Biotech - Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important Questions Answers

Biotechnology(M.Sc, B.
Sc)
Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Importants questions answers
Biotechnology - (Click Here)

Biology - (Click Here)
Basic Concept of Biotechnology - (Click Here)
Pharmaceutical Biotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications - (Click Here)
Biotechnology Applying the Genetic Revolution - (Click Here)
Environmental Biotechnology - (Click Here)
Genetics and Molecular Biology - (Click Here)
Essential Clinical Immunology - (Click Here)
Essential Microbiology - (Click Here)
Microbiology - (Click Here)
Microbiology and Immunology - (Click Here)
Medical Microbiology - (Click Here)
Subject : Biotechnology
Recombinant DNA Technology
1. Tools of rDNA technology - Answer (click here)
2. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - Answer (click here)
3. Vectors: Vehicles for cloning - Answer (click here)
4. Plasmids - Answer (click here)
5. Vectors based on bacteriophages - Answer (click here)
6. Making rDNA - Answer (click here)
7. Introduction of rDNA into host cells - Recombinant DNA Technology -
Answer (click here)
8. Identification of Recombinants - Recombinant DNA Technology -
Answer (click here)
9. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - Answer (click here)
10. Hybridisation Techniques - Recombinant DNA Technology - Answer
(click here)
11. DNA Library - Answer (click here)
12. DNA Sequencing - Answer (click here)
13. Site-directed Mutagenesis - Answer (click here)
Protein Structure And Engineering
1. Introduction to the World of Proteins - Answer (click here)
2. 3-D Shape of Proteins - Answer (click here)
3. Structure-Function relationship in Proteins - Answer (click here)
4. Chymotrypsin, a proteolytic enzyme - Answer (click here)
5. Molecular Disease- Sickle cell anaemia - Answer (click here)
6. Protein Finger printing- Peptide Mapping - Answer (click here)
7. 2-D Gel Electrophoresis - Answer (click here)
8. Purification of Proteins - Answer (click here)
9. Characterisation of Proteins - Answer (click here)
10. Protein Based Products - Answer (click here)
11. Designing Proteins (Protein Engineering) - Answer (click here)
Genomics and Bioinformatics

1. Genomics and Bioinformatics - Answer (click here)
2. Genome Sequencing Projects - Answer (click here)
3. Gene prediction and counting - Answer (click here)
4. Genome Similarity, SNPs and Comparative Genomics - Answer (click here)
5. Functional Genomics - Answer (click here)
6. Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Answer (click here)
7. Microarray Technology - Answer (click here)
8. Proteomics and Types of Proteomics - Answer (click here)
9. History of Bioinformatics - Answer (click here)
10. Sequences and nomenclature - Bioinformatics - Answer (click here)
11. Different types of sequences - Bioinformatics - Answer (click here)
12. Information Sources - Bioinformatics - Answer (click here)
13. Analysis using Bioinformatics tools - Answer (click here)
Microbial Cell Culture and its Applications

1. Microbial Cell Culture and its Applications - Answer (click here)
2. Microbial culture techniques - Answer (click here)
3. Measurement and kinetics of microbial growth - Answer (click here)
4. Scale-up of microbial processes - Answer (click here)
5. Isolation of microbial products - Answer (click here)
6. Strain isolation, improvement and preservation - Answer (click here)
7. Applications of microbial culture technology - Answer (click here)
8. Biosafety issues in Microbial Technology - Answer (click here)
Plant Cell Culture and Applications
1. Plant Cell Culture and Applications - Answer (click here)
2. Cell and Tissue Culture Techniques - Answer (click here)
3. Applications of Cell and Tissue Culture - Answer (click here)
4. Gene transfer methods in plants - Answer (click here)
5. Transgenic plants with beneficial traits - Answer (click here)
6. Biotic and Abiotic stress tolerance - Answer (click here)
7. Biosafety in Plant Genetic Engineering - Answer (click here)
Animal Cell Culture and Applications

1. Animal Cell Culture and Applications - Answer (click here)
2. Animal Cell Culture Techniques - Answer (click here)
3. Characterization of Cell Lines - Answer (click here)
4. Methods of Gene Delivery into Cells - Answer (click here)
5. Scale-up of Animal Culture Process - Answer (click here)
6. Applications of Animal Cell culture - Answer (click here)
7. Stem Cell Technology - Answer (click here)
8. Tissue engineering - Answer (click here)
Subject : Biology
Introduction to Biology
1. Introduction to Biology - Answer (click here)
2. Principal Branches of Biology - Answer (click here)
3. Great scientists in Biology - Answer (click here)
4. Characteristics of Plants and Animals - Answer (click here)
5. Role of Biology in Social, Economic and Environmental Development -
Answer (click here)
6. Nature and Origin of Life - Answer (click here)
Structure and Nature of Living Cell

1. Structure and Nature of Living Cell - Answer (click here)
2. Plasma membrane or Cell membrane: Stucture, Functions - Answer (click
here)
3. Cytoplasm: Stucture, Functions - Answer (click here)
4. Nucleus: Stucture, Functions - Answer (click here)
5. Structure and Functions of Chloroplast - Answer (click here)
6. Structure and Functions of Golgi bodies/Golgi apparatus - Answer (click
here)
Cell Division
1. Types of cell division - Answer (click here)
2. Stages of Mitosis - Answer (click here)
3. Significance of Mitosis - Answer (click here)
4. Abnormal cell division - Answer (click here)
5. Male-Female determining chromosome - Answer (click here)
Division of Labour In Multicellular Plants

1. Types of Tissue - Answer (click here)
2. Characrteristics of Meristamatic tissues - Answer (click here)
3. Characteristics of Permanent tissue - Answer (click here)
4. Types of permanent tissue - Answer (click here)
5. Laticiferous tissues and Glandular tissues - Answer (click here)
6. Tissue System and types of Tissue System - Answer (click here)
7. Types of Simple permanent tissue and its Functions - Answer (click here)
8. Types of Complex permanent tissue and its Functions - Answer (click here)
Animal Tissue Organ and Organ System

1. Animal Tissue, Organ and Organ System - Answer (click here)
2. Differences between Tissue and Cell - Answer (click here)
3. Types of Tissues - Answer (click here)
4. Structural Characteristics, Function and Location of Epithelial Tissue -
Answer (click here)
5. Structural Characteristics, Functions and Location of Connective Tissue
- Answer (click here)
6. Structural Characteristics, Function and Location of The Muscular
Tissue - Answer (click here)
7. Structural Characteristics, Function and Location of The Nerve Tissue -
Answer (click here)
8. Necessary Organs of Human Body - Answer (click here)
9. Co-ordination between Organs and Systems to keep the body fit - Answer
(click here)
Classification of Plants
1. Classification of Plants - Answer (click here)
2. Unit of Plants classification and Taxa - Answer (click here)
3. Virus - Answer (click here)
4. Bacteria - Answer (click here)
5. Algae - Answer (click here)
6. Fungi: Structure and Reproduction - Answer (click here)
7. Bryophyta: Characteristics and Importance - Answer (click here)
8. Pteridophyta: Characteristics and Importance - Answer (click here)
9. Gymnosperm: Characteristics and Importance - Answer (click here)
10. Monocotyledonous or Monocot plants:: Characteristics and Importance -
Answer (click here)
11. Dicotyledonous or Dicot Plants: Characteristics and Importance - Answer
(click here)
Animal Diversity and Classification

1. Animal Diversiy - Answer (click here)
2. Short Description of Diversification or Bio-Diversity - Answer (click here)
3. Animal Taxonomy - Answer (click here)
4. Necessity of Animal Classification - Answer (click here)
5. Rules for Modern or Natural Classification in Animal Diversity - Answer
(click here)
6. Plylum - Sarcomastigophorea Kingdom - Protista - Answer (click here)
7. Phylum - Cnidaria - Answer (click here)
8. Phylum Platyhelminthes - Answer (click here)
9. Phylum Nematoda - Answer (click here)
10. Plylum Annelida - Answer (click here)
11. Phylum Arthropoda - Answer (click here)
12. Phylum Mollusca - Answer (click here)
13. Phylum Echinodermata - Answer (click here)
14. Phylum chordata - Answer (click here)
Structural Organization and Acquaintance of Animals

1. Amoeba: Habit and Habitat - Answer (click here)
2. Body structure of Amoeba and its functions - Answer (click here)
3. Amoeba Locomotion - Answer (click here)
4. Amoeba: Process of intake of food or Nutrition - Answer (click here)
5. Amoeba: Digestion, Absorption and Egestion - Answer (click here)
6. Amoeba: Respiration, Excretion - Answer (click here)
7. Reproduction of Amoeba: Binary fission and Sporulation - Answer (click
here)
8. Round Worm: External morphology and Habitat - Answer (click here)
9. Round Worm: Digestive system - Answer (click here)
10. Round Worm: Parasite and its Characteristics - Answer (click here)
11. Round Worm: Excretory System - Answer (click here)
12. Round Worm: Reproductive System - Answer (click here)
13. Round Worm: Ascariasis disease and its symptoms, Prevention - Answer
(click here)
14. Toad: Habit, Habitat - Answer (click here)
15. External morphology of Toad - Answer (click here)
16. Skeletal system of Toad - Answer (click here)
17. Toad: Axial skeleton and its functions - Answer (click here)
18. Toad: Vertebral column and its functions - Answer (click here)
19. Toad: Appendicular skeleton(Pectoral girdle, Pelvic girdle) and its
functions - Answer (click here)
20. Toad: Digestive system - Answer (click here)
21. Toad: Nutrition and Digestion - Answer (click here)
22. Toad: Circulatory system - Answer (click here)
23. Toad: Blood(Plasma and Blood corpuscles) - Answer (click here)
24. Toad: Heart - Answer (click here)
25. Toad: Blood vessels(Artery, Vein and Capillary) - Answer (click here)
26. Toad: Venous system - Answer (click here)
27. Toad: Respiratory system - Answer (click here)
28. Toad: Glucose oxidation and energy production, Glycolysis and Kreb's
cycle - Answer (click here)
29. Toad: Nervous system - Answer (click here)
30. Toad: Structure of brain - Answer (click here)
31. Toad: Cranial nerves - Answer (click here)
32. Toad: Excretory system - Answer (click here)
33. Toad: Reproductives system - Answer (click here)
Physiological Activities in Plants Nutrition

1. Plant Nutrition and Nutrient Elements - Answer (click here)
2. Imbibition - Answer (click here)
3. Osmosis: Two types, Condition, Experiment, Absorption - Answer (click
here)
4. Ascent of Sap - Answer (click here)
5. Transpiration and Types of Transpiration - Answer (click here)
6. Stomata: Process of Stomatal Tranpiration and Factors affecting - Answer
(click here)
7. Photosynthesis: Process, Organ, Factors Affecting, Importance - Answer
(click here)
8. Importance of Photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
9. Some Experiments on Photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
10. Experiment to demonstrate that Oxygen is evolved during
Photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
11. Experiment to show that photosynthesis do not occur without
chlorophyll - Answer (click here)
12. Experiment to show that light is essential for Photosynthesis - Answer
(click here)
13. Experiment to show that photosynthesis cannot occur without CO2 -
Answer (click here)
14. Evolution of O2 during photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
15. Respiration: Respiratory substrate, Types of respiration - Answer (click
here)
16. Importance of Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration - Answer (click here)
17. Factors Affecting Respiration - Answer (click here)
18. Experiment to prove that Heat is evolved during Respiration - Answer
(click here)
19. Experiment of Anaerobic Respiration - Answer (click here)
20. Growth and Development of Plant - Answer (click here)
21. Tropism - Answer (click here)
22. Effect of Light and Temperature on Plant Growth and Yield - Answer
(click here)
23. Importance of photoperiodism and Vernalization - Answer (click here)
Flower
1. Different Parts of a Flower(Datura Flower) - Answer (click here)
2. Different kinds of Flower - Answer (click here)
Pollination Fertilization And Dispersal of Fruits and seeds

1. Pollination: Two types, Significance, Merits, Demerits - Answer (click here)
2. Pollinating Agents: Types and Characteristics - Answer (click here)
3. Fertilization in Plant - Answer (click here)
4. Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds - Answer (click here)
Reproduction of Plants
1. Reproduction of Plants and itsTypes - Answer (click here)
Organism and Environment

1. Organism and Environment - Answer (click here)
2. Components of Ecology - Answer (click here)
3. Food chain - Answer (click here)
4. Food web - Answer (click here)
5. Nutrient flow in Eco system - Answer (click here)
6. Energy flow in Ecosystem - Answer (click here)
7. Major Eco systems - Answer (click here)
8. Responsibility of man in maintaining balance of an environment - Answer
(click here)
Pollution and Conservation of Environment

1. Pollution and Conservation of Environment - Answer (click here)
2. Green House Effect - Answer (click here)
3. Role of Human beings in conservation of Environment - Answer (click
here)
4. Effect of Urbanization and Industrialisation on Environment - Answer
(click here)
5. Industrialisation is mainly of two types - Answer (click here)
Natural Diversities of Bangladesh Distribution of Plants and

Animals
1. Natural Diversities of Bangladesh-Distribution of Plants and Animals -
Answer (click here)
2. Recent flood plain - Answer (click here)
3. Haor and other Marshy lands - Answer (click here)
4. Pleistocene uplands - Answer (click here)
5. Tertiary hilly region - Answer (click here)
6. Coastal Forest or Mangrove forest - Answer (click here)
7. Saint Martin's Island - Answer (click here)
Economic Biology Botany

1. Food producing plants - Answer (click here)
2. Cloth producing plants - Answer (click here)
3. Plants used for house building purposes - Answer (click here)
4. Medicinal Plants - Answer (click here)
5. Beverage yielding plants - Answer (click here)
Economic Biology
1. Prawn Culture: Economic importance and Kinds of prawn - Answer (click
here)
2. Method of culture of fresh water prawn or Galda prawn - Answer (click
here)
3. Method of culture of saline water prawn or Bagda prawn - Answer (click
here)
4. Introduction of fishes - Answer (click here)
5. Importance of fish cultivation - Answer (click here)
6. Method of fish culture - Answer (click here)
7. Culture of silk worms or sericulture - Answer (click here)
8. Characteristics of silk fibers and economic importance of silk worms -
Answer (click here)
9. Life cycle and silk cultivation - Answer (click here)
10. Bee keeping: Castes, life cycle, economic importance, artificial bee
culture - Answer (click here)
11. Castes(various types) of bees - Answer (click here)
12. Life cycle of bees - Answer (click here)
13. Some harmful insects or pests of paddy and jute - Answer (click here)
Practical Botany
1. Microscope: Structure, Uses, Functioning Processes of Simple ,
Compound Microscope - Answer (click here)
2. Study of the Structure of a Flowering Plant - Answer (click here)
3. Study of the Structure of Plant and Animal Cells - Answer (click here)
4. Study of the Stages of Mitosis from Permanent Slides - Answer (click here)
5. Study of Distribution of Tissue System in Dicot Stem - Answer (click here)
6. Study of the Structural Features of Different Plant Groups - Answer (click
here)
7. Experiment to Demonstrate the Process of Osmosis with the help of
Raisin - Answer (click here)
8. Demonstration of cell-to-cell osmosis by Potato Osmoscope - Answer
(click here)
9. Demonstration of Ascent of sap from root to stem and leaves with the
help of Peperomia plant - Answer (click here)
10. Experiment to show that Light is essential for Photosynthesis - Answer
(click here)
11. Experiment to prove that Heat is evolved during Respiration - Answer
(click here)
12. Experiment to show the germination of pollen grains to form pollen tube
13. Experiment to show that CO2 is evolved during respiration - Answer (click
here)
Practical Zoology
1. Earthworm: Classification, External Features, Digestive System, Method
of Dissection - Answer (click here)
2. Prawn: Classification, External Features, Digestive System, Method of
Dissection - Answer (click here)
3. Grasshopper: Classification, External Features, Digestive System,
Method of Dissection - Answer (click here)
4. Toad: External Features, Digestive System, Method of Dissection,
Skeleton - Answer (click here)
5. Digestive system of Toad - Answer (click here)
6. Skeleton of toad - Answer (click here)
7. Channa punctatus (Lata/Taki Fish): External Features, Digestive System,
Method of Dissection - Answer (click here)
8. Examples of Animals taken from each of the major Phyla, their
identifying Characters, Observations and Figures - Answer (click here)
Subject : Basic Concept of Biotechnology

Biomolecules
1. Biomolecules - Answer (click here)
2. Carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
3. Classification of Carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
4. Structure of Monosaccharide’s - Answer (click here)
5. Structure of Di Saccharides and Polysaccharides - Answer (click here)
6. Importance of carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
7. Rare sugars - Answer (click here)
8. Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
9. Structure of Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
10. Watson and Crick’s double helix structure of DNA - Answer (click here)
11. Tautomerism - Answer (click here)
12. Nucleosides and nucleotides - Answer (click here)
13. Proteins - Biomolecules - Answer (click here)
14. Amino Acids and Classification of Amino Acids - Answer (click here)
15. Non-proteinogenic amino acids and its role - Answer (click here)
16. Classification of Proteins - Answer (click here)
17. Structure of Proteins - Answer (click here)
18. Biological Importance of Proteins - Answer (click here)
19. Lipids and Classification of Lipids - Answer (click here)
20. Structure of lipids - Answer (click here)
21. Fatty Acids - Answer (click here)
22. Triacylglycerols - Answer (click here)
23. Phospholipids - Answer (click here)
24. Sterols and sterol esters - Answer (click here)
Computer Applications and Biostatistics

1. Computer Applications and Biostatistics - Answer (click here)
2. Information and computer technology - Answer (click here)
3. Biostatistics - Answer (click here)
4. Types of Data - Biostatistics - Answer (click here)
5. Measures of Central Tendencies - Biostatistics - Answer (click here)
6. Types of Distribution - Biostatistics - Answer (click here)
7. Applications of Standard Error of Mean - Answer (click here)
8. Confidence Interval (CI) - Answer (click here)
9. Null Hypothesis - Answer (click here)
10. Level of Significance - Answer (click here)
11. Outliers - Answer (click here)
12. One tailed and two tailed Test - Answer (click here)
13. Importance of Sample Size Determination - Answer (click here)
14. Factors Influencing Sample Size Include - Answer (click here)
15. Sample Size Determination and Variance Estimate - Answer (click here)
16. How to Choose an Appropriate Statistical Test - Answer (click here)
17. Non-parametric tests used for analysis of different types of data - Answer
(click here)
18. Common problems faced by researcher in any trial and how to address
them - Answer (click here)
19. Biological data and its diversity - Answer (click here)
20. Application of computer and statistics in biology - Answer (click here)
Macromolecules and Analytical Techniques

1. Macromolecules and Analytical Techniques - Answer (click here)
2. Macromolecules - Answer (click here)
3. Centrifugation - Analysis of biomolecules - Answer (click here)
4. Chromatography: Types, Principle, Application - Analysis of
biomolecules - Answer (click here)
5. Electrophoresis - Analysis of biomolecules - Answer (click here)
6. Spectroscopy - Analysis of biomolecules - Answer (click here)
7. UV Visible spectroscopy - Analysis of biomolecules - Answer (click here)
8. Infra Red Spectropscopy (IR spectroscopy) - Analysis of biomolecules -
Answer (click here)
9. Fluorometry - Analysis of biomolecules - Answer (click here)
10. Mass Spectrometry - Analysis of biomolecules - Answer (click here)
11. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy - Analysis of
biomolecules - Answer (click here)
Plant Molecular Farming A Promising Stratergy in Biotechnology

1. Plant Molecular Farming: A Promising Stratergy in Biotechnology -
Answer (click here)
2. Plants as Expression Systems - Answer (click here)
3. Types of Biomolecules and recent examples - Answer (click here)
4. Plant made pharmaceuticals (PMPs) - Answer (click here)
5. Plant made nutritional compounds (PMNs) - Answer (click here)
6. Plant made vaccines (PMVs) - Answer (click here)
7. Plant made plastics (PMPs) - Answer (click here)
8. Plant made industrial compounds (PMIs) - Answer (click here)
9. The plant endomembrane system - Answer (click here)
10. Subcellular Targeting of proteins in plants - Answer (click here)
11. Different plant species as platform for molecular farming - Answer (click
here)
12. Plant Transformation - Answer (click here)
13. Optimization of transgene expression in host plant - Answer (click here)
14. Downstream processing of recombinant proteins - Answer (click here)
15. Use of affinity tags for purification - Answer (click here)
16. Use of non-chromatographic methods - Answer (click here)
17. Biosafety and regulatory issues - Answer (click here)
Plant Transgenics Genetic Engineering Approch to Devlop Biotic

Stress Resistance Plants
1. Plant Transgenics: Genetic Engineering Approch to Devlop Biotic Stress
Resistance Plants - Answer (click here)
2. The Power of Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
3. Strategies for Competitiveness - Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
4. Tools of Genetic Engineering in Plants - Answer (click here)
5. DNA Delivery Systems - Plant Transgenics - Answer (click here)
6. The Selection and Analysis of Transformants - Plant Transgenics -
Answer (click here)
7. Modification of regulatory elements of marker genes - Plant Transgenics
8. More ‘Friendly’ Selectable Markers: the Positive Selection Method -
Plant Transgenics - Answer (click here)
9. Biotic Stress - Answer (click here)
10. Virus Resistance - Answer (click here)
11. RNAi Technology - Answer (click here)
12. Fungal Resistance - Answer (click here)
13. Bacterial Resistance - Answer (click here)
14. Nematode Resistance - Answer (click here)
Animal Biotechnology
1. Animal Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. Cell Culture - Animal Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
3. Criteria for Subculture - Animal Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
4. Culture Conditions and Mammalian Cell - Animal Biotechnology -
Answer (click here)
5. Aseptic Techniques - Animal Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
6. Cryopreservation Medium - Answer (click here)
7. Protocol for Cryopreserving Cultured Cells - Answer (click here)
8. Protocol for Thawing Frozen Cells - Answer (click here)
9. Biological Contamination - Answer (click here)
10. Protocol for Microbial Decontamination - Answer (click here)
11. Protocol for Treating Mycoplasma contaminated Cell Cultures with BM
Cyclin - Answer (click here)
12. Cell Viability (quantitation and cytotoxicity) - Answer (click here)
13. Factors to Consider When Choosing a Cell Viability Assay - Answer (click
here)
14. Cell Viability Assays that Measure ATP and Metabolic Capacity -
Answer (click here)
15. Cytotoxicity Assays: Determining the Number of Live and Dead Cells -
Answer (click here)
16. Trypan Blue - Answer (click here)
17. Concentrating Cells - Answer (click here)
18. Cell Proliferation - Animal Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
19. Cell Cycle - Animal Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
20. Cytotoxicity - Answer (click here)
21. Applications of cell culture - Answer (click here)
22. What are stem cells, and why are they important? - Answer (click here)
23. What are the unique properties of all stem cells? - Answer (click here)
24. Embryonic stem cells grown in the laboratory - Answer (click here)
25. Similarities and Differences between Embryonic and Adult stem cells -
Answer (click here)
26. Potential uses of human stem cells and the obstacles - Answer (click here)
27. Genetic manipulation of animals (animal models in research) - Answer
(click here)
28. Animal Breeding and Transgenic Animals - Answer (click here)
29. Methods of genetic manipulation in animals - Answer (click here)
30. A brief history of cloning - Answer (click here)
31. Cloning - Answer (click here)
32. Use of Animals in Research - Answer (click here)
33. Improving Agricultural Products with Transgenics - Answer (click here)
34. Genetically Engineered Insulin - Answer (click here)
35. Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
36. Monoclonal Antibodies - Answer (click here)
37. Economic impact in developing countries - Animal Biotechnology -
Answer (click here)
38. Ethical Issues(biosafety and regulatory issues) - Animal Biotechnology -
Answer (click here)
Medical Biotechnology
1. Medical Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. History of Medical Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
3. Human Genome Project and its influence on medical biotechnology -
Answer (click here)
4. Detecting Genetic Diseases - Answer (click here)
5. Biotech in the Hospital - Answer (click here)
6. Role of biotechnology in diagnostics and Therapeutics - Answer (click here)
7. Role of biotechnology in developing vaccines - Answer (click here)
8. Treatments developed with the aid of biotechnology - Answer (click here)
9. Other Applications of Biotechnology in Medical field - Answer (click here)
10. Designer Babies - Medical Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
11. New Biotech Breakthroughs about to change Medicine - Answer (click
here)
Tools and Techniques in Biotechnology

1. Tools and Techniques in Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. Basic Tools in the Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
3. Measurement of Volume - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer (click
here)
4. Measurement of Weight - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer (click
here)
5. Measurement of pH - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
6. Measurement of light - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
7. Solution Preparation - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
8. Microbiological techniques - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer (click
here)
9. Preparation of biological samples for analysis - Tools used in
Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
10. Separation of macromolecules - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer
(click here)
11. Manipulation of Nucleic Acids - Tools used in Biotechnology - Answer
(click here)
12. Techniques of Biotechnology and Innovations - Answer (click here)
13. Isolation of Nucleic Acid (DNA) - Techniques of Biotechnology and
Innovations - Answer (click here)
14. Plasmid Isolation - Techniques of Biotechnology and Innovations -
Answer (click here)
15. RNA Isolation and mRNA Purification - Techniques of Biotechnology
and Innovations - Answer (click here)
16. Gene Isolation - Techniques of Biotechnology and Innovations - Answer
(click here)
17. Molecular Mapping - Techniques of Biotechnology and Innovations -
Answer (click here)
18. Genomic DNA Library Construction - Techniques of Biotechnology and
19. Transformation Techniques - Techniques of Biotechnology and
20. Direct Gene Transformation - Techniques of Biotechnology and
21. Labeling Methods - Techniques of Biotechnology and Innovations -
Answer (click here)
22. Southern Blotting Technique - Techniques of Biotechnology and
23. In Situ Hybridization (ISH) - Techniques of Biotechnology and
24. Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR) - Techniques of Biotechnology and
25. Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) - Techniques of
Biotechnology and Innovations - Answer (click here)
26. DNA Sequencing Techniques - Techniques of Biotechnology and
27. Microarray - Techniques of Biotechnology and Innovations - Answer (click
here)
28. Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) - Techniques of Biotechnology and
Antibiotics Microbial Sources Production and Optimization
1. Antibiotics - Answer (click here)
2. Antibacterial agents - Answer (click here)
3. Actinomycetes - Answer (click here)
4. Marine actinomycetes - Answer (click here)
5. Streptomyces - Answer (click here)
6. Identification of actinomycetes - Answer (click here)
7. Metabolite production by marine Streptomyces - Answer (click here)
8. Antagonistic marine actinomycetes in Indian peninsula - Answer (click
here)
9. Optimization of fermentation conditions - Answer (click here)
Biotechnology in Forensic Sciences

1. History of Forensic Genetic Typing - Answer (click here)
2. Introduction - Biotechnology in Forensic Sciences - Answer (click here)
3. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) - Answer (click here)
4. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AMP-FLP) - Answer (click
here)
5. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - Biotechnology in Forensic Sciences
6. Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) - Biotechnology in Forensic Sciences -
Answer (click here)
7. Y-Short Tandem Repeats - Answer (click here)
8. X-chromosomal short tandem repeats (ChrX STRs) - Answer (click here)
9. mtDNA in forensic science - Answer (click here)
10. Microbial Forensics - Answer (click here)
11. Non-human DNA Forensics - Answer (click here)
Subject : Pharmaceutical Biotechnology:

Fundamentals and Applications
Molecular Biotechnology
1. Molecular Biotechnology: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. The Cells: Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell - Answer (click here)
3. Gene Expression - Answer (click here)
4. DNA Replication - Answer (click here)
5. Gene Transcription - Answer (click here)
6. Gene Translation - Answer (click here)
7. Recombinant DNA Technology - Answer (click here)
8. DNA Transfer - Recombinant DNA Technology - Answer (click here)
9. DNA Sources - Recombinant DNA Technology - Answer (click here)
10. Production by Recombinant DNA Technology - Answer (click here)
11. DNA Sequencing - Answer (click here)
12. Genome Sequencing - Answer (click here)
13. DNA Hybridization - Answer (click here)
14. PCR Technology - Answer (click here)
15. Cell Cultures: Cultivation of Microbes, Animal and Plant Cell Cultures -
Answer (click here)
Biophysical and Biochemical Analysis of Recombinant Proteins

1. Biophysical and Biochemical Analysis of Recombinant Proteins - Answer
(click here)
2. Protein Structure: Primary Structure - Answer (click here)
3. Protein Structure: Secondary Structure - Answer (click here)
4. Protein Structure: Tertiary Structure - Answer (click here)
5. Protein Structure: Forces - Answer (click here)
6. Protein Structure: Hydration - Answer (click here)
7. Protein Folding - Answer (click here)
8. Protein Stability - Answer (click here)
9. Blotting Techniques - Proteins Analytical Techniques - Answer (click here)
10. Immunoassays ELISA - Proteins Analytical Techniques - Answer (click
here)
11. Electrophoresis - Proteins Analytical Techniques - Answer (click here)
12. Chromatography - Proteins Analytical Techniques - Answer (click here)
13. Bioassays - Proteins Analytical Techniques - Answer (click here)
14. Mass Spectrometry - Proteins Analytical Techniques - Answer (click here)
Production and Downstream Processing of Biotech Compounds

1. Production and Downstream Processing of Biotech Compounds - Answer
(click here)
2. Expression Systems - Production of Biotech Compounds - Answer (click
here)
3. Cultivation Systems - Production of Biotech Compounds - Answer (click
here)
4. Cultivation Medium - Production of Biotech Compounds - Answer (click
here)
5. Contaminants - Production of Biotech Compounds - Answer (click here)
6. Cellular DNA - Production of Biotech Compounds - Answer (click here)
7. Downstream Processing of Biotech Compounds - Answer (click here)
8. Filtration/Centrifugation - Downstream Processing of Biotech
Compounds - Answer (click here)
9. Precipitation - Downstream Processing of Biotech Compounds - Answer
(click here)
10. Chromatography - Downstream Processing of Biotech Compounds -
Answer (click here)
11. Issues to Consider in Production And purification of Proteins - Answer
(click here)
Formulation of Biotech Products Including Biopharmaceutical

Considerations
1. Microbiological Considerations - Answer (click here)
2. Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations of biotech Products - Answer
(click here)
3. Solubility Enhancers - Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations of
biotech Products - Answer (click here)
4. Anti Adsorption and Anti Aggregation Agents - Excipients Used in
Parenteral Formulations of biotech Products - Answer (click here)
5. Buffer Components - Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations of
6. Preservatives and Antioxidants - Excipients Used in Parenteral
Formulations of biotech Products - Answer (click here)
7. Osmotic Agents - Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations of biotech
Products - Answer (click here)
8. Shelf Life of Protein Based Pharmaceuticals - Excipients Used in
Parenteral Formulations of biotech Products - Answer (click here)
9. Freeze Drying of Proteins - Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations
of biotech Products - Answer (click here)
10. Freezing - Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations of biotech
11. Primary Drying - Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations of biotech
12. Secondary Drying - Excipients Used in Parenteral Formulations of
13. Delivery of Proteins: Routes of Administration and Absorption
Enhancement - Answer (click here)
14. Delivery of Proteins: By The Parenteral Route - Answer (click here)
15. Delivery of Proteins: Approaches For Rate Controlled Delivery - Answer
(click here)
16. Delivery of Proteins: Site Specific Delivery (Targeting) of Protein Drugs
17. Anatomical, Physiological, and Pathological Considerations Relevant for
Protein Targeting - Answer (click here)
18. Soluble Carrier Systems for Targeted Delivery of Proteins - Answer (click
here)
19. Potential Pitfalls in Tumor Targeting - Answer (click here)
20. Colloidal Particulate Carrier Systems for TargetedDelivery of Proteins:
Nanotechnology at Work - Answer (click here)
21. Perspectives for Targeted Protein Delivery - Answer (click here)
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Peptide and Protein

Drugs
1. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Peptide and Protein Drugs -
Answer (click here)
2. Pharmacokinetics of Protein Therapeutics - Answer (click here)
3. Absorption of Protein Therapeutics - Pharmacokinetics of Protein
Therapeutics - Answer (click here)
4. Distribution of Protein Therapeutics - Pharmacokinetics of Protein
5. Elimination of Protein Therapeutics - Pharmacokinetics of Protein
6. Target Mediated Drug Disposition - Pharmacokinetics of Protein
7. Immunogenicity and Protein Pharmacokinetics - Pharmacokinetics of
Protein Therapeutics - Answer (click here)
8. Species Specificity and Allometric Scaling - Pharmacokinetics of
Protein Therapeutics - Answer (click here)
9. Chemical Modifications for Optimizing the Pharmacokinetics of Protein
Therapeutics - Pharmacokinetics of Protein Therapeutics - Answer (click
here)
10. Pharmacodynamics of Protein Therapeutics - Answer (click here)
11. Direct Link PK/PD Models - Pharmacodynamics of Protein Therapeutics
12. Indirect Link PK/PD Models - Pharmacodynamics of Protein
13. Indirect Response PK/PD Models - Pharmacodynamics of Protein
14. Cell Life Span Models - Pharmacodynamics of Protein Therapeutics -
Answer (click here)
15. Complex Response Models - Pharmacodynamics of Protein
Immunogenicity of Therapeutic Proteins

1. Immunogenicity of Therapeutic Proteins - Answer (click here)
2. The New Paradigm - Answer (click here)
3. The Immunological Response - Answer (click here)
4. Factors Influencing Antibody Formation Totherapeutic Proteins - Answer
(click here)
5. Assays for Antibodies - Answer (click here)
6. Issues Specifically Related Tomonoclonal Antibodies - Answer (click here)
7. Clinical Effects of Induced Antibodies - Answer (click here)
8. Predicting and Reducing Immunogenicity - Answer (click here)
Genomics Other Omics Technologies Personalized Medicine and

Additional Biotechnology Related Techniques
1. Genomics, “Omics” Technologies, Personalized Medicine - Answer (click
here)
2. An Introduction to “Omics” Technologies - Answer (click here)
3. Genomics - An Introduction to “Omics” Technologies - Answer (click here)
4. “Omics” Enabling Technology: Bioinformatics - Answer (click here)
5. Transcriptomics - An Introduction to “Omics” Technologies - Answer
(click here)
6. Proteomics, Structural Proteomics, and Functional Proteomics - “Omics”
Technologies - Answer (click here)
7. “Omics” Enabling Technology: Microarrays - Answer (click here)
8. “Omics” Enabled Technology: BriefIntroduction to Biomarkers - Answer
(click here)
9. Metabonomics and Metabolomics - Answer (click here)
10. Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics - Answer (click here)
11. Toxicogenomics - Answer (click here)
12. Glycomics and Glycobiology - Answer (click here)
13. “Omics” Integrating Technology: Systems Biology - Answer (click here)
14. Transgenic Animals - Answer (click here)
15. Transgenic Plants - Answer (click here)
16. Xenotransplantation: Transplantable Transgenic Animal Organs - Answer
(click here)
17. Knockout Mice - Answer (click here)
18. Protein Engineering - Answer (click here)
19. 3D Structures of Engineered Proteins - Answer (click here)
20. Peptide Chemistry and Peptidomimetics - Answer (click here)
21. Cell Therapy and Regenerative Medicine - Answer (click here)
22. Stem Cells - Cell Therapy and Regenerative Medicine - Answer (click here)
23. Tissue Engineering and Some Products of Tissue Engineering - Cell
Therapy and Regenerative Medicine - Answer (click here)
24. Biotechnology and Drug Discovery - Answer (click here)
25. Screening and Synthesis - Biotechnology and Drug Discovery - Answer
(click here)
26. Chemical Genomics - Biotechnology and Drug Discovery - Answer (click
here)
Gene Therapy
2. Ex Vivo Versus In Vivo Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
3. Gene Therapy in The Clinic: Disease Targets - Answer (click here)
4. General Considerations - Vectors For Gene Transfer - Answer (click here)
5. General Anatomy and Production of a Gene Transfer Vector - Answer
(click here)
6. Retroviral Vectors - Viral Vectors for Gene Transfer - Answer (click here)
7. Adenoviral Vectors - Viral Vectors for Gene Transfer - Answer (click here)
8. Adeno Associated Virus Vectors - Viral Vectors for Gene Transfer -
Answer (click here)
9. Non-Viral Vectors for Gene Transfer - Answer (click here)
10. Construction of Non Viral Vectors - Answer (click here)
11. Delivery Methods for Non-Viral Gene Transfer - Answer (click here)
12. The Immune Response Against Non-Viral Vectors - Answer (click here)
13. Clinical Use of Non-Viral Vectors - Answer (click here)
14. Production and Processing of Non-Viral Vectors - Answer (click here)
15. The Role of Drug Metabolism in Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
16. Gene Directed Enzyme Prodrug Therapy (GDEPT) - Answer (click here)
17. Systems for Pharmacological Regulation of Gene Expression - Answer
(click here)
18. Regulation and Oversight of Gene Therapy Products - Answer (click here)
Oligonucleotides
1. Oligonucleotides - Answer (click here)
2. Interfering With Gene Expression - Oligonucleotides - Answer (click here)
3. Triple Helix-Forming Oligonucleotides - Answer (click here)
4. Transcription Factor Decoys - Oligonucleotides Interfering With Gene
Expression - Answer (click here)
5. Antisense/Ribozymes/EGS - Oligonucleotides Interfering With Gene
Expression - Answer (click here)
6. siRNA/miRNA - Oligonucleotides Interfering With Gene Expression -
Answer (click here)
7. Direct Binding to Non-Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
8. Gene Repair - Answer (click here)
9. Stimulating Immune Responses - Answer (click here)
10. Pharmacokinetics of Oligonucleotide-Based Therapeutics - Answer (click
here)
11. Improving Oligonucleotide Stability - Answer (click here)
12. Improving Cellular Uptake - Answer (click here)
13. Diagnostic Applications - Answer (click here)
Hematopoietic Growth Factors

1. Hematopoietic Growth Factors - Answer (click here)
2. Hematopoiesis - Answer (click here)
3. Chemical Description of Hematopoietic Growth Factors - Answer (click
here)
4. Chemical Properties and Marketing Information for the Myeloid Factors,
G-CSF and GM-CSF - Answer (click here)
5. Chemical Properties and Marketing Information for SCF - Answer (click
here)
6. Chemical Properties and Marketing Information for TPOs - Answer (click
here)
7. Pharmacology - Answer (click here)
8. Pharmaceutical Issues - Answer (click here)
9. Pharmacokinetics - Answer (click here)
10. Pharmacodynamics - Answer (click here)
11. Established Uses - Hematopoietic Growth Factors - Answer (click here)
12. AIDS - Pharmaceutical Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
13. Toxicities - Answer (click here)
Interferons and Interleukins

1. Interferons and Interleukins - Answer (click here)
2. Interferons: Nomenclature and Functions - Answer (click here)
3. Interleukins: Nomenclature and Functions - Answer (click here)
4. Rapeutic Use of Recombinant Interferons - Answer (click here)
5. Therapeutic Use of Recombinant Interleukins - Answer (click here)
6. Aldesleukin - Therapeutic Use of Recombinant Interleukins - Answer
(click here)
7. Oprelvekin - Therapeutic Use of Recombinant Interleukins - Answer (click
here)
8. Anakinra - Therapeutic Use of Recombinant Interleukins - Answer (click
here)
9. Pegylated Interferons and Interleukins: The Next Generation - Answer
(click here)
Insulin
1. Insulin - Answer (click here)
2. Chemical Description of Insulin - Answer (click here)
3. Pharmacology and Formulations of Insulin - Answer (click here)
4. Regular and Rapid Acting Soluble Formulations - Pharmacology and
Formulations of Insulin - Answer (click here)
5. Intermediate Acting Insulin Formulations - Pharmacology and
Formulations of Insulin - Answer (click here)
6. Long Acting Insulin Formulations - Pharmacology and Formulations of
Insulin - Answer (click here)
7. Chemical Stability of Insulin Formulations - Answer (click here)
8. Physical Stability of Insulin Formulations - Answer (click here)
9. Clinical and Practice Aspects of Insulin - Answer (click here)
Growth Hormones
1. Human growth hormone (hGH): Structure and Isohormones - Answer
(click here)
2. Growth Hormone Secretion and Regulation - Answer (click here)
3. Growth Hormone Biologic Actions - Answer (click here)
4. hGH Receptor and Binding Proteins - Answer (click here)
5. Molecular Endocrinology and Signal Transduction - Answer (click here)
6. Dosing Schedules and Routes of Human growth hormone (hGH) -
Answer (click here)
7. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism - Answer (click here)
8. Protein Manufacture, Formulation and Stability- Growth Hormones -
Answer (click here)
9. Clinical Usage of Human growth hormone (hGH) - Answer (click here)
Recombinant Coagulation Factors and Thrombolytic Agents

1. Recombinant Coagulation Factors and Thrombolytic Agents - Answer
(click here)
2. Recombinant Coagulation Factors VIII - Answer (click here)
3. Recombinant Coagulation Factor VIIA - Answer (click here)
4. Recombinant Coagulation Factor IX - Answer (click here)
5. Tissue Type Plasminogen Activator - Recombinant Thrombolytic
Agents - Answer (click here)
6. Recombinant t-PA (rt-PA; Alteplase) - First Generation Recombinant
Thrombolytic Agents - Answer (click here)
7. Second Generation Recombinant Thrombolytic Agents - Answer (click
here)
8. Reteplase - Second Generation Recombinant Thrombolytic Agents -
Answer (click here)
9. Tenecteplase - Thrombolytic Agents - Answer (click here)
10. Lanoteplase - Thrombolytic Agents - Answer (click here)
Monoclonal Antibodies From Structure to Therapeutic

Application
1. Monoclonal Antibodies: From Structure to Therapeutic Application -
Answer (click here)
2. Antibody Structure and Classes - Answer (click here)
3. Murine, Chimeric, Humanized and Fully Humanized mAbs - Antibody
Structure and Classes - Answer (click here)
4. Antibody Derivatives [F(ab0)2, Fab, Antibody DrugConjugates (ADC)]
and Fusion Proteins - Answer (click here)
5. How Antibodies Function as Therapeutics - Answer (click here)
6. Translational Medicine/Development Process - Answer (click here)
7. Preclinical Safety Assessment of mAbs - Translational
Medicine/Development Process - Answer (click here)
8. Pharmacokinetics - Translational Medicine/Development Process -
Answer (click here)
9. Prediction of Human PK/PD Based on Preclinical Information - Answer
(click here)
10. PK/PD in Clinical Development of Antibody Therapeutics - Answer (click
here)
11. Mechanistic Modeling Approaches - Translational
Medicine/Development Process - Answer (click here)
12. Population PK of Monoclonal Antibodies - Answer (click here)
Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer

1. Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer - Answer (click here)
2. Alemtuzumab - Classes of Monoclonal Antibodies: CD Antigens -
Answer (click here)
3. Gemtuzumab - Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer - Answer (click here)
4. Rituximab, Yttrium-90 (90Y) Ibritumomab Tiuxetan, Iodine-131 (131I)
Tositumomab - Answer (click here)
5. Bevacizumab - Classes of Monoclonal Antibodies: Vascular Endothelial
Growth Factor Inhibitors - Answer (click here)
6. Trastuzumab - Classes of Monoclonal Antibodies: Endothelial Growth
Factor Receptor (EGFR) Inhibitors - Answer (click here)
7. Cetuximab - Classes of Monoclonal Antibodies: Endothelial Growth
8. Panitumumab - Classes of Monoclonal Antibodies: Endothelial Growth
Monoclonal Antibodies in Solid Organ Transplantation

1. Monoclonal Antibodies in Solid Organ Transplantation - Answer (click
here)
2. Immunologic Targets: Rational Development/ Use of Monoclonal
Antibodies in Organ Transplant - Answer (click here)
3. Monoclonal Antibodies Administered Pre-Transplant - Answer (click here)
4. Monoclonal Antibodies Administered at the Time of Transplant - Answer
(click here)
5. Monoclonal Antibodies Administered Following Transplant - Answer
(click here)
6. Muromonab - Specific Agents Used In Solid Organ Transplant - Answer
(click here)
7. Interleukin 2 Receptor Antagonists - Specific Agents Used In Solid
Organ Transplant - Answer (click here)
8. Alemtuzumab - Specific Agents Used In Solid Organ Transplant -
Answer (click here)
9. Rituximab - Specific Agents Used In Solid Organ Transplant - Answer
(click here)
Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory Therapy

1. Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory Therapy - Answer (click here)
2. Arthritides - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory Therapy -
Answer (click here)
3. Infliximab - Arthritides - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory
Therapy - Answer (click here)
4. Etanercept - Arthritides - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory
5. Adalimumab - Arthritides - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti
inflammatory Therapy - Answer (click here)
6. Abatacept - Arthritides - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory
7. Rituximab - Arthritides - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory
8. Psoriasis: Efalizumab - Monoclonal Antibodies - Answer (click here)
9. Multiple Sclerosis: Natalizumab - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti
10. Allergic Asthma: Omalizumab - Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti
Recombinant Human Deoxyribonuclease I

1. Recombinant Human Deoxyribonuclease I - Answer (click here)
2. Protein Chemistry, Enzymology, and Structure - Answer (click here)
3. In Vitro Activity in CF Sputum - Pharmacology - Recombinant Human
Deoxyribonuclease I - Answer (click here)
4. In Vivo Activity in CF Sputum - Pharmacology - Recombinant Human
Deoxyribonuclease I - Answer (click here)
5. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism - Pharmacology - Recombinant
Human Deoxyribonuclease I - Answer (click here)
6. Protein Manufacturing and Formulation - Answer (click here)
7. Drug Delivery- Recombinant Human Deoxyribonuclease I - Answer (click
here)
8. Clinical Use- Recombinant Human Deoxyribonuclease I - Answer (click
here)
Follicle
1. Follicle Stimulating Hormone - Answer (click here)
2. Biological Role of Follicle Stimulating Hormone - Answer (click here)
3. Chemical Description of Follicle Stimulating Hormone - Answer (click
here)
4. Production of Recombinant FSH(Follicle Stimulating Hormone) - Answer
(click here)
5. Structural Characteristics of Isohormones - Follicle Stimulating
Hormone - Answer (click here)
6. Biological Properties of Recombinant FSH Isohormones - Answer (click
here)
7. Pharmacokinetic Behavior of Recombinant FSH Isohormones - Answer
(click here)
8. Pharmaceutical Formulations of Follicle Stimulating Hormone(FSH) -
Answer (click here)
9. Clinical Aspects of Follicle Stimulating Hormone(FSH) - Answer (click
here)
Vaccines
1. Vaccines - Answer (click here)
2. Immunological Principles of Vaccines - Answer (click here)
3. Active Immunization: Generation of an Immune Response - Answer (click
here)
4. Uptake - Immunological Principles of Vaccines - Answer (click here)
5. Activation and Migration - Immunological Principles of Vaccines -
Answer (click here)
6. Antigen Presentation and Lymphocyte Activation - Answer (click here)
7. Adaptive Immune System - Immunological Principles of Vaccines -
Answer (click here)
8. Vaccine Design in Relation with the Immune Response - Answer (click
here)
9. Route of Administration - Immunological Principles of Vaccines -
Answer (click here)
10. Conventional Vaccines: Classification - Answer (click here)
11. Live Attenuated Vaccines - Answer (click here)
12. Non-Living Vaccines: Whole Organisms, Subunit Vaccines - Answer
(click here)
13. Genetically Improved Live Vaccines - Answer (click here)
14. Genetically Improved Subunit Vaccines - Answer (click here)
15. Reverse Vaccinology - Answer (click here)
16. Therapeutic Vaccines - Answer (click here)
17. Pharmaceutical Aspects of Vaccines - Answer (click here)
Dispensing Biotechnology Products Handling Professional

Education and Product Information
1. Dispensing Biotechnology Products: Handling, Professional Education,
and Product Information - Answer (click here)
2. Pharmacist Reluctance - Answer (click here)
3. Types of Information Needed by Pharmacists - Pharmacist Reluctance -
Answer (click here)
4. Sources of Information for Pharmacists - Answer (click here)
5. The Pharmacist and Handling of Biotech Drugs - Answer (click here)
6. Temperature Requirements - Pharmacist Reluctance - Answer (click here)
7. Storage in Dosing and Administration Devices - Pharmacist Reluctance -
Answer (click here)
8. Storage in IV Solutions and Light Protection - Pharmacist Reluctance -
Answer (click here)
9. Mixing and Shaking - Pharmacist Reluctance - Answer (click here)
10. Travel Requirements - Pharmacist Reluctance - Answer (click here)
11. Preparation of Biotechnology Products - Answer (click here)
12. Administration of Biotechnology Products - Answer (click here)
13. Biogenerics - A Future Consideration? - Answer (click here)
14. Outpatient/Home Care Issues of Biotechnology Products - Answer (click
here)
Economic Considerations in Medical Biotechnology

1. Economic Considerations in Medical Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. The Value of a New Medical Technology - Answer (click here)
3. An Overview of Economic Analysis for New Technologies - Answer (click
here)
Regulatory Issues and Drug Product Approval for

Biopharmaceuticals
1. Regulatory Issues and Drug Product Approval for Biopharmaceuticals -
Answer (click here)
2. Background Regulatory Issues for Biopharmaceuticals - Answer (click here)
3. Biosimilar and Follow-On Biologics - Answer (click here)
4. Regulatory Routes - Biopharmaceuticals - Answer (click here)
Subject : Biotechnology Applying the Genetic

Revolution
Basics of biotechnology
1. Advent of the Biotechnology Revolution - Answer (click here)
2. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884): Founder of Modern Genetics -
Answer (click here)
3. Chemical Structure of Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
4. Packaging of Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
5. Bacteria as the Workhorses of Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
6. Escherichia coli Is the Model Bacterium - Answer (click here)
7. Arabidopsis thaliana , a Model Flowering Plant - Answer (click here)
8. Viruses Used in Genetics Research - Answer (click here)
9. Subviral Infectious Agents and Other Gene Creatures - Answer (click here)
DNA RNA and Protein
1. The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology - Answer (click here)
2. Transcription Expresses Genes - Answer (click here)
3. Making the RNA - Answer (click here)
4. Transcription Stop Signals - Answer (click here)
5. The Number of Genes on an mRNA Varies - Answer (click here)
6. Eukaryotic Transcription Is More Complex - Answer (click here)
7. Regulation of Transcription in Prokaryotes - Answer (click here)
8. Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes - Answer (click here)
9. Eukaryotic mRNA Is Processed before Making Protein - Answer (click
here)
10. Translating the Genetic Code into Proteins - Answer (click here)
11. Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Translation - Answer
(click here)
12. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Synthesize Their Own Proteins - Answer
(click here)
Recombinant DNA Technology

1. DNA Isolation and Purification - Answer (click here)
2. Electrophoresis Separates DNA Fragments by Size - Answer (click here)
3. Restriction Enzymes Cut DNA; Ligase Joins DNA - Answer (click here)
4. Methods of Detection for Nucleic Acids - Answer (click here)
5. Complementary Strands Melt Apart and Reanneal - Answer (click here)
6. Hybridization of DNA or RNA in Southern and Northern Blots - Answer
(click here)
7. Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH) - Answer (click here)
8. General Properties of Cloning Vectors - Answer (click here)
9. Specific Types of Cloning Vectors - Answer (click here)
10. Getting Cloned Genes into Bacteria by Transformation - Answer (click
here)
11. Constructing a Library of Genes - Answer (click here)
12. Screening the Library of Genes by Hybridization - Answer (click here)
13. Eukaryotic Expression Libraries - Answer (click here)
14. Features of Expression Vectors - Answer (click here)
15. Subtractive Hybridization - Answer (click here)
DNA Synthesis in Vivo and in Vitro

1. Introduction of DNA Synthesis in Vivo and in Vitro - Answer (click here)
2. Replication of DNA - Answer (click here)
3. Comparing Replication in Gene Creatures, Prokaryotes, and Eukaryotes
4. In Vitro DNA Synthesis - Answer (click here)
5. Chemical Synthesis of DNA - Answer (click here)
6. Chemical Synthesis of Complete Genes - Answer (click here)
7. In Vitro Synthesis of DNA Can Determine the Sequence of Bases -
Answer (click here)
8. Polymerase Chain Reaction Uses In Vitro Synthesis to Amplify Small
Amounts of DNA - Answer (click here)
9. Automated DNA Cycle Sequencing Combines PCR and Sequencing -
Answer (click here)
10. Modifications of Basic PCR - Answer (click here)
11. Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA - Answer (click here)
12. Reverse Transcriptase PCR - Answer (click here)
13. PCR in Genetic Engineering - Answer (click here)
RNA Based Technologies

1. RNA Based Technologies - Answer (click here)
2. Antisense RNA Modulates mRNA Expression - Answer (click here)
3. Antisense Oligonucleotides - Answer (click here)
4. Expression of Antisense RNA Constructs - Answer (click here)
5. Delivery of Antisense Therapies - Answer (click here)
6. RNA Interference Uses Antisense Sequences to Inhibit Gene Expression
7. RNAi in Plants and Fungi - Answer (click here)
8. MicroRNAs Are Antisense RNAs That Modulate Gene Expression -
Answer (click here)
9. Applications of RNAi for Studying Gene Expression - Answer (click here)
10. RNAi for Studying Mammalian Genes - Answer (click here)
11. Functional Screening with RNAi Libraries - Answer (click here)
12. Ribozymes Catalyze Cleavage and Ligation Reactions - Answer (click here)
13. Small Naturally Occurring Ribozymes - Answer (click here)
14. Engineering Ribozymes for Medical and Biotechnology Applications -
Answer (click here)
15. RNA SELEX Identifies New Binding Partners for Ribozymes - Answer
(click here)
16. In Vitro Evolution and in Vitro Selection of Ribozymes - Answer (click
here)
17. Synthetic Ribozymes Used in Medicine - Answer (click here)
18. Allosteric Deoxyribozymes Catalyze Specific Reactions - Answer (click
here)
19. Riboswitches Are Controlled by Effector Molecules - Answer (click here)
20. Engineering Allosteric Riboswitches and Ribozymes - Answer (click here)
Immune Technology
1. Antibody Structure and Function - Answer (click here)
2. Antibodies, Antigens, and Epitopes - Answer (click here)
3. The Great Diversity of Antibodies - Answer (click here)
4. Antibody Structure - Answer (click here)
5. Structure and Function of Immunoglobulins - Answer (click here)
6. Monoclonal Antibodies for Clinical Use - Answer (click here)
7. Humanization of Monoclonal Antibodies - Answer (click here)
8. Humanized Antibodies in Clinical Applications - Answer (click here)
9. Antibody Engineering - Answer (click here)
10. Diabodies and Bispecific Antibody Constructs - Answer (click here)
11. ELISA Assay - Answer (click here)
12. The ELISA as a Diagnostic Tool - Answer (click here)
13. Visualizing Cell Components Using Antibodies - Answer (click here)
14. Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting - Answer (click here)
15. Immune Memory and Vaccination - Answer (click here)
16. Creating a Vaccine - Answer (click here)
17. Making Vector Vaccines Using Homologous Recombination - Answer
(click here)
18. Reverse Vaccinology - Answer (click here)
19. Identifying New Antigens for Vaccines - Answer (click here)
20. DNA Vaccines Bypass the Need to Purify Antigens - Answer (click here)
21. Edible Vaccines - Answer (click here)
Nanobiotechnology
1. Nanobiotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. Visualization at the Nanoscale - Answer (click here)
3. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy - Answer (click here)
4. Atomic Force Microscopy - Answer (click here)
5. Virus Detection via AFM - Answer (click here)
6. Weighing Single Bacteria and Virus Particles - Answer (click here)
7. Nanoparticles and Their Uses - Answer (click here)
8. Nanoparticles for Labeling - Answer (click here)
9. Quantum Size Effect and Nanocrystal Colors - Answer (click here)
10. Nanoparticles for Delivery of Drugs, DNA, or RNA - Answer (click here)
11. Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy - Answer (click here)
12. Assembly of Nanocrystals by Microorganisms - Answer (click here)
13. Nanotubes - Answer (click here)
14. Antibacterial Nanocarpets - Answer (click here)
15. Detection of Viruses by Nanowires - Answer (click here)
16. Ion Channel Nanosensors - Answer (click here)
17. Nanoengineering of DNA - Answer (click here)
18. DNA Mechanical Nanodevices - Answer (click here)
19. Controlled Denaturation of DNA by Gold Nanoparticles - Answer (click
here)
20. Controlled Change of Protein Shape by DNA - Answer (click here)
21. Biomolecular Motors - Answer (click here)
Genomics and Gene Expression

1. Genomics and Gene Expression - Answer (click here)
2. Genetic Mapping Techniques - Answer (click here)
3. Physical Maps Use Sequence Data - Answer (click here)
4. Radiation Hybrid and Cytogenetic Mapping - Answer (click here)
5. Sequencing Entire Genomes - Answer (click here)
6. Race for the Human Genome - Answer (click here)
7. Gaps Remain in the Human Genome - Answer (click here)
8. Survey of the Human Genome - Answer (click here)
9. Noncoding Components of the Human Genome - Answer (click here)
10. Bioinformatics and Computer Analysis - Answer (click here)
11. Medicine and Genomics - Answer (click here)
12. DNA Accumulates Mutations over Time - Answer (click here)
13. Genetic Evolution - Answer (click here)
14. From Pharmacology to Pharmacogenetics - Answer (click here)
15. Gene Expression and Microarrays - Answer (click here)
16. Making DNA Microarrays - Answer (click here)
17. Hybridization on DNA Microarrays - Answer (click here)
18. Monitoring Gene Expression Using Whole-Genome Tiling Arrays -
Answer (click here)
19. Monitoring Gene Expression of Single Genes - Answer (click here)
Proteomics
1. Proteomics - Answer (click here)
2. Gel Electrophoresis of Proteins - Answer (click here)
3. Western Blotting of Proteins - Answer (click here)
4. High Pressure Liquid Chromatography Separates Protein Mixtures -
Answer (click here)
5. Digestion of Proteins by Proteases - Answer (click here)
6. Mass Spectrometry for Protein Identification - Answer (click here)
7. Peptide Sequencing Using Mass Spectrometry - Answer (click here)
8. Protein Quantification Using Mass Spectrometry - Answer (click here)
9. Protein Tagging Systems - Answer (click here)
10. Phage Display Library Screening - Answer (click here)
11. Protein Interactions: The Yeast Two Hybrid System - Answer (click here)
12. Protein Interactions by Co-immunoprecipitation - Answer (click here)
13. Protein Arrays - Answer (click here)
14. Metabolomics - Answer (click here)
Recombinant Proteins
1. Proteins and Recombinant DNA Technology - Answer (click here)
2. Expression of Eukaryotic Proteins in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Translation Expression Vectors - Answer (click here)
4. Codon Usage Effects - Answer (click here)
5. Avoiding Toxic Effects of Protein Overproduction - Answer (click here)
6. Increasing Protein Stability - Answer (click here)
7. Improving Protein Secretion - Answer (click here)
8. Protein Fusion Expression Vectors - Answer (click here)
9. Expression of Proteins by Eukaryotic Cells - Answer (click here)
10. Expression of Proteins by Yeast - Answer (click here)
11. Expression of Proteins by Insect Cells - Answer (click here)
12. Protein Glycosylation - Answer (click here)
13. Expression of Proteins by Mammalian Cells - Answer (click here)
14. Expression of Multiple Subunits in Mammalian Cells - Answer (click here)
15. Comparing Expression Systems - Answer (click here)
Protein Engineering
1. Protein Engineering - Answer (click here)
2. Engineering Disulfide Bonds - Answer (click here)
3. Improving Stability in Other Ways - Answer (click here)
4. Changing Binding Site Specificity - Answer (click here)
5. Structural Scaffolds - Answer (click here)
6. Directed Evolution - Answer (click here)
7. Adding New Functional Groups Using Nonnatural Amino Acids - Answer
(click here)
8. Recombining Domains - Answer (click here)
9. DNA Shuffling - Answer (click here)
10. Combinatorial Protein Libraries - Answer (click here)
11. Biomaterials Design Relies on Protein Engineering - Answer (click here)
12. Engineered Binding Proteins - Answer (click here)
Environmental Biotechnology
1. Environmental Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. Identifying New Genes with Metagenomics - Answer (click here)
3. Culture Enrichment for Environmental Samples - Answer (click here)
4. Sequence Dependent Techniques for Metagenomics - Answer (click here)
5. Function or Activity Based Evaluation of the Environment - Answer (click
here)
6. Ecology and Metagenomics - Answer (click here)
7. Natural Attenuation of Pollutants - Answer (click here)
Pathway Engineering
1. Pathway Engineering - Answer (click here)
2. Ethanol, Elephants, and Pathway Engineering - Answer (click here)
3. Degradation of Starch - Answer (click here)
4. Degradation of Cellulose - Answer (click here)
5. Ice Forming Bacteria and Frost - Answer (click here)
6. Degradation of Aromatic Ring Compounds - Answer (click here)
7. Indigo and Related Natural Pigments - Answer (click here)
8. The Toluene/Xylene Pathway - Answer (click here)
9. Removal of Halogen, Nitro, and Sulfonate Groups - Answer (click here)
10. Biorefining of Fossil Fuels - Answer (click here)
11. Biosynthesis of Medium-Sized Molecules - Answer (click here)
12. Sterol Synthesis and Modification - Answer (click here)
13. Biosynthesis of beta Lactam Antibiotics - Answer (click here)
14. Polyketides and Polyketide Antibiotics - Answer (click here)
15. Biosynthetic Plastics Are Also Biodegradable - Answer (click here)
Transgenic Plants and Plant Biotechnology

1. History of Plant Breeding - Answer (click here)
2. Plant Tissue Culture - Answer (click here)
3. Genetic Engineering of Plants - Answer (click here)
4. Getting Genes into Plants Using the Ti Plasmid - Answer (click here)
5. Particle Bombardment Technology - Answer (click here)
6. Detection of Inserted DNA - Answer (click here)
7. Using the Cre/loxP System - Answer (click here)
8. Plant Breeding and Testing - Answer (click here)
9. Transgenic Plants with Herbicide Resistance - Answer (click here)
10. Transgenic Plants with Insect Resistance - Answer (click here)
11. Trehalose in Transgenic Plants Increase Stress Tolerance - Answer (click
here)
12. Functional Genomics in Plants - Answer (click here)
13. Food Safety Assessment and Starlink Corn - Answer (click here)
14. Bt Toxin and Butterflies - Answer (click here)
Transgenic Animals
1. New and Improved Animals - Answer (click here)
2. Creating Transgenic Animals - Answer (click here)
3. Larger Mice Illustrate Transgenic Technology - Answer (click here)
4. Recombinant Protein Production Using Transgenic Livestock - Answer
(click here)
5. Knockout Mice for Medical Research - Answer (click here)
6. Alternative Approaches to Making Transgenic Animals - Answer (click
here)
7. Location Effects on Expression of the Transgene - Answer (click here)
8. Combating Location Effects on Transgene Expression - Answer (click here)
9. Targeting the Transgene to a Specific Location - Answer (click here)
10. Deliberate Control of Transgene Expression - Answer (click here)
11. Control by Site-Specific Recombination Using Cre or Flp - Answer (click
here)
12. Transgenic Insects - Answer (click here)
13. Genetically Modified Mosquitoes - Answer (click here)
14. Cloning Animals by Nuclear Transplantation - Answer (click here)
15. Dolly the Cloned Sheep - Answer (click here)
16. Practical Reasons for Cloning Animals - Answer (click here)
17. Improving Livestock by Pathway Engineering - Answer (click here)
18. Problems and Ethics of Nuclear Transplantation - Answer (click here)
19. Imprinting and Developmental Problems in Cloned Animals - Answer
(click here)
20. Transgenic People, Primates, and Pets - Answer (click here)
21. Applications of RNA Technology in Transgenics - Answer (click here)
22. Applications of RNA Interference in Transgenics - Answer (click here)
23. Natural Transgenics and DNA Ingestion - Answer (click here)
Inherited Defects
1. Inherited Defects - Answer (click here)
2. Hereditary Defects in Higher Organisms - Answer (click here)
3. Hereditary Defects Due to Multiple Genes - Answer (click here)
4. Defects Due to Haploinsufficiency - Answer (click here)
5. Dominant Mutations May Be Positive or Negative - Answer (click here)
6. Deleterious Tandem Repeats and Dynamic Mutations - Answer (click here)
7. Defects in Imprinting and Methylation - Answer (click here)
8. Mitochondrial Defects - Answer (click here)
9. Identification, Location, and Cloning of Defective Genes - Answer (click
here)
10. Cystic Fibrosis - Answer (click here)
11. Muscular Dystrophy - Answer (click here)
12. Genetic Screening and Counseling - Answer (click here)
Gene Therapy
1. Gene Therapy or Genetic Engineering? - Answer (click here)
2. General Principles of Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
3. Gene Patching by Oligonucleotide Crossover - Answer (click here)
4. Aggressive Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
5. Adenovirus Vectors in Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
6. Cystic Fibrosis Gene Therapy by Adenovirus - Answer (click here)
7. Adeno Associated Virus - Answer (click here)
8. Retrovirus Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
9. Retrovirus Gene Therapy for SCID - Answer (click here)
10. Nonviral Delivery in Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
11. Liposomes and Lipofection in Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
12. Aggressive Gene Therapy for Cancer - Answer (click here)
13. Antisense RNA and Other Oligonucleotides - Answer (click here)
14. Aptamers-Blocking Proteins with RNA - Answer (click here)
15. Ribozymes in Gene Therapy - Answer (click here)
Molecular Biology of Cancer

1. Cancer Is Genetic in Origin - Answer (click here)
2. Environmental Factors and Cancer - Answer (click here)
3. Normal Cell Division: The Cell Cycle - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Division Responds to External Signals - Answer (click here)
5. Genes That Affect Cancer - Answer (click here)
6. Oncogenes and Proto oncogenes - Answer (click here)
7. Detection of Oncogenes by Transformation - Answer (click here)
8. Types of Mutations That Generate Oncogenes - Answer (click here)
9. The Ras Oncogene-Hyperactive Protein - Answer (click here)
10. The Myc Oncogene-Overproduction of Protein - Answer (click here)
11. Tumor Suppressor Genes or Anti oncogenes - Answer (click here)
12. The p16, p21, and p53 Anti oncogenes - Answer (click here)
13. Formation of a Tumor - Answer (click here)
14. Inherited Susceptibility to Cancer - Answer (click here)
15. Cancer Causing Viruses - Answer (click here)
16. Engineered Cancer Killing Viruses - Answer (click here)
Noninfectious Diseases
1. Noninfectious Diseases: Cellular Communication - Answer (click here)
2. Noninfectious Diseases: Receptors and Signal Transmission - Answer
(click here)
3. Steroids and Other Lipophilic Hormones - Answer (click here)
4. Cyclic AMP as Second Messenger - Answer (click here)
5. Nitric Oxide and Cyclic GMP - Answer (click here)
6. Cyclic Phosphodiesterase and Erectile Dysfunction - Answer (click here)
7. Insulin and Diabetes - Answer (click here)
8. The Insulin Receptor - Answer (click here)
9. Cloning and Genetic Engineering of Insulin - Answer (click here)
10. Obesity and Leptin - Answer (click here)
11. A Multitude of Genes Affect Obesity - Answer (click here)
12. Fat Degradation - Answer (click here)
13. Monoamine Oxidase and Violent Crime - Answer (click here)
Aging and Apoptosis

1. Aging and Apoptosis - Answer (click here)
2. Aging and Apoptosis: Cellular Senescence - Answer (click here)
3. Factors That Activate Senescence - Answer (click here)
4. Links between Cancer and Aging - Answer (click here)
5. Telomeres Shorten during Aging - Answer (click here)
6. Mitochondria and Aging - Answer (click here)
7. Life Span and Metabolism in Worms - Answer (click here)
8. Sirtuins, Histone Acetylation, and Life Span in Yeast - Answer (click here)
9. Apoptosis Is Programmed Cell Death - Answer (click here)
10. Apoptosis Involves a Proteolytic Cascade - Answer (click here)
11. Mammalian Apoptosis - Answer (click here)
12. Execution Phase of Apoptosis - Answer (click here)
13. Corpse Clearance in Apoptosis - Answer (click here)
14. Control of Apoptotic Pathways in Development - Answer (click here)
15. Alzheimer’s Disease - Answer (click here)
16. Programmed Cell Death in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
17. Using Apoptosis to Treat Cancer - Answer (click here)
Bacterial Infections
1. Bacterial Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Molecular Approaches to Diagnosis - Answer (click here)
3. Virulence Genes Are Often Found on Mobile Segments of DNA - Answer
(click here)
4. Attachment and Entry of Pathogenic Bacteria - Answer (click here)
5. Iron Acquisition by Pathogenic Bacteria - Answer (click here)
6. Bacterial Toxins - Answer (click here)
7. ADP Ribosylating Toxins - Answer (click here)
8. Cholera Toxin - Answer (click here)
9. Anthrax Toxin - Answer (click here)
10. Antitoxin Therapy - Answer (click here)
Viral and Prion Infections

1. Viral Infections and Antiviral Agents - Answer (click here)
2. Interferons Coordinate the Antiviral Response - Answer (click here)
3. Influenza Is a Negative-Strand RNA Virus - Answer (click here)
4. The AIDS Retrovirus - Answer (click here)
5. Chemokine Receptors Act as Co-receptors for HIV - Answer (click here)
6. Treatment of the AIDS Retrovirus - Answer (click here)
7. Infectious Prion Disease - Answer (click here)
8. Detection of Pathogenic Prions - Answer (click here)
9. Approaches to Treating Prion Disease - Answer (click here)
10. Using Yeast Prions as Models - Answer (click here)
Biowarfare and Bioterrorism

1. Biowarfare and Bioterrorism - Answer (click here)
2. Bacteria Make Lethal Proteins to Kill Other Organisms - Answer (click
here)
3. Germ Warfare among the Lower Eukaryotes - Answer (click here)
4. History of Human Biological Warfare - Answer (click here)
5. Biowarfare Expectancy and Expense - Answer (click here)
6. Important Factors in Biological Warfare - Answer (click here)
7. Which Disease Agents Are Suitable for Biological Warfare? - Answer
(click here)
8. Anthrax - Answer (click here)
9. The 2001 Anthrax Attack in the United States - Answer (click here)
10. Other Bacterial Agents - Answer (click here)
11. Smallpox Virus - Answer (click here)
12. Other Viral Agents - Answer (click here)
13. Purified Toxins as Biowarfare Agents - Answer (click here)
14. Botox-Botulinum Toxin - Answer (click here)
15. Ribosome Inactivating Proteins - Answer (click here)
16. Agricultural Biowarfare - Answer (click here)
17. Genetic Engineering of Infectious Agents - Answer (click here)
18. Creation of Camouflaged Viruses - Answer (click here)
19. Biosensors and Detection of Biowarfare Agents - Answer (click here)
Forensic Molecular Biology

1. The Genetic Basis of Identity - Answer (click here)
2. Blood, Sweat, and Tears - Answer (click here)
3. Forensic DNA Testing - Answer (click here)
4. DNA Fingerprinting - Answer (click here)
5. Using Repeated Sequences in Fingerprinting - Answer (click here)
6. Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - Answer (click here)
7. Probability and DNA Testing - Answer (click here)
8. Use of DNA Evidence - Answer (click here)
9. Tracing Genealogies by Mitochondrial DNA and the Y Chromosome -
Answer (click here)
10. Identifying the Remains of the Russian Imperial Family - Answer (click
here)
Bioethics in Biotechnology
1. Approach to Bioethics - Answer (click here)
2. Power, Profit, Poverty, and Access - Answer (click here)
3. Ignorance, Novelty, and Cultural Viewpoint - Answer (click here)
4. Possible Dangers to Individuals, Society, or Nature - Answer (click here)
5. Health Care and Related Issues - Answer (click here)
6. Interference with the Natural World - Answer (click here)
7. Altering the Human Germline - Answer (click here)
8. Knowledge, Identity, and Ideology - Answer (click here)
9. Long Term Biological Problems - Answer (click here)
Subject : Environmental Biotechnology

Theory and Application
1. Introduction to Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. Role of Environmental Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
3. Scope for Use of Environmental Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
4. Market for Environmental Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
5. Modalities and local influences - Environmental Biotechnology - Answer
(click here)
Microbes and Metabolism

1. Microbes and Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Immobilisation, Degradation or Monitoring of Pollutants from a
Biological Origin - Answer (click here)
3. players - Microbes and Metabolism - Answer (click here)
4. Metabolism - Answer (click here)
5. Genetic blueprint for metabolic capability - Answer (click here)
6. Microbial diversity - Answer (click here)
7. Metabolic Pathways of Particular Relevance to Environmental
Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
8. Glycolysis: TCA and Glyoxalate cycle - Answer (click here)
9. Macromolecules - description and degradation - Answer (click here)
10. Production of Cellular Energy - Answer (click here)
11. Fermentation and respiration - Answer (click here)
12. Photosynthesis and the Basis of Phytotechnology - Answer (click here)
13. The light reactions - Answer (click here)
14. The dark reactions - Answer (click here)
15. The Nitrogen Cycle - Answer (click here)
Fundamentals of Biological Intervention

1. Using Biological Systems - Biological Intervention - Answer (click here)
2. Extremophiles - Answer (click here)
3. Xenobiotics and Other Problematic Chemicals - Answer (click here)
4. Endocrine disrupters - Biological Intervention - Answer (click here)
5. New discoveries - Biological Intervention - Answer (click here)
6. Mobility of DNA - Answer (click here)
Pollution and Pollution Control

1. Classifying Pollution - Environmental Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
2. Pollution Environment - Answer (click here)
3. Dilution and dispersal - Pollution Control Strategies - Answer (click here)
4. Concentration and containment - Pollution Control Strategies - Answer
(click here)
5. Pollution Control Strategies - Answer (click here)
6. Practical Toxicity Issues - Answer (click here)
7. Practical Applications to Pollution Control - Answer (click here)
8. Biofilters - Practical Applications to Pollution Control - Answer (click here)
9. Biotrickling filters - Practical Applications to Pollution Control - Answer
(click here)
10. Bioscrubbers - Practical Applications to Pollution Control - Answer (click
here)
11. Other options - Practical Applications to Pollution Control - Answer (click
here)
12. ‘Clean’ Technology - Answer (click here)
13. process changes - Clean Technology - Answer (click here)
14. Biological Control - Clean Technology - Answer (click here)
15. Biosubstitutions - Clean Technology - Answer (click here)
Contaminated Land and Bioremediation

1. Contaminated Land and Bioremediation - Answer (click here)
2. Soil Remediation Methods - Answer (click here)
3. In Situ and Ex Situ Techniques - Answer (click here)
4. Intensive and Extensive Technologies - Answer (click here)
5. Process Integration - Answer (click here)
6. Suitability of Bioremediation - Answer (click here)
7. Factors Affecting the use of Bioremediation - Answer (click here)
8. Biotechnology Selection - Answer (click here)
9. Essential Features of Biological Treatment Systems - Answer (click here)
10. In situ techniques - Answer (click here)
11. Site monitoring for biotechnological applications - Answer (click here)
12. Ex situ techniques - Answer (click here)
13. Process selection and integration - Contaminated Land and
Bioremediation - Answer (click here)
14. Use of remediation techniques - Answer (click here)
Aerobes and Effluents

1. Aerobes and Effluents - Answer (click here)
2. Sewage Treatment - Answer (click here)
3. Process Issues - Aerobes and Effluents - Answer (click here)
4. Land Spread - Sewage Treatment - Answer (click here)
5. Septic tank - Sewage Treatment - Answer (click here)
6. Limits to land application - Sewage Treatment - Answer (click here)
7. Nitrogenous Wastes - Answer (click here)
8. Aeration: Diffused air systems, Mechanical aeration - Answer (click here)
9. Trickling Filters - Answer (click here)
10. Activated Sludge Systems - Answer (click here)
11. Process disruption - Answer (click here)
12. Organic loadings - Aerobes and Effluents - Answer (click here)
13. Deep Shaft Process - Aerobes and Effluents - Answer (click here)
14. Pure Oxygen Systems - Answer (click here)
15. The Oxidation Ditch - Answer (click here)
16. Rotating Biological Contactor - Answer (click here)
17. Membrane Bioreactors - Answer (click here)
18. Cellulose Ion-Exchange Media - Answer (click here)
19. Sludge Disposal - Answer (click here)
Phytotechnology and Photosynthesis

1. Phytotechnology and Photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
2. Terrestrial Phyto Systems (TPS) - Answer (click here)
3. Phytoextraction - Metal Phytoremediation - Answer (click here)
4. Hyperaccumulation - Metal Phytoremediation - Answer (click here)
5. Rhizofiltration - Metal Phytoremediation - Answer (click here)
6. Phytostabilisation - Metal Phytoremediation - Answer (click here)
7. Phytodegradation - Organic Phytoremediation - Answer (click here)
8. Rhizodegradation - Organic Phytoremediation - Answer (click here)
9. Phytovolatilisation - Organic Phytoremediation - Answer (click here)
10. Hydraulic Containment - Answer (click here)
11. Plant Selection - Hydraulic Containment - Answer (click here)
12. Applications of Phytotechnology - Answer (click here)
13. Aquatic Phyto-Systems (APS) - Answer (click here)
14. Macrophyte Treatment Systems (MaTS) - Answer (click here)
15. Nutrient Film Techniques (NFT) - Answer (click here)
16. Algal Treatment Systems (ATS) - Answer (click here)
17. Effluent treatment - Answer (click here)
18. Carbon sequestration - Answer (click here)
19. Pollution Detection - Answer (click here)
Biotechnology and Waste

1. Biotechnology and Waste - Answer (click here)
2. Nature of Biowaste - Answer (click here)
3. Composition of biowaste - Answer (click here)
4. Biological Waste Treatment - Answer (click here)
5. Composting - Answer (click here)
6. Applying Composting to Waste Management - Answer (click here)
7. Anaerobic Digestion and digestion process - Answer (click here)
8. Applying Anaerobic Digestion(AD) to Waste Management - Answer (click
here)
9. Process parameters - Anaerobic Digestion - Answer (click here)
10. Biogas - Answer (click here)
11. Other Biotechnologies - Answer (click here)
12. Annelidic conversion (AC) - Answer (click here)
13. Biowaste to ethanol - Answer (click here)
14. Eutrophic fermentation (EF) - Answer (click here)
Genetic Manipulation
1. Genetic Manipulation - Answer (click here)
2. Training: Manipulation of Bacteria Without Genetic Engineering -
Answer (click here)
3. Manipulation of Bacteria by Genetic Engineering - Answer (click here)
4. Enzymes, solutions and equipment - Basic Principles of Genetic
Engineering - Answer (click here)
5. DNA for transfer - Basic Principles of Genetic Engineering - Answer (click
here)
6. Cloning vectors - Basic Principles of Genetic Engineering - Answer (click
here)
7. Expression vectors - Basic Principles of Genetic Engineering - Answer
(click here)
8. Reporter genes - Basic Principles of Genetic Engineering - Answer (click
here)
9. Analysis of Recombinants: Bacteria, Yeast, Viruses - Answer (click here)
10. Transgenic Plants - Answer (click here)
11. Examples of developments in plant GE(Genetic Engineering) - Answer
(click here)
12. Integrated Environmental Biotechnology - Answer (click here)
13. Bioenergy - Answer (click here)
14. Methane biogas - Derived Biofuels - Answer (click here)
15. Ethanol fermentation - Derived Biofuels - Answer (click here)
16. Short rotation coppicing - Derived Biofuels - Answer (click here)
17. Biodiesel - Derived Biofuels - Answer (click here)
18. The carbon sink or energy crop question - Answer (click here)
19. Biotechnology Integrated Agricultural Applications - Answer (click here)
20. Plant disease suppression - Biotechnology Integrated Agricultural
Applications - Answer (click here)
21. Microbial pesticides - Biotechnology Integrated Agricultural
22. Plant/microbe interactions - Biotechnology Integrated Agricultural
23. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation - Biotechnology Integrated Agricultural
24. Endomycorrhizae - Answer (click here)
25. Plant pathogens: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Cauliflower mosaic virus -
Answer (click here)
Subject : Genetics and Molecular Biology

An Overview of Cell Structure and Function
1. Cell’s Need for Immense Amounts of Information - Answer (click here)
2. Rudiments of Prokaryotic Cell Structure - Answer (click here)
3. Rudiments of Eukaryotic Cell Structure - Answer (click here)
4. Packing DNA into Cells - Answer (click here)
5. Moving Molecules into or out of Cells - Answer (click here)
6. Diffusion within the Small Volume of a Cell - Answer (click here)
7. Exponentially Growing Populations - Answer (click here)
8. Composition Change in Growing Cells - Answer (click here)
9. Age Distribution in Populations of Growing Cell - Answer (click here)
Nucleic Acid and Chromosome Structure

1. The Regular Backbone of DNA - Answer (click here)
2. Grooves in DNA and Helical Forms of DNA - Answer (click here)
3. Dissociation and Reassociation of Base-paired Strands - Answer (click here)
4. Reading Sequence Without Dissociating Strands - Answer (click here)
5. Electrophoretic Fragment Separation - Answer (click here)
6. Bent DNA Sequences - Answer (click here)
7. Measurement of Helical Pitch - Answer (click here)
8. Topological Considerations in DNA Structure - Answer (click here)
9. Generating DNA with Superhelical Turns - Answer (click here)
10. Measuring Superhelical Turns - Answer (click here)
11. Determining Lk, Tw, and Wr in Hypothetical Structures - Answer (click
here)
12. Altering Linking Number - Answer (click here)
13. Biological Significance of Superhelical Turns - Answer (click here)
14. The Linking Number Paradox of Nucleosomes - Answer (click here)
15. General Chromosome Structure - Answer (click here)
16. Southern Transfers to Locate Nucleosomes on Genes - Answer (click here)
17. ARS Elements, Centromeres, and Telomeres - Answer (click here)
DNA Synthesis
1. DNA Synthesis - Answer (click here)
2. Proofreading, Okazaki Fragments, and DNA Ligase - Enzymology -
Answer (click here)
3. Detection and Basic Properties of DNA Polymerases - Enzymology -
Answer (click here)
4. In vitro DNA Replication - Enzymology - Answer (click here)
5. Error and Damage Correction - Enzymology - Answer (click here)
6. DNA Replication Areas In Chromosomes - Physiological Aspects -
Answer (click here)
7. Bidirectional Replication from E. coli Origins - Physiological Aspects -
Answer (click here)
8. The DNA Elongation Rate - Physiological Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Constancy of the E. coli DNA Elongation Rate - Physiological Aspects -
Answer (click here)
10. Regulating Initiations - Physiological Aspects - Answer (click here)
11. Gel Electrophoresis Assay of Eukaryotic Replication Origins -
Physiological Aspects - Answer (click here)
12. How Fast Could DNA Be Replicated? - Physiological Aspects - Answer
(click here)
RNA Polymerase and RNA Initiation

1. Measuring the Activity of RNA Polymerase - Answer (click here)
2. Concentration of Free RNA Polymerase in Cells - Answer (click here)
3. The RNA Polymerase in Escherichia coli - Answer (click here)
4. Three RNA Polymerases in Eukaryotic Cells - Answer (click here)
5. Multiple but Related Subunits in Polymerases - Answer (click here)
6. Multiple Sigma Subunits - Answer (click here)
7. Structure of Promoters - Answer (click here)
8. Enhancers - Answer (click here)
9. Enhancer-Binding Proteins - Answer (click here)
10. DNA Looping in Regulating Promoter Activities - Answer (click here)
11. Steps of the Initiation Process - Answer (click here)
12. Measurement of Binding and Initiation Rates - Answer (click here)
13. Relating Abortive Initiations to Binding and Initiating - Answer (click here)
14. Roles of Auxiliary Transcription Factors - Answer (click here)
15. Melted DNA Under RNA Polymerase - Answer (click here)
TranscriptionTermination and RNA Processing

1. Polymerase Elongation Rate - Answer (click here)
2. Transcription Termination at Specific Sites - Answer (click here)
3. RNA Termination - Answer (click here)
4. Processing Prokaryotic RNAs After Synthesis - Answer (click here)
5. S1 Mapping to Locate 5’ and 3’ Ends of Transcripts - Answer (click here)
6. Caps, Splices, Edits, and Poly-A Tails on Eukaryotic RNAs - Answer
(click here)
7. The Discovery and Assay of RNA Splicing - Answer (click here)
8. Involvement of the U1 snRNP Particle in Splicing - Answer (click here)
9. Splicing Reactions and Complexes - Answer (click here)
10. The Discovery of Self-Splicing RNAs - Answer (click here)
11. A Common Mechanism for Splicing Reactions - Answer (click here)
12. Other RNA Processing Reactions - Answer (click here)
Protein Structure
1. Protein Structure - Answer (click here)
2. The Amino Acids - Protein Structure - Answer (click here)
3. Peptide Bond - Protein Structure - Answer (click here)
4. Electrostatic Forces that Determine Protein Structure - Protein Structure
5. Hydrogen Bonds and the Chelate Effect - Protein Structure - Answer (click
here)
6. Hydrophobic Forces - Protein Structure - Answer (click here)
7. Thermodynamic Considerations of Protein Structure - Answer (click here)
8. Structures within Proteins - Answer (click here)
9. Alpha Helix, Beta Sheet, and Beta Turn - Protein Structure - Answer (click
here)
10. Calculation of Protein Tertiary Structure - Answer (click here)
11. Secondary Structure Predictions - Protein Structure - Answer (click here)
12. Structures of DNA-Binding Proteins - Answer (click here)
13. Salt Effects on Protein-DNA Interactions - Answer (click here)
14. Locating Specific Residue-Base Interactions - Protein Structure - Answer
(click here)
Protein Synthesis
1. Activation of Amino Acids During Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
2. Fidelity of Aminoacylation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
3. How Synthetases Identify the Correct tRNA Molecule - Answer (click here)
4. Decoding the Message - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
5. Base Pairing between Ribosomal RNA and Messenger - Answer (click here)
6. Experimental Support for the Shine-Dalgarno Hypothesis - Protein
Synthesis - Answer (click here)
7. Eukaryotic Translation and the First AUG - Protein Synthesis - Answer
(click here)
8. Tricking the Translation Machinery into Initiating - Protein Synthesis -
Answer (click here)
9. Protein Elongation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
10. Peptide Bond Formation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
11. Translocation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
12. Termination, Nonsense, and Suppression - Protein Synthesis - Answer
(click here)
13. Chaperones and Catalyzed Protein Folding - Protein Synthesis - Answer
(click here)
14. Resolution of a Paradox - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
15. Messenger Instability - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
16. Protein Elongation Rates - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
17. Directing Proteins to Specific Cellular Sites - Protein Synthesis - Answer
(click here)
18. Verifying the Signal Peptide Model - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click
here)
19. The Signal Recognition Particle and Translocation - Protein Synthesis -
Answer (click here)
20. Expectations for Ribosome Regulation - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click
here)
21. Proportionality of Ribosome Levels and Growth Rates - Protein
22. Regulation of Ribosome Synthesis - Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
23. Balancing Synthesis of Ribosomal Components - Protein Synthesis -
Answer (click here)
Genetics
1. Genetics Mutations - Answer (click here)
2. Point Mutations, Deletions, Insertions, and Damage - Answer (click here)
3. Classical Genetics of Chromosomes - Answer (click here)
4. Complementation, Cis, Trans, Dominant, and Recessive - Answer (click
here)
5. Mechanism of a trans Dominant Negative Mutation - Answer (click here)
6. Genetic Recombination - Answer (click here)
7. Genetics Mapping by Recombination Frequencies - Answer (click here)
8. Genetics: Mapping by Deletions - Answer (click here)
9. Heteroduplexes and Genetic Recombination - Answer (click here)
10. Genetics: Branch Migration and Isomerization - Answer (click here)
11. Elements of Recombination in E. coli, RecA, RecBCD, and Chi - Answer
(click here)
12. Genetic Systems - Answer (click here)
13. Growing Cells for Genetics Experiments - Answer (click here)
14. Testing Purified Cultures, Scoring - Answer (click here)
15. Isolating Auxotrophs, Use of Mutagens and Replica Plating - Answer
(click here)
16. Genetic Selections - Answer (click here)
17. Mapping with Generalized Transducing Phage - Answer (click here)
18. Principles of Bacterial Sex - Answer (click here)
19. Elements of Yeast Genetics - Answer (click here)
20. Elements of Drosophila Genetics - Answer (click here)
21. Isolating Mutations in Muscle or Nerve in Drosophila - Answer (click here)
22. Fate Mapping and Study of Tissue-Specific Gene Expression - Answer
(click here)
Genetic Engineering and Recombinant DNA

1. Isolation of DNA - Answer (click here)
2. Biology of Restriction Enzymes - Answer (click here)
3. Cutting DNA with Restriction Enzymes - Answer (click here)
4. Isolation of DNA Fragments - Answer (click here)
5. Joining DNA Fragments - Answer (click here)
6. Vectors: Selection and Autonomous DNA Replication - Answer (click here)
7. Plasmid Vectors - Answer (click here)
8. A Phage Vector for Bacteria - Answer (click here)
9. Vectors for Higher Cells - Answer (click here)
10. Putting DNA Back into Cells - Answer (click here)
11. Cloning from RNA - Answer (click here)
12. Plaque and Colony Hybridization for Clone Identification - Answer (click
here)
13. Walking Along a Chromosome to Clone a Gene - Answer (click here)
14. Arrest of Translation to Assay for DNA of a Gene - Answer (click here)
15. Chemical DNA Sequencing - Answer (click here)
16. Enzymatic DNA Sequencing - Answer (click here)
Advanced Genetic Engineering

1. Finding Clones from a Known Amino Acid Sequence - Answer (click here)
2. Finding Clones Using Antibodies Against a Protein - Answer (click here)
3. Southern, Northern, and Western Transfers - Genetic Engineering -
Answer (click here)
4. Polymerase Chain Reaction - Answer (click here)
5. Isolation of Rare Sequences Utilizing PCR - Answer (click here)
6. Physical and Genetic Maps of Chromosomes - Answer (click here)
7. Chromosome Mapping - Answer (click here)
8. DNA Fingerprinting - Forensics - Answer (click here)
9. Megabase Sequencing - Answer (click here)
10. Footprinting, Premodification and Missing Contact Probing - Answer (click
here)
11. Antisense RNA: Selective Gene Inactivation - Answer (click here)
12. Hypersynthesis of Proteins - Answer (click here)
13. Altering Cloned DNA by in vitro Mutagenesis - Answer (click here)
14. Mutagenesis with Chemically Synthesized DNA - Answer (click here)
Repression and the lac Operon

1. Repression and the lac Operon - Answer (click here)
2. Role of Inducer Analogs in the Study of the lac Operon - Answer (click
here)
3. Proving lac Repressor is a Protein - Answer (click here)
4. An Assay for lac Repressor - Answer (click here)
5. Difficulty of Detecting Wild Type lac Repressor - Answer (click here)
6. Detection and Purification of lac Repressor - Answer (click here)
7. Repressor Binds to DNA: The Operator is DNA - Answer (click here)
8. Migration Retardation Assay and DNA Looping - Repression and the lac
Operon - Answer (click here)
9. Isolation and Structure of Operator - Repression and the lac Operon -
Answer (click here)
10. In vivo Affinity of Repressor for Operator - Answer (click here)
11. DNA-binding Domain of lac Repressor - Answer (click here)
12. A Mechanism for Induction - Repression and the lac Operon - Answer
(click here)
Induction Repression and the araBAD Operon

1. Sugar Arabinose and Arabinose Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Genetics of the Arabinose System - Answer (click here)
3. Detection and Isolation of AraC Protein - Answer (click here)
4. Repression by AraC - Answer (click here)
5. Regulating AraC Synthesis - Answer (click here)
6. Binding Sites of the ara Regulatory Proteins - Answer (click here)
7. DNA Looping and Repression of araBAD - Answer (click here)
8. In vivo Footprinting Demonstration of Looping - Answer (click here)
9. How AraC Protein Loops and Unloops - Answer (click here)
10. Why Looping is Biologically Sensible - Answer (click here)
11. Why Positive Regulators are a Good Idea - Answer (click here)
Attenuation and the trp Operon

1. Attenuation and the trp Operon - Answer (click here)
2. Rapid Induction Capabilities of the trp Operon - Answer (click here)
3. Serendipitous Discovery of trp Enzyme Hypersynthesis - Answer (click
here)
4. Early Explorations of the Hypersynthesis - Answer (click here)
5. trp Multiple Secondary Structures in trp Leader RNA - Answer (click here)
6. Coupling Translation to Termination - Answer (click here)
7. RNA Secondary Structure and the Attenuation Mechanism - Answer (click
here)
8. Other Attenuated Systems: Operons, Bacillus subtilis and HIV - Answer
(click here)
Lambda Phage Genes and Regulatory Circuitry

1. Physical Structure of Lambda - Answer (click here)
2. Genetic Structure of Lambda - Answer (click here)
3. Lysogeny and Immunity - Answer (click here)
4. Lambda’s Relatives and Lambda Hybrids - Answer (click here)
5. Lambda Adsorption to Cells - Answer (click here)
6. Early Transcription of Genes N and Cro - Answer (click here)
7. N Protein and Antitermination of Early Gene Transcription - Answer (click
here)
8. Role of Cro Protein - Answer (click here)
9. Initiating DNA Synthesis with the O and P Proteins - Answer (click here)
10. Proteins Kil, γ, β, and Exo - Answer (click here)
11. Q Protein and Late Protein Synthesis - Answer (click here)
12. Lysis - Answer (click here)
13. Chronology of Becoming a Lysogen - Answer (click here)
14. Site for Cro Repression and CI Activation - Answer (click here)
15. Cooperativity in Repressor Binding and its Measurement - Answer (click
here)
16. Need for and the Realization of Hair-Trigger Induction - Answer (click
here)
17. Induction from the Lysogenic State - Answer (click here)
18. Entropy, a Basis for Lambda Repressor Inactivation - Answer (click here)
Xenopus 5S RNA Synthesis

1. Biology of 5S RNA Synthesis in Xenopus - Answer (click here)
2. In vitro 5S RNA Synthesis - Answer (click here)
3. TFIIIA Binding to the Middle of its Gene as Well as to RNA - Answer
(click here)
4. Switching from Oocyte to Somatic 5S Synthesis - Answer (click here)
5. Structure and Function of TFIIIA - Answer (click here)
Regulation of Mating Type in Yeast

1. Regulation of Mating Type in Yeast - Answer (click here)
2. Yeast Cell Cycle - Answer (click here)
3. Mating Type Conversion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Answer (click here)
4. Cloning the Mating Type Loci in Yeast - Answer (click here)
5. Transfer of Mating Type Gene Copies to an Expression Site - Answer
(click here)
6. Structure of the Mating Type Loci - Answer (click here)
7. Expression and Recombination Paradoxes - Answer (click here)
8. Silencing HML and HMR - Answer (click here)
9. Isolation of α2 Protein - Answer (click here)
10. α2 and MCM1 - Answer (click here)
11. Sterile Mutants, Membrane Receptors and G Factors - Answer (click here)
12. DNA Cleavage at the MAT Locus - Answer (click here)
13. DNA Strand Inheritance and Switching in Fission Yeast - Answer (click
here)
Genes Regulating Development

1. General Considerations on Signaling - Answer (click here)
2. Outline of Early Drosophila Development - Answer (click here)
3. Classical Embryology - Answer (click here)
4. Using Genetics to Begin Study of Developmental Systems - Answer (click
here)
5. Cloning Developmental Genes - Answer (click here)
6. Enhancer Traps for Detecting and Cloning Developmental Genes -
Answer (click here)
7. Expression Patterns of Developmental Genes - Answer (click here)
8. Similarities Among Developmental Genes - Answer (click here)
9. Overall Model of Drosophila Early Development - Answer (click here)
Lambda Phage Integration and Excision

1. Mapping Integrated Lambda - Answer (click here)
2. Simultaneous Deletion of Chromosomal and Lambda DNA - Answer (click
here)
3. DNA Heteroduplexes Prove that Lambda Integrates - Answer (click here)
4. Gene Order Permutation and the Campbell Model - Answer (click here)
5. Isolation of Integration-Defective Mutants - Answer (click here)
6. Isolation of Excision-Deficient Mutants - Answer (click here)
7. Properties of the int and xis Gene Products - Answer (click here)
8. Incorrect Excision and gal and bio Transducing Phage - Answer (click here)
9. Transducing Phage Carrying Genes Other than gal and bio - Answer (click
here)
10. Use of Transducing Phage to Study Integration and Excision - Answer
(click here)
11. The Double att Phage, att.squ - Answer (click here)
12. Demonstrating Xis is Unstable - Answer (click here)
13. Inhibition By a Downstream Element - Answer (click here)
14. In vitro Assay of Integration and Excision - Answer (click here)
15. Host Proteins Involved in Integration and Excision - Answer (click here)
16. Structure of the att Regions - Answer (click here)
17. Structure of the Intasome - Answer (click here)
18. Holliday Structures and Branch Migration in Integration - Answer (click
here)
Transposable Genetic Elements

1. Transposable Genetic Elements - Answer (click here)
2. IS Elements in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Structure and Properties of IS Elements - Answer (click here)
4. Discovery of Tn Elements - Answer (click here)
5. Structure and Properties of Tn Elements - Answer (click here)
6. Inverting DNA Segments by Recombination, Flagellin Synthesis -
Answer (click here)
7. Mu Phage As a Giant Transposable Element - Answer (click here)
8. An Invertible Segment of Mu Phage - Answer (click here)
9. In vitro Transposition, Threading or Global Topology? - Answer (click here)
10. Hopping by Tn10 - Answer (click here)
11. Retrotransposons in Higher Cells - Answer (click here)
12. An RNA Transposition Intermediate - Answer (click here)
13. P Elements and Transformation - Answer (click here)
14. P Element Hopping by Chromosome Rescue - Answer (click here)
Generating Genetic Diversity

1. Generating Genetic Diversity: Antibodies - Answer (click here)
2. Basic Adaptive Immune Response - Answer (click here)
3. Telling the Difference Between Foreign and Self - Answer (click here)
4. Number of Different Antibodies Produced - Answer (click here)
5. Myelomas and Monoclonal Antibodies - Answer (click here)
6. Structure of Antibodies - Answer (click here)
7. Many Copies of V Genes and Only a Few C Genes - Answer (click here)
8. J Regions - Generating Genetic Diversity: Antibodies - Answer (click here)
9. D Regions in H Chains - Answer (click here)
10. Induced Mutations and Antibody Diversity - Answer (click here)
11. Class Switching of Heavy Chains - Answer (click here)
12. Enhancers and Expression of Immunoglobulin Genes - Answer (click here)
13. AIDS Virus - Answer (click here)
14. Engineering Antibody Synthesis in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
15. Assaying for Sequence Requirements of Gene Rearrangements - Answer
(click here)
16. Cloning the Recombinase - Answer (click here)
Biological Assembly Ribosomes and Lambda Phage

1. Biological Assembly, Ribosomes and Lambda Phage - Answer (click here)
2. RNAse and Ribosomes - Answer (click here)
3. Global Structure of Ribosomes - Answer (click here)
4. Assembly of Ribosomes - Answer (click here)
5. Experiments with in vitro Ribosome Assembly - Answer (click here)
6. Determining Details of Local Ribosomal Structure - Answer (click here)
7. Lambda Phage Assembly: General Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Geometry of Capsids - Answer (click here)
9. Structure of the Lambda Particle - Answer (click here)
10. Head Assembly Sequence and Host Proteins - Answer (click here)
11. Packaging the DNA and Formation of the cos Ends - Answer (click here)
12. Formation of the lambda Tail - Answer (click here)
13. In vitro Packaging - Answer (click here)
Chemotaxis
1. Chemotaxis - Answer (click here)
2. Assaying Chemotaxis - Answer (click here)
3. Fundamental Properties of Chemotaxis - Answer (click here)
4. Genetics of Motility and Chemotaxis - Answer (click here)
5. How Cells Swim - Answer (click here)
6. Mechanism of Chemotaxis - Answer (click here)
7. Energy for Chemotaxis - Answer (click here)
8. Adaptation - Answer (click here)
9. Methylation and Adaptation - Answer (click here)
10. Phosphorylation and the Rapid Response - Answer (click here)
Oncogenesis Molecular Aspects

1. Bacterially Induced Tumors in Plants - Answer (click here)
2. Transformation and Oncogenesis by Damaging the Chromosome -
Answer (click here)
3. Identifying a Nucleotide Change Causing Cancer - Answer (click here)
4. Retroviruses and Cancer - Answer (click here)
5. Cellular Counterparts of Retroviral Oncogenes - Answer (click here)
6. Identification of the src and sis Gene Products - Answer (click here)
7. DNA Tumor Viruses - Answer (click here)
8. Recessive Oncogenic Mutations, Tumor Suppressors - Answer (click here)
9. ras-fos-jun Pathway - Answer (click here)
10. Directions for Future Research in Molecular Biology - Answer (click here)
Subject : Essential Clinical Immunology

Basic Components of the Immune System
1. Basic Components of the Immune System - Answer (click here)
2. Antigens - Answer (click here)
3. Antibody - Answer (click here)
4. T Cells and their Receptors - Answer (click here)
5. Major Histocompatibility Complex - Answer (click here)
6. Adhesion Molecules - Answer (click here)
7. Cytokines - Answer (click here)
8. Initiation of the Immune Response - Answer (click here)
9. Antibody Production - Answer (click here)
10. Functional Components of the Immune System - Answer (click here)
11. Tissue Damage Pathways: Hypersensitivity Reactions - Answer (click here)
Immunological Techniques
2. Immunological Assays - Answer (click here)
3. Lymphocytic Assays - Answer (click here)
4. Fluorescein-Activated Cell Sorter - Answer (click here)
5. Lymphocyte Proliferation Assays - Answer (click here)
6. DNA Technology Assays - Answer (click here)
Immune Regulation
1. Immuno suppression: Immunosuppressive Drugs - Answer (click here)
2. Antibodies and Other Immunosuppressive Methods - Answer (click here)
3. Immunopotentiation - Answer (click here)
4. Cytokine Immunomodulation - Answer (click here)
5. Cellular Vaccines and Modulations There of Dendritic Cell Vaccines -
Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Infection

1. Non Specific Resistance - Immunological Aspects of Infection - Answer
(click here)
2. Adaptive Immunity - Answer (click here)
3. Bacterial Infection - Answer (click here)
4. Bacterial Superantigens - Answer (click here)
5. Bacterial Evasion of Immune Defense - Answer (click here)
6. Viral Infections - Answer (click here)
7. Fungal Infection - Answer (click here)
8. Parasitic Infection - Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Immunodeficiency Diseases

1. Immunological Aspects of Immunodeficiency Diseases - Answer (click
here)
2. Defects in Anatomical or Physiological Barriers to Infection - Answer
(click here)
3. Disorders Characterized By Antibody Deficiency - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Manifestations of Antibody Deficiency - Answer (click here)
5. Major Categories of Antibody Deficiency - Answer (click here)
6. Defects in Cell-Mediated Immunity (T-Cell Dependent Immunity) -
Answer (click here)
7. Manifestations of T-Cell Deficiency - Answer (click here)
8. Major Categories of Combined Immunodeficiency - Answer (click here)
9. Immunological and Molecular Classification of SCID - Answer (click here)
10. Treatment of SCID - Answer (click here)
11. DiGeorge’s Syndrome (Thymic Aplasia) - Answer (click here)
12. Phagocyte Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
13. Neutropenia - Phagocyte Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
14. Defects in Leucocyte Migration - Phagocyte Deficiencies - Answer (click
here)
15. Defects in Bacterial Killing - Phagocyte Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
16. Defects in Killing of Intracellular Bacteria by Activated Macrophages -
Answer (click here)
17. Complex Immunodeficiencies Due to Miscellaneous Defects - Answer
(click here)
18. Immunodeficiencies Resulting in Defective Homeostasis of the Immune
System - Answer (click here)
19. Defects in the Cytolytic Pathway - Answer (click here)
20. Inherited Deficiency of the Complement System - Answer (click here)
21. Defects in Innate Immunity - Answer (click here)
Autoimmunity
1. Definitions and Types of Autoimmunity - Answer (click here)
2. Type II Autoimmune Reactions - Mechanisms of Autoimmune Tissue
Injury and Examples - Answer (click here)
3. Type IIA Autoimmune Reaction: Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia -
Mechanisms of Autoimmune Tissue Injury and Examples - Answer (click
here)
4. Type IIB Hypersensitivity: Graves’ Disease - Mechanisms of
Autoimmune Tissue Injury and Examples - Answer (click here)
5. Type IIB Hypersensitivity: Myasthenia Gravis - Mechanisms of
6. Type III Autoimmune Reactions (Immune Complex Disease) -
Mechanisms of Autoimmune Tissue Injury - Answer (click here)
7. Type IV Autoimmune Reactions (T-Cell Mediated) - Mechanisms of
8. Epidemiology of Autoimmune Disease - Answer (click here)
9. Animal Models of Autoimmune Disease - Answer (click here)
10. SLE (NZB X NZW F1, MRL, BXSB, TMPD) - Answer (click here)
11. Rheumatoid Arthritis (Collagen-Induced Arthritis, TTP Deficiency,
K/BxN Model) - Answer (click here)
12. Multiple Sclerosis (Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis) -
Answer (click here)
13. Type I Diabetes (Nonobese Diabetic Mouse Model) - Answer (click here)
14. Autoimmune Thyroiditis (Experimental Autoimmune Thyroiditis) -
Answer (click here)
15. Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Disease - Answer (click here)
16. Treatment of Autoimmune Disease - Answer (click here)
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

1. B-Cell Activation and Maturation - Answer (click here)
2. Characterizing the Heterogeneity of B-CLL by Molecular and Clinical
Subtypes - Answer (click here)
3. Development of B-CLL From Normal B Lymphocytes - Answer (click here)
4. Correlations Between the Cellular and Molecular Features of the Disease
With the Clinical Course of B-CLL - Answer (click here)
5. Summary Remarks on the Development, Growth, and Evolution of B-
CLL - Answer (click here)
6. Animal Models of B-CLL - Answer (click here)
7. Clinical Implications and the Development of Novel Therapeutics -
Answer (click here)
Immunology of HIV Infections

1. Immunological and Biological Parameters of Disease - Answer (click here)
2. Animal Models of HIV Infection - Answer (click here)
3. Vaccines to Prevent HIV Infection - Answer (click here)
4. Vaccine Candidates - Immunology of HIV Infections - Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Allergy and Anaphylaxis

1. Immunological Aspects of Allergy and Anaphylaxis - Answer (click here)
2. Allergic Hypersensitivity - Answer (click here)
3. Atopy - Answer (click here)
4. Systemic Anaphylaxis and Anaphylactoid Reactions - Answer (click here)
5. Allergic Conjunctivitis - Answer (click here)
6. Allergic Disease of the Respiratory Tract - Answer (click here)
7. Allergic Rhinitis: Overview, Clinical Disease States, Experimental
Models - Answer (click here)
8. Allergic Asthma: Overview, Immunology, Experimental Models -
Answer (click here)
9. Food Allergy and Intolerance: Diagnosis, Food Intolerance - Answer (click
here)
10. Skin Diseases and Allergy - Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Skin Diseases

1. Immunological Aspects of Skin Diseases - Answer (click here)
2. Psoriasis - Skin Diseases - Answer (click here)
3. Alopecia Areata - Answer (click here)
4. Antibody Induced Bullous Skin Lesions - Answer (click here)
Experimental Approaches to the Study of Autoimmune Rheumatic

Diseases
1. Experimental Approaches to the Study of Autoimmune Rheumatic
Diseases - Answer (click here)
2. Types of Animal Models - Answer (click here)
3. Rheumatoid Arthritis: Etiology, Pathogenesis, Clinical Features,
Treatment - Answer (click here)
4. Animal Models of Rheumatoid Arthritis - Answer (click here)
5. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathogenesis,
Clinical Features, Treatment - Answer (click here)
6. Animal Models of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus(SLE) - Answer (click
here)
7. Sjogren’s Syndrome: Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathogenesis, Clinical
Features, Treatment, Animal Models - Answer (click here)
8. Progressive Systemic Sclerosis: Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathogenesis,
Clinical Features, Treatment, Animal Models - Answer (click here)
9. Polymyositis: Epidemiology, Etiology, Pathogenesis, Clinical Features,
Treatment, Animal Models - Answer (click here)
10. Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy: Epidemiology, Etiology,
Pathogenesis, Clinical Features, Treatment, Animal Models - Answer (click
here)
Immunological Aspects of Cardiac Disease

1. Rheumatic Fever - Answer (click here)
2. Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Rheumatic Fever - Answer (click here)
3. Rheumatic Fever: Genetics - Answer (click here)
4. Etiologic Considerations of Rheumatic Fever - Answer (click here)
5. Animal Models of Rheumatic Fever - Answer (click here)
6. Streptococcal Vaccine Candidate - Answer (click here)
7. Chagas’ Disease - Answer (click here)
8. Host-Parasite Interaction and Host Susceptibility of Chagas’ Disease -
Answer (click here)
9. Pathogenesis and Modulation of Immune Function - Chagas’ Disease -
Answer (click here)
10. Autoimmunity and Pathogenesis of Chagas’ Disease - Answer (click here)
11. Molecular Mimicry in Chagas’ Disease - Answer (click here)
12. Parasite-Directed Pathogenesis of Chagas’ Disease - Answer (click here)
13. Myocarditis - Immune-Mediated Myocardial Diseases - Answer (click here)
14. Dilated Cardiomyopathy - Immune Mediated Myocardial Diseases -
Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Chest Diseases

1. Immunological Aspects of Chest Diseases: The Case of Tuberculosis -
Answer (click here)
2. Epidemiology - Tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
3. TB and AIDS - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
5. Experimental Studies of Tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
6. The Mouse Model of Chronic Tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
7. Host-Pathogen Interactions in TB - Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease

1. Mucosal Immunity - Answer (click here)
2. Pernicious Anemia - Immune Mediated Diseases of the Gastrointestinal
Tract - Answer (click here)
3. Gluten Sensitive Enteropathy - Immune Mediated Diseases of the
Gastrointestinal Tract - Answer (click here)
4. Inflammatory Bowel Disease - Immune Mediated Diseases of the
Gastrointestinal Tract - Answer (click here)
5. Liver Immunology - Answer (click here)
6. Hepatitis B - Diseases of the Liver - Answer (click here)
7. Hepatitis C - Diseases of the Liver - Answer (click here)
8. Other Hepatitis Viruses - Diseases of the Liver - Answer (click here)
9. Primary Biliary Cirrhosis - Diseases of the Liver - Answer (click here)
10. Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis - Diseases of the Liver - Answer (click here)
11. Autoimmune Hepatitis - Diseases of the Liver - Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Endocrine Disease

1. Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus - Answer (click here)
2. Animal Models of Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus - Answer (click
here)
3. Β-Cell Lesion: Nature of Effector Cells - Insulin Dependent Diabetes
Mellitus - Answer (click here)
4. Rupture of Tolerance to Β-Cell Antigens - Insulin Dependent Diabetes
Mellitus - Answer (click here)
5. Etiology of Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus - Answer (click here)
6. Clinical Considerations of Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus - Answer
(click here)
Immune Mediated Neurological Syndromes

1. Multiple Sclerosis - Answer (click here)
2. Guillain-Barré Syndrome - Answer (click here)
3. Myasthenia Gravis - Answer (click here)
4. Central Nervous System Systemic Lupus Erythematosus - Answer (click
here)
5. Animal Models of Central Nervous System - Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Renal Disease

1. Immunological Aspects of Renal Disease - Answer (click here)
2. Mechanisms of Immune Injury to the Kidneys - Answer (click here)
3. Specific Immune-Related Renal Diseases: IgA Nephropathy - Answer
(click here)
4. Minimal Change Disease - Answer (click here)
5. Focal Sclerosing Glomerulosclerosis - Answer (click here)
6. Membranous Nephropathy - Answer (click here)
7. Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis - Answer (click here)
8. Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis - Answer (click here)
9. Lupus Nephritis - Answer (click here)
10. Acute Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis - Answer (click here)
11. Mixed Cryoglobulinemia - Answer (click here)
Immunological Aspects of Transplantation

1. Immunological Aspects of Transplantation - Answer (click here)
2. Immunological Considerations of Transplantation - Answer (click here)
3. Laboratory Testing for Compatibility in Transplantation - Answer (click
here)
4. Types of Solid Organ Allograft Rejection - Answer (click here)
5. Prevention and Management of Solid Organ Allograft Rejection - Answer
(click here)
6. Solid Organ Transplantation Outcomes - Answer (click here)
7. Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation - Answer (click here)
Subject : Essential Microbiology

Microbiology
1. What is microbiology? - Answer (click here)
2. Why is microbiology important? - Answer (click here)
3. How do we know? Microbiology in perspective: to the ‘golden age’ and
beyond - Answer (click here)
4. Light microscopy - Answer (click here)
5. Electron microscopy - Answer (click here)
Biochemical Principles
1. Atomic structure - Answer (click here)
2. Isotopes - Answer (click here)
3. Chemical bonds - Answer (click here)
4. Acids, bases, and pH - Answer (click here)
5. Biomacromolecules - Answer (click here)
6. Carbohydrates - Biomacromolecules - Answer (click here)
7. Proteins - Biomacromolecules - Answer (click here)
8. Higher levels of protein structure - Answer (click here)
9. Nucleic acids: Structure of DNA and RNA - Answer (click here)
10. Lipids - Biomacromolecules - Answer (click here)
Cell Structure and Organisation

1. Cell Structure and Organisation - Answer (click here)
2. The procaryotic cell and its structure - Answer (click here)
3. Eucaryotic cell Structure - Answer (click here)
4. Cell division in procaryotes and eucaryotes - Answer (click here)
Microbial Nutrition and Cultivation

1. Microbial Nutrition and Cultivation - Answer (click here)
2. Microbial Nutritional categories - Answer (click here)
3. How do Microbial nutrients get into the microbial cell? - Answer (click
here)
4. Laboratory cultivation of microorganisms - Answer (click here)
Microbial Growth
1. Estimation of microbial numbers - Answer (click here)
2. Factors affecting microbial growth - Answer (click here)
3. The kinetics of microbial growth - Answer (click here)
4. Growth in multicellular microorganisms - Answer (click here)
Microbial Metabolism
1. Why is energy needed? - Answer (click here)
2. Enzymes - Answer (click here)
3. Principles of energy generation - Answer (click here)
4. Oxidation - reduction reactions - Answer (click here)
5. Glycolysis - Answer (click here)
6. Aerobic respiration - Answer (click here)
7. Oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain - Answer (click
here)
8. Fermentation - Answer (click here)
9. Metabolism of lipids and proteins - Answer (click here)
10. Anaerobic respiration - Answer (click here)
11. Energy may be generated by the oxidation of inorganic molecules -
Answer (click here)
12. Photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
13. Anoxygenic photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
14. Anabolic reactions - Answer (click here)
15. Regulation of metabolism - Answer (click here)
Microbial Diversity
1. A few words about Microbial Classification - Answer (click here)
Procaryote Diversity
1. Procaryote Diversity - Answer (click here)
2. Domain: Archaea : Classification and General features - Answer (click here)
3. Phylum: Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
4. Photosynthetic Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
5. Nitrifying Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
6. Iron- and sulphur-oxidising Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
7. Hydrogen-oxidising Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
8. Nitrogen-fixing Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
9. Methanotrophic Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
10. Sulphate- and sulphur-reducing Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
11. Enteric Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
12. Vibrio and related genera - Answer (click here)
13. Pseudomonads - Answer (click here)
14. Acetic acid bacteria - Answer (click here)
15. Stalked and budding Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
16. Sheathed Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
17. Predatory Proteobacteria - Answer (click here)
18. Spirilla - Answer (click here)
19. Rickettsia - Answer (click here)
20. Phylum Cyanobacteria: the blue-green bacteria - Answer (click here)
21. Phylum Chlorobi (green sulphur bacteria) and phylum Chloroflexi
(green non-sulphur bacteria) - Answer (click here)
22. Phylum Aquificae and phylum Thermotogae: the deeply branching
bacteria - Answer (click here)
23. Phylum ‘Deinococcus-Thermus’ - Answer (click here)
24. Phylum Planctomycetes - Answer (click here)
25. Phylum Chlamydiae - Answer (click here)
26. Phylum Spirochaetes - Answer (click here)
27. Phylum Bacteroidetes - Answer (click here)
28. Phylum: Verrucomicrobia - Answer (click here)
29. The Gram-positive bacteria: phylum Firmicutes and phylum
Actinobacteria - Answer (click here)
30. Phylum Firmicutes: The low GC Gram-positive bacteria - Answer (click
here)
31. Phylum Actinobacteria: The high GC Gram-positive bacteria - Answer
(click here)
32. Bacteria and human disease - Answer (click here)
Fungi
1. General biology of the Fungi - Answer (click here)
2. Classification of the Fungi - Answer (click here)
3. Fungi and disease - Answer (click here)
Protista
1. The Algae - Answer (click here)
2. Structural characteristics of algal protists - Answer (click here)
3. Euglenophyta - Structural characteristics of algal protists - Answer (click
here)
4. Dinoflagellata - Structural characteristics of algal protists - Answer (click
here)
5. Diatoms - Structural characteristics of algal protists - Answer (click here)
6. Chlorophyta - Structural characteristics of algal protists - Answer (click
here)
7. Phaeophyta - Structural characteristics of algal protists - Answer (click here)
8. Rhodophyta - Structural characteristics of algal protists - Answer (click
here)
9. Protozoa - Answer (click here)
10. Zooflagellates (Mastigophora) - Protozoa - Answer (click here)
11. Ciliates (Ciliophora) - Protozoa - Answer (click here)
12. Amoebas (Sarcodina) - Protozoa - Answer (click here)
13. Sporozoans (Apicomplexa) - Protozoa - Answer (click here)
14. The slime moulds and water moulds (the fungus-like protists) - Answer
(click here)
15. Protistan taxonomy: a modern view - Answer (click here)
Viruses
1. What are viruses? - Answer (click here)
2. Viral structure - Answer (click here)
3. Classification of viruses - Answer (click here)
4. Viral replication cycles - Answer (click here)
5. Replication cycles in bacteriophages - Answer (click here)
6. Replication cycles in animal viruses - Answer (click here)
7. Replication of RNA viruses - Answer (click here)
8. Replication cycles in plant viruses - Answer (click here)
9. Viroids - Answer (click here)
10. Prions - Answer (click here)
11. Cultivating viruses - Answer (click here)
12. Viral diseases in humans - Answer (click here)
Microbial Genetics
1. How do we know genes are made of DNA? - Answer (click here)
2. DNA replication - Answer (click here)
3. DNA replication in procaryotes - Answer (click here)
4. What happens when replication goes wrong? - Answer (click here)
5. DNA replication in eucaryotes - Answer (click here)
6. What exactly do genes do? - Answer (click here)
7. Regulation of gene expression - Answer (click here)
8. Molecular basis of mutations - Answer (click here)
9. Genetic transfer in microorganisms - Answer (click here)
Microorganisms in Genetic Engineering

1. Microorganisms in Genetic Engineering - Answer (click here)
2. Plasmid cloning vectors - Answer (click here)
3. Bacteriophages as cloning vectors - Answer (click here)
4. Expression vectors - Microorganisms in Genetic Engineering - Answer
(click here)
5. Eucaryotic cloning vectors - Answer (click here)
6. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) - Answer (click here)
The Control of Microorganisms

1. Sterilisation - Control of Microorganisms - Answer (click here)
2. Sterilisation by heat - Control of Microorganisms - Answer (click here)
3. Sterilisation by irradiation - Control of Microorganisms - Answer (click
here)
4. Sterilisation using ethylene oxide - Control of Microorganisms - Answer
(click here)
5. Disinfection - Control of Microorganisms - Answer (click here)
6. Kinetics of cell death - Answer (click here)
Antimicrobial Agents
1. Antimicrobial Agents - Answer (click here)
2. Antibiotics - Answer (click here)
3. What other properties should an antibiotic have? - Answer (click here)
4. How do antibiotics work? - Answer (click here)
5. Resistance to antibiotics - Answer (click here)
6. How does antibiotic resistance work? - Answer (click here)
7. How does antibiotic resistance arise? - Answer (click here)
8. Antibiotic susceptibility testing - Answer (click here)
9. Antifungal and antiviral agents - Answer (click here)
Microbial Associations
1. Microbial associations with animals - Answer (click here)
2. Microbial associations with plants - Answer (click here)
3. Microbial associations with other microorganisms - Answer (click here)
Microorganisms in the Environment
1. Microorganisms in the Environment - Answer (click here)
2. The carbon cycle - Microorganisms in the Environment - Answer (click
here)
3. The nitrogen cycle - Microorganisms in the Environment - Answer (click
here)
4. The sulphur cycle - Microorganisms in the Environment - Answer (click
here)
5. Phosphorus - Microorganisms in the Environment - Answer (click here)
6. Microbiology of soil - Answer (click here)
7. Microbiology of freshwater - Answer (click here)
8. Microbiology of seawater - Answer (click here)
9. Beneficial effects of microorganisms in the environment - Answer (click
here)
10. Harmful effects of microorganisms in the environment - Answer (click here)
Industrial and Food Microbiology

1. Microorganisms and food - Answer (click here)
2. Microorganisms as food - Answer (click here)
3. Microbial spoilage of food - Answer (click here)
4. Microorganisms in the production of biochemicals - Answer (click here)
5. Products derived from genetically engineered microorganisms - Answer
(click here)
6. Microorganisms in the mining industry - Answer (click here)
Subject : Microbiology
Microbiology
1. History Of Microbiology - Answer (click here)
2. The compound light microscope - Answer (click here)
3. Stains and staining reactions - Answer (click here)
4. Sterilization - Answer (click here)
5. Factors Influenzing Sterilization by Heat - Answer (click here)
6. Merits and Demerits of Heat Sterilization - Answer (click here)
7. Pure culture methods - Answer (click here)
8. Microbial nutrition and growth - Answer (click here)
9. Prokaryotic cell structure - Answer (click here)
10. Microbiology Taxonomy - Answer (click here)
11. Taxonomy of Fungi - Answer (click here)
12. Taxonomy of Algae - Answer (click here)
13. Microbiology of air - Answer (click here)
14. Microbiology of water - Answer (click here)
15. Sources of water pollution - Microbiology of water - Answer (click here)
16. Microbiology of food - Answer (click here)
17. Factors that influence the growth of the microorganisms - Answer (click
here)
18. Microbiology of milk - Answer (click here)
19. Sources of microorganisms in milk - Answer (click here)
20. Microbiology of soil - Answer (click here)
21. Distribution of different types of soil microorganisms - Answer (click here)
22. Factors that influencing microbial population - Answer (click here)
23. Harmful microbial interactions - Answer (click here)
24. Medical Microbiology - Answer (click here)
25. Routes of spread of infection - Answer (click here)
26. Virulence Factors - Answer (click here)
27. Respiratory tract infections - Answer (click here)
28. Urinary tract infections - Answer (click here)
29. Infections of the Central Nervous System - Answer (click here)
30. Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
31. Bacterial skin and wound infection - Answer (click here)
32. Factors Responsible For Wound Infections - Answer (click here)
33. Bacterial infections of thegastrointestinal tract - Answer (click here)
34. Superficial mycoses and dermatomycoses - Answer (click here)
35. Amoebiasis - Answer (click here)
36. Malaria - Answer (click here)
37. Filariasis - Answer (click here)
38. Poliomyelitis - Answer (click here)
39. Influenza - Answer (click here)
40. Zoonotic diseases - Answer (click here)
41. Rabies - Answer (click here)
42. Structure and Development of Immune System - Answer (click here)
43. Function of the thymus gland - Answer (click here)
44. Effects of thymectomy (removal of thymus) - Answer (click here)
45. Bursa of Fabricius and Functions of Bursa of Fabricius - Answer (click here)
46. Functions of lymph node - Answer (click here)
47. Functions of spleen - Answer (click here)
48. Functions of MALT(Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue) and GALT -
Answer (click here)
49. Cells of the Immune System - Answer (click here)
50. Innate and Adaptive Immunity - Answer (click here)
51. Anatomic Barriers - Innate and Adaptive Immunity - Answer (click here)
52. Physiologic Barriers - Innate and Adaptive Immunity - Answer (click here)
53. Phagocytic Barriers - Innate and Adaptive Immunity - Answer (click here)
54. Inflammatory Barriers - Answer (click here)
55. Collaboration between Innate and Adaptive Immunity - Answer (click here)
56. Adaptive Imuunity - Answer (click here)
57. Antibodies - Answer (click here)
58. Characterization of antibodies - Answer (click here)
59. Properties and functions of immunoglobulins - Answer (click here)
60. Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
61. Stages Involved in Antigen-antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
62. General Features of Antigen-antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
63. Measurement of Antignen and Antibody - Answer (click here)
64. Types of Agglutination Reactions - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer
(click here)
65. Precipitation Reactions: Test, Application - Answer (click here)
66. Microbial genetics - Answer (click here)
67. DNA as the Genetic Material - Answer (click here)
68. Griffith Experiment - Answer (click here)
69. Avery, MacLeod and McCarthy experiment - Answer (click here)
70. Hershey and Chase Experiment - Answer (click here)
71. DNA Structure - Answer (click here)
72. Alternative form of DNA - Answer (click here)
73. DNA Replication - Answer (click here)
74. Enzymology of DNA Replication - Answer (click here)
Subject : Microbiology and Immunology

General Microbiology History of Microbiology
1. History of Microbiology - Answer (click here)
2. Historical Background of Microbiology - Answer (click here)
3. Microorganisms as a Cause of Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Study of Viruses - Answer (click here)
5. Phenomenon of Immunity - Answer (click here)
6. Specificity of the Antibody Molecule - Answer (click here)
7. Chemotherapeutic Agents - Answer (click here)
Morphology and Physiology of Bacteria

1. Morphology and Physiology of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Size of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Microscopy and Types of Microscopy - Answer (click here)
4. Light microscopy - Answer (click here)
5. Fluorescence microscopy - Answer (click here)
6. Electron microscopy - Answer (click here)
7. Study of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
8. Staining Methods used in diagnostic microbiology - Answer (click here)
9. Shape of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
10. Cell Wall - Structure and Functions of Bacterial Cell Envelope - Answer
(click here)
11. Cell Membrane - Structure and Functions of Bacterial Cell Envelope -
Answer (click here)
12. Cytoplasm - Structure and Functions of Bacterial Cell Envelope - Answer
(click here)
13. Nucleus - Structure and Functions of Bacterial Cell Envelope - Answer
(click here)
14. Capsule and Slime Layer - Structure and Functions of Bacterial Cell
Envelope - Answer (click here)
15. Surface Appendages - Structure and Functions of Bacterial Cell
Envelope - Answer (click here)
16. Sporulation - Structure and Functions of Bacterial Cell Envelope -
Answer (click here)
17. Growth and Multiplication of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
18. Bacterial Count - Answer (click here)
19. Bacterial Growth Curve - Answer (click here)
20. Factors Affecting Growth of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
21. Bacterial Nutrition - Answer (click here)
Sterilizationand Disinfection
1. Definition of Frequently Used Terms in Sterilizationand Disinfection -
Answer (click here)
3. Physical Methods of Sterilization - Answer (click here)
4. Chemical Methods of Sterilization - Answer (click here)
5. Sterilization by moist heat - Answer (click here)
6. Sterilization by dry heat - Answer (click here)
7. Disinfection - Answer (click here)
8. Properties of Ideal Disinfectant - Answer (click here)
9. Action of Disinfectants - Answer (click here)
10. Factors Influencing Activity of Disinfectants - Answer (click here)
11. Types of Disinfectants - Answer (click here)
12. Testing of Disinfectants - Answer (click here)
Culture Media
1. Culture Media - Answer (click here)
2. Ingredients of Culture Media - Answer (click here)
3. Types of Culture Media - Answer (click here)
Culture Methods
1. Culture Methods - Answer (click here)
2. Methods of Culture - Answer (click here)
3. Anaerobic Culture: Specimen, Culture Media, Methods - Answer (click
here)
Laboratory Identification of Bacteria and Taxonomy

1. Identification of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Biochemical Reactions - Identification of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Typing of Bacterial Strains - Answer (click here)
4. Bacterial Taxonomy - Answer (click here)
5. Bacterial Classification - Answer (click here)
6. Nomenclature of Microorganisms - Answer (click here)
Bacterial Genetics
1. Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click here)
2. Chromosomal Substances - Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click here)
3. Mutations - Answer (click here)
4. Extrachromosomal DNA Substances - Answer (click here)
5. Transfer of DNA Within Bacterial Cells - Answer (click here)
6. Transfer of DNA Between Bacterial Cells - Answer (click here)
Genetic Engineering and Molecular Methods

1. DNA: An Amazing Molecule - Answer (click here)
2. Genetic Engineering - Answer (click here)
3. Nucleic Acid Probes - Answer (click here)
4. Polymerase Chain Reaction - Answer (click here)
5. Recombinant DNA Technology - Microbiology and Immunology -
Answer (click here)
6. Genetically Modified Organisms - Answer (click here)
Antimicrobial Agents Therapy and Resistance
1. Antimicrobial Agents Therapy and Resistance - Answer (click here)
2. Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Drugs - Answer (click here)
3. Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance - Resistance to Antimicrobial
Drugs - Answer (click here)
4. Nongenetic and Genetic Basis of Resistance - Answer (click here)
5. Specific Mechanisms of Resistance - Answer (click here)
6. Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing - Answer (click here)
7. Antibacterial Assays in Body Fluids - Answer (click here)
Microbial Pathogenesis
1. Microbial Pathogenesis: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Types of Microorganisms - Answer (click here)
3. Infection and Types of Infections - Answer (click here)
4. Stages of Pathogenesis of Infections - Answer (click here)
5. Transmission of Infection - Stages of Pathogenesis of Infections - Answer
(click here)
6. Entry of Organisms and Evasion of Local Defenses - Stages of
Pathogenesis of Infections - Answer (click here)
7. Adherence to Cell Surfaces - Stages of Pathogenesis of Infections -
Answer (click here)
8. Growth and Multiplication of Bacteria at the Site of Adherence - Stages
of Pathogenesis of Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Manifestations and Termination of Disease - Stages of Pathogenesis of
Infections - Answer (click here)
10. Stages of an Infectious Disease - Answer (click here)
Immunity
1. Immunity - Answer (click here)
2. Types of Immunity - Answer (click here)
3. Innate Immunity - Answer (click here)
4. Factors influencing innate immunity - Answer (click here)
5. Mechanisms of innate immunity - Answer (click here)
6. Mediators of inflammatory reactions - Answer (click here)
7. Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity and its Types - Answer (click here)
Antigen
1. Antigen: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Determinants of Antigenicity - Answer (click here)
3. Antigenic Specificity: Epitopes - Answer (click here)
4. Species Specificity - Antigen - Answer (click here)
5. Isospecificity - Antigen - Answer (click here)
6. Autospecificity - Antigen - Answer (click here)
7. Organ Specificity - Antigen - Answer (click here)
8. Heterophile Specificity - Antigen - Answer (click here)
9. Haptens - Answer (click here)
10. Superantigens - Answer (click here)
Antibodies
1. Antibodies: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Structure of Immunoglobulins - Answer (click here)
3. Treatment of Immunoglobulins with Proteolytic Enzymes - Answer (click
here)
4. Immunoglobulin Antigen Determinants - Answer (click here)
5. Biosynthesis of Immunoglobulins - Answer (click here)
6. Metabolism of Immunoglobulins - Answer (click here)
7. Immunoglobulin Classes - Answer (click here)
8. Abnormal Immunoglobulins - Answer (click here)
Antigen Antibody Reactions

1. General Features of Antigen-Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
2. Stages of Antigen-Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
3. Types of Antigen-Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
4. Precipitation - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
5. Types of precipitation reactions - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer
(click here)
6. Agglutination - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
7. Types of agglutination reactions: Direct, Passive - Antigen Antibody
Reactions - Answer (click here)
8. Complement Dependent Serological Tests - Antigen Antibody Reactions
9. Neutralization Tests - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
10. Opsonization - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
11. Immunofluorescence - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
12. Enzyme Immunoassays - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
13. Radioimmunoassay - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
14. Western Blotting - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click here)
15. Chemiluminescence Assay - Antigen Antibody Reactions - Answer (click
here)
16. Immunoelectronmicroscopic Tests - Antigen Antibody Reactions -
Answer (click here)
Complement System
1. Complement System - Answer (click here)
2. Activation of Complement - Answer (click here)
3. Regulation of Complement System - Answer (click here)
4. Biological Effects of Complement - Answer (click here)
5. Deficiency of Complement - Answer (click here)
6. Biosynthesis of Complement - Answer (click here)
7. Quantitation of Complement - Answer (click here)
Structure and Function Imune System

1. Structure and Function Imune System: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Lymphoid Tissues and Organs - Answer (click here)
3. Lymphatic Circulatory System - Answer (click here)
4. Cells of the Lymphoreticular System - Answer (click here)
5. Thymus-derived cells - Answer (click here)
6. Bone marrow-derived cells - Answer (click here)
7. Antigen-presenting cells - Answer (click here)
8. Effector cells that function to eliminate antigens - Answer (click here)
9. Major Histocompatibility Complex - Answer (click here)
Immune Response
1. Humoral Immunity - Answer (click here)
2. Production of Antibodies - Answer (click here)
3. Theories of antibody formation - Answer (click here)
4. Factors affecting production of antibodies - Answer (click here)
5. Immunosuppressive agents - Answer (click here)
6. Monoclonal Antibodies and Method of production - Answer (click here)
7. Function of Antibodies - Answer (click here)
8. Cell-Mediated Immunity - Answer (click here)
9. Induction of CMI - Answer (click here)
10. Cytokines and Categories of cytokines - Answer (click here)
11. Tests for Detection of CMI - Answer (click here)
12. Transfer Factor - Answer (click here)
13. Immunological Tolerance - Answer (click here)
14. Mechanisms of Tolerance - Answer (click here)
15. Types of Immune Tolerance - Answer (click here)
Immunodeficiency
1. Immunodeficiency: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Primary Immunodeficiencies - Answer (click here)
3. B-Cell Immunodeficiencies - Answer (click here)
4. T-Cell Immunodeficiencies - Answer (click here)
5. Combined B-Cell and T-Cell Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
6. Complement Immunodeficiencies - Answer (click here)
7. Phagocyte Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
8. Secondary Immunodeficiencies - Answer (click here)
9. B-Cell Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
10. T-Cell Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
11. Complement Deficiencies - Answer (click here)
Hypersensitivity
1. Hypersensitivity: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Type I (Anaphylactic) Hypersensitivity - Answer (click here)
3. Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivity - Answer (click here)
4. Type III (Immune-Complex) Hypersensitivity - Answer (click here)
5. Type IV Delayed (Cell-Mediated) Hypersensitivity - Answer (click here)
6. Type V (Stimulatory Type) Hypersensitivity - Answer (click here)
7. Types of DTH(delayed type hyper-sensitivity) Reactions - Answer (click
here)
8. Mechanism of DTH(delayed type hyper-sensitivity) - Answer (click here)
9. Immune-Complex Diseases - Answer (click here)
Autoimmunity
1. Autoimmunity - Answer (click here)
2. Tolerance and Mechanisms of Tolerance - Answer (click here)
3. Pathogenesis of Autoimmunity - Answer (click here)
4. Mechanisms in Pathogenesis of Autoimmunity - Answer (click here)
5. Autoimmune Pathological Process - Answer (click here)
6. Animal Models of Autoimmunity - Answer (click here)
7. Autoimmune Diseases - Answer (click here)
Immunology of Transplantation and Malignancy

1. Transplant Immunology and Types of Transplants - Answer (click here)
2. Allograft Rejection - Transplant Immunology - Answer (click here)
3. Graft-Versus-Host Reaction - Transplant Immunology - Answer (click here)
4. Tumor Immunology - Answer (click here)
5. Features of Malignant Cells - Answer (click here)
6. Tumor Antigens - Answer (click here)
7. Immune Reactions against Tumors - Answer (click here)
8. Immunosurveillance - Answer (click here)
9. Immunotherapy of Cancer - Answer (click here)
Immunohematology
1. ABO Blood Group System and Antigens - Answer (click here)
2. Rh Blood Group System and Antigens - Answer (click here)
3. Blood Transfusion - Answer (click here)
4. Hemolytic Disease of Newborn (Erythroblastosis Fetalis) - Answer (click
here)
5. ABO Hemolytic Diseases - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Staphylococcus
1. Staphylococcus - Answer (click here)
2. Staphylococcus aureus - Answer (click here)
3. Properties of the Bacteria - Staphylococcus aureus - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Staphylococcus aureus
5. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Staphylococcus aureus - Answer (click here)
6. Clinical Syndromes of Staphylococcus aureus - Answer (click here)
7. Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus - Answer (click here)
8. Laboratory diagnosis of staphylococcal infections - Staphylococcus
aureus - Answer (click here)
9. Treatment of staphylococcal infection - Staphylococcus aureus - Answer
(click here)
10. Prevention and Control of staphylococcal infection - Staphylococcus
11. Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci - Answer (click here)
12. Micrococcus, Planococcus, Stomatococcus - Staphylococcus - Answer
(click here)
Bacteriology Streptococcus and Enterococcus

1. Streptococcus - Answer (click here)
2. Streptococcus pyogenes - Answer (click here)
3. Properties of the Bacteria - Streptococcus pyogenes - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Streptococcus
pyogenes - Answer (click here)
5. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Streptococcus pyogenes - Answer (click here)
6. Clinical Syndromes - Streptococcus pyogenes - Answer (click here)
7. Epidemiology - Streptococcus pyogenes - Answer (click here)
8. Laboratory Diagnosis - Streptococcus pyogenes - Answer (click here)
9. Treatment of Streptococcus pyogenes infections - Answer (click here)
10. Prevention and Control of Streptococcus pyogenes infections - Answer
(click here)
11. Streptococcus agalactiae - Answer (click here)
12. Other Hemolytic Streptococci - Answer (click here)
13. Viridans Streptococci - Answer (click here)
14. Enterococcus - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Pneumococusm
1. Streptococcus pneumonia - Answer (click here)
2. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Streptococcus
pneumonia - Answer (click here)
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Streptococcus pneumonia - Answer (click
here)
4. Clinical Syndromes - Streptococcus pneumonia - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology of Streptococcus pneumonia - Answer (click here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis - Streptococcus pneumonia infections - Answer
(click here)
7. Treatment of Streptococcus pneumonia infections - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Neisseria
1. Neisseria gonorrhoeae - Answer (click here)
2. Properties of the Bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Properties - Neisseria gonorrhoeae
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Neisseria gonorrhoeae - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Neisseria gonorrhoeae - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology of Neisseria gonorrhoeae - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection - Answer (click
here)
8. Treatment of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection - Answer (click here)
9. Prevention and Control of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection - Answer (click
here)
10. Neisseria meningitides: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
11. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Neisseria meningitides
12. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Neisseria meningitides - Answer (click here)
13. Clinical Syndromes - Neisseria meningitides - Answer (click here)
14. Epidemiology of Neisseria meningitides - Answer (click here)
15. Laboratory Diagnosis of Neisseria meningitides infections - Answer (click
here)
16. Treatment of Neisseria meningitides infections - Answer (click here)
17. Prevention and Control of Neisseria meningitides infections - Answer
(click here)
18. Other Neisseria Bacteria Species - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Corynebacterium
1. Corynebacterium - Answer (click here)
2. Corynebacterium diphtheria: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click
here)
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Corynebacterium diphtheria - Answer (click
here)
4. Clinical Syndromes - Corynebacterium diphtheria - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology of Corynebacterium diphtheria - Answer (click here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis of Corynebacterium diphtheria infections - Answer
(click here)
7. Treatment of Corynebacterium diphtheria infections - Answer (click here)
8. Prevention and Control of Corynebacterium diphtheria infections -
Answer (click here)
9. Other Pathogenic Corynebacterium Species - Answer (click here)
10. Few Coryneform Genera - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Bacillus
1. Bacillus: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Bacillus anthracis - Answer (click here)
3. Properties of the Bacteria Bacillus anthracis - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Properties - Bacillus anthracis -
Answer (click here)
5. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Bacillus anthracis - Answer (click here)
6. Clinical Syndromes - Bacillus anthracis - Answer (click here)
7. Epidemiology - Bacillus anthracis - Answer (click here)
8. Laboratory Diagnosis of Bacillus anthracis infections - Answer (click here)
9. Treatment of Bacillus anthracis infections - Answer (click here)
10. Prevention and Control of Bacillus anthracis infections - Answer (click
here)
11. Anthracoid Bacilli - Answer (click here)
12. Bacillus cereus - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Clostridium
1. Clostridium - Answer (click here)
2. General Properties of Clostridia - Answer (click here)
3. Clostridium perfringens: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Clostridium perfringens - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Clostridium perfringens - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Clostridium perfringens - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Clostridium perfringens infections - Answer (click
here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Clostridium perfringens infections
9. Clostridium tetani: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
10. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Clostridium tetani - Answer (click here)
11. Clinical Syndromes - Clostridium tetani - Answer (click here)
12. Epidemiology - Clostridium tetani - Answer (click here)
13. Laboratory Diagnosis of Clostridium tetani infections - Answer (click here)
14. Treatment of Clostridium tetani infections - Answer (click here)
15. Prevention and Control of Clostridium tetani infections - Answer (click
here)
16. Clostridium botulinum: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
17. Pathogenicity and Immunity - Clostridium botulinum - Answer (click here)
18. Clinical Syndromes - Clostridium botulinum - Answer (click here)
19. Epidemiology - Clostridium botulinum - Answer (click here)
20. Laboratory Diagnosis of Clostridium botulinum infections - Answer (click
here)
21. Treatment of Clostridium botulinum infections - Answer (click here)
22. Prevention and Control of Clostridium botulinum infections - Answer
(click here)
23. Clostridium difficile - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Nonsporing Anaerobes

1. Nonsporing Anaerobes - Answer (click here)
2. Anaerobic Bacilli - Answer (click here)
3. Anaerobic Gram-Positive Bacilli - Answer (click here)
4. Anaerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli - Answer (click here)
Coliforms
1. Coliforms - Answer (click here)
2. Escherichia - Answer (click here)
3. Escherichia coli: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Escherichia coli -
Answer (click here)
5. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Escherichia coli - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Escherichia coli - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Escherichia coli Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Escherichia coli Infections -
Answer (click here)
9. Edwardsiella - Answer (click here)
10. Citrobacter - Nonsporing Anaerobes - Answer (click here)
11. Klebsiella - Answer (click here)
12. Enterobacter - Answer (click here)
13. Hafnia - Answer (click here)
14. Serratia - Answer (click here)
15. Proteus - Answer (click here)
16. Proteus: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
17. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Properties - Proteus - Answer (click
here)
18. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Proteus - Answer (click here)
19. Clinical Syndromes - Proteus - Answer (click here)
20. Epidemiology - Proteus - Answer (click here)
21. Laboratory Diagnosis of Proteus Infections - Answer (click here)
22. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Proteus Infections - Answer (click
here)
23. Morganella - Answer (click here)
24. Providencia - Answer (click here)
25. Erwinia - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Salmonella
1. Salmonella - Answer (click here)
2. Salmonella: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Salmonella - Answer
(click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Salmonella - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Salmonella - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Salmonella - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Salmonella Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Treatment of Salmonella Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Prevention and Control of Salmonella Infections - Answer (click here)
10. Salmonella Gastroenteritis - Answer (click here)
11. Salmonella Bacteremia - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Shigella
1. Shigella - Answer (click here)
2. Shigella: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Shigella - Answer (click
here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Shigella - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Shigella - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Shigella - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Shigella Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Treatment and Prevention and Control of Shigella Infections - Answer
(click here)
Bacteriology Yersinia
1. Yersinia - Answer (click here)
2. Yersinia pestis: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Yersinia pestis - Answer
(click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Yersinia pestis - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Yersinia pestis - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Yersinia pestis - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Yersinia pestis Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Treatment of Yersinia pestis Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Prevention and Control of Yersinia pestis Infections - Answer (click here)
10. Yersinia enterocolitica - Answer (click here)
11. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology VibrioAeromonasand Plesiomonas

1. Vibrio cholerae: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Vibrio cholerae -
Answer (click here)
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Vibrio cholerae - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Syndromes - Vibrio cholerae - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology - Vibrio cholerae - Answer (click here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis of Vibrio cholerae Infections - Answer (click here)
7. Treatment of Vibrio cholerae Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Prevention and Control of Vibrio cholerae Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Noncholera Vibrios - Answer (click here)
10. Vibrio mimicus - Answer (click here)
11. Halophilic Vibrios - Answer (click here)
12. Aeromonas - Answer (click here)
13. Plesiomonas - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Campylobacter and Helicobacter

1. Campylobacter: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Campylobacter - Answer (click here)
3. Clinical Syndrome - Campylobacter - Answer (click here)
4. Epidemiology - Campylobacter - Answer (click here)
5. Laboratory Diagnosis of Campylobacter Infections - Answer (click here)
6. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Campylobacter Infections - Answer
(click here)
7. Helicobacter - Answer (click here)
8. Helicobacter pylori: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
9. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Helicobacter pylori - Answer (click here)
10. Clinical Syndrome - Helicobacter pylori - Answer (click here)
11. Epidemiology - Helicobacter pylori - Answer (click here)
12. Laboratory Diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori Infections - Answer (click
here)
13. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Helicobacter pylori Infections -
Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Pseudomonas Burkholderia and Moraxell

1. Pseudomonas - Answer (click here)
2. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Pseudomonas
aeruginosa - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Answer (click
here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections - Answer
(click here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
9. Burkholderia: Burkholderia cepacia, mallei, pseudomallei - Answer (click
here)
10. Moraxella - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Haemophilus Pasteurella and Actinobacillus

1. Haemophilu - Answer (click here)
2. Haemophilus influenza: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Structures and Antigenic Properties - Haemophilus influenza -
Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Haemophilus influenza - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Haemophilus influenza - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Haemophilus influenza - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Haemophilus influenza Infections - Answer (click
here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Haemophilus influenza Infections
9. Few Haemophilus Species - Answer (click here)
10. Pasteurella - Answer (click here)
11. Actinobacillus - Answer (click here)
12. HACEK Group of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Bordetella and Francisella

1. Bordetella - Answer (click here)
2. Bordetella pertussis: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Properties - Bordetella pertussis -
Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Bordetella pertussis - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Bordetella pertussis - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Bordetella pertussis - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Bordetella pertussis Infections - Answer (click
here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Bordetella pertussis Infections -
Answer (click here)
9. Bordetella parapertussis - Answer (click here)
10. Bordetella bronchiseptica - Answer (click here)
11. Francisella tularensis: Properties of the bacteria - Answer (click here)
12. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Francisella tularensis - Answer (click here)
13. Clinical Syndromes and Epidemiology - Francisella tularensis - Answer
(click here)
14. Laboratory Diagnosis of Francisella tularensis Infections - Answer (click
here)
15. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Francisella tularensis Infections -
Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Brucella
1. Brucella - Answer (click here)
2. Brucella: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Brucella - Answer (click
here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Brucella - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Brucella - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Brucella - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Brucella Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control of Brucella Infections - Answer (click
here)
Bacteriology Mycobacterium tuberculosis

1. Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
2. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: General Properties - Answer (click here)
3. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click
here)
4. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Mycobacterium
tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
5. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Answer (click
here)
6. Clinical Syndromes - Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
7. Complications of Tuberculosis - Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Answer
(click here)
8. Epidemiology - Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
9. Laboratory Diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infections - Answer
(click here)
10. Treatment for Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infections - Answer (click here)
11. Prevention and Control for Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infections -
Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Nontuberculous Mycobacteria

1. Nontuberculous Mycobacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Photochromogens - Answer (click here)
3. Scotochromogens - Answer (click here)
4. Nonphotochromogens - Answer (click here)
5. Rapid Growers - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium

1. Mycobacterium leprae: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Mycobacterium leprae
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Mycobacterium leprae - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Syndromes - Mycobacterium leprae - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology - Mycobacterium leprae - Answer (click here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis for Mycobacterium leprae Infections - Answer (click
here)
7. Treatment for Mycobacterium leprae Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Prevention and Control for Mycobacterium leprae Infections - Answer
(click here)
9. Mycobacterium lepraemurium - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Treponema Borrelia and Leptospira

1. Treponema - Answer (click here)
2. Treponema pallidum: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Treponema pallidum -
Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Treponema pallidum - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Treponema pallidum - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Treponema pallidum - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis - Treponema pallidum Infections - Answer (click
here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Treponema pallidum Infections -
Answer (click here)
9. Nonvenereal Treponematosis - Answer (click here)
10. Nonpathogenic Treponemes - Answer (click here)
11. Borrelia - Answer (click here)
12. Borrelia recurrentis: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
13. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Borrelia recurrentis - Answer (click here)
14. Clinical Syndromes - Borrelia recurrentis - Answer (click here)
15. Epidemiology - Borrelia recurrentis - Answer (click here)
16. Laboratory Diagnosis - Borrelia recurrentis infections - Answer (click here)
17. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Borrelia recurrentis infections -
Answer (click here)
18. Borrelia vincenti - Answer (click here)
19. Borrelia burgdorferi - Answer (click here)
20. Leptospira: Classification - Answer (click here)
21. Leptospira interrogans Complex: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click
here)
22. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Leptospira interrogans Complex - Answer
(click here)
23. Clinical Syndromes - Leptospira interrogans Complex - Answer (click here)
24. Epidemiology - Leptospira interrogans Complex - Answer (click here)
25. Laboratory Diagnosis - Leptospira interrogans Complex Infections -
Answer (click here)
26. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Leptospira interrogans Complex
Bacteriology Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma

1. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma - Answer (click here)
2. Mycoplasma pneumonia: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Mycoplasma
pneumonia - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Mycoplasma pneumonia - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Mycoplasma pneumonia - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Mycoplasma pneumonia - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis - Mycoplasma pneumonia Infections - Answer (click
here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Mycoplasma pneumonia Infections
9. Genital Mycoplasma Species - Answer (click here)
10. Ureaplasma urealyticum - Answer (click here)
11. Atypical Pneumonia - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Actinomycetes
1. Actinomycetes - Answer (click here)
2. Actinomyces: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Actinomyces - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Syndromes and Epidemiology - Actinomyces - Answer (click here)
5. Laboratory Diagnosis - Actinomyces Infections - Answer (click here)
6. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Actinomyces Infections - Answer
(click here)
7. Nocardia - Answer (click here)
8. Nocardia: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
9. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Nocardia - Answer (click here)
10. Clinical Syndromes - Nocardia - Answer (click here)
11. Epidemiology - Nocardia - Answer (click here)
12. Laboratory Diagnosis - Nocardia Infections - Answer (click here)
13. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Nocardia Infections - Answer (click
here)
14. Rhodococcus - Answer (click here)
15. Gordonia, Tsukamurella, Thermophilic Actinomyces, Tropheryma
whippelii, Dermatophilus, Oerskovia - Actinomycetes - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Miscellaneous Bacteria

1. Listeria monocytogenes - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Alcaligenes faecalis - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
4. Chromobacterium violaceum - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
5. Flavobacterium meningosepticum - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
6. Calymmatobacterium - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
7. Streptobacillus moniliformis - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
8. Spirillum minus - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
9. Legionella - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
10. Legionella pneumophila: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
11. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Legionella
pneumophila - Answer (click here)
12. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Legionella pneumophila - Answer (click here)
13. Clinical Sydromes - Legionella pneumophila - Answer (click here)
14. Epidemiology - Legionella pneumophila - Answer (click here)
15. Laboratory Diagnosis - Legionella pneumophila Infections - Answer (click
here)
16. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Legionella pneumophila Infections
17. Bartonella - Answer (click here)
18. Capnocytophaga - Answer (click here)
19. Gardnerella vaginalis - Bacteria - Answer (click here)
Bacteriology Rickettsia Orientia Ehrlichia and Coxiella

1. Rickettsia, Orientia Ehrlichia, and Coxiella - Answer (click here)
2. Genus Rickettsia: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
3. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Genus Rickettsia -
Answer (click here)
4. Typhus Fever Group - Answer (click here)
5. Rickettsia prowazekii - Answer (click here)
6. Rickettsia typhi - Answer (click here)
7. Spotted Fever Group - Answer (click here)
8. Rickettsia rickettsiae - Answer (click here)
9. Rickettsia akari - Answer (click here)
10. Orientia tsutsugamushi - Genus Orientia - Answer (click here)
11. Genus Ehrlichia - Answer (click here)
12. Genus Coxiella - Answer (click here)
13. Coxiella burnetii: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
14. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Coxiella burnetii -
Answer (click here)
15. Pathogenesis and Immunity, Clinical Syndrome - Coxiella burnetii -
Answer (click here)
16. Epidemiology - Coxiella burnetii - Answer (click here)
17. Laboratory Diagnosis - Coxiella burnetii Infections - Answer (click here)
18. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Coxiella burnetii Infections - Answer
(click here)
Bacteriology Chlamydia and Chlamydophilaum

1. Chlamydia - Answer (click here)
2. Chlamydia: General Properties, Growth and Multiplication - Answer (click
here)
3. Chlamydia trachomatis: Properties of the Bacteria - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Wall Components and Antigenic Structure - Chlamydia trachomatis
5. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Chlamydia trachomatis - Answer (click here)
6. Clinical Syndromes - Chlamydia trachomatis - Answer (click here)
7. Epidemiology - Chlamydia trachomatis - Answer (click here)
8. Laboratory Diagnosis - Chlamydia trachomatis Infections - Answer (click
here)
9. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Chlamydia trachomatis Infections -
Answer (click here)
10. Chlamydophila - Answer (click here)
11. Chlamydophila pneumonia - Answer (click here)
12. Chlamydophila psittaci - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus General Properties of Viruses

1. General Properties of Viruses - Answer (click here)
2. Morphology of Viruses - Answer (click here)
3. Structure and Symmetry of Virus - Answer (click here)
4. Susceptibility to Physical and Chemical Agents of Virus - Answer (click
here)
5. Replication of Viruses - Answer (click here)
6. Viral Genetics - Answer (click here)
7. Nomenclature and Taxonomy of Viruses - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Pathogenesis of Viral Infections

1. Stages of Viral Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Viral Pathogenesis at the Cellular Level - Answer (click here)
3. Host Response to Viral Infections - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Manifestations of Viral Diseases - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology - Pathogenesis of Viral Infections - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Antiviral Agents

1. Antiviral Agents - Answer (click here)
2. Mechanism of Action of Antiviral Drugs - Answer (click here)
3. Classification of Antiviral Drugs - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases

1. Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases - Answer (click here)
3. Demonstration of Virus-Induced CPEs in the Cells - Methods of
Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases - Answer (click here)
4. Direct Detection of Viruses - Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral
5. Virus Isolation - Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases -
Answer (click here)
6. Viral Assays - Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases -
Answer (click here)
7. Detection of Viral Proteins and Other Enzymes - Methods of Laboratory
Diagnosis of Viral Diseases - Answer (click here)
8. Detection of Viral Genome - Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral
9. Viral Serology - Methods of Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases -
Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Bacteriophages

1. Bacteriophages - Answer (click here)
2. Morphology - Bacteriophages - Answer (click here)
3. Life Cycle: Lysogenic and Lytic Cycle - Bacteriophages - Answer (click
here)
4. Uses of Bacteriophages - Answer (click here)
5. Bacteriophage Typing - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Poxviruses

1. Poxviruses: Classification - Answer (click here)
2. Variola (Smallpox) Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Virus Isolation and Animal Susceptibility - Variola (Smallpox) Virus -
Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Variola (Smallpox) Virus - Answer (click
here)
5. Clinical Syndrome - Variola (Smallpox) Virus - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Variola (Smallpox) Virus - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis - Variola (Smallpox) Virus Infections - Answer
(click here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Variola (Smallpox) Virus Infections
9. Vaccinia Virus - Answer (click here)
10. Monkeypox - Answer (click here)
11. Buffalopox - Answer (click here)
12. Cowpox - Answer (click here)
13. Orf - Answer (click here)
14. Molluscum Contagiosum - Answer (click here)
15. Tanapox and Yabapox - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Papovaviruses

1. Human Papillomaviruses: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
2. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Human Papillomaviruses - Answer (click
here)
3. Clinical Syndromes - Human Papillomaviruses - Answer (click here)
4. Epidemiology - Human Papillomaviruses - Answer (click here)
5. Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control - Human
Papillomaviruses Infections - Answer (click here)
6. Polyomavirus - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Herpesviruses

1. Herpesviruses - Answer (click here)
2. Herpes Simplex Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Virus Isolation and Animal Susceptibility - Herpes Simplex Virus -
Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Herpes Simplex Virus - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Herpes Simplex Virus - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Herpes Simplex Virus - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis - Herpes Simplex Virus Infections - Answer (click
here)
8. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Herpes Simplex Virus Infections -
Answer (click here)
9. Herpesvirus Simiae: B Virus - Answer (click here)
10. Varicella Zoster Virus: Properties of the Virus, Virus Isolation and
Animal Susceptibility - Answer (click here)
11. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Varicella Zoster Virus - Answer (click here)
12. Clinical Syndromes - Varicella Zoster Virus - Answer (click here)
13. Epidemiology - Varicella Zoster Virus - Answer (click here)
14. Laboratory Diagnosis - Varicella Zoster Virus Infections - Answer (click
here)
15. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Varicella Zoster Virus Infections -
Answer (click here)
16. Epstein Barr Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
17. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Epstein Barr Virus - Answer (click here)
18. Clinical Syndromes - Epstein Barr Virus - Answer (click here)
19. Epidemiology - Epstein Barr Virus - Answer (click here)
20. Laboratory Diagnosis - Epstein Barr Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
21. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Epstein Barr Virus Infections -
Answer (click here)
22. Cytomegalovirus: Classification, Properties of the Virus, Virus Isolation
and Animal Susceptibility - Answer (click here)
23. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Cytomegalovirus - Answer (click here)
24. Clinical Syndromes - Cytomegalovirus - Answer (click here)
25. Epidemiology - Cytomegalovirus - Answer (click here)
26. Laboratory Diagnosis - Cytomegalovirus Infections - Answer (click here)
27. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Cytomegalovirus Infections -
Answer (click here)
28. Human Herpesvirus 6,7,8 - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Adenoviruses

1. Adenovirus: Classification - Answer (click here)
2. Adenovirus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Virus Isolation and Animal Susceptibility - Adenovirus - Answer (click
here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Adenovirus - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Adenovirus - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Adenovirus - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis - Adenovirus Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Treatment - Adenovirus Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Adeno-Associated Viruses - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Parvoviruses

1. Parvoviruses - Answer (click here)
2. Parvovirus B19: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Parvovirus B19 - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Syndromes - Parvovirus B19 - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology - Parvovirus B19 - Answer (click here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control - Parvovirus
B19 Infections - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Picornaviruses

1. Picornaviruses - Answer (click here)
2. Enteroviruses - Answer (click here)
3. Poliovirus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
4. Virus Isolation and Animal Susceptibility - Poliovirus - Answer (click here)
5. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Poliovirus - Answer (click here)
6. Clinical Syndromes - Poliovirus - Answer (click here)
7. Epidemiology - Poliovirus - Answer (click here)
8. Laboratory Diagnosis - Poliovirus Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Poliovirus Infections - Answer (click
here)
10. Coxsackieviruses - Answer (click here)
11. Diseases Caused by Coxsackie A and B - Answer (click here)
12. Echoviruses - Answer (click here)
13. Enterovirus 70 - Answer (click here)
14. Rhinoviruses - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Orthomyxoviruses

1. Orthomyxoviruses - Answer (click here)
2. Influenza Viruses: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Virus Isolation and Animal Susceptibility - Influenza Viruses - Answer
(click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Influenza Viruses - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndrome - Influenza Viruses - Answer (click here)
6. Complications - Influenza Viruses - Answer (click here)
7. Epidemiology - Influenza Viruses - Answer (click here)
8. Laboratory Diagnosis - Influenza Viruses Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Treatment - Influenza Viruses Infections - Answer (click here)
10. Prevention and Control - Influenza Viruses Infections - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Paramyxoviruses

1. Paramyxoviruses - Answer (click here)
2. Measles Virus: General Properties - Answer (click here)
3. Virus Isolation - Measles Virus - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Measles Virus - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Measles Virus - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Measles Virus - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis - Measles Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
8. Prevention and Control - Measles Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
9. Parainfluenza Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
10. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Parainfluenza Virus - Answer (click here)
11. Clinical Syndromes and Epidemiology - Parainfluenza Virus - Answer
(click here)
12. Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control -
Parainfluenza Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
13. Mumps Virus: Properties of the Virus, Virus Isolation - Answer (click here)
14. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Mumps Virus - Answer (click here)
15. Clinical Syndrome and Epidemiology - Mumps Virus - Answer (click here)
16. Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control - Mumps
Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
17. Respiratory Syncytial: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
18. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Respiratory Syncytial - Answer (click here)
19. Clinical Syndromes - Respiratory Syncytial - Answer (click here)
20. Epidemiology - Respiratory Syncytial - Answer (click here)
21. Laboratory Diagnosis - Respiratory Syncytial Infections - Answer (click
here)
22. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Respiratory Syncytial Infections -
Answer (click here)
23. Nipah Virus and Hendra Virus - Answer (click here)
24. Human Metapneumovirus - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Reoviruses

1. Human Metapneumovirus - Answer (click here)
2. Reoviruses - Answer (click here)
3. Orbiviruses - Answer (click here)
4. Coltiviruses and Colorado Tick Fever Virus - Answer (click here)
5. Orthoreoviruses - Answer (click here)
6. Rotavirus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
7. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Rotavirus - Answer (click here)
8. Clinical Syndrome and Epidemiology - Rotavirus - Answer (click here)
9. Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control - Rotavirus
Virology Virus Rhabdoviruses

1. Rhabdoviruses - Answer (click here)
2. Rabies Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Virus Isolation and Animal Susceptibility - Rabies Virus - Answer (click
here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Rabies Virus - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndrome - Rabies Virus - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Rabies Virus - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis in Humans - Rabies Virus Infection - Answer (click
here)
8. Direct Antigen Detection - Rabies Virus Infection - Answer (click here)
9. Laboratory Diagnosis in Animals - Rabies Virus Infection - Answer (click
here)
10. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Rabies Virus Infection - Answer (click
here)
11. Rabies-Related Viruses - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Arboviruses

1. Arboviruses - Answer (click here)
2. Important Properties of Arboviruses - Answer (click here)
3. Roboviruses - Answer (click here)
4. Togaviruses: Alphaviruses, Rubivirus - Answer (click here)
5. Flaviviruses - Answer (click here)
6. Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses - Answer (click here)
7. Properties of the virus Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses - Answer (click here)
8. Pathogenesis and immunity - Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses - Answer (click
here)
9. Clinical syndromes - Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses - Answer (click here)
10. Epidemiology - Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses - Answer (click here)
11. Laboratory diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and control - Mosquito-
Borne Flaviviruses Infections - Answer (click here)
12. Tick-Borne Flaviviruses - Answer (click here)
13. Bunyaviridae Viruses - Answer (click here)
14. Reoviridae - Answer (click here)
15. Rhabdoviridae - Answer (click here)
16. Ungrouped Arboviruses - Answer (click here)
Hepatitis Viruses
1. Hepatitis Viruses: Introduction - Answer (click here)
2. Hepatitis A Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Hepatitis A Virus - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Syndrome - Hepatitis A Virus - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology - Hepatitis A Virus - Answer (click here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis - Hepatitis A Virus - Answer (click here)
7. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Hepatitis A Virus Infections -
Answer (click here)
8. Hepatitis B Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
9. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Hepatitis B Virus - Answer (click here)
10. Clinical Syndromes - Hepatitis B Virus - Answer (click here)
11. Epidemiology - Hepatitis B Virus - Answer (click here)
12. Laboratory Diagnosis - Hepatitis B Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
13. Treatment - Hepatitis B Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
14. Prevention and Control - Hepatitis B Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
15. Hepatitis C Virus: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
16. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Hepatitis C Virus - Answer (click here)
17. Clinical Syndromes - Hepatitis C Virus - Answer (click here)
18. Epidemiology - Hepatitis C Virus - Answer (click here)
19. Laboratory Diagnosis - Hepatitis C Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
20. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Hepatitis C Virus Infections -
Answer (click here)
21. Hepatitis D Virus - Answer (click here)
22. Hepatitis E Virus - Answer (click here)
23. Hepatitis G Virus - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Retrovirus

1. Retroviruses: Classification - Answer (click here)
2. Retroviruses: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Retroviruses - Answer (click here)
4. Clinical Syndromes - Retroviruses - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemiology - Retroviruses - Answer (click here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis and Treatment - Retroviruses Infections - Answer
(click here)
7. Human T-Lymphotropic Viruses: Properties of the Virus - Answer (click
here)
8. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Human T-Lymphotropic Viruses - Answer
(click here)
9. Host immunity - Human T-Lymphotropic Viruses - Answer (click here)
10. Clinical Syndromes - Human T-Lymphotropic Viruses - Answer (click here)
11. Epidemiology - Human T-Lymphotropic Viruses - Answer (click here)
12. Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control - Human T-
Lymphotropic Viruses Infections - Answer (click here)
13. Endogenous Retroviruses - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Human Immunodeficiency Virus

1. Human Immunodeficiency Virus - Answer (click here)
2. HIV Virus: Classification and Properties of the Virus - Answer (click here)
3. HIV Virus Isolation: Cell culture - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - HIV Virus - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - HIV Virus - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - HIV Virus - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis - HIV Virus infection - Answer (click here)
8. Treatment - HIV Virus infection - Answer (click here)
9. Prevention and Control - HIV Virus infection - Answer (click here)
Virology Virus Slow Viruses and Prions

1. Slow Viruses and Prions - Answer (click here)
2. Slow Diseases Caused by Prions - Answer (click here)
3. Properties of the Prions - Slow Diseases Caused by Prions - Answer (click
here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Slow Diseases Caused by Prions - Answer
(click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes - Slow Diseases Caused by Prions - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Slow Diseases Caused by Prions - Answer (click here)
7. Laboratory Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control - Slow
Diseases Caused by Prions - Answer (click here)
8. Slow Diseases Caused by Conventional Viruses in Humans - Answer (click
here)
9. Slow Diseases Caused by Conventional Viruses in Animals - Answer
(click here)
Virology Virus Miscellaneous Viruses
1. Rubella Virus - Answer (click here)
2. Norwalk Virus - Answer (click here)
3. Viral Hemorrhagic Fever - Answer (click here)
4. Arenavirus - Answer (click here)
5. Coronaviruses - Answer (click here)
Mycology Fungi Introduction to Mycology

1. Introduction to Mycology - Answer (click here)
2. Classification of Fungi - Answer (click here)
3. Reproduction of Fungi - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis of Fungal Infection - Answer (click here)
5. Laboratory Diagnosis of Fungal Infection - Answer (click here)
6. Antifungal Drugs - Answer (click here)
Mycology Fungi Superficial Cutaneous and Subcutaneous

Mycoses
1. Superficial Mycoses - Answer (click here)
2. Cutaneous Mycoses - Answer (click here)
3. Subcutaneous Mycosis - Answer (click here)
Mycology Fungi Systemic Mycoses

1. Coccidioidomycosis - Answer (click here)
2. Paracoccidioidomycosis - Answer (click here)
3. Histoplasmosis - Answer (click here)
4. Blastomycosis - Answer (click here)
5. Cryptococcosis - Answer (click here)
Mycology Fungi Opportunistic Fungal Infections

1. Opportunistic Fungal Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Candidiasis - Answer (click here)
3. Candida albicans: Properties - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis and Immunity - Candida albicans - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Syndromes and Epidemiology - Candida albicans - Answer (click
here)
6. Laboratory Diagnosis - Candida albicans Infections - Answer (click here)
7. Treatment, Prevention and Control - Candida albicans Infections -
Answer (click here)
8. Aspergillus Species - Answer (click here)
9. Zygomycosis - Answer (click here)
10. Pneumocystis jiroveci - Pneumocystosis - Answer (click here)
11. Penicillium marneffei - Penicilliosis - Answer (click here)
12. Pseudoallescheria boydii Infection - Answer (click here)
13. Fusarium solani Infection - Answer (click here)
Applied Microbiology Normal Microbial Flora

1. Normal Microbial Flora - Answer (click here)
2. Functions of Resident Flora - Answer (click here)
3. Factors Determining the Colonization by Microbes - Answer (click here)
4. Normal Flora at Various Sites of the Body - Answer (click here)
5. Normal Flora at Respiratory Tract - Answer (click here)
6. Normal Flora at Gastrointestinal Tract - Answer (click here)
7. Normal Flora at Genitourinary Tract - Answer (click here)
8. Normal Flora at Body Surface - Answer (click here)
9. Normal Flora at Sterile Sites - Answer (click here)
Applied Microbiology Bacteriology of Water Milk and Air

1. Bacteriology of Water - Answer (click here)
2. Bacteriology of Milk - Answer (click here)
3. Bacteriology of Air - Answer (click here)
Applied Microbiology Nosocomial Infections

1. Nosocomial Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Factors Affecting Hospital-Acquired Infection - Answer (click here)
3. Epidemiology of Hospital-Acquired Infections - Answer (click here)
4. Diagnosis of Hospital-Acquired Infections - Answer (click here)
5. Prevention and Control of Hospital-Acquired Infections - Answer (click
here)
Applied Microbiology Biomedical Waste Management

1. Biomedical Waste Management - Answer (click here)
2. Types of Biomedical Waste - Answer (click here)
3. Waste Treatment and Disposal of Biomedical Wastes - Answer (click here)
Applied Microbiology Immunoprophylaxis

1. Immunoprophylaxis - Answer (click here)
2. Active Immunization - Answer (click here)
3. Immunization Schedule - Answer (click here)
4. Passive Immunization - Answer (click here)
5. Individual Immunization - Answer (click here)
Subject : Medical Microbiology

Diseases Overview
1. The Infectious Agents : The Microbial World - Answer (click here)
2. Infectious Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Clinical Aspects of Infectious Disease - Answer (click here)
Diseases Bacterial Structures

1. General Morphology, Body Plan, and Composition - Bacterial Structures
2. Envelope and Appendages - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
3. Capsule - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
4. Cell Wall - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
5. Gram Positive Cell Wall - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
6. Gram Negative Cell Wall - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
7. Cell Membrane - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
8. Flagella - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
9. Pili - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
10. Core - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
11. Cytosol - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
12. Nucleoid - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
13. Plasmids - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
14. Spores - Bacterial Structures - Answer (click here)
Diseases Bacterial Processes

1. Bacterial Metabolism - Cell Growth of Bacterial - Answer (click here)
2. Fueling Reactions - Cell Growth of Bacterial - Answer (click here)
3. Biosynthesis - Cell Growth of Bacterial - Answer (click here)
4. Polymerization Reactions - Cell Growth of Bacterial - Answer (click here)
5. Assembly Reactions and Protein Translocation - Cell Growth of
Bacterial - Answer (click here)
6. Cell Division - Cell Growth of Bacterial - Answer (click here)
7. Growth of Bacterial Cultures - Answer (click here)
8. Biofilms - Bacterial Processes - Answer (click here)
9. Regulation and Adaptation - Cell Growth of Bacterial - Answer (click here)
10. Cell Survival - Bacterial Processes - Answer (click here)
11. Bacterial Virulence - Answer (click here)
Diseases Bacterial Genetics

1. Bacterial Variation and Inheritance - Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click
here)
2. Mutation and Repair - Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click here)
3. Genetic Exchange in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
4. Transformation - Genetic Exchange in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
5. Transduction - Genetic Exchange in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
6. Conjugation - Genetic Exchange in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
7. Genetic Recombination - Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click here)
8. Transposable Elements - Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click here)
9. More about Bacterial Plasmids - Answer (click here)
10. General Properties and Varieties of Plasmids - Bacterial Genetics -
Answer (click here)
11. R Plasmids - Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click here)
12. Detection of Plasmids - Bacterial Genetics - Answer (click here)
13. Bacterial Classification - Answer (click here)
14. Population Genetics of Pathogens - Answer (click here)
Diseases Viral Structure

1. Viral Structure - Answer (click here)
2. Virion Size and Design - Viral Structure - Answer (click here)
3. Genome Structure - Viral Structure - Answer (click here)
4. Capsid Structure - Viral Structure - Answer (click here)
Diseases Viral Multiplication

1. Growth and Assay of Viruses - Viral Multiplication - Answer (click here)
2. One-Step Growth Experiment - Viral Multiplication - Answer (click here)
3. Adsorption - Viral Multiplication - Answer (click here)
4. Entry and Uncoating - Viral Multiplication - Answer (click here)
5. Problems of Producing mRNA - Answer (click here)
6. Genome Replication: DNA, RNA Viruses - Answer (click here)
7. Assembly of Naked Capsid Viruses and Nucleocapsids - Answer (click
here)
8. Release - Viral Multiplication - Answer (click here)
9. Quantitation of Viruses - Answer (click here)
10. Interferons - Viral Multiplication - Answer (click here)
Diseases Viral Genetics

1. Mechanisms of Viral Genetic Change - Answer (click here)
2. Latent State - Viral Genetics - Answer (click here)
3. Lysogeny - Viral Genetics - Answer (click here)
4. Malignant Transformation - Viral Genetics - Answer (click here)
5. Transformation by DNA Animal Viruses - Answer (click here)
6. Transformation by Retroviruses - Answer (click here)
Diseases Immune Response to Infection

1. Immune Response to Infection - Answer (click here)
2. Immuno Responsive Cells - Answer (click here)
3. Antigens and Epitopes - Answer (click here)
4. Basis of Immunologic Specificity - Answer (click here)
5. The T-Cell Response - Answer (click here)
6. Cell-Mediated Immunity - Answer (click here)
7. B Cells and Antibody Responses - Answer (click here)
8. Antibodies - B Cells and Antibody Responses - Answer (click here)
9. Functional Properties of Immunoglobulins - Answer (click here)
11. Antibody-Mediated Immunity - Answer (click here)
12. Complement System - Immune Response to Infection - Answer (click here)
13. Adverse Effects of Immunologic Reactions and Hypersensitivity - Answer
(click here)
14. Tolerance - Immune Response to Infection - Answer (click here)
15. Functional Integration of the Immune System in Response to Infectious
Organisms - Answer (click here)
Diseases Normal Microbial Flora

1. Origin of the Normal Flora - Answer (click here)
2. Factors Determining the Nature of the Normal Flora - Answer (click here)
3. Normal Flora at Different Sites - Answer (click here)
4. Role of the Normal Flora in Disease - Answer (click here)
5. Beneficial Effects of the Normal Flora - Answer (click here)
6. Manipulation of the Normal Flora - Answer (click here)
Diseases Host Parasite Relationships
1. Emergence of Infectious Disease - Answer (click here)
2. Outcome of Infection - Answer (click here)
3. What is a Pathogen? - Answer (click here)
4. Changes in Microbial Pathogenicity - Answer (click here)
5. Toward a Genetic and Molecular Definition of Pathogenicity - Answer
(click here)
6. Attributes of Microbial Pathogenicity - Answer (click here)
7. Adherence: The Search for a Unique Niche - Attributes of Microbial
Pathogenicity - Answer (click here)
8. Strategy for Survival: Avoid, Circumvent, Subvert, or Manipulate
Normal Host Cell Defenses - Answer (click here)
9. Establishment: Overcoming the Host’s Immune System - Answer (click
here)
10. Exotoxins - Virulence Factors: Toxins - Answer (click here)
11. Endotoxin - Virulence Factors: Toxins - Answer (click here)
12. Avoiding the Host Immune System - Answer (click here)
13. Inadvertent Tissue Damage From Immune Reactions Directed Against
Invading Bacteria - Answer (click here)
14. Disease and Transmissibility - Answer (click here)
15. Corollaries of Microbial Pathogenicity - Answer (click here)
Sterilization and Disinfection

1. Sterilization and Disinfection: Definitions - Answer (click here)
2. Microbial Killing - Answer (click here)
4. Disinfection: Physical Methods and Chemical Methods - Answer (click
here)
Diseases Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases

1. Sources and Communicability - Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases -
Answer (click here)
2. Infection and Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Incubation Period and Communicability - Answer (click here)
4. Routes of Transmission - Answer (click here)
5. Epidemics - Answer (click here)
6. Control of Epidemics - Answer (click here)
7. General Principles of Immunization - Answer (click here)
Diseases Antibacterial and Antiviral Agents
1. Antibacterial Therapy - Answer (click here)
2. Selected Antibacterial Antimicrobics - Answer (click here)
3. β-Lactam Antimicrobics - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall
4. Glycopeptide Antimicrobics - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall
5. Aminoglycosides - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall Synthesis -
Answer (click here)
6. Tetracyclines - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall Synthesis - Answer
(click here)
7. Chloramphenicol - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall Synthesis -
Answer (click here)
8. Macrolides - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall Synthesis - Answer
(click here)
9. Clindamycin, Oxazolidinones, Streptogramins - Antimicrobics That Act
on Cell Wall Synthesis - Answer (click here)
10. Quinolones - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall Synthesis - Answer
(click here)
11. Folate Inhibitors - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall Synthesis -
Answer (click here)
12. Metronidazole, Rifampin - Antimicrobics That Act on Cell Wall
13. Antimicrobics Acting on the Outer and Cytoplasmic Membranes -
Answer (click here)
14. Antiviral Therapy - Answer (click here)
15. Inhibitors of Attachment - Antiviral Agents - Answer (click here)
16. Inhibitors of Cell Penetration and Uncoating - Antiviral Agents - Answer
(click here)
17. Neuraminidase Inhibitors - Antiviral Agents - Answer (click here)
18. Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis - Antiviral Agents - Answer (click
here)
19. Inhibitor of Viral RNA Synthesis: Ribavirin - Antiviral Agents - Answer
(click here)
20. Inhibitors of HIV - Antiviral Agents - Answer (click here)
21. Nucleotide Analogs: Cidofovir - Antiviral Agents - Answer (click here)
22. Foscarnet, Interferons, Fomivirsen - Antiviral Agents - Answer (click here)
23. Antiviral Resistance - Answer (click here)
Diseases Antimicrobial Resistance

1. Susceptibility and Antimicrobial Resistance - Answer (click here)
2. Laboratory Control of Antimicrobial Therapy - Answer (click here)
3. Mechanisms of Resistance - Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobics -
Answer (click here)
4. Genetics of Resistance - Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobics - Answer
(click here)
5. Epidemiology of Resistance - Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobics -
Answer (click here)
6. Control of Resistance - Bacterial Resistance to Antimicrobics - Answer
(click here)
7. Selection and Administration of Antibacterial Antimicrobics - Answer
(click here)
Diseases Principles of Laboratory Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases

1. Specimen - Laboratory Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases - Answer (click
here)
2. Direct Examination - Laboratory Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases -
Answer (click here)
3. Isolation and Identification of Bacteria - Laboratory Diagnosis of
Infectious Diseases - Answer (click here)
4. Isolation and Identification of Viruses - Laboratory Diagnosis of
Infectious Diseases - Answer (click here)
5. Methods for Detecting an Antigen-Antibody Reaction - Answer (click here)
6. Serologic Classification - Immunologic Systems - Answer (click here)
7. Antibody Detection (Serology) - Answer (click here)
8. Antigen Detection - Immunologic Systems - Answer (click here)
9. Nucleic Acid Analysis - Answer (click here)
10. Methods of Nucleic Acid Analysis - Answer (click here)
11. Application of Nucleic Acid Methods to Infectious Diseases - Answer
(click here)
Diseases Staphylococci
1. Staphyloccoci: Group Characteristics - Answer (click here)
2. Morphology and Structure - Staphylococcus aureus - Answer (click here)
3. Characteristics for Identification and Subtyping - Staphylococcus aureus
4. Toxins and Biologically active Extracellular Enzymes - Staphylococcus
5. Staphylococcal Disease - Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Immunity -
Answer (click here)
6. Staphylococcal Infections : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci - Answer (click here)
Diseases Streptococci and Enterococci

1. Streptococci - Group Characteristics - Answer (click here)
2. Group A Streptococci (Streptococcus pyogenes) - Bacteriology - Answer
(click here)
3. Group A Strepto Coccal Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Group A Strepto Coccal Infections : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Group B Streptococci (Streptococcus agalactiae) - Answer (click here)
6. Group B Strepto Coccal Disease - Answer (click here)
7. Group B Strepto Cocci : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Streptococcus pneumonia - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
9. Pneumococcal Disease - Answer (click here)
10. Pneumococcal Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
11. Viridans and Nonhemolytic Streptococci - Answer (click here)
12. Enterococci - Answer (click here)
13. Entero Coccal Disease - Answer (click here)
14. Entero Coccal Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases CorynebacteriumListeriaand Bacillus

1. Corynebacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Corynebacterium diphtheria - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
3. Corynebacterium diphtheria : Clinical aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Listeria Monocytogenes - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
5. Listeria Monocytogenes : Clinical aspects - Answer (click here)
6. Bacillus anthracis - Answer (click here)
7. Anthrax - Answer (click here)
8. Anthrax : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Other Bacillus Species - Answer (click here)
Diseases Clostridium Peptostreptococcus Bacteroides and Other

Anaerobes
1. Bacteriology : Anaerobic Bacteria - Answer (click here)
2. Anaerobic Infections - Answer (click here)
3. Anaerobic Infections : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Clostridium Perfringens - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
5. Clostridium Perfringens Disease - Answer (click here)
6. Clostridium Perfringens : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Clostridium Tetani - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
8. Tetanus : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Clostridium Botulinum - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
10. Botulism - Answer (click here)
11. Botulism : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
12. Clostridium Difficile - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
13. Clostridium Difficile Diarrhea - Answer (click here)
14. Clostridium Difficile : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
15. Bacteroides Fragilis - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
16. Bacteroides Fragilis Disease - Answer (click here)
17. Bacteroides Fragilis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Neisseria
1. Neisseria: General Features - Answer (click here)
2. Neisseria Meningitidis - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
3. Meningo Coccal Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Meningo Coccal Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Neisseria Gonorrhoeae - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
6. Gonorrhea - Answer (click here)
7. Gonorrhea : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Enterobacteriaceae
1. Enterobacteriaceae - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Diseases Caused By Entero Bacteriaceae - Answer (click here)
3. Entero Bacteriaceae : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Escherichia Coli - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
5. Escherichia Coli Opportunistic Infections - Answer (click here)
6. Escherichia Coli Intestinal Infections - Answer (click here)
7. Enterotoxigenic E. Coli (ETEC) - Answer (click here)
8. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) - Answer (click here)
9. Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) - Answer (click here)
10. Escherichia Coli Infections : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
11. Shigella - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
12. Shigellosis - Answer (click here)
13. Shigellosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
14. Salmonella - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
15. Salmonella Gastroenteritis ( S. enterica) - Answer (click here)
16. Enteric ( Typhoid ) Fever ( Salmonella sero type Typhi ) - Answer (click
here)
17. Salmonellosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
18. Yersinia - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
19. Yersinia Diseases(Y. pseudotuberculosisand Y. enterocolitica) - Answer
(click here)
20. Yersinia Infections : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
21. Klebsiella - Enterobacteriaceae - Answer (click here)
22. Enterobacter - Enterobacteriaceae - Answer (click here)
23. Serratia - Enterobacteriaceae - Answer (click here)
24. Citrobacter - Enterobacteriaceae - Answer (click here)
25. Proteus, Providencia, And Morganella - Enterobacteriaceae - Answer (click
here)
Diseases Vibrio Campylobacter and Helicobacter

1. Vibrio - Answer (click here)
2. Vibrio cholerae - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
3. Cholera - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
4. Cholera : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Campylobacter - Answer (click here)
6. Bacteriology : Campylobacter jejuni - Answer (click here)
7. Campylo Bacter Enteritis - Answer (click here)
8. Campylobacterosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Helicobacter - Answer (click here)
10. Bacteriology : Helicobacter pylori - Answer (click here)
11. Helicobacter Gastritis - Answer (click here)
12. Helicobacter Disease: Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Pseudomonas and Other Opportunistic Gram negative

Bacilli
1. Pseudomonas - Answer (click here)
2. Pseudomonas aeruginosa - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
3. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Disease: Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Burkholderia - Answer (click here)
6. Acinetobacter - Answer (click here)
7. Moraxella - Answer (click here)
8. Aeromonas And Plesiomonas - Answer (click here)
9. Other Gram-Negative Rods - Answer (click here)
Diseases Haemophilus and Bordetella

1. Haemophilus - Answer (click here)
2. Haemophilus influenza - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
3. Haemophilus influenza Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Haemophilus influenza Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Haemophilus ducreyi - Answer (click here)
6. Bordetella - Answer (click here)
7. Bordetella Pertussis - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
8. Pertussis (Whooping Cough) - Answer (click here)
9. Pertussis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma

1. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma - Microbiology - Answer (click here)
2. Mycoplasmal Pneumonia - Mycoplasma Pneumoniae - Answer (click here)
3. Mycoplasmal Pneumonia : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Mycoplasma Hominis - Answer (click here)
5. Ureaplasma Urealyticum - Answer (click here)
Diseases Legionella
1. Legionella - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Legionellosis - Answer (click here)
3. Legionellosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Spirochetes
1. Spirochetes - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Spirochetal Diseases - Answer (click here)
3. Treponema Pallidum - Answer (click here)
4. Syphilis - Answer (click here)
5. Syphilis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
6. Leptospira Interrogans - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
7. Leptospirosis - Answer (click here)
8. Leptospirosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Borrelia - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
10. Relapsing Fever - Answer (click here)
11. Relapsing Fever : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
12. Borrelia Burgdorferi - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
13. Lyme Disease - Answer (click here)
14. Lyme Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Mycobacteria
1. Mycobacterium - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Mycobacterial Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
4. Tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
5. Tuberculosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
6. Tuberculosis : Epidemiology - Answer (click here)
7. Tuberculosis : Pathogenesis - Answer (click here)
8. Tuberculosis : Immunity - Answer (click here)
9. Tuberculosis : Diagnosis - Answer (click here)
10. Tuberculosis: Treatment - Answer (click here)
11. Tuberculosis: Prevention - Answer (click here)
12. Mycobacterium Leprae - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
13. Leprosy - Answer (click here)
14. Leprosy : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
15. Mycobacteria Causing Tuberculosis-Like Diseases - Answer (click here)
16. Mycobacterial Soft Tissue Infections - Answer (click here)
Diseases Actinomyces and Nocardia

1. Actinomyces - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Actinomycosis - Answer (click here)
3. Actinomycosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Nocardia - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
5. Nocardiosis - Answer (click here)
6. Nocardiosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Rhodococcus - Answer (click here)
Diseases Chlamydia
1. Chlamydia Trachomatis - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Chlamydia trachomatis Diseases - Answer (click here)
3. Chlamydiatrachomatis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Chlamydia Psittaci - Answer (click here)
5. Chlamydia Pneumoniae - Answer (click here)
Diseases Rickettsia Coxiella Ehrlichia and Bartonella

1. Rickettsia - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Rickettsial Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Rickettsial Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Coxiella - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
5. Coxiella Infection : Q Fever - Answer (click here)
6. Q Fever : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Ehrlichia - Answer (click here)
8. Bartonella - Answer (click here)
Diseases Plague and Other Bacterial Zoonotic Diseases

1. Brucella - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
2. Brucellosis - Answer (click here)
3. Brucellosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Yersinia Pestis - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
5. Plague - Answer (click here)
6. Plague : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Francisella - Bacteriology - Answer (click here)
8. Tularemia - Answer (click here)
9. Tularemia : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
10. Pasteurella Multocida - Answer (click here)
Diseases Influenza Respiratory Syncytial Virus Adenovirus and

Other Respiratory Viruses
1. Influenza Virus Group Characteristics - Answer (click here)
2. Influenza A - Answer (click here)
3. Influenza - Answer (click here)
4. Influenza : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Respiratory Syncytial Virus - Virology - Answer (click here)
6. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Disease - Answer (click here)
7. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Parainfluenza Viruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
9. Parainfluenza Disease - Answer (click here)
10. Parainfluenza Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
11. Adenoviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
12. Adenovirus Disease - Answer (click here)
13. Adenovirus Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
14. Rhinoviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
15. Rhinovirus Disease - Answer (click here)
16. Rhinovirus Disease : Treatment And Prevention - Answer (click here)
17. Coronaviruses - Answer (click here)
18. Reoviruses - Answer (click here)
Diseases Mumps Virus Measles Rubella and Other Childhood

Exanthems
1. Mumps - Virology - Answer (click here)
2. Mumps Infection - Answer (click here)
3. Mumps : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Measles - Virology - Answer (click here)
5. Measles Infection - Answer (click here)
6. Measles : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Rubella - Virology - Answer (click here)
8. Rubella Infection - Answer (click here)
9. Rubella : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
10. Parvovirus B19 Infections - Answer (click here)
11. Roseola Infantum (Exanthem Subitum) - Answer (click here)
Diseases Poxviruses
1. Poxviruses: Group Characteristics - Answer (click here)
2. Variola (Smallpox) - Answer (click here)
3. Smallpox :Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Vaccinia virus - Answer (click here)
5. Molluscum Contagiosum virus - Answer (click here)
6. Orf - Answer (click here)
7. Milker’s Nodules and Cowpox - Answer (click here)
Diseases Enteroviruses
1. Enteroviruses: Group Characteristics - Virology - Answer (click here)
2. Entero Virus Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Entero Viruses: Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Polio - Answer (click here)
5. Polio : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
6. Coxsackieviruses and Echoviruses - Answer (click here)
Diseases Hepatitis Viruses

1. Hepatitis A - Virology - Answer (click here)
2. Hepatitis A Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Hepatitis A Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Hepatitis B - Virology - Answer (click here)
5. Hepatitis B Disease - Answer (click here)
6. Hepatitis B Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Delta Hepatitis (Hepatitis D) - Virology - Answer (click here)
8. Delta Hepatitis Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Hepatitis C - Virology - Answer (click here)
10. Hepatitis C Disease - Answer (click here)
11. Hepatitis C Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
12. Hepatitis E - Answer (click here)
13. Hepatitis G - Answer (click here)
Diseases Herpesviruses
1. Herpesviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
2. Herpes Simplex Virus - Virology - Answer (click here)
3. Herpes Simplex Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Herpes Simplex : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Varicella-Zoster Virus - Virology - Answer (click here)
6. Varicella - Zoster Disease - Answer (click here)
7. Varicella - Zoster Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Cytomegalovirus - Virology - Answer (click here)
9. Cytomegalo Virus Disease - Answer (click here)
10. Cytomegalo Virus : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
11. Epstein-Barr Virus - Virology - Answer (click here)
12. Epstein – Barr Virus Disease - Answer (click here)
13. Epstein - Barr Virus : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
14. Human Herpesvirus-6 - Answer (click here)
Diseases Viruses of Diarrhea

1. Viruses of Diarrhea: General Features - Answer (click here)
2. Rotaviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
3. Human Rota Viru Infections - Answer (click here)
4. Rota Virus Infections : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Caliciviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
6. Calici Virus Infections - Answer (click here)
7. Calici Virus Infections :Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Adenoviruses, Astroviruses, And “Candidate” Viruses - Answer (click here)
Diseases Arthropod Borne and Other Zoonotic Viruses

1. Arthropod-Borne and Other Zoonotic Viruses - Answer (click here)
2. Arbo Virus Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Arbovirus Disease: Specific Arboviruses - Answer (click here)
4. Arbo Virus Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Arenaviruses - Answer (click here)
6. Filoviruses: Marburg and Ebola Viruses - Answer (click here)
7. Hantaviruses - Answer (click here)
8. Vesicular Stomatitis Virus - Answer (click here)
Diseases Rabies
1. Rabies - Answer (click here)
2. Rabies : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Retroviruses Human Immunodeficiency Virus and

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
1. Retroviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
2. Retroviral Genes - Answer (click here)
3. Transformation by Retroviruses - Answer (click here)
4. Roles of HIV-1 Regulatory and Accessory Proteins - Answer (click here)
5. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ( AIDS ) - Answer (click here)
6. Epidemiology - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ( AIDS ) -
Answer (click here)
7. Pathogenesis - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome ( AIDS ) -
Answer (click here)
8. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) :Clinical Aspects -
Answer (click here)
9. Manifestations - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) -
Answer (click here)
10. Diagnosis - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) - Answer
(click here)
11. Treatment and Prevention - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS) - Answer (click here)
Diseases Papovaviruses
1. Papillomaviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
2. Papilloma Virus Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Papilloma Virus :Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Polyomaviruses - Virology - Answer (click here)
5. Polyoma Virus Disease - Answer (click here)
6. Polyoma Viruses : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Persistent Viral Infections of the Central Nervous System
1. Diseases Associated With Conventional Agents - Answer (click here)
Diseases Papovaviruses
1. Human Diseases Caused By Unconventional Viral Agents: Subacute
Spongiform Encephalopathies - Answer (click here)
Diseases Characteristics of Fungi

1. General Nature of Fungi - Answer (click here)
2. Fungal Morphology and Growth - Answer (click here)
Diseases Pathogenesis Immunity and Chemotherapy of Fungal

Infections
1. General Aspects of Fungal Disease - Answer (click here)
2. Antifungal Chemotherapy - Answer (click here)
3. Antifungal Antimicrobics that Affect Membrane Sterols - Answer (click
here)
4. Antifungals that Affect Nucleic Acid Synthesis - Answer (click here)
5. Antifungals that Affect Cell Wall Synthesis - Answer (click here)
6. Resistance to Antifungal Agents - Answer (click here)
Diseases Dermatophytes Sporothrix and Other Superficial and

Subcutaneous Fungi
1. Dermatophytes - Mycology - Answer (click here)
2. Dermatophyte Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Dermatophytoses : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Other Superficial Mycoses - Answer (click here)
5. Subcutaneous Fungi - Answer (click here)
6. Sporothrix schenckii - Answer (click here)
7. Sporotrichosis - Answer (click here)
8. Sporotrichosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Chromoblastomycosis - Answer (click here)
10. Mycetoma - Answer (click here)
Diseases Candida Aspergillus and Other Opportunistic Fungi

1. Candida: General Characteristics - Answer (click here)
2. Candida albicans - Mycology - Answer (click here)
3. Candidiasis - Answer (click here)
4. Candidiasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Aspergillus - Mycology - Answer (click here)
6. Aspergillosis - Answer (click here)
7. Aspergillosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Zygomycetes and Zygomycosis - Answer (click here)
Diseases Cryptococcus Histoplasma Coccidioides and Other

Systemic Fungal Pathogens
1. Cryptococcus neoformans - Answer (click here)
2. Cryptococcosis - Answer (click here)
3. Cryptococcosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Histoplasma capsulatum - Answer (click here)
5. Histoplasmosis - Answer (click here)
6. Histoplasmosis: Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Blastomyces dermatitidis - Answer (click here)
8. Blastomycosis - Answer (click here)
9. Blastomycosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
10. Coccidioides immitis - Answer (click here)
11. Cocci Dioidomycosis - Answer (click here)
12. Cocci Dioido Mycosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
13. Paracoccidioides Brasiliensis - Answer (click here)
Diseases Pneumocystis carinii

1. Pneumocystis carinii - Answer (click here)
2. Pneumocystosis - Answer (click here)
3. Pneumocystosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Introduction to Pathogenic Parasites Pathogenesis and

Chemotherapy of Parasitic Diseases
1. Parasitic Diseases: Definition - Answer (click here)
2. Significance of Human Parasitic Infections - Answer (click here)
3. Biology, Morphology, and Classification - Answer (click here)
4. Parasites: Life Cycles, Transmission, and Distribution - Answer (click here)
5. Parasites: Immunity - Answer (click here)
6. Parasites: Pathogenesis - Answer (click here)
7. Parasites: Diagnosis - Answer (click here)
8. Parasites: Chemotherapy - Answer (click here)
9. Drugs - Parasites Chemotherapy - Answer (click here)
10. Heavy Metals - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click here)
11. Antimalarial Quinolines - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click
here)
12. Quinones - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click here)
13. Folate Antagonists - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click here)
14. Qinghaosu (Artemisinin) - Answer (click here)
15. Nitroimidazoles - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click here)
16. Benzimidazoles - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click here)
17. Avermectins - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click here)
18. Praziquantel - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs - Answer (click here)
19. Eflornithine (Difluoromethylornithine) - Parasites Chemotherapy Drugs
20. Control of diseases spread - Parasites - Answer (click here)
Diseases Sporozoa
1. Plasmodia - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
2. Malaria - Answer (click here)
3. Epidemiology - Malaria - Answer (click here)
4. Pathogenesis - Malaria - Answer (click here)
5. Immunity - Malaria - Answer (click here)
6. Malaria : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Manifestations - Malaria - Answer (click here)
8. Diagnosis - Malaria - Answer (click here)
9. Treatment - Malaria - Answer (click here)
10. Prevention - Malaria - Answer (click here)
11. Toxoplasma Gondii - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
12. Toxoplasmosis - Answer (click here)
13. Toxoplasmosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
14. Cryptosporidia - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
15. Cryptosporidiosis - Answer (click here)
16. Cryptosporidiosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Rhizopods
1. Rhizopods or Amebas - Answer (click here)
2. Entamoeba Histolytica - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
3. Amebiasis - Answer (click here)
4. Amebiasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Amebic Meningoencephalitis - Answer (click here)
Diseases Flagellates
1. Noninvasive Luminal Flagellates - Answer (click here)
2. Trichomonas vaginalis - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
3. Trichomoniasis - Answer (click here)
4. Trichomoniasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
5. Giardia lamblia - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
6. Giardiasis - Answer (click here)
7. Giardiasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Blood and Tissue Flagellates - Answer (click here)
9. Leishmania - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
10. Localized Cutaneous Leish Maniasis - Answer (click here)
11. Localized Cutaneous Leishmaniasis - Answer (click here)
12. Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis - Answer (click here)
13. Disseminated Visceral Leishmaniasis ( Kala Azar ) - Answer (click here)
14. African Trypanosoma - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
15. African Trypan Osomiasis ( Sleeping Sickness ) - Answer (click here)
16. African Trypanosomiasis ( Sleeping Sickness ) : Clinical Aspects -
Answer (click here)
17. American Trypanosoma - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
18. American Trypanosomiasis(Chagas’ Disease ) - Answer (click here)
19. American Trypanosomiasis ( Chagas’ Disease) :Clinical Aspects -
Answer (click here)
Diseases Intestinal Nematodes

1. Intestinal Nematodes - Answer (click here)
2. Life Cycles - Intestinal Nematodes - Answer (click here)
3. Enterobius vermicularis ( Pinworm ) : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
4. Enterobiasis - Answer (click here)
5. Enterobiasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
6. Trichuris trichiura ( Whipworm ) : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
7. Trichuriasis - Answer (click here)
8. Trichuriasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
9. Ascaris lumbricoides : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
10. Ascariasis - Answer (click here)
11. Ascariasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
12. Ancylostoma and Necator :Parasitology - Hookworms - Answer (click here)
13. HookWorm Disease - Answer (click here)
14. Hookworm Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
15. Strongyloides stercoralis : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
16. Strongyloidiasis - Answer (click here)
17. Strongyloidiasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
Diseases Tissue Nematodes

1. Toxocara canis : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
2. Toxocariasis - Answer (click here)
3. Toxocariasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
4. Trichinella spiralis : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
5. Trichinosis - Answer (click here)
6. Trichinosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
7. Cutaneous Larva Migrans - Answer (click here)
8. Lymphatic Filaria - Answer (click here)
9. Wuchereria and Brugia : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
10. Lymphatic Filariasis - Answer (click here)
11. Lymphatic Filariasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
12. Onchocerca volvulus : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
13. Onchocerciasis - Answer (click here)
14. Onchocerciasis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
15. Loa Loa - Answer (click here)
Diseases Cestodes
1. Cestodes - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
2. Cestodes Clinical Disease - Answer (click here)
3. Taenia saginata Beef Tapeworm : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
4. Beef Tapeworm Disease - Answer (click here)
5. Beef Tape Worm Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
6. Taenia solium : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
7. Pork Tape Worm Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
8. Fish Tapeworm: Diphyllobothrium latum : Parasitology - Answer (click
here)
9. Fish Tape Worm Disease - Answer (click here)
10. Fish Tape Worm Disease : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
11. Echinococcus granulosus - Parasitology - Answer (click here)
12. Echino Coccosis - Answer (click here)
13. Echino Coccosis : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click here)
14. Echinococcus multilocularis - Answer (click here)
Diseases Trematodes
1. Trematodes - Answer (click here)
2. Paragonimus Species : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
3. Paragonimiasis ( Lung Fluke Infection ) : Clinical Aspects - Answer (click
here)
4. Clonorchis sinensis : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
5. Clonorchiasis ( Liver Fluke Infection ) - Answer (click here)
6. Schistosoma Species : Parasitology - Answer (click here)
7. Schistosomiasis( Blood Fluke Infection ) - Answer (click here)
8. Schistosomiasis ( Blood Fluke Infection ) : Clinical Aspects - Answer
(click here)
Diseases Skin and Wound Infections

1. Skin Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Wound Infections - Answer (click here)
3. Etiologic Agents - Answer (click here)
Diseases Bone and Joint Infections

1. Osteomyelitis - Answer (click here)
2. Septic Arthritis - Answer (click here)
Diseases Eye Ear and Sinus Infections

1. Eye Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Ear Infections - Answer (click here)
3. Sinus Infections - Answer (click here)
Diseases Dental and Periodontal Infections

1. Dental and Periodontal Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Dental Plaque - Answer (click here)
3. Dental Caries - Answer (click here)
4. Chronic Periodontitis - Answer (click here)
5. Necrotizing Periodontal Diseases - Answer (click here)
6. Dental Plaque and Oral Flora in the Compromised Patient - Answer (click
here)
Diseases Upper Respiratory Tract Infections and Stomatitis

1. Upper Respiratory Tract Infections and Stomatitis - Answer (click here)
2. Clinical Features - Upper Respiratory Tract Infections and Stomatitis -
Answer (click here)
3. Common Etiologic Agents - Upper Respiratory Tract Infections and
Stomatitis - Answer (click here)
4. General Diagnostic Approaches - Answer (click here)
5. General Principles of Management - Upper Respiratory Tract Infections
and Stomatitis - Answer (click here)
Diseases Middle and Lower Respiratory Tract Infections

1. Middle Respiratory Tract Infection - Answer (click here)
2. Lower Respiratory Tract Infection - Answer (click here)
Diseases Enteric Infections and Food Poisoning

1. Clinical Features - Enteric Infections and Food Poisoning - Answer (click
here)
2. Common Etiologic Agents - Enteric Infections and Food Poisoning -
Answer (click here)
3. Epidemiologic Setting - Enteric Infections and Food Poisoning - Answer
(click here)
4. General Diagnostic Approaches - Enteric Infections and Food Poisoning
5. General Principles of Management - Enteric Infections and Food
Poisoning - Answer (click here)
Diseases Urinary Tract Infections

1. Epidemiology, Pathogenesis - Urinary Tract Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Etiologic Agents - Urinary Tract Infections - Answer (click here)
3. Manifestations - Urinary Tract Infections - Answer (click here)
4. Diagnosis - Urinary Tract Infections - Answer (click here)
5. Treatment and Prevention - Urinary Tract Infections - Answer (click here)
Diseases Central Nervous System Infections

1. Central Nervous System Infections - Answer (click here)
2. Routes of Infection - Central Nervous System Infections - Answer (click
here)
3. Clinical Features - Central Nervous System Infections - Answer (click here)
4. Common Etiologic Agents - Central Nervous System Infections - Answer
(click here)
5. General Diagnostic Approaches - Central Nervous System Infections -
Answer (click here)
6. General Principles of Management - Central Nervous System Infections
Diseases Intravascular Infections Bacteremia and Endotoxemia

1. Intravascular Infection - Answer (click here)
2. Bacteremia From Extravascular Infection - Answer (click here)
3. Sepsis and Septic Shock - Answer (click here)
4. Blood Culture - Answer (click here)
Diseases Infections of the Fetus and Newborn

1. Infections of the Fetus and Newborn - Answer (click here)
2. Common Etiologic Agents - Infections of the Fetus and Newborn -
Answer (click here)
3. Effect of Prenatal Infection on Pregnancy and Intrauterine Development
4. Clinical Features, Diagnosis, And Management - Infections of the Fetus
and Newborn - Answer (click here)
5. Torch Complex - Infections of the Fetus and Newborn - Answer (click here)
Diseases Sexually Transmitted Diseases

1. Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
2. Genital Ulcers - Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
3. Genital Warts - Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
4. Urethritis - Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
5. Epididymitis - Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
6. Cervicitis - Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
7. Vaginitis and Vaginal Discharge - Answer (click here)
8. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease - Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer
(click here)
9. Lymphadenitis - Sexually Transmitted Diseases - Answer (click here)
Diseases Infections in the Immunocompromised Patient

1. Infections in the Immunocompromised Patient - Answer (click here)
2. Immune Deficits Associated With Infection - Answer (click here)
3. Clinical Situations Associated With Infection - Answer (click here)
4. Diagnosis and Treatment - Infections in the Immunocompromised
Patient - Answer (click here)
Diseases Nosocomial Infections and Infection Control
1. History: Semmelweis and Childbed Fever - Answer (click here)
2. Nosocomial Infections and Their Sources - Answer (click here)
3. Nosocomial Infection Control and Prevention - Answer (click here)

Biotech - Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important Questions Answers

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Biotechnology(M.Sc, B.

Biotechnology - (Click Here)

Genomics and Bioinformatics

Microbial Cell Culture and its Applications

Animal Cell Culture and Applications

Structure and Nature of Living Cell

Division of Labour In Multicellular Plants

Animal Tissue Organ and Organ System

Animal Diversity and Classification

Structural Organization and Acquaintance of Animals

Physiological Activities in Plants Nutrition

Pollination Fertilization And Dispersal of Fruits and seeds

Organism and Environment

Pollution and Conservation of Environment

Natural Diversities of Bangladesh Distribution of Plants and

Economic Biology Botany

Subject : Basic Concept of Biotechnology

Computer Applications and Biostatistics

Macromolecules and Analytical Techniques

Plant Molecular Farming A Promising Stratergy in Biotechnology

Plant Transgenics Genetic Engineering Approch to Devlop Biotic

Tools and Techniques in Biotechnology

Biotechnology in Forensic Sciences

Subject : Pharmaceutical Biotechnology:

Biophysical and Biochemical Analysis of Recombinant Proteins

Production and Downstream Processing of Biotech Compounds

Formulation of Biotech Products Including Biopharmaceutical

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Peptide and Protein

Immunogenicity of Therapeutic Proteins

Genomics Other Omics Technologies Personalized Medicine and

Hematopoietic Growth Factors

Interferons and Interleukins

Recombinant Coagulation Factors and Thrombolytic Agents

Monoclonal Antibodies From Structure to Therapeutic

Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer

Monoclonal Antibodies in Solid Organ Transplantation

Monoclonal Antibodies in Anti inflammatory Therapy

Recombinant Human Deoxyribonuclease I

Dispensing Biotechnology Products Handling Professional

Economic Considerations in Medical Biotechnology

Regulatory Issues and Drug Product Approval for

Subject : Biotechnology Applying the Genetic

Recombinant DNA Technology

DNA Synthesis in Vivo and in Vitro

RNA Based Technologies

Genomics and Gene Expression

Transgenic Plants and Plant Biotechnology

Molecular Biology of Cancer

Aging and Apoptosis

Viral and Prion Infections

Biowarfare and Bioterrorism

Forensic Molecular Biology

Subject : Environmental Biotechnology

Microbes and Metabolism

Fundamentals of Biological Intervention

Pollution and Pollution Control

Contaminated Land and Bioremediation

Aerobes and Effluents

Phytotechnology and Photosynthesis

Biotechnology and Waste

Subject : Genetics and Molecular Biology

Nucleic Acid and Chromosome Structure

RNA Polymerase and RNA Initiation