude plot of the factor (1+jωT)m can be approximated by two straight
lines, one is a straight line at zero db for the frequency range 0  ω  and the other

is a straight line with a slope of +20 m db/dec for the frequency range  ω  .
 The corner frequency ωc = . The phase angle of the factor (1+jωT)m varies from
00 to +90 m0 as ω is varied from zero to infinity. The phase plot is a curve passing
through +45 m0 at ωc.
1
 jω   jω 
2
6. Quadratic Factor in the denominator,
1  2   
 ω ω
  n   n 

1
Let G(s)  
1  2  s   s 
2

   
 ω ω
 n   n 
1
G(jω)   2
1  2  jω   jω 
   
ω
 n   n ω
1
 2  ω 
 ω   j2 
1    
 ωn   ω n 
 ω
2
1 ωn
  -tan -1
2
ω2
 ω2   ω2  1
 1    4  2 
2
ω 2n
 ω2n   ω n 

Magnitude, A  G(jω) in db

1
 20 log 2
 ω 2   ω 2 
 1    4  2 
2

 ω 2n  ω n 
2
 2   ω2 
 -20 log ω
 1    4  2 
2

 ω2n   ω n 

1  ω -2 ω  4 2 ω
4 2 2
 -20 log
ω 4n ω 2n ω2n

1  ω 2 - 4   ω
2 4
 -20 log 2

ω 2n ω4n
 At very low frequencies when ω  ωn ,
2 4
ω ω
The terms 2 - 4 2
 
& 4 approches to zero
ω
ωn2
n

 The magnitude is, A  -20 log 1  0

At very high frequencies when ω  ωn ,

2 2

Then 1 -
ω
ω 2

2 - 4 2   ω
ω

2
2 - 4 2 
n n
4 2
ω
when compared to ,
ω
2 - 4  is negligible
2

ωn4 ω2n

 The magnitude is, A  -20 log ω4

 ω4n

 -20 log ω 2
2

ωn
2
 -20 log  ω 

ω
 n 
 ω 
 -20 X 2 log  
  ω
 n 
 
 A  -40 log  ω 
    
ω
 n 


At ω = ω n , A = -40 log 1 = 0 db
At ω = 10 ω n , A = -40 log 10 = -40 db

From the above analysis it is evident that the magnitude plot of the quadratic factor in
the denominator can be approximated by two straight lines, one is a straight line at
zero db for the frequency range 0  ω  ωn and the other is a straight line with a slope
of -40 db/dec for the frequency range ωn  ω  . The two straight lines are
asymptotes of the exact curve. The frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is
called the corner frequency. For the quadratic factor, the frequency ω n is the corner
frequency, ωc.
 The Phase Plot is obtained by calculating the phase angle of G(jω) for various values
of ω.
 ω 
 2 
-1 
 Φ   G(jω)  -tan  ω2n 
 ω 
 1  ω2 
 n 


At ω  ω Φ  -tan -1  2  
 -tan -1 

 -900
n  0 
 
At ω  
0 Φ  -tan 0
-1
 00
  
At ω  
  Φ  -tan -1    -1800
  
[Here the angle contribution obtained must be considered by subtracting 180 from the
positive . This happens because behavior of tan-1 function for the complex quantities
with real part negative or imaginary part negative, cannot be identified on calculator
by using above formula.]

  2  jω   jω  2 
1 
7. Quadratic Factor in the Numerator,    
  ω n   ω n  

 Let G(s)  1 2  s   s 
2

   
ω ω
 n   n 
2
G(jw)  1  2  jω   jω 
  
ω ω
 n   n 
 ω
2
1 ωn
  tan-1

2
 ω2  ω2
ω2  1 2
1    4  2 
2
ωn
 ω2n   ω n 

The magnitude plot of the quadratic factor in the numerator can be

approximated by two straight lines, one is a straight line at zero db for the frequency
range 0  ω  ωn and the other is a straight line with a slope of +40 db/dec for the
frequency range ωn  ω  . The two straight lines are asymptotes of the exact curve.
The frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner frequency.
The corner frequency is ωc. The phase angle varies from 00 to +1800, as ω is
varied from zero to infinity. At the corner frequency the phase angle is +90 0.
The basic factors of G(jw) in the magnitude and phase plot are tabulated as

No. Basic Factors of G(jw) Magnitude Plot Phase Plot

Amplitude, A = 20 log K
1. K Angle 00
No Slope

K A = 20 log
2. Angle -900
jω
Slope is –20 db

K K A = 20 log
eg., Angle –90 n0
3.
 jω 
n
s2 Slope is –20 n db eg., -1800
eg., -40 db
A = 20 log (Kω)
4. K(jω) Angle +900
Slope is +20 n db

A = 20 log (Kωn)
Angle +90 n0
5. K(jω)n eg., Ks2 Slope is +20 n db
eg., +1800
eg., +40 db
1
6. Slope is –20 db Angle –tan-1 ωT
1  jωT

1 1
eg., Slope is –20 n db Angle –m tan-1 ωT
7.
1 jωT  1 0.2s 
m 2
e.g., -40 db e.g., –2 tan-1 0.2ω

8. 1 jωT Slope is +20 db Angle tan-1 ωT

Slope is +20 m db Angle m tan-1 ωT

1 jωT  eg., 1 0.2s 
m 2
9.
e.g., +40 db e.g., 2 tan-1 0.2ω
 ω 
1   
ωn 
2
Angle -tan-1  
2
10.  jω   jω  Slope is –40 db  ω2 
1 2    
 ωn   ωn   1- ω2 
 n 

 ω 
  
ωn 
2 2
 jω   jω 
11. 1 2    Slope is +40 db Angle tan-1  
ω ω  ω2 
 n   n 
 1- ω2 
 n 
 PROCEDURE FOR MAGNITUDE PLOT OF BODE PLOT

Step. 1:- Convert the transfer function into Bode form or time constant form.
The Bode form of the transfer function is

G(s)  K(1  sT1 )

 2
s 
s 1  sT2   1  2  2
s

 ω n ωn 


K(1  jωT21 )
 G(s)   ω ω 
jω 1  jωT 2  1  2  j2 
 ω n ωn 

Step. 2:- Find the corner frequencies of each factor in transfer function and list them in
increasing order of Corner frequency. If the sinusoidal transfer function has a

term like K, or K(jω) then enter that factor as first term in the table.
( )
Find the slop contributed by each factor and net slope from the corner
frequency.

Prepare a table as shown below.

Corner Frequency Slope Change in Slope

Term
rad/sec db/dec db/dec

Step. 3:- Choose an arbitrary frequency ωl which is lesser than the lowest corner

frequency. Calculate the db magnitude of K, or K(jω) at ωl and at

( )
the lowest corner frequency.
 Step. 4:- Then calculate the gain (db magnitude) at every corner frequency one by one
by using the formula,

Gain at ωy = Change in gain from ωx to ωy + Gain at ωx

 ωy 
=  Slope from ωx to ωy X log
ω x 
+ Gain at ωx






Step. 5:- Choose an arbitrary frequency ωh which is greater than the highest corner
frequency. Calculate the gain at ωh by using the formula in Step 4.

Step. 6:- In a Semi log graph sheet mark the required range of frequency on X – axis
(log scale) and the range of db magnitude on Y – axis (Ordinary scale) after
choosing proper scale.

Step. 7:- Mark all the points obtained in steps 3, 4 and 5 on the graph and join the
points by straight lines. Mark the slope at every part of the graph.

PROCEDURE FOR PHASE PLOT OF BODE PLOT

The Phase Plot is an exact plot and no approximations are made while drawing
the phase plot. Hence the exact phase angles of G(jω) are computed for various values
of ω and tabulated. The choices of frequencies are preferably the frequencies chosen
for magnitude plot. Usually the magnitude plot and phase plot are drawn in a single
semi log sheet on a common frequency scale. Take another Y-axis in the graph where
the magnitude plot is drawn and in this Y- axis mark the desired range of phase
angles after choosing proper scale. From the tabulated values of w and phase angles,
mark all the points on the graph. Join the points by a smooth curve.
Determination of Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Bode Plot
The Gain Margin in db is given by the negative of db magnitude of G(jω) at the
Phase Cross-over frequency, ωpc. The ωpc is the frequency at which phase of G(jω) is
–1800. If the db magnitude of G(jω) at ωpc is negative then gain margin is positive and
vice versa.

Let gc be the phase angle of G(jω) at gain cross over frequency ωgc. The ωgc is
the frequency at which the db magnitude of G(jω) is zero. Now the phase margin,  is
given by,

 = 180 + gc

If gc is less negative than –1800 then phase margin is positive and vice versa. The
positive and negative gain margins are illustrated in figure.

Fig:- Bode Plot showing Phase Margin () and Gain Margin (Kg)
 POLAR PLOT

The Polar Plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude
of G(jω) versus the phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates as w is varied from zero
to infinity. Thus the Polar Plot is the locus of vectors G(jω)  G(jω) as ω is varied
from zero to infinity. The polar plot is also called Nyquist Plot.

The Polar plot is usually plotted on a polar graph sheet. The polar graph sheet
has concentric circles and radial lines. The circles represent the magnitude and the
radial lines represent the phase angles. Each point on the polar graph has a magnitude
and phase angle. The magnitude of a point is given by the value of the circle passing
through that point and the phase angle is given by the radial line passing through that
point. In polar graph sheet a positive phase angle is measured in anticlockwise from
the reference axis (00) and a negative angle is measured clockwise from the reference
axis (00).

If G(jω) can be expressed in rectangular coordinates as

G (jω) = GR (jω) + GI (jω)

where GR (jω) = Real part of G (jω)

and GI (jω) = Imaginary part of G (jω)

Then the polar plot can be plotted in ordinary graph sheet between GR (jω) and
GI (jω) as ‘ω’ is varied from 0 to .
 To plot the polar plot, first compute the magnitude and phase of G (jω) for
various values of w and tabulate them. Usually the choices of frequencies are corner
frequencies and frequencies around corner frequencies. Choose proper scale for the
magnitude circles. Fix all the points on polar graph sheet and join the points by
smooth curve. Write the frequency corresponding to each point on the plot.
To plot the polar plot on ordinary graph sheet, compute the magnitude and
phase for various values of w. Then convert the polar coordinates to rectangular
coordinates using conversion (Polar to rectangular conversion) in the
calculator. Sketch the polar plot using rectangular coordinates.
For minimum phase transfer function with only poles, the type number of the
system determines at what quadrant the polar plot starts and the order of the system
determines at what quadrant the polar plot ends.

Note:- Type determines the power of ‘s’ term and order is the maximum power of ‘s’
terms of the characteristic equation.

TYPICAL SKETCHES OF POLAR PLOT

 DETERMINATION OF GAIN MARGIN & PHASE MARGIN FROM POLAR PLOT
The gain margin is defined as the inverse of the magnitude of G(jω) at phase
crossover frequency. The phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the
phase of G(jω) is 1800.

Let the polar plot cut the 1800 axis at point B and the magnitude circle passing
through the point B is . Now the Gain Margin,. If the point B lies within
unity circle then the Gain Margin is positive otherwise negative.
The phase margin is defined as, phase margin, where is the phase angle of G(jω)
at gain crossover frequency. The gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which the
magnitude of G(jω) is unity.
Let the polar plot cut the unity circle at point A as shown in figure. Now the
phase margin, γ is given by  AOP, .AOP is below -1800 axis then the phase
,

i
f
margin is positive and if it is above -1800 axis then the phase margin is negative.
 NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

Consider the closed loop transfer function

C(s)

G(s) 
 (1)
R(s) 1 G(s) H(s)

The characteristic equation of the system is given by the condition

1  G(s) H(s)  0

Let F(s)  1 G(s) H(s) 

 (2)

(s - Z1) (s - Z2 ) ......... (s - Zm )
or F(s)  
 (3)
(s - P1) (s - P2 ) ......... (s - Pn )

The roots of numerator polynomial are zeros and the roots of denominator
polynomial are poles. Let s be a complex variable represented by s  σ  jω on the
complex s-plane.

The function F(s) is also complex and may be defined as F(s)  u  jv and
represented on the complex F(s)-plane with coordinates u and v. The equation (3)
indicates that for every point s in the s-plane at which F(s) is analytic, there exists a
corresponding point F(s) in the F(s) plane.

Hence it can be concluded that the function F(s) maps the points in the s-plane
into the F(s)-plane.

Fig: An arbitrary contour in s-plane and its corresponding contour in F(s) plane
PROCEDURE FOR INVESTIGATING THE STABILITY USING NYQUIST CRITERION
The following steps can be followed to investigate the stability of closed loop
system from the knowledge of open loop system, using Nyquist Stability Criterion.

Step.1:- Choose a Nyquist contour as shown in fig (a), which encloses the entire right
half s-plane except the singular points. The Nyquist contour encloses all the
right half s-plane poles and zeros of G(s) H(s) [The poles on imaginary axis
are singular points and so they are avoided by taking a detour around it as
shown in fig (b) and (c)].

Step.2:- The Nyquist contour should be mapped in the G(s) H(s) plane using the
function G(s) H(s) to determine the encirclement -1 + j0 point in the G(s) H(s)
plane. The Nyquist contour of fig. b can be divided into four sections C 1, C2,
C3 and C4. The mapping of the four sections in the G(s) H(s) plane can be
carried section wise and then combined together to get entire G(s) H(s)
contour.

Step.3:- In section C1 the value of ω varies from 0 to +∞. The mapping of section C1 is
obtained by letting s = jω in G(s) H(s) and varying ω from 0 to +∞,

i.e., G(s) H(s) s  jω  G(jω) H(jω)

ω  0 to  ω = 0 to 

The locus of G(jω) H(jω) as ω is varied from 0 to +∞ will be the G(s) H(s)
contour in G(s) H(s) plane corresponding to section C1 in s-plane. This locus
is the polar plot of G(jω) H(jω). To map this section of G(s) H(s) contour
separate the real and imaginary part of G(jω) H(jω). Equate the imaginary
part to zero, to find the frequency at which the G(jω) H(jω) locus crosses real
axis (to find phase crossover frequency). Substitute this frequency on real part
and find the crossing point of the locus on real axis. Sketch the approximate
locus of G(jω) H(jω) from the knowledge of type number and order of the
system or from the value of G(jω) H(jω) at ω = 0 and ω = ∞.

Step.4:- In section C2 of Nyquist contour has a semicircle of infinite radius. Therefore,

every point on section C2 has infinite magnitude but the argument varies from
π π
 to  . Hence the mapping of section C2 from s-plane to G(s) H(s) plane
2 2
can be obtained by letting s  Lt Re in G(s) H(s) and varying θ from
jθ

R 

π π
 to  .
2 2 



On letting, s  Lt Rejθ we get
R 


K1
G(s) H(s) s Lt Re 

jθ
n-m
Lt
 Re
R
jθ
R

π
π -j (n-m)
When θ  , G(s) H(s)  0 e 2
2
π
π  j (n-m)
When θ  - , G(s) H(s)  0 e 2
2
From the above two equations we can conclude that the section C 2 of Nyquist
contour in s-plane is mapped as circles/circular arc around origin with radius
tending to zero in the G(s) H(s) plane.

Step.5:- In section C3 the value of ω varies from -∞ to 0. The mapping of section C3 is

obtained by letting s = +jω in G(s) H(s) and varying ω from -∞ to 0,

i.e., G(s) H(s) s  + jω  G(jω) H(jω) ω = - to 0

ω  - to 0
 The locus of G(jω) H(jω) as ω is varied from -∞ to 0 will be the G(s) H(s)
contour in G(s) H(s) plane corresponding to section C3 in s-plane. This locus
is the inverse polar plot of G(jω) H(jω). The inverse polar plot is given by the
mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis.

Step.6:- In section C4 of Nyquist contour has a semicircle of zero radius. Therefore

every point on semicircle has zero magnitude but the argument varies from
π π
 to  . Hence the mapping of section C4 from s-plane to G(s) H(s) plane
2 2
can be obtained by letting s  Lt Re in G(s) H(s) and varying θ from
-jθ

R 0

π π
 to  .


2 2

On letting, s  Lt Re we get
-jθ

R 0

K
G(s) H(s) s Lt Re 
 Re 
jθ
jθ y
R0 Lt
R0

  e-jθy
π
π j y
When θ   , G(s) H(s)   e 2
2
π
π -j y
When θ  , G(s) H(s)   e 2

2
From the above two equations we can conclude that the section C 4 of Nyquist
contour in s-plane is mapped as circles/circular arc in G(s) H(s) plane with
origin as centre and infinite radius.

Note:-

1. If there are no poles on the origin then the section C4 of Nyquist contour will be
absent.

2. If there are poles (for e.g. 8 poles) on imaginary axis then the Nyquist contour is
divided into 8 sections and the mapping is performed section wise.
 ROOT LOCUS

The Root Locus technique is a powerful tool for adjusting the location of closed
loop poles to achieve the desired system performance by varying one or more system
parameters.
Consider the open loop transfer function of the system,
K
G(s) 
s (s  p1) (s  p2 )
The characteristic equation of the system is
s (s  p1) (s  p2 )  K  0
The roots of characteristic equation is a function of open loop gain K. When the gain K
is varied from 0 to ∞, the roots of characteristic equation will take different values.

When K=0, the roots are given by open loop poles.

When K=∞, the roots will take the value of open loop zeros.

The path taken by the roots of characteristic equation when open loop gain K is varied
from 0 to ∞ are called root loci.

PROCEDURE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROOT LOCUS

Step.1:- Locate the poles and zeros of G(s) H(s) on the s-plane.
The root locus branch start from open loop poles and terminate at zeros. The
poles are marked by cross ‘X’ and zeros are marked by small circle ‘O’. The
number of root locus branches is equal to number of poles of open loop
transfer function.

If n = number of poles and m = number of finite zeros, then ‘m’ root locus
branches ends at finite zeros. The remaining (n - m) root locus branches will
end at zeros at infinity.

Step.2:- Determine the root locus on real axis.

Take a test point (left most point) on real axis. Count the total number of
poles and zeros up to right most. If the total number of poles and zeros on the
real axis to the right of this test point is odd number then the test point lies on
the root locus. If it is even then the test point does not lie on the root locus.
Step.3:- Determine the asymptotes of root locus branches and meeting point of
asymptotes with real axis.
[Asymptote is the line which continually approaches a given curve, but does
not meet it with in a finite distance].

If n = number of poles and m = number of zeros, then (n – m) root locus

branches will terminate at zeros at infinity.

These root locus branches will go along an asymptotic path and meets the
asymptotes at infinity. Hence number of asymptotes is equal to number of
root locus branches going to infinity.
180 2q 1
The angle of asymptotes 
n-m
where q  0, 1, 2, 3 ............. (n - m)
Sum of poles - Sum of zeros
Centroid 
n-m
Centroid is the meeting point of asymptote with real axis

Step.4:- Find the break away and break in points.

These points lie on real axis or exist as complex conjugate pairs. If there is a
root locus on real axis between 2 poles then there exists a break away point. If
there is a root locus on real axis between 2 zeros then there exists a break in
point. If there is a root locus on real axis between a pole and zero then there
may be or may not be break away or break in point.

Let the characteristic equation be in the form

B(s)  K A(s)  0

- B(s)
 K  A(s)
dK
The break away and break in point is given by roots of the equation 0
ds
Find the value of s 
- B(s)
Substitute the value of s in K 
A(s)
If the value of K is positive and real then only the break in and break away
point s are real otherwise there will not be any break in and break away
point.
 Step.5:- Angle of Departure and Angle of Arrival.
If there is a complex pole then determine the angle of departure from the
complex pole. If there is a complex zero then determine the angle of arrival at
the complex zero.

Angle of departure from a complex pole A 


Sum of angles of vectors  Sum of angles of vectors 
   to the complex pole A 
 180 -  to the complex pole A
   
 from all other poles   from all other zeros 


Angle of arrival at a complex zero A 

Sum of angles of vectors  Sum of angles of vectors 
   to the complex zero A 
 180 -  to the complex zero A
   
 from all other zeros   from all other poles 
For example
From the following figure, Angle of departure  180  θ1  θ 2  θ 3   θ 4  θ 5 





From the following figure, Angle of arrival  180  θ1  θ 2   θ 3  θ 4  θ 5 





Step.6:- Point of intersection of root locus with imaginary axis.
To find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis is by
putting s  jω in the characteristic equation. Separate the real part and
imaginary part. Two equations are obtained (One by equating real part to
zero and the other by equating imaginary part to zero). Solve the two
equations; give ‘ω’ and ‘K’. The value of ‘ω’ gives the point where the root
locus crosses imaginary axis. The value of ‘K’ gives the value of gain K at this
crossing point. Also this value of K is the limiting value of K for stability of
the system.
Advantages of Root Locus Method

The root locus technique is more advantageous as it gives us following

information:

i) The absolute stability of the system can be predicted from the locations of the
roots in the s-plane.

ii) Limiting range of the values of the system gain ‘K’ can be decided for absolute
stability of the system.

iii) Marginal value of the system gain ‘K’ which makes the system marginally
stable can be determined and the corresponding value of the frequency of
oscillations can be determined from intersection of root locus with imaginary
axis.

iv) Using root locus, value of system gain ‘K’ for any point on the root locus can be
determined, by using magnitude condition.

v) For particular damping ratio of the system, gain ‘K’ can be determined which
helps to design system more correctly.

vi) Root locus analysis also helps in deciding the stability of the control systems
with time-delay.

vii) Gain margin of the system can be determined from root locus.

viii) Phase margin of the system can be determined from root locus.

ix) Relative stability about a particular value of 's   ' can be determined.

x) Information about settling time of the system also can be determined from the
root locus.