Copyright 2012 Ó Wayne Smith

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without prior written permission of the copyright holder.
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Contents
Introduction 6
Introduction to Power Transformers 8
Function of a Power Transformer 8
Advantages of Transformers 8
Transformer Voltage Ratio 9
Transformer Windings 9
Single and Three-Phase Transformers 10
Contents and Fittings of a Power Transformer 10
 The Iron Core 11
The Windings 13
Construction 13
Connections 14
The Conservator and Breather 19
The Explosion Vent 21
The Buchholz Relay 22
Terminal Bushings 25
Tap Changers 26
Temperature Indicators 29
Instrument Transformers 29
Potential Transformers 30
Current Transformers 31
Inspection and Operation of Transformers 33
Returning a Transformer to Service after Maintenance 36
Commissioning 39
Acceptance Inspections and Testing 39
Internal Inspections 40
Pre-Start Tests 42
Maintenance and Testing 46
Heat And Contamination 46
Contamination 46
DC Tests 47
Insulation Resistance Testing 49
Tap Changer Testing 51
Test Connections 54
Polarisation Index 56
Winding Resistance 57
 DC High Potential Testing (Hi-Pot) 58
AC Tests 60
Power Factor Test 60
Turns Ratio Test 61
Transformer Auxiliary Equipment 63
Bushings 63
Pressure Relief Devices 64
Sudden Pressure Relays 65
Temperature Gauges 66
Lightning Arrestors 68
Typical Power Transformer Faults 69
Review Exercise 73
References 77
Introduction
In this book you will gain the necessary skills and knowledge to understand
the requirements to complete operation, inspections, commissioning and
testing of power transformers within the power plant environment. It is
generally intended for trades or journeyman qualified personnel. However,
those wishing for relevant experience will gain required knowledge that will
assist with the field of study.
During the course of the self-paced learning, the following topics will be
covered:
1. Description of Power Transformers,
2. Components of the Transformer,
3. Instrument Transformers,
4. Inspection and Operation of Transformers.
5. Commission and Maintain Transformers.
6. Transformer Diagnostics.
 Also by Wayne Smith
Condition Monitoring for Power Plants
Switchgear Operation and Maintenance for Power Plants
Test and Commission Electrical Equipment for Power Plants
Excitation Maintenance for Power Plants
Root Cause Analysis for Power Plants
Toolbox Talks for the Busy Supervisor
More Toolbox Talks for the Busy Supervisor

See us at: http://www.learningystemsaustralia.com.au or contact me direct at:

mailto:wsmith@learningsystemsaustralia.com.au
Introduction to Power Transformers
In this book we will describe the power transformer, its principal
components and the fittings which may be provided on the larger capacity
transformers. This will be followed by a description of the main features of
potential and current transformers and the practical points relating to the
inspection and operation of power transformers.
Function of a Power Transformer
The transformer is a static device for transferring electrical energy from one
A.C. circuit to another at the same frequency. It consists essentially of two or
more electrical circuits, which are associated with a common magnetic
circuit. The energy transfer is usually, but not always, accompanied by a
change in voltage.
Advantages of Transformers
Apart from any tap changing equipment or forced cooling gear, a
transformer has no moving parts and hence little maintenance is required.
The relative simplicity and high reliability and efficiency of transformers has
been largely responsible for the extensive use of A.C. since they readily
permit the adoption of high voltages which result in highly efficient
transmission and just as readily permit reduction of the voltage for
subsequent distribution.
Transformer Voltage Ratio
The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is known as the voltage
ratio of the transformer.
If a transformer receives energy at one voltage and delivers it at a higher
voltage, it is known as a Step Up transformer. If it delivers it at a lower
voltage, it is known as a Step-Down transformer. Should it deliver energy at
the same voltage, it is called a one-to one transformer. One-to-one
transformers may be used to isolate electrically two circuits and in this case,
they are known as isolating transformers.
Transformer Windings
Irrespective of the type of transformer, the Primary Winding is that winding
connected to the supply and the Secondary Winding is that connected to the
load. Sometimes an additional winding may be provided for special purposes
and is then known as a Tertiary (third) Winding.
Single and Three-Phase Transformers
Small transformers are sometimes single phase, but the majority of power
transformers are three phase units. However, for the very large sizes,
transport limitations may make it necessary to employ three identical single
phase transformers which are interconnected on site to operate as a three
phase bank. While small transformers may be satisfactorily cooled by air,
most power transformers in power stations are of the oil cooled type.
Contents and Fittings of a Power Transformer
The main components and fittings which may be provided on a power
transformer include:
· the iron core, which provides the magnetic circuit,
· the windings, the tank containing the transformer and oil,
· tap changing gear, and
· other fittings associated with the operation
· protection equipment for the transformer.
These components and fittings are described in the following sections.
The Iron Core
The iron core acts as the magnetic circuit which carries the flux set up by the
magnetising component of the primary current. It is constructed of special
iron having the necessary magnetic properties which will reduce to a
minimum the iron losses in the core.
Since the core is subjected to an alternating magnetic field, voltages induced
by the magnetic field normally would cause a current to flow within the
magnetic core. Such currents are known as eddy currents and if they are
present, they would result in an electrical loss (represented by P = I²R) and
cause undesirable heating of the core.
For this reason, eddy currents are practically eliminated by constructing the
core from sheet metal stampings known as laminations. One face of each
lamination is treated in order to form a film which acts as an electrical
insulator. They are assembled so that the direction of the flux is along the
plane of the laminations while the path of the eddy currents is perpendicular
to the plane of the laminations and the high resistance path presented limits
the eddy currents to practically negligible proportions.
Stiff end plates or press beams rigidly clamp the laminations by bolts, which
are insulated from the core to prevent shorting out the insulation between
the laminations. Adequate clamping and bracing is necessary to prevent
mechanical vibration of the laminations under the influence of the
alternating magnetic field which otherwise would cause an objectionable
hum and possible fracture of the windings or connections.
A common form of core construction for a three phase transformer is shown
in Figure 1. It consists of three vertical limbs arranged in line, with the
magnetic circuit completed through yokes connected at the top and bottom
of the limbs. During assembly, the windings, which are pre-formed, are
located over the limbs prior to attaching the yokes.
Figure 1 - Core of Three-Phase Transformer
The Windings
Construction
It is usual practice to locate a portion of both primary and secondary
windings on each wound limb of the core, with the lower voltage winding
being nearer the core and the higher voltage winding placed outside. When
adjacent primary and secondary coils carry currents, there will be a repelling
force on each other. With normal load currents, these forces are not
appreciable, but in the event of a short circuit or other cause resulting in
large current flows, they may be considerable. To prevent any movement of
the coils which would cause fracture of the insulation or conductors, they
must be securely braced in position to ensure mechanical rigidity.
Connections
One method of connecting the windings of a three phase transformer is to
connect together one end of each of the three windings at a common point
known as the neutral or star point. This method of connection is known as
the Star Connection (symbol Ү) and is a common method of connecting the
three windings of the primary or secondary of transformers to provide three
phase operation.
The Delta Connection (symbol Δ) is another method of connecting the three
windings of a transformer and consists of connecting the ends of each
winding to its neighbour. The three windings thus form a closed loop and
the three lines are connected to the three junctions. There is no tendency
for current to circulate round the closed loop because the sum of the
voltage round the delta at any instant is zero.

Star and delta connected three phase windings are shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2 - Three-Phase Winding Connections
Star and delta connections may be used on either or both the primary and
secondary windings depending on their application, and thus there are four
possible combinations. These are star-star, star-delta, delta-delta, and delta-
star; the first term indicating the primary connection and the second term
the secondary.
Since no neutral point is available with the delta connection, a star
connected secondary is necessary if the transformer is to supply single
phase loads which are connected between one line and neutral.

The Transformer Tank and Transformer Cooling

Most power transformers are oil cooled, in which the core and windings are
totally immersed in a steel tank containing transformer or insulating oil. This
is a highly refined mineral oil, which acts as both insulation and coolant for
removing the heat from the windings and core.
To assist in transferring this heat to the surrounding air, the tank is
frequently fitted with a number of external vertical pipes. Additional cooling
may be provided by replacing the pipes by one or more external radiators.
These consist of top and bottom headers interconnected by numerous
pipes, with the headers connected to the tank. Convection currents circulate
through the pipes or radiators and such a transformer is said to be naturally
cooled.
For large capacity transformers, natural cooling is inadequate and forced
circulation of the oil is provided by a motor driven pump in the connecting
pipe to each radiator or cooler. Circulation is from the top of the
transformer tank, through the cooler and returning to the bottom of the
tank. With forced circulation, provision is often made to check the flow by
installing a flow indicator, which may be fitted with contacts to initiate an
alarm on loss of flow. To further assist cooling, the coolers may be cooled by
air blast, which is directed over their surfaces by one or more motor driven
fans. Transformers employing pumps and fans are said to be forced cooled.
The operation of the pumps and/or fans is arranged for automatic control,
either by the action of indicators, which register the oil or winding
temperatures. Over-riding manual control is provided for testing purposes
or to commission the cooling equipment should the automatic control fail.
Figure 3 shows diagrammatically a forced oil cooled transformer and also
the location of fittings, which are to be described in subsequent sections.

Figure 3 - Typical Arrangement of a Large Power Transformer

The Conservator and Breather
The conservator consists of a reservoir mounted above the level of the top
of the transformer tank and connected to it by a large bore pipe as shown in
Figure 3. The main tank is maintained completely filled with oil by the oil in
the conservator and its purpose is to accommodate the expansion and
contraction of the oil as the transformer heats up and cools down. Attached
to the conservator is an oil level gauge, which should indicate half to two
thirds full when the transformer is cold.
When the transformer is placed in service, the oil heats up and expands, so
that the level in the conservator rises and the air is expelled. When the
transformer cools down again, the level falls, and air is drawn in. This action
is known as "breathing" of the transformer.

Insulating oil should not be permitted to come into contact with the open
atmosphere since the absorption of even a minute amount of moisture
causes a great deterioration in its insulating properties. Consequently, to
prevent moisture in the air contaminating the oil, the conservator is allowed
to breathe through an air dryer known as a Breather. Its location is shown in
Figure 3. This consists of a small vessel containing silica-gel which acts as a
drying agent. The silica-gel which should be blue in colour may be inspected
through a glass window. When the colour has changed from blue to a
whitish-pink by the absorption of moisture, the charge must be re-activated
by heating it in a warm oven.
Figure 4 - Typical Transformer Conservator

Figure 5 - Conservator Oil Level Indicator

The Explosion Vent
Large transformers are provided with a form of safety valve known as an
Explosion Vent. A short circuit inside the transformer results in arcing and
the consequent formation of a large volume of gas. This is generated very
rapidly and may set up sufficient pressure to burst the tank if it were not
relieved by the explosion vent. The position of the explosion vent is shown
in Figure 3.

The fitting consists of a vertical pipe attached to the top of the main tank
and extending above the oil level in the conservator. The upper end is sealed
by a thin diaphragm made of a material such as bakelite which will rupture
in the event of a high internal pressure. The top of the vent is bent over so
that any oil ejected with the gas is directed away from the transformer.
The Buchholz Relay
This is a mechanically operated protective device which is fitted in the
connecting pipe between the main tank and the conservator as shown in
Figure 3. Should an internal fault develop in the windings or core, the
localised heating will vaporise and decompose some of the oil. The resultant
gas will rise through the pipe into the conservator and will be detected by
the Buchholz Relay.
If there is a major fault, the large surge of gas and oil will actuate a small flap
in the relay which trips the circuit breaker supplying the transformer and
initiates the "Buchholz Trip" alarm in the control room. With a minor fault,
or if the transformer has been overheated, the flow of bubbles will be
insufficient to actuate the flap, but the gas will collect in the body of the
relay. This lowers the oil level in the relay and allows a small float to fall
which initiates the "Buchholz Gas" alarm in the control room. This alarm will
also be initiated if the transformer oil level has been allowed to fall
sufficiently for the float to operate. Neither the flap nor the float offers any
restriction to the normal breathing action of the transformer.
Over the page shows the construction of a Buchholz Relay.
 Figure 6 - Buchholz Relay
A test cock connected to the body of the relay is installed near ground level,
which enables any gas collected to be bled off and tested. The gas formed by
an electrical fault contains a large percentage of acetylene, a flammable gas,
so that if the gas is flammable, the transformer must be electrically tested. If
the gas will not burn, it can be assumed that it is air, which has been
released from the oil, particularly if the transformer has been recently
"topped up".
Terminal Bushings
Low voltage windings are usually brought out to a cable end box “mounted”
on the main tank for connection to a cable. The high voltage windings
however, are brought out of the tank through hollow insulators known as
Bushings. These are generally made of porcelain and are specially designed
in order to reduce the electrical stress to which the insulators are subjected.
High tension transformer bushings are normally oil filled and some have a
cock located at the top to allow the release of trapped air and a breather to
prevent the ingress of moisture. Sometimes a bushing may incorporate a
current transformer in its construction.
On outdoor transformers and on some indoor transformers, the high-
tension bushings are provided with skirts. These reduce the risk of a
flashover by presenting a long path for any leakage current, which may flow
due to moisture and dust on the surface.
Tap Changers
The majority of power transformers are provided with tap changing facilities
in order to control the voltage of the secondary circuit. This is achieved by
varying the number of active turns in the winding and thus the voltage
transformation ratio.
When the load and consequently the voltage remains reasonably constant,
as on the majority of power station auxiliary transformers, the tap changer is
designed for off-load operation only. This is provided by a system of bolted
links or switches and as tap changing is only permitted when the
transformer is out of service; the operating mechanism is padlocked to
prevent unauthorised operation.
Unit transformers and distribution transformers are generally provided with
on-load changers which allow variations of 5% to 15% above and below the
nominal voltage while the transformer is in service. To effect tap changing
without interruption to the load, it is evident that there will be a period
when two adjacent tappings must be temporarily bridged.

To limit the circulating current between the two taps, a resistance or

reactance is connected into circuit during the change by diverter switches.
Since the resistance or reactance is generally short time rated only, it is
important to complete a tap change manually at the changer should the
automatic switching sequence fail.
Figure 7 illustrates the principle of operation of an on-load tap changer.
The tap changer may be contained within the main tank or in an external
tank where the switches are immersed in the insulating oil. Sometimes
separate breathers and Buchholz relays are provided on the tap changer
chamber. The changer is driven through gearing by a small reversible A.C. or
D.C. motor.
Its operation may be controlled automatically by a voltage regulator, or
manually by "raise" and "lower" push buttons, or a switch in the control
room. Provision is made for manual tap changing by a crank or hand wheel.
To indicate the tap selected, a "Tap Position Indicator" (T.P.I.) is installed in
the control room and a pointer is mounted on the changer mechanism on
the transformer.

Figure 7 - On Load Tap Changer

Temperature Indicators
The separate oil and winding temperature indicators are usually of the
vapour pressure type operating local indicators on the transformer and
sometimes, remote indicators in the control room. Indicators with electrical
contacts may be used to control the cooling equipment and to initiate
alarms.
The bulb of the oil temperature indicator is located in the region of the
maximum oil temperature in the top of the tank. Winding temperatures are
usually measured indirectly by locating the bulb in a small oil filled
compartment in the top of the tank. Surrounding the bulb is a heating coil
energised from a current transformer in the main winding, and since it had
similar thermal characteristics to the main winding, the bulb will reproduce
the winding temperature.
Instrument Transformers
Instrument transformers are used to accurately reproduce A.C. currents or
voltages at reduced values for use with standard low current and low
voltage instruments and relays. This also reduced to a minimum the
possibility of injury to personnel.
There are two types of instrument transformers; Potential or Voltage
Transformers (P. T, or V. T.) and Current Transformers (C.T).
Potential Transformers
PTs are similar to power transformers in operation and are connected into
the H.V, circuit across the supply as shown in Figure 8, in a similar manner to
a voltmeter connection. The low tension secondary is nearly always rated at
110 volts when the primary is energised at the nominal value of the H.V.
circuit. Variations in the H.V are reflected in proportional variations in the
secondary voltage which is applied to the instruments and relays.

Figure 8 - Potential Transformer Connection

In order to protect the PT, and its associated circuits, the primary and
secondary windings are protected by fuses. The fuses protecting the primary
of a H.V. P.T are frequently located within the bushings on top of the tank
while the secondary circuit fuses may be located on the side of the tank and
at other locations m the secondary circuit. To provide supervision over P.T,
fuses, a small lamp may be mounted on the control panel which is
illuminated to indicate availability of potential supply.
Current Transformers
The primacy winding of a CT is always connected in series with the supply to
the load in a similar manner to an ammeter and as shown in Figure 9. CTs
therefore, operate in a different manner to power transformers and PTs.
Because of this difference, the CT, secondary current will not become
excessive if the secondary winding of a CT. is short circuited. In fact, it is
dangerous to open circuit the secondary circuit of a CT, while the primary is
carrying a current because very high flux densities developed, in the core
result in very high voltages in the secondary winding with consequent
danger to personnel and equipment. For this reason, no fuses are ever
included in CT. secondary circuits.

Figure 9 - Current Transformer Connection

To enable test instruments to be inserted into the circuit without open
circuiting the secondary winding, bolted test links as shown in Figure 10 are
provided. These are arranged so that the winding can first be short circuited
while the instrument is being connected into circuit and the short circuit
later removed so that the current flows through the instrument or relay.
Figure 10 - Current Transformer Test Link
Inspection and Operation of Transformers
The following lists checks and other operational details that would be
carried out on power transformers, which are in service:
1. Inspect the transformer for oil leaks from the tank, around the
bushings, from flange joints and other locations on the oil coolers and
conservator and from any cable and boxes. Transformer insulating oil
is an exceptionally penetrating fluid which will escape from any
minute crevice and cover large areas of the transformer and
surroundings. Apart from the danger of low oil level and the obvious
fire risk, oil covered concrete or crushed metal surrounding a
transformer presents a hazard to personnel walking on these surfaces,
oil coated surfaces also attract dust which absorbs moisture and
impurities and may cause a flashover of H.V, bushings and insulators.
2. Inspect the conservator oil level indicator gauge, making due
allowance for variations in oil level with temperature.
3. Inspect the explosion vent to ensure that the diaphragm is not
cracked or split, which would allow the ingress of moisture laden air.
4. Inspect the breather. If the silica gel is a whitish-pink, the charge
must be reactivated.
5. The oil and winding temperature indicators should be inspected to
ensure that the rated temperatures are not being exceeded.
6. Visually inspect the high voltage bushings for cracks, chips or
excessive dust build up on the skirts; any one of which may result in a
flashover and damage to the bushing.
7. Check the operation of all motor driven cooling equipment, ensuring
that the temperature and vibration of motors and bearings are within
acceptable limits.
8. If the "Buchholz Gas" alarm operates, the transformer would
normally be kept in service until a sample of the gas has been
 collected and analysed by the Station Chemist. Check whether low oil
level has caused the alarm. If the gas is air, all which is necessary is to
thoroughly bleed the relay so that it will be again rendered operable. If
the gas is inflammable, the transformer will have to be taken out of
service for testing. Should the "Buchholz Trip" operate, the
transformer must remain out of service until the fault is found and
rectified.
9. Should the automatic sequence fail during a tap change, always
complete the change manually.
10. Should an item of cooling equipment fail on a forced cooled
transformer due to say loss of auxiliary supply, a blown fuse or
equipment failure, it may not always be necessary to reduce load to
zero, since some transformers have a reduced rating applicable to
natural cooling conditions. In this case, load must be reduced
immediately to the permissible value while a close watch is
maintained on temperature limits.
11. Never attempt to operate off-load tap changing equipment with the
transformer in service.
12. Never open C.T. test links or otherwise cause the secondary circuit to
become open circuit, even momentarily, except when the C.T. is out of
service. Report any links or terminals, which appear loose or are open
when the equipment is in service.
Returning a Transformer to Service after Maintenance
Before returning a transformer to service after maintenance, the following
checks should be made:
1. Ensure there are no outstanding Work Permits and that all staff are
clear.
2. Check that all earths, ladders, rags and other equipment that could
cause damage or loss of supply are removed.
3. Inspect for oil leaks and that all valves in the cooling system are in
their correct positions. If possible, test the operation of cooling pumps
and fans and cheek that their direction of rotation is correct. Check
the on-load tap changer by giving it several raise and lower operations
and leave it on the correct tap.
4. Inspect the explosion vent, breather and cold oil level in the
conservator. If necessary, operate bleed off points to expel any air in
the cooling system and Buchholz relay.
5. Ensure that C.T. links associated with the protection equipment are
closed and that relay flags are reset.
6. When the transformer is being returned to service, the following
points should receive attention:
7. In general, the H.V. side should preferably be energised first. This is
to reduce the inrush of magnetising current when the circuit breaker is
first closed to avoid false operation of the differential protective gear.
8. If the transformer is being returned to service in parallel with
another, ensure that both transformers are in synchronism and on the
same voltage taps before it is closed on. Also check that the incoming
transformer has picked up load as indicated by its ammeter before
tripping the other transformer out of service. (Links may have
inadvertently been left open.)
9. Regularly inspect the transformer, particularly during the first few
hours while it is heating up. Do not assume that a "Buchholz Gas"
alarm is released air, even if the oil was treated or topped up during
the maintenance period.
Commissioning
Acceptance Inspections and Testing
The Initial acceptance inspection, testing and start-up procedures are the
most critical part of commissioning a transformer. The initial inspections
that should be carried out include internal and external inspections. These
will reveal any missing parts or items that were damaged in transit. They
also verify that the transformer is constructed exactly as specified. The
acceptance tests will reveal any manufacturing defects, indicate any internal
deficiencies, and establish baseline data for preventative maintenance.
Various manufacturers recommend a wide range of acceptance and start-up
procedures. Although basic guidelines and instructions are presented here,
manufacturer’s instructions and recommendations should always be
followed if available. In this section, we will discuss the practical reasoning
behind the procedures recommended by the manufacturer.
Internal Inspections
If an internal inspection is called for, or if the transformer must be opened
to install bushings and other auxiliary equipment, two factors are of primary
importance, which are;
· Make every attempt to minimize the time the transformer is opened.
· Take whatever measures necessary to ensure that no moisture,
foreign material, or other contaminants enter the tank.
The objective of the internal inspection is to locate any damage that may
have occurred during shipment. Examine the top of the core and coil
assembly, all horizontal surfaces, and especially the underside of the cover
for signs of moisture. All leads, bolted mechanical and electrical joints,
current transformers and insulation structures should be thoroughly
inspected. The tap changer should be exercised, and all connections verified.
Terminal boards should be checked to see that connections are as specified.

Although most testing should be performed only while the coils are
submerged in oil, if the inspection is being conducted because of problems
noted during the external or internal inspections, the following tests should
be conducted;
· Power factor tests for all winding to ground and windings to winding
values.
· Turns ratio tests for all windings and tap positions.
· Ratio and polarity tests for all current, transformers.
· Winding resistance checks for all primary and secondary windings.
· Discount the grounding connections between the core assembly and
the tank, and perform insulation resistance tests with a Megger.
Figure 11 - Typical power transformer
Pre-Start Tests
Prior to energising a transformer for the first time there are a number of
pre-start up tests that need to be completed. For oil filled transformers that
have been filled to operational values prior to the initial tests, The
transformer should then be allowed to stand without load for at least 12
hours before any tests are performed. After the 12 hour standing period, the
following tests should be performed to establish baseline data for the
transformer.
Transformer turns ratio. This test ensures that no material or tools are
shorting the windings.
Insulation resistance-dielectric absorption. This test is used to determine
whether any grounds have been left on the windings, and whether the
insulation quality is strong enough for energization.
Winding continuity resistance test. This test should be compared to the
factory supplied readings; a reading that is greater than 10 percent higher
could indicate loose internal connections.
Power factor test. This test will indicate the quality of the combined
insulating fluid and winding insulation. It will also provide important baseline
data for future testing. Values in excess of 1 percent could indicate
dampness in the transformer. Consult the manufacturer’s operations
manual for drying procedures.
Insulating fluid testing. This test will help to provide additional information if
any discrepancies are noted in the prior testing. Samples should be drawn
for the complete series of lab tests, including dissolved gas, and dielectric
strength field testing. The dielectric strength for new oil should be at least
35 kV.
After the testing is completed, the transformer should be energized for at
least 12 hours before applying the load. Because very high currents can be
developed when the transformer is first energized, any upstream fuses or
fused devices should be checked immediately after the power is applied.
If a fuse should blow, and if the transformer is allowed to operate with out
one or two fuses, it could be damaged, even if no load is applied. After 12
hours, the load should be applied slowly, and the transformer should be
carefully monitored the load is being applied. Even though satisfactory test
results have been obtained, personnel should stay away from the
transformer during the first 24 hours of energization. It is during this time
that any entrapped air will come to the surface, and the possibility of a fault
or short occurring increases.
Maintenance and Testing
Heat And Contamination
Heat and contamination are the two greatest enemies to the transformer’s
operation. Heat will break down the solid insulation and accelerate the
chemical reactions that take place when the oil is contaminated. All
transformers require a cooling method and it is important to ensure that the
transformer has proper cooling. Proper cooling involves cleaning the cooling
surfaces, maximizing ventilation, and monitoring loads to ensure the
transformer is not producing excess heat.
Contamination
Contamination is detrimental to the transformer, both inside and out. The
importance of basic cleanliness and general housekeeping becomes evident
when long-term service life is considered. Dirt build up and grease deposits
severely limit the cooling abilities of radiators and tank surfaces. Terminal
and insulation surfaces are especially susceptible to dirt and grease build up.
The oil in the transformer also suffers from the effects of contamination and
should be kept as pure as possible. Dirt and moisture start chemical
reactions in the oil that lower both its electrical strength and its cooling
capability. Determining the degree of contamination is accomplished by
sampling and analysing the oil on a regular basis.
DC Tests
Transformer tests can be divided into two categories, alternating current
(AC) and direct current (DC). Direct current testing is widely accepted
because of the portability of the equipment and because of the non-
destructive nature of the tests. Because the test potential can be applied
without the reactive component (capacitive and inductive charging and
recharging), DC tests can be performed at higher levels without stressing the
insulation to the same degree as an AC test.
It is important to note that, even though a winding failure may result, it
probably resulted from an incipient condition that the test was designed to
detect. If the deficiency had gone undetected, the failure may have occurred
at an unplanned time and resulted in additional equipment damage. When a
DC potential is applied across an insulation, there are three components to
the resulting current.
Capacitance charging current. When the insulation resistance is being
measured between two conductors, the conductors act like the plates in a
capacitor. These “plates” absorb a certain amount of electrical energy (the
charging current) before the applied voltage is actually developed across
them. This current results in stored energy that should be discharged after
the test by shorting across the insulation.
Dielectric absorption current. As noted above, the two conductors between
which the potential is being applied act like a capacitor. The winding
insulation and the insulating fluid then act as dielectric materials and absorb
electrical energy as their molecules become polarized, or charged. The
absorption current decreases as the materials become charged, resulting in
an apparent increase in the insulation resistance.
The absorption current results in stored energy that takes longer to dissipate
than it did to build. The insulation should be shorted for a time period equal
to or longer than the time the test was applied, preferably longer.
Leakage current. This is the current that actually flows throughout the
insulation or across its surface. Its magnitude is usually very small in relation
to the rated current of the device, and it is expressed in microamperes (one
millionth of an amp). It indicates the insulation’s actual conductivity, and
should be constant for a steady applied voltage. Leakage current that
increases with time for a constant applied voltage indicates a potential
problem.
Insulation Resistance Testing
Megger test potentials are usually applied at 500, 1,000, 2,500, and 5,000
volts DC. These potentials are obtained by using a motor driven or hand-
crank operated magneto. The hand crank units are both lightweight and
portable, and because they require no batteries or external source, they are
also extremely dependable. Motor-driven units, on the other hand, are
capable of achieving higher and more constant test voltages, but are
practically useless without batteries or a external source. Both units are
available in models capable of producing accurate readings for resistance
levels as high as 100,000 megohms. The following conditions should be
observed when performing an insulation resistance test;
Make sure that both the tank and core iron are solidly grounded.
disconnect any systems that may be connected to the transformer winding,
including high and low voltage and neutral connections, lightning arrestors,
fan systems, meters, and potential transformers.
Potential transformers are often located on the line sides of breakers or
disconnects; when the disconnect is opened, there will still be a path
available to ground. Short circuit all high and low voltage windings together
at the bushings connections; jumpers should be installed to ground, and no
winding should be left floating.
The ground connection on grounded windings must be removed. If the
ground cannot be conveniently removed, the test cannot be performed on
that winding. Such a winding must be treated as part of the grounded
circuit.
Figure 12 - Transformer Ohmmeter - Winding resistance & tap changer
tester
Tap Changer Testing
Tap-changers are mechanical devices and the most vulnerable part of a
transformer. Tap-changers result in more failures and outages than any
other component and so require frequent testing and attention to ensure
proper, reliable operation. The Transformer Ohmmeter can be used to check
the make-before-break operation of on-load tap-changers and also to
measure the contact resistance of each tap position.

Figure 13 - One and two winding test connections

Tap changers are divided into two categories: no-load tap changers and load
tap changers. No-load tap changing is usually accomplished on the primary
side of a step-down power transformer, with the transformer being de-
energized before the tap position can be changed. The taps are changed
either by turning a hand wheel, moving a selector switch, or lowering the oil
level, opening the manhole, and actually reconnecting the winding leads to
various positions on a terminal board.
Load tap changers are usually located on the secondary side of the
transformer. They are used to control the current and voltage as the load is
varied. Load tap changers are required to open and close the circuit while it
is hot, they incorporate a number of devices to minimize the switching time
and the amount of energy the arc releases.
Some tap changers use vacuum bottle type breakers to interrupt the current
flow, while others use a conventional main/arcing contact mechanism, much
like that found in a circuit breaker. Other tap changers use resistor or
reactor circuitry in the mechanism to limit the current flow at the tie the
switching occurs. On-load tap changers can be either automatic or manual,
and can be used to vary the voltage and current by as much as 3%,
depending on application.
Most on-load tap changers are immersed in oil and are contained in a
separate compartment from the primary and secondary windings. Due to
the large amounts of energy (switching arcs) produced, the oil in the tap
changing compartment deteriorates at a much faster rate than the oil in the
main compartment. The tap changers operation is verified by performing a
turns ratio test at the various tap settings. This holds true for both the no
load tap changers. The arcing contact or vacuum bottle assemblies for the
load tap changers should be inspected, and the contact resistance should be
measured if there is evidence of pitting or contact wear.
Test Connections
The terminal markings are referenced as follows: The L terminal is the line or
“Hot” terminal of the instrument, where the test potential is generated. The
E terminal is the “Earth” or ground connection. The G terminal is the
“Guard” terminal, it is used to isolate a certain portion of the circuit from
the test.
These test connections are considered the bare minimum for a maintenance
testing cycle, and should be applied only to a transformer that has already
been in service. They will not detect shorts between the individual windings
on the high or low side.
 Figure 14 - Insulation resistance test connections for maintenance test
A widely accepted rule of thumb for insulation resistance values is “the kV
rating of the item under test plus one Megohm.” This should be considered
as a bare minimum value, and any values equal to five times this amount
should be investigated.
Polarisation Index
The polarization index or dielectric absorption ratio is determined by holding
the applied voltage of the Megohmmeter constant, and taking resistance
readings at the end of l and 10 minute intervals. The apparent increase in
the resistance is due to the dielectric charging of the insulation.
The polarization index is determined by dividing the l minute value into a
I0minute value.
The dielectric absorption ratio is computed in the same way, except that
60.second intervals are used.
The polarization index and dielectric absorption ratios are also subject to
different methods of interpretation. In any case, they should always be
greater than one, and any downward trend in their value over a number of
test intervals indicates deterioration. If a measurement of the winding
resistance shows no appreciable change from the factory test values, then it
can be assumed that there are no loose connections. It should be noted that
only one tap position be applied for these maintenance tests. Three phase
Y windings should be measured phase to neutral, and ∆ windings should be
separated to read individual windings. If the windings cannot be separated,
three separate readings should be taken, with each winding measured in
parallel with the other two,
Winding Resistance
Winding resistance can be measured with a low resistance ohmmeter, or
with a Kelvin bridge. Be sure to make good contact with the winding leads,
and to wait 3 minutes after initial contact before taking a reading. This delay
is necessary due to the induction created by the transformer windings.
Because the windings will store energy, it is important to shut off the test
set and allow the energy to dissipate before removing the test leads. Loose
connections can result in overheating and possible equipment, failure.
All high and low voltage and ground connections should be inspected, and if
any abnormal conditions are noted, the contact resistance should be
measured to ensure that solid contact is being made. This testing works
especially well in conjunction with infrared scanning. If a connection shows
hot on the IR scan, and its contact resistance cannot be lowered by
tightening, it should be replaced.
DC High Potential Testing (Hi-Pot)
The DC high potential test is applied at above the rated voltage, and can
cause damage to the transformer if special precautions are not taken. When
a leakage current passes through the insulation system of an oil filled
transformer, different amounts of the total voltage are dropped in the solid
(paper) and liquid (oil) parts of the insulation.
These voltage drops are caused by the resistance of each insulating
component, and heat is created. Under normal AC operation, only a small
amount ¼ is dropped across the solid insulation. The remaining ¾ is dropped
in the oil, where the heat can be easily dissipated, and little harm is done.
DC Over-potential testing is of little value as a maintenance test, and is
usually conducted for commissioning purposes, or after repair of
transformers.

Figure 15 - HV DC dielectric test set

AC Tests
AC testing is especially valuable when the transformers reactive capabilities
are to be measured. For maintenance testing, this includes;
· Power factor testing (measuring the capacitive quality of the
insulation system).
· Turns ratio testing (measuring the inductance that links the primary
and secondary).
Although AC testing requires more energy to perform at the rated
frequency, and larger test sets are involved to reach the same operating
levels as DC, AC testing more closely simulates the operating condition of
the transformer.
Power Factor Test
Insulation power factor is a ratio of the reactive and resistance components
(apparent and real power) of the applied potential. However, it is desirable
to have a system power factor as close as possible to one (purely resistive),
an insulation’s power factor is expected to be as Near to zero (purely
capacitive) as possible, therefore the transformers insulation is expected to
perform as a capacitor.
Anytime two conductors are at different potentials, there is a capacitance
between them. There is capacitance between the individual windings, and
between each winding and the tank in a transformer. The oil and cellulose
insulation that separate the windings from each other and from the tank act
as dielectric materials when an alternating current is applied.
Uncontaminated oil and winding insulation are excellent dielectric materials,
and will consume little energy in the capacitive charging and discharging
that occurs in an AC system. This charging current is expressed in volt
amperes, and under ideal conditions, is completely returned to the system
in each full cycle.
The capacitive nature of the insulation changes as the oil becomes
contaminated. Contaminants consume energy in the charge/discharge cycle,
and this energy is lost as heat.
Turns Ratio Test
The transformer turns ratio (TTR) test is used to determine, to a high degree
of accuracy, the ratio between the primary and secondary of the
transformer. This test is used to verify nameplate ratio, polarity, and tap
changer operation for both acceptance and maintenance testing. It can also
be used as an investigative tool to check for shorted turns or open windings.
If the turn to turn insulation begins to break down in either winding, it will
show up in successive TTR tests. the most accurate method is by the use of a
null balance test set.
The ratio determined by the test set should agree with the indicated
nameplate voltage ratio, within a tolerance of +/- 0.5%.

Figure 16 - Single Phase hand cranked TTR test set

Figure 17 - Three Phase electronic TTR test set

Transformer Auxiliary Equipment
Bushings
Contaminants collect on the surfaces of the bushing and form conductive
paths to the tank. When this distance is bridged by contaminants, the
voltage will flashover between the tank and the conductor. This is the
reason why bushings must be kept clean and free of contaminants. Bushings
require little maintenance other than an occasional cleaning and checking
the connections. Bushings should be inspected for cracks and chips, and if
found, should be touched-up with Glyptal paint or a similar type compound.
Bushings often support a potion of the line cable’s weight, it is important to
verify that any cracks have not influenced the mechanical strength of the
bushing assembly.
Most bushings are provided with a voltage tap to allow for power factor
testing of the insulator. If they have no tap, then the power factor test must
be performed using the “hot collar” attachment of the test set. The
insulation resistance-dielectric absorption test can also be performed
between the conductor and the ground connection.
Pressure Relief Devices
When the transformer is overloaded for extended periods, or when an
internal fault occurs, high pressures will occur in the tank. There are a
number of devices used to accommodate this pressure change. Pressure
relief valves are usually installed behind the pressure gauge on sealed tank
units. The bleeder valve is set to bleed-off any pressures that exceed a, pre-
set level. This valve is an integral part of the pressurized gas system, and its
failure can result in a rupture of the tank. The operation of these devices can
be checked by manually increasing the tank pressure to the preset level.

Figure 18 - Pressure relief device

Sudden Pressure Relays
These devices consist of a bellows, a small orifice, and a set of relay contacts
that are slaved to the mechanical movement of the bellows. When an arc or
an internal fault occurs, the large volume of gas generated over a relatively
short time frame pushes on the bellows and actuates the contacts. The
contacts are used to actuate an alarm, a circuit breaker, or another relay.
The sudden pressure relay is usually mounted in the gas space above the oil
level, and it is important to ensure that oil does not enter the unit. The
operation of the relay is verified by checking that the orifice remains open,
and that the bellows is free to move. The control wiring and the contact
operation should also be verified.

Figure 19 - Sudden pressure relay

Temperature Gauges
Temperature gauges are either of the hot spot or average tank temperature
type. There are many designs in use. Most average tank temperature gauges
consist of a spiral wound bi-metallic element that is directly coupled to a
dial-type indicator. Dial-type gauges can have up to three sets of contacts
that will actuate any of the following devices:

Figure 20 - Temperature gauges / switches

The lowest setting usually actuates internal cooling fans that will come on at
a preset temperature level. The fans will shut off once the temperature has
been reduced to the prescribed level.
The contacts can also be set to actuate remote alarms that will alert
maintenance personnel of the condition of the transformer. These devices
must be reset even though the temperature has returned to normal.
The highest and most critical contact setting on the temperature gauge is
connected to a relay or a circuit breaker that will trip out and de-energize
the transformer.
Lightning Arrestors
Lightning arresters use petticoats to increase the distances across the outer
surface to ground. Lightning arresters should be kept clean to prevent
surface contaminants from forming a flashover path. Lightning arresters
have a metallic connection on the top and bottom. The connectors should
be kept free of corrosion.
Lightning arresters are sometimes constructed by stacking a series of the
capacitive/dielectric elements to achieve the desired voltage rating. Power
factor testing is usually conducted across each of the individual elements,
and, much like the power factor test on the transformer’s windings, a ratio is
determined between the real and apparent current values to determine the
power factor. A standard insulation resistance-dielectric absorption test can
also be performed on the lightning arrester between the line connection and
ground.
Typical Power Transformer Faults

FAULT EXAMPLE
Partial discharges Discharges in gas-filled cavities
in insulation, resulting from
incomplete impregnation, high
moisture in paper, gas in oil
super-saturation or cavitations
(gas bubbles in oil) leading to X
wax formation on paper.
Discharges of low Sparking or arcing between bad
energy connections of different floating
potential, from shielding rings,
toroids, adjacent discs or
conductors of different
windings, broken brazing, closed
loops in the core.
Additional core grounds.
Discharges between clamping
parts, bushing and tank, high
voltage and ground, within
windings.
Tracking in wood blocks, glue of
insulating beam, winding
spacers.
Dielectric breakdown of oil, load
tap changer breaking contact.
Discharges of high Flashover, tracking or arcing of
energy high local energy or with power
 follow-through.
Short circuits between low
voltage and ground, connectors,
windings, bushings, and tank,
windings and core, copper bus
and tank, in oil duct.
Closed loops between two
adjacent conductors around the
main magnetic flux, insulated
bolts of core, metal rings holding
core legs.
Overheating less Overloading the transformer in
than 300 °C emergency situations.
Blocked or restricted oil flow in
windings.
Other cooling problem, pumps
valves, etc.
Stray flux in damping beams of
yoke.
Overheating 300 to Defective contacts at bolted
700 °C connections (especially busbar),
contacts within tap changer,
connections between cable and
draw-rod of bushings.
Circulating currents between
yoke clamps and bolts, clamps
and laminations, in ground
wiring, bad welds or clamps in
magnetic shields.
Abraded insulation between
 adjacent parallel conductors in
windings.
Overheating over Large circulating currents in tank
700 °C and core.
Minor currents in tank walls
created by high uncompensated
magnetic field.
Shorted core laminations.
Review Exercise
1. Give one reason by a one-to-one ratio transformer might
be used.
2. What is a possible cause of a pronounced hum coming
from a power transformer? Is there any possibility of damage to the
transformer?
3. What is the purpose of laminating the core of a power
transformer?
4. What direction would you expect the oil to flow in a power
transformer with forced circulation through external oil cooler and
how could you confirm that the flow was satisfactory?
5. What is meant by the expression "breathing of a
transformer" and what method is adopted to prevent the
transformer oil from absorbing moisture?
6. What are the main differences between the operation of
potential transformers and current transformers?
7. What special precaution is necessary in relation to current
transformers?
8. What action should be taken if a "Buchholz Gas" alarm was
received on a generator transformer?
9. What precautions are necessary to ensure the safe transfer
of an electrical load from one transformer to another?
10. List the tests to perform on an oil filled transformer if an
internal inspection has revealed a possible fault? Are there any
environmental considerations?
11. Pre-commissioning activities include filling the
transformer with oil. How long should the transformer be allowed to
settle before testing?
 Circle the correct answer.
12 hours.
24 hours or as recommended by the manufacturer.
12 hours or as recommended by the manufacturer.
36 hours.
12. One important factor behind commissioning is to
establish base-line data for future testing?
True / False
13. Describe five pre-start up transformer tests?
14. Describe the recommended practices following
transformer pre-start tests?
15. Briefly discuss the effect of heat and contaminants on
transformers?
16. Describe the two categories of testing methods?
17. When a DC potential is applied across insulation, three
component resultants are present. What are they?
18. What conditions should be observed when conducting
insulation resistance tests on transformers?
19. More failures are attributed to tap changers than any
other transformer component?
True / False
20. Describe the two tap changer categories and their
operation?
21. Describe the polarisation index?
22. Describe two AC transformer tests? Why use AC?
23. Describe the action of the sudden pressure relay?
24. Describe the action of temp probes and gauges?
References
1. Electricity Commission of New South Wales Assistant Power Plant Operators
General Training Manual.
2. Pacific Power, Power Plant Operator Training Manual.
3. Fundamentals of Electrical Control (B.K. Sixsmith & J.E. Gorrie)
4. Lihir Management Company Power Station Operator Training Course (W.B. Smith)
5. Indo Kodeco Utilities Division Operations Manuals - chemical, electrical,
generator, fire, aux power (W.B. Smith)
6. New and Alternative Technologies for Electricity Generation (Pacific Power –
numerous contributors)
7. G.E. Power Systems Technical Papers - various (R.W. Smith, P. Polukort, C.E.
Maslak, C.M. Jones, B.D. Gardiner, David L. Chase)
8. Power transformer maintenance and testing (Department of the US Army)

9. Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing 2nd edition (Paul Gill)
10. Transformer maintenance (Hydroelectric research and technical services group)
11. Megger instrument company (On-line accessed March 2011)

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