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Modeling of a Direct Carbon Fuel Cell System

Article in Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology · October 2010

DOI: 10.1115/1.4001015

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K. Hemmes1
e-mail: k.hemmes@tudelft.nl
M. Houwing
Faculty Technology, Policy and Management,
Delft University of Technology,
Jaffalaan 5,
2628 BX Delft, The Netherlands
N. Woudstra
Energy Technology Section,
Faculty 3mE,
Delft University of Technology,
Mekelweg 2,
2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
Modeling of a Direct Carbon Fuel
Cell System
Direct carbon fuel cells (DCFCs) have great thermodynamic advantages over other high
temperature fuel cells such as molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and solid oxide fuel
cells. They can have 100% fuel utilization, no Nernst loss (at the anode), and the CO2
produced at the anode is not mixed with other gases and is ready for re-use or seques-
tration. So far, only studies have been reported on cell development. In this paper, we
study the performance of a CO2-producing DCFC system model. The theoretically pre-
dicted advantages that are confirmed on a bench scale are also confirmed on a system
level, except for the production of pure CO2. Net system efficiencies of around 78% were
found for the developed system. An exergy analysis of the system shows where the losses
in the system occur. If the cathode of the DCFC must be operated as a standard MCFC
cathode, the required CO2 at the cathode is the reason why a large part of the pure CO2
from the anode is recycled and mixed with the incoming air and cannot be used directly
for sequestration. Bench scale studies should be performed to test the minimum amount
of CO2 needed at the cathode. This might be lower than in a standard MCFC operation
due to the pure CO2 at the anode side that enhances diffusion toward the cathode.
关DOI: 10.1115/1.4001015兴

Keywords: fuel cells, direct carbon fuel cells, integrated fuel cell systems, flow-sheeting,
fuel cell system analysis, exergy analysis

1 Introduction
Direct carbon fuel cells 共DCFCs, also known in literature as
direct carbon conversion cells, DCCCs兲 offer specific thermody-
namic advantages compared with other fuel cell types. DCFCs
electrochemically convert solid carbon fuel into CO2 and/or CO.
Because the entropy change in the overall cell reaction is around
zero 共for CO2 as reaction product兲 or even positive 共for CO as
product兲, the theoretical reversible electric efficiency 共commonly
defined as ⌬G / ⌬H of the overall cell reaction兲 of a DCFC can be
around 100%. The development of DCFCs has been limited by
low anode reaction rates, accumulation of impurities in the elec-
trolyte and logistics of refueling the cell. These problems are be-
ing addressed by recent developments in the production of clean
and highly reactive carbon materials 共e.g., from natural gas兲, low-
cost techniques for separation of ash from coal, the possibility of
pneumatic distribution of solid particulate fuel to the cells or the
use of a slurry of carbon particles in a molten carbonate, and the
availability of technology developed for the MCFC developments
共electrodes and electrolytes兲 关1兴.
The DCFC configuration and theoretical principles resemble
those of the MCFC and solid oxide fuel cell 共SOFC兲. The reac-
tions that take place in the cell are comparable and cathode, elec-
trolyte, and current collector materials are similar. This paper will
not focus on cell design, cell configuration, and cell material de-
tails. We will take the design presented in Ref. 关1兴 and assume that
it can be scaled up and operated at reasonable current density
共100– 150 mA/ cm2兲. Research and development 共R&D兲 has been
focused on development of the cell itself on a lab scale and bench
scale. Steinberg and co-workers 关2,3兴 have proposed a number of
system configurations with a DCFC, but up till now no flow sheet
calculations on a DCFC system have been performed.
In this study, we will evaluate the DCFC system performance
by flow sheet calculations using the program CYCLE-TEMPO© 共CT兲.
One may wonder if the total system of converting coal, bio-
1
Corresponding author.
Manuscript received May 26, 2009, final manuscript received November 27,
2009; published online July 16, 2010. Review conducted by Ravindranathan Thampi.
mass, and methane via some process into their components
共among which is fixed carbon兲 and subsequently using the fixed
carbon in a DCFC has advantages in terms of overall conversion
efficiency when compared with the 共direct兲 conversion of these
fuels in alternative fuel cell systems. Gasifying coal and biomass
and using the product gas in MCFCs and SOFCs and the direct
use of methane in SOFCs are options with relatively high overall
system net electric efficiencies as well 共efficiencies up to 50%,
based on fuel lower heating value, LHV兲 关4兴. Still, the option to
split these solid and gaseous fuels into their components and using
the obtained fixed carbon in DCFCs can lead to relatively high
electric and overall efficiencies, especially in co-production appli-
cations. Co-producing hydrogen besides electricity from methane,
for example, is an application in which DCFC systems are very
suitable. Via the cracking of the methane, hydrogen and solid
carbon, particulate matter can be obtained. The hydrogen can be
directly used in industrial processes, it can be mixed into the
natural gas pipeline system, or it can be used in other types of fuel
cells 共preferably low temperature兲. The solid carbon can produce
electricity in a DCFC with relatively high efficiency. The use of
DCFCs is therefore envisaged to be especially suitable in the co-
production of electricity and hydrogen at high overall system ef-
ficiency.
The objective of this research is to present a DCFC system
model with simulation outcomes in order to provide a theoretical
basis for DCFC 共system兲 performance. In this paper, a complete
fuel cell system including a DCFC is modeled and its operation
characteristics and overall performance 共efficiency兲 are deter-
mined. The simulation results of a carbon fuelled, CO2-producing
DCFC system model will be shown. DCFC system research is still
in the beginning stage and the calculations are therefore of an
explorative nature.
This paper will cover the following topics:
• a concise overview of the salient thermodynamic advantages
of DCFCs when compared with other fuel cell types
• the design of a carbon fuelled, CO2-producing DCFC sys-
tem model in the CYCLE-TEMPO©, thermodynamic equilib-
rium, flow-sheeting software
• simulation calculations of the system model providing sys-

Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology OCTOBER 2010, Vol. 7 / 051008-1
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 tem performance information and exergy analysis data to loss. In addition to these Nernst losses or utilization losses, Ref.
validate theoretical predictions and to underline perfor- 关2兴 reported the possibility for the carbon fuel that is introduced in
mance data numbers found in earlier literature the cell to be fully consumed in a single pass. The idea is that no
carbon will exit the fuel cell and that all the carbon that enters the
fuel cell will be converted into either CO or CO2. So, in principle,
2 DCFC Performance
the DCFC can operate at 100% fuel utilization with almost zero
The DCFC cell reactions are similar to those for the MCFC. Nernst loss 关11兴, whereas full utilization of hydrogen is princi-
The fuel reacting at the anode is carbon and the oxidant supplied pally impossible in a MCFC or SOFC. So, both forms of utiliza-
to the cathode is air. Possible overall cell reactions are: tion losses in hydrogen consuming fuel cells 共losses due to chang-
C + O2 → CO2 共1兲 ing gas compositions and losses because of inherent incomplete
utilization兲 do not occur in CO2-producing DCFCs. The ratio be-
or tween the actual work delivered by the fuel cell WFC and the
1
C + 2 O2 → CO 共2兲 reversible fuel cell work WFC,rev can be expressed in terms of the
ratio of the operating cell voltage Vcell to the reversible cell volt-
If molten carbonate is chosen as the electrolyte, the anode and age Vcell,rev
cathode reactions are as follows:
3 → 3CO2 + 4e
Anode: C + 2CO2− −
WFC n · F · Vcell Vcell
= = 共5兲
WFC,rev n · F · Vcell,rev Vcell,rev
Cathode: O2 + 2CO2 + 4e− → 2CO2−
3 共1⬘兲
The electric efficiency of an actual fuel cell 共including irrevers-
or ible losses兲 ␩FC can now be expressed as
3 → CO + CO2 + 2e
Anode: C + CO2− −

WFC WFC,rev WFC WFC,rev Vcell

Cathode: O2 + 2CO2 + 4e− → 2CO2−
3 共2⬘兲
In general the anode product gas will be a mixture of CO and
CO2. The ratio between CO and CO2 will depend on thermody-
namics 共mainly temperature兲 and kinetics of the respective cell
reactions 关5兴. If CO is a product of the system, via the water gas
shift 共WGS兲 reaction it can be converted into H2.
The reversible electric efficiency ␩FC,rev of a fuel cell at reac-
tion temperature T and a certain reaction pressure p is generally
given by the following definition:
WFC,rev − ⌬G − 共⌬H − T⌬S兲 ⌬S
␩FC,rev = = = =1−T 共3兲
HHVfuel HHVfuel − ⌬H ⌬H
where WFC,rev is the reversible work delivered by the cell
WFC,rev = − ⌬G = n · F · Vcell,rev 共4兲
n is the number of electrons per molecule fuel, F is Faraday’s
constant, and Vcell,rev is the reversible cell voltage.
For the carbon–oxygen fuel cell with overall cell reaction 共1兲,
the reversible electric efficiency at standard conditions 共T
= 298 K, p = p0 = 1 atm兲 using Eq. 共3兲 and thermodynamic data
from Refs. 关6,7兴 is
⌬S 0.0029
␩FC,rev共C−cell兲 = 1 − T = 1 − 298 · ⬇ 1.00
⌬H − 393.52
The above calculation shows the strong thermodynamic advantage
of the CO2 producing DCFC when compared with a fuel cell
using hydrogen as fuel. These advantages follow from the fact that
the entropy change of the overall cell reaction 共1兲 and the accom-
panying amount of reversibly generated heat are approximately
zero for the CO2 producing DCFC.
Furthermore, a CO2-producing DCFC exhibits minimal Nernst
loss at the anode side of the cell, because the 共electro兲chemical
activity of a solid is independent of the amount of solid, whereas
for a gas it decreases with its partial pressure. In other high tem-
perature cells, the Nernst loss constitutes a major loss factor
关2,8–10兴. According to the Nernst equation, the equilibrium po-
tential decreases with decreasing partial pressure of the fuel gas
and increasing partial pressure of the product gas steam 共and CO2
in the case of the molten carbonate fuel cell兲. Therefore, in con-
ventional fuel cells, the parts near the fuel outlet perform worse
than the parts and the inlet site. On average the equilibrium cell
potential is not equal to the open cell voltage but lower. It can be
approximated by the average between the equilibrium cell poten-
tial at the outlet side and open cell voltage 共OCV兲. The difference
between this average and the OCV can be defined as the Nernst
␩FC = = · = · 共6兲
HHVfuel HHVfuel WFC,rev HHVfuel Vcell,rev
For both the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell and the DCFC the ratio
of Eq. 共5兲 is chosen to be around 0.8 for practical 共but different兲
current densities in both cells due to ohmic and electrode polar-
ization losses 共i.e., irreversible losses兲 关1兴. It should be empha-
sized however that the choice to operate the direct carbon fuel cell
at 0.8 V 共80% of the open cell voltage兲 is rather arbitrary. As for
all fuel cells a higher cell voltage will lead to higher efficiency but
lower current density and hence a lower power density. While
reversely a lower imposed cell voltage will lead to a decrease in
efficiency at a higher current and power density 共up to the maxi-
mum power peak兲. Since the investment cost per kW depends on
the power density and the fuel cost depends on the efficiency, the
optimum choice for the cell voltage will be determined by eco-
nomics. Our choice of operating at 0.8 V leads to the conclusion
that the actual fuel cell efficiency of a DCFC is approximately
␩DCFC ⬇ 1.00 ⫻ 0.8 = 0.80
This is to be compared for example with the practical efficiency
␩FC of a MCFC or SOFC. These are approximately 0.53, in which
also the Nernst loss is included 关1,2兴. Herewith, the theoretical
thermodynamic advantages of DCFCs have been clearly demon-
strated.
Further research is expected to increase practical achievable
current density values and consequently the power densities of
DCFCs. Kinetic and other irreversible losses can and should be
decreased further by technological improvements, to be able to
increase current and power density of the fuel cell, while main-
taining the same high cell voltage.
The numbers for the DCFC performance presented here under-
line the reported values found in literature. DCFC electric effi-
ciencies of around 80% 共based on heat of combustion of carbon兲
are reported to have been achieved at current densities of
30– 300 mA/ cm2 using carbon materials extracted from coal and
other fossil resources 关1兴. Whether or not we will achieve a rea-
sonable current density at 0.8 V in large-scale practical DCFCs is
a matter of technological development. If we do not succeed the
fuel cells will have a too low power density and will be too large
in size for a certain power/capacity to be commercial. In this
exploratory theoretical paper we cannot provide this experimental/
technological data. What we do see in literature is that there is
potential that this will be achieved, but also that there lies a po-
tential problem or bottleneck if these current densities of 200 or
300 mA/ cm2 at 0.8 V cannot be obtained in practice.

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©
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of a DCFC in CYCLE-TEMPO
3 DCFC System Modeling Approach
3.1 The CYCLE-TEMPO© Software Package. In this study CT,
a flow-sheeting computer program developed by Delft University
of Technology in conjunction with the Netherlands Organization
for Applied Scientific Research 共TNO兲, was used for modeling a
DCFC system and for undertaking its thermodynamic analysis.
The program is used for analyzing the system performance 共effi-
ciency兲 including the performance of individual components 共ex-
ergy analysis兲. With the acquired information more insight in the
DCFC system performance is obtained and possibilities to opti-
mize the system configuration are arrived at. In the program
©
CYCLE-TEMPO , component models are available for a large vari-
ety of energy systems components. However, the direct carbon
fuel cell is a new development therefore in this study component
models for the DCFC were developed and implemented in CT.
3.2 CO2-Producing DCFC Model. The main features of the
DCFC model component that is presently available in CT and
which is used in the developed CT system models in this study
will be discussed here. Figure 1 gives the schematic representation
of the DCFC model in CT.
The characteristics of the CYCLE-TEMPO© DCFC model are
mainly based on the DCCC from the Lawrence Livermore Na-
tional Laboratory 共LLNL兲 关1兴. The LLNL cell electrochemically
converts crystallographic disordered carbon particles to CO2. Al-
though the Boudouard equilibrium at the temperature of the
DCFC 共700– 800° C兲 predicts a substantial amount of CO
共CO: CO2 ratio 9:1 at 800° C兲, it has been found experimentally
that almost pure CO2 was produced 关1,5兴. This is similar to the
situation in aluminum production and can be explained by the
polarized state of the anodes. The electrochemical potential of the
anodes is such that CO is further oxidized to CO2. It is of course
possible that the CO2 that this formed will react with the carbon
particles in the Boudouard reaction to CO again. However, experi-
ment shows that this only partially occurs and that the Boudouard
reaction is not in equilibrium. More on the chemical and electro-
chemical equilibria at the DCFC anode can be found elsewhere
关5兴.
The DCFC is derived from the MCFC design and it uses the
same electrolyte, electrolyte support matrix, and cathode. The an-
ode consists of carbon particles that serve both as fuel and as
electrode. Carbon fuel is fed 共pneumatically兲 into the cell using
CO2 as a carrier gas.
The DCFC in CYCLE-TEMPO© is modeled having a molten car-
bonate electrolyte and only CO2 as anode reaction product accord-
ing to overall cell reaction 共1兲. Certain design parameters for the
DCFC model have been chosen. In summary, the model param-
Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology
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Table 1 Overview of the modeling assumptions and DCFC
model parameters
3 兲.
Electrolyte is molten carbonate 共CO2−
DCFC produces only CO2 at the anode.
In the utilization definition, only carbon is taken into account.
WGS and methane reforming reactions are not modeled for the anode
chamber.
Coflow of fuel and oxidant streams.
The electrochemical reactions and calculations are assumed at one
average temperature across the whole cell area. The calculated chemical
balances on the active cell area and the current density are based on that
average cell temperature. The average temperature between air inlet and
outlet is taken as the cell stack 共reaction兲 temperature and the cell
pressure is taken as the average of the pressures of the incoming and
outgoing gas streams.
Cathode inlet temperature: 700° C; temperature rise over cell: 100° C;
cell outlet temperature: 800° C; and cell reaction temperature: 750° C.
Fuel utilization is 100%.
As the model works under potentiostatic control, the cell voltage should
be specified. From Ref. 关1兴, we specify the cell voltage at 0.8 V at
1000 A / m2
eters and modeling assumptions are given in Table 1.
The anode and cathode gas stream remove the heat dissipated in
the cell. The cathode stream has a much higher mass flow than the
anode stream and will therefore remove the largest part of the heat
and it mainly determines the cell temperature. The outlet tempera-
ture of the DCFC is set at 800° C. In the DCFC, the temperature
rise over the cathode is set at 100° C 共so the cathode stream inlet
temperature is thereby specified at 700° C兲. In iterative calculation
steps, the program CT calculates and adjusts the gas flows to
obtain proper energy and mass balances in the system.
3.3 General System Modeling Assumptions. Besides the as-
sumptions made for the DCFC model component, the total system
model is made on the basis of the following system model as-
sumptions, listed below in Table 2.
In the system model, anode recycling is implemented to provide
the necessary CO2 stream for entraining the carbon particles mat-
ter in. Also, part of the anode recycle stream is fed to the cathode
inlet stream to provide the necessary amount of CO2 for the cath-
ode reaction. The incoming air alone does not provide enough
CO2 to the cathode. Models with cathode recycling were devel-
oped and the system performances were compared with systems
without cathode recycle stream. Cathode recycling will provide
only very marginal net system electric efficiency improvement
共around 0.1%兲 and the recycling will substantially increase the
complexity of the system model. Therefore, cathode recycling has
not been modeled in the final system model. The mixing of part of
the anode exhaust stream with incoming streams to the DCFC is
done via direct mixing.
The 4 mol % CO2 concentration at the cathode outlet is chosen
as a design parameter. This value is assumed to be necessary for a
proper functioning of the cathode as it does for a MCFC cathode
关12兴.
4 Carbon Fuelled, CO2-Producing DCFC System
Model
The lay out of the carbon fuelled DCFC system model is given
in Fig. 2. Fixed carbon particles enter the system at ambient con-
ditions 共p = 1 atm, T = 15° C兲 at a mass flow rate of 1 kg/s and are
OCTOBER 2010, Vol. 7 / 051008-3
 Table 2 Overview of the general DCFC system model
assumptions

All reactions in all phases are in thermodynamic equilibrium except the

Boudouard reaction.

The systems operate at atmospheric pressure 共p = 1.01325 bars兲.

Anode recycling but no cathode recycling implemented.

Arbitrarily, we have assumed 10 g of C is dispersed per liter CO2

entering the cell anode. Therefore, the mass proportion of the amount of
fixed carbon to the total mixed CO2 and carbon stream entering the
DCFC anode is 0.84.

Isentropic and mechanic efficiencies of used compressors are 78% and

98%, respectively.

CO2 concentration in cathode outlet stream: 4 mol %.

The power output of the systems is specified by setting the carbon mass
flow entering the systems at 1 kg/s.

When specified for heat exchangers, the high and low terminal
temperature differences are taken as 30° C and 20° C, respectively.

Heat exchangers are all of the counter current type.

Losses in dc/ac conversion are neglected.

For optimal simulation, dry air 共humidity 0%兲 is used.

Environment needed for exergy analysis is taken as the environment of

Baehr with a temperature of 15° C and a pressure of 1.01325 bars.

Pressure drops for all apparatus specified as percentages of the pressure

of the working fluid passing through the apparatus.
Fig. 2 Carbon fuelled DCFC system model

The compositions of the anode and cathode inlet and outlet

entrained in a CO2 stream 共recycled from the anode exhaust兲 via streams are given in Table 3.
valve 1. The mixed carbon and CO2 stream is then fed to the
anode with an inlet temperature of around 168° C, due to the 5 System Performance and Exergy Analysis
mixing of the 共relatively hot兲 recycled CO2 and the 共ambient tem- 5.1 System Performance. The system performance of the de-
perature兲 carbon streams. We explicitly note that for a practical veloped models is given in Table 4. For the carbon fuelled DCFC
design either the anode gas has to be preheated in a heat ex- system model the efficiency of 78.5% 共based on C-fuel LHV/
changer or the C / CO2 ratio must be set lower. As stated, such HHV兲 is comparable to the efficiency value calculated in section
more detailed system engineering and optimization falls outside 1. The net system electric efficiency 共taking auxiliary power con-
the scope of this study. The air enters the system at ambient con- sumption into account兲 is 77.9% 共based on C-fuel LHV/HHV兲.
ditions via an air blower and is preheated by two recuperative heat These efficiency numbers confirm total system efficiency num-
exchangers 共HX 1 and HX 2兲 using waste heat from the anode and bers found in Ref. 关3兴.
cathode outlet streams. Via valve 2 recycled CO2 from the anode The net electric power generated by the system is 25.7 MW.
is directly mixed with the air and the mixed stream is subse-
quently fed to the DCFC cathode. The anode recycle stream is 5.2 Exergy Analysis. In this section, an exergy analysis of the
thus split: part of it is recycled to the anode and cathode inlet carbon fuelled DCFC system model is given. CT calculates the
streams and part is leaving the system directly. In the second exergy values of all process streams. Together with the calculated
splitter part of the recycled stream is used to entrain the fixed amounts of power and heat that are taken up or released for each
carbon 共mass ratio of fixed carbon to total anode inlet stream: component in the system, the exergy losses and exergy efficien-
0.84兲 and part of the stream mixes with the incoming air to pro- cies per system component can be calculated. An exergy analysis
vide the necessary CO2 for the cathode reaction. The setting of comprises calculated values of the exergy values of process
valve 2 is such that 4 mol % of CO2 is still present at the cathode
outlet. The mass flow of the CO2 recycle stream to valve 2 relative
to the cathode inlet mass flow is 0.19. Table 3 Anode and cathode stream compositions of carbon
The recycling of a large part of the anode outlet stream 共mainly fuelled model, mol %
needed to mix with the cathode inlet stream兲 results in a relatively
small stream of pure CO2 that eventually is leaving the system via Anode inlet Anode outlet Cathode inlet Cathode outlet
the anode. Only 1.1 kg/s of pure CO2 leaves the system via the C 0.951 0.000 0.000 0.000
anode outlet compared with a total anode CO2 outlet flow 共before CO2 0.049 1.000 0.133 0.040
recycling兲 of 11.2 kg/s. Because of the specified 4 mol % of CO2 Ar 0.000 0.000 0.008 0.010
to be present at the cathode outlet, a relatively large CO2 stream N2 0.000 0.000 0.677 0.795
共about 2.5 kg/s, mixed with air兲 leaves the system via the cathode O2 0.000 0.000 0.182 0.155
outlet.

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 Table 4 System performance of a DCFC system model coming air to the system is due to the difference in the air and
Baehr environment composition. The exergy losses in the remain-
Out ing sub systems are acceptable 共see Table 5兲.
Dividing the air preheating heat exchangers HX 1 and HX 2
DCFC electric power production 25,705.34 kW
Total auxiliary power consumption 168.81 kW
into more parallel positioned heat exchangers could mitigate the
System net electric power production 25,536.53 kW exergy losses associated with the air preheating part of the system.
Making use of the remaining exergy contained in the CO2 and air
In process streams leaving the system could mitigate the exergy
C-fuel mass flow to DCFC 1.00 kg/s losses accompanying these streams. Preheating of the carbon fuel
LHV/HHV of C-fuel 32,761.29 kJ/kg with these streams for example could decrease the exergy losses.
System power consumption 32,761.29 kW

DCFC efficiency: 0.785 6 Conclusions

System net electric efficiency: 0.779
study.
streams and values for the exergy losses in the system. The analy-
sis shows where the losses occur and how serious they are. This
analysis helps in answering the question of which possibilities
there are to minimize the exergy losses and hence improve system
efficiency.
Subsystems and components showing relatively large losses are
identified and possible suggestions for system improvement are
given. The total exergy loss divided over the different subsystems
of the carbon fuelled system model is shown in Table 5.
On a total exergy input of 34.1 MW 共this is different from the
fuel LHV value times the fuel mass flow, due to difference in
environment definition兲 entering the carbon fuelled model as fuel,
25.7 MW is useful exergy in the form of electric power generated
by the DCFC. However, 0.17 MW of this power is needed as
auxiliary power in the system 共see Table 4兲 So, 8.6 MW of total
exergy loss occur in the system or is leaving the system as heat
共see Table 5兲. Strictly speaking, the exergy in the heat contained in
the CO2 and air streams leaving the system is not a loss. This
amount of exergy 共⬃31% of the “losses”兲 can be used in principle
e.g., by a conversion into power. In this paper however, these
amounts of exergy leaving the system are counted as losses. The
total exergy loss results in an exergetic efficiency of the system of
around 75%.
From Table 5, it is obvious that the air preheating is responsible
for the major part of the exergy losses in the total system. Also the
mixing of gas streams in valve 2 and the CO2 and air streams
leaving the system account for relatively large portions of the
exergy loss. The exergy loss in the DCFC relative to the fuel input
exergy 共2.40%兲 is very small when compared with fuel cell sys-
tems comprising other fuel cell types. Molten carbonate fuel cells
共MCFCs, for example, show exergy losses relative to the fuel
input exergy of around 6–8% 关13兴. The small negative exergy loss
共or positive exergy gain into the system兲 associated with the in-
The following conclusions could be drawn from the present
• A carbon fueled CO2-producing DCFC system model was
developed in the CYCLE-TEMPO© flow-sheeting software
package. Its efficiency was evaluated and an exergy analysis
showed where the major exergy losses occurred in the sys-
tem. Air and carbon particulates entered the system at am-
bient conditions. The 1 kg/s carbon stream was entrained in
a CO2 stream and this mixed stream was fed to the DCFC
anode. Pure CO2 left the DCFC anode and the cell produced
25.7 MW of electric power. The system showed a net elec-
tric efficiency of 77.9%. The DCFC showed relatively very
little exergy loss and the main exergy losses occurred in the
air-preheater of the system.
• A relatively large portion of the pure CO2 leaving the sys-
tem from the anode is needed at the cathode inlet to provide
the necessary CO2 for the cathode reaction.
6.1 Further Research
• Besides the shown fixed carbon fuelled model, methane,
coal, and biomass fuelled CO2-producing DCFC system
models are under development at this stage 关14兴. They show
promising performance results and shall be looked into fur-
ther. Hydrogen/power co-producing, methane fuelled DCFC
systems are under development and already show relatively
very high overall system efficiencies. These systems form
an attractive alternative for steam reforming processes in
producing hydrogen.
• The production of CO at the DCFC anode besides the CO2
product depends on many aspects of the DCFC operation
conditions. In reality, the exact processes taking place in the
cell will be determined by 共electro-兲 chemical thermody-
namics as well as by kinetics of the various 共electro-兲 chemi-
cal reactions and hence over-potential. In thermodynamic
equilibrium modeling choices and assumptions have to be
made when developing certain models. In this study, CO-

Table 5 Exergy losses per subsystem of carbon fuelled DCFC system model „note: in
©
CYCLE-TEMPO exergy values have been calculated relative to the Baehr environment of 15° C and
1.01325 bars…

Relative exergy Relative exergy

Exergy loss to fuel loss to total
Subsystem Name loss 共kW兲 input 共%兲 loss 共%兲

1 DCFC 819.11 2.40 9.53

2 Valve 1 84.85 0.25 0.99
3 Valve 2 1594.67 4.67 18.55
4 Anode recycle blower 0.99 0.00 0.01
5 Air blower 36.41 0.11 0.42
6 Air preheating 共HX1 + HX2兲 3451.14 10.11 40.13
7 CO2 out 506.20 1.48 5.89
8 Air out 2164.60 6.34 25.17
9 Air inlet ⫺59.14 ⫺0.17 ⫺0.69

Total 8598.83 25.19 100.00

Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology OCTOBER 2010, Vol. 7 / 051008-5

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 producing system models have not been developed. How- References
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