Class Notes 2

EMG 2306 PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING
DESIGN
Lecture Notes Compiled By:
Mũtukũ Mũvengei (PhD)

c JANUARY 2017
Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sufficient material
for their studies since the purpose of the notes is not meant to be a substitute for regularly attending
classes, reading relevant textbooks and recommended books. The notes are aimed at providing a quick
reference and a brief guidance for the students.
Contents
Table of Contents i
1 Engineering Design Process 1
1.1 Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Identify the Need or Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Research about the Need or Problem (Background Research) . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Develop Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Select the Best Possible Solution and Optimize it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Construct a Prototype to Test and Evaluate the Design Solution . . . . . . 5
1.2.6 Communicate the Design Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Skills of a Good Engineering Designer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Design Engineers Professional Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Factors to Consider in Engineering Design 9
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Type of Load and Stresses Induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Motion of the Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Manufacturability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
CONTENTS ii
2.8 Wear Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.9 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.10 Operational Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.11 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.12 Assembly and Disassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.13 Servicing and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.14 Reliability and Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.15 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.16 Selection of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.17 Aesthetic and Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.18 Number of machines to be built . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Design Constraints 14
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Safety Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Manufacturing Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Economic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5 Environmental Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.6 Legal/Ethical Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.7 Political Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.8 Time Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.9 Functional Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.10 Ergonomic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Innovative Design 18
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Reasons why Innovative Design is Very Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 Principle steps of Innovative Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

CONTENTS iii
4.3.1 Creative Methods in Innovative Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3.2 Overcoming Obstacles of Creative Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Case Studies of Innovative Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4.1 Ballbarrow (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4.2 Cyclone Vacuum Cleaner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4.3 Strida Bicycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5 Analysis and Presentation of Designs 29
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Use of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.1 Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.2 Computer Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2.3 Physical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3 Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4 Communication of Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.1 Engineering Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4.2 Written Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.4.3 Oral Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6 Manufacturing Considerations in Design 34
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.2 Casting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.3 Deformation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.4 Material Removal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.5 Concurrent Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7 Ergonomic Considerations in Design 39
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.2 Man-Machine Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

CONTENTS iv
7.2.1 Design of Display Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.2.2 Design of Control Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.3 Workstation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.3.1 Workstation Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3.2 Sitting and chair design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3.3 Standing work positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.3.4 Hand tools and controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3.5 Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3.6 Job Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.4 Ergonomic Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.4.1 Car Dashboard and Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.4.2 Effectiveness of Ergonomics in Deere and Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8 Use of Standards in Design 52
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.2 Types of Standards in Machine Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.2.1 Standards for materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.2.2 Standards for shapes and dimensions of commonly used machine parts . . 53
8.2.3 Standards for fits, tolerances and surface finish of components . . . . . . . 54
8.2.4 Standards for testing of products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.2.5 Standards for engineering drawings of components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.2.6 Ergonomics and safety standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.3 Advantages of Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9 Economic Considerations in Design 56
9.1 Cost reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 1
Engineering Design Process
1.1 Engineering Design
Engineering design can be defined as the process of systematically applying innovativeness, basic
sciences, engineering sciences and mathematics to come up with a device, system, or a process
which meet specific needs.
It is a creative, iterative and often open-ended process
Hence design is a mixture of analysis and creative thought.
The ability to design requires both science and art. The science can be learned through a system-
atic process, experience, and problem-solving technique (all of which will be mastered during your
college education). The art is gained by practice and a total dedication to becoming proficient.
The design of a device or system can be classified as either:
(a) Evolution: Whereby a product is allowed to evolve over a period of time with only slight
improvement.
(b) Innovation (invention): New products or systems which never existed before are created.
Also existing products are rapidly improved due to competition or technological growth. The
creative skills and analytical ability of the design engineer play an important role.
A design engineer is a problem solver and can be defined as a person who is concerned with many
processes leading to the production of artefacts and systems which help mankind. The processes
include but not limited to activities which start with inception of an idea, communication of the
idea via design and drawings, and then finish with manufacturing of the product.
What distinguishes design from other types of problem solving is the nature of both the problem
and the solution. Design problems are open ended in nature, which means they have more than
Engineering Design: 1.2 The Design Process 2
one correct solution. The result or solution to a design problem is a system that possesses specified
properties.
Design and analysis problems are different. Suppose that you are asked to determine the maximum
height of a projectile given an initial velocity and release height. This is an analysis problem
because it has only one answer. If you change the problem statement to read, “Design a device to
launch a 1-kg ball to a height of at least 160 m,” this analysis problem becomes a design problem.
The solution to the design problem is a system having specified properties (able to launch a ball
160 m), whereas the solution to the analysis problem consisted of the properties of a given system
(the height of the ball). The solution to a design problem is therefore open ended, since there are
many possible devices that can launch a ball to a given height. The original problem had a single
solution: the maximum height of the ball, determined from the specified initial conditions.
1.2 The Design Process
The engineering design process is a series of steps that engineering teams use to guide them as
they solve problems. The process is an iterative or repetitive decision-making one and comprises
of eight steps as shown in flow-chat 1.1.
1.2.1 Identify the Need or Problem
This is the first step in the design process where the problem that needs to be solved is unam-
biguously defined by recognizing the need for a new product or system.
Thomas Newcomen saw the need for a machine to pump the water from the bottom of coal mines
in England. Recognizing this human need provided him the stimulus for designing the first steam
engine in 1712.
Before engineers can clearly define a design problem and establish the design requirements, they
must see and understand this need.
The need for a new design can be generated from several sources, including the following:
(a) Client request: A client may submit a request which will form a need for developing a new
design by a company. Most likely, the need may be expressed unclearly: the client may know
only the type of product that he or she wants; for example, I need a safe ladder.
(b) Modification of an existing design: Often a client may ask for a modification of an existing
product to make it simpler and easy to use. In addition, companies may want to provide
customers with new, easy-to-use or improved products.
STEP 1
Optional Identify the Need or Problem
Step
STEP 8 STEP 2
Redesign Research the Need or Problem
STEP 7
STEP 3
Communicate the Solution(s)
Develop Possible Solution(s)
STEP 6 STEP 4
Test and Evaluate the Solution(s) Select the Best Possible Solution(s)
and optimize
STEP 5
Construct a Prototype
Figure 1.1:
(c) Generation of a new product: For an industry to survive in todays world, it must continue to
grow; it cannot afford to remain static. This growth, throughout history, has been built on
new products
1.2.2 Research about the Need or Problem (Background Research)
The second step is to gather information pertaining to the problem so as to establish what is
available in the market and data necessary to solve the problem.
Engineers should always try to build on what has already been done before. Information on related
problems that have been solved or unsolved may help engineers find the best solution.
Gathering pertinent information can reveal facts about the problem that result in a redefinition
of the problem. You may discover mistakes and false starts made by other designers. Information
gathering for most design problems begins with asking the following questions:
• Is the problem real and its statement accurate?
• Is there really a need for a new solution or has the problem already been solved?
• What are the existing solutions to the problem?
• What is wrong with the way the problem is currently being solved?
• What is right about the way the problem is currently being solved?
• What are the economic factors governing the solution?
• How much will people pay for a solution to the problem?
• What other factors are important to the problem solution (such as safety, aesthetics and
environmental issues)?
This information can be obtained from internet, scientific encyclopedias and technical handbooks
in libraries, catalogues of suppliers, patent offices, research reports, technical journals, indexes.
1.2.3 Develop Possible Solutions
The next step in the design process begins with creativity in generating new ideas that may solve
the problem.
A problem may be solved using very many ways. The design team should identify most of these
ways as possible. This can be done using creative methods such as brainstorming, synetics, use of
checklist, attribute listing among others.
1.2.4 Select the Best Possible Solution and Optimize it
Once you have developed alternative solutions to your design problem, you need to analyze those
solutions and then decide which solution is best suited for implementation.
Analysis is the evaluation of the proposed designs. You apply your technical knowledge to the
proposed solutions and use the results to decide which solution to carry out.
The following is a list of some of analysis analysis that may need to be considered; bear in mind
that the importance of each varies depending on the nature of the problem and the solution.
(a) Functional analysis: This analysis determines whether the given design solution will function
the way it should. A design solution that does not function properly is a failure even if it
meets all other criteria. Consider for example the invention of the ballpoint pen. This common
instrument was first invented and manufactured during World War II. and was supposed to
solve the problems of refilling and messiness common to the fountain pen. Unfortunately, this
new design had never been evaluated for functionality. The early pens depended on gravity for
the ink to flow to the roller ball. This meant that the pens only worked in a vertical upright
position, and the ink flow was inconsistent: Sometimes it flowed too heavily, leaving smudgy
blotches on the paper; other times the flow was too light and the markings were unreadable.
The first ballpoint pens tended to leak around the ball, ruining people’s clothes. An elastic ink
developed in 1949, allowed the ink to flow over the ball through smooth capillary action. Not
until the 1950s did the ballpoint pen finally become a practical writing instrument, thanks to
proper ink and engineering. Economy, appearance, durability, and marketability of a design
are unimportant if the product does not function properly.
(b) Industrial design/Ergonomics: Ergonomics is the human factor in engineering. It is the study
of how people interact with machines. A design solution can be considered successful if the
design fits the people using it.
(c) Mechanical/Strength analysis: Since mechanical systems are subjected to loads, you need
to perform strength calculations to determine whether the design alternative will be able to
support the specified mechanical loads.
(d) Manufacturability/Testability: At the design stage, it is important to ensure that the compo-
nents are manufacturable hence every design alternative should be accessed for its manufac-
turability and of its parts.
(e) Product safety and liability: A designer should ensure that the product will not cause injury
to humans. Unsafe product leads to liability. Liability refers to the manufacturer of a machine
or product being liable, or financially responsible, for any injury or damage resulting from the
use of an unsafe product.
(f) Economic and market analysis: The goal for most of engineering designs is to produce a
product that generates a profit for the company. Therefore, each alternative design has to
be evaluated against criteria such as sales features, potential market, cost of manufacturing,
advertising, and so on.
The best design solution should therefore be optimized. This can be achieved by computer simu-
lation approaches.
1.2.5 Construct a Prototype to Test and Evaluate the Design Solution
After optimizing the best design solution, the next step is to construct a prototype so as to test
and implement the solution.
Prototyping involves building the designed product for the first time so as to test its performance.
A prototype may not fully work or operate as intended. The purpose of the prototype is to test
the design solution under real conditions and suggest design modifications for improvement.
Engineering Design: 1.3 Skills of a Good Engineering Designer 6
1.2.6 Communicate the Design Solution
After testing of the preferred design, it must then be communicated to those who must approve
it, support it, and translate it into reality.
This communication may take the form of an engineering report, or a set of plans and specifica-
tions.
Engineering drawings, written and oral communications, and scheduling and planning a design
project are very important in implementing a design smoothly and efficiently.
1.3 Skills of a Good Engineering Designer
A good machine designer possesses some skills that help him/her design the machine elements and
machine that meet all the needs of the designer and that helps develop the high quality machine
at lowest possible costs. These skills help the machine design engineer consider all the relevant
parameters in the broad sense and understand their effects on machine. The good designer has
knowledge of wide range of subjects related to the machine that helps them find out the best
solution to the problem. Their communications skills help them communicate their problem to
others and get find the solution of the problem from different sources.
(1) Inventiveness: This skill is the foundation stone for a good design engineer. Any new design
starts with the need or some objective. A good designer should have inventiveness, which
is the ability to think of or discover valuable and useful ideas or concepts for the things or
processes to achieve the given objective. Without inventiveness the designer cannot start the
process of machine design.
(2) Engineering analysis: Engineering analysis is the ability of the designer to analyze the given
component, system or the process using engineering and scientific principles. The designer
who possesses this skill will be able to find answer to the engineering related problems very
quickly for he or she knows what exactly the problem is and where it is.
(3) Engineering science: This is another skill without which the designer will just not be able to
do any designing. A good designer is the one who has thorough knowledge of and in depth
training in the engineering science in which they are doing designing. For instance, if the
person doesnt know what the refrigerator is and other basics of mechanical engineering how
will they be able to design the refrigerator?
(4) Interdisciplinary ability: A good design engineer is the one who has the ability to solve the
problems not only those related to his/her specialty, but also have the ability to competently
and confidently deal the basic problems or ideas from other disciplines which are in some or
the other manner linked to the machine they are designing.
Engineering Design: 1.4 Design Engineers Professional Responsibilities 7
(5) Mathematical skills: All types of designs involve lots of mathematical calculations and itera-
tions. A good designer should have the knowledge of all the basics and advanced mathematical
concepts so that they can be applied fruitfully and effectively wherever required.
(6) Decision making: During designing many times a number of uncertain situations arrive, in
such cases the designer should be able to take the decision with balanced mind considering all
the relevant factors involved. If the person doesnt maintain the balance of mind and doesnt
consider all the relevant factors there are greater chances of taking the wrong decision.
(7) Manufacturing processes: The design engineer should have the knowledge of the manufacturing
process like cutting, drilling, milling etc and the knowledge of all the machines. They should
also the knowledge of potential and limitations of all the machines and manufacturing processes
which may be old or new.
(8) Communication skills: Communication skill is the ability of the design engineer to express
oneself clearly and persuasively orally, graphically as well as in writing.
These are the important skills that the machine design engineer or rather any designer should
posses. Apart from this there are many other skills desired from a good designers, these are:
skill in design, good judgment, simulation skill, measurement skill, thought skill, work in team,
ability to make conclusion etc.
1.4 Design Engineers Professional Responsibilities
The designer must satisfy the needs of the customer in a competent, responsible, ethical, and
professional manner.
Much of engineering course work and practical experience focuses on competence, but when does
one begin to develop engineering responsibility and professionalism? To start on the road to
success, these characteristics should be developed early in the educational program.
Some key advise for a professional design engineer are:
• Be competent
• Keep current in field of practice
• Keep good documentation
• Ensure good and timely communication
• Act professionally and ethically
Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:

Engineering Design: 1.4 Design Engineers Professional Responsibilities 8
• Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
• Perform services only in areas of their competence.
• Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
• Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
• Avoid deceptive acts.
• Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the

honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.
Chapter 2
Factors to Consider in Engineering

Design
2.1 Introduction
By design consideration, we are referring to some characteristic that influences the design of the
element or, perhaps, the entire system.
Design considerations should ensure that whatever is designed and manufactured is:
• Functional
• Safe
• Reliable
• Competitive
• Usable
• Manufacturable
• Marketable
The following are some factors which need to be put into consideration during the engineering
design process (Not in order of importance)
2.2 Strength
Strength is an inherent property of a material or of a mechanical element. It depends on treatment

and processing and may or may not be uniform throughout the part .
Engineering Design: 2.3 Rigidity 10
Strength of a material is expressed either as: Ultimate strength or yield strength
The machine elements or the machine should be strong enough to sustain all the forces it is
designed for so that it is not damaged or permanently deformed during its life time. Right at the
time of the designing the machine the designer should consider the force machine can be applied
to and consider all the relevant factors that could affects its life. A component should not fail
or have residual deformations under the effect of the forces that act on it. This is satisfied if the
induced stress is less then the material strength.
The necessary and sufficient strength of the part with a given load and a selected material is
ensured by use of dimensions and shapes, which will not allow damage and residual deformations.
A component can also fail because of damaged working surfaces induced by the very high stress
or very small area.
2.3 Rigidity
Rigidity is the ability of parts to resist deformations under the action of forces. All the parts in a
machine or structure should have sufficient rigidity. The machine should be rigid enough so that
under the effect of applied forces for which it is designed there is no deflection of the machine or
machine elements beyond the specified limits. If there is excessive deflection, there are chances of
the failure of the machine elements and the whole machine.
Therefore apart from the strength calculations rigidity of a number of parts is also calculated by
comparing the actual displacements (deflections, angles of turn, angles of twist) with allowable
(rated) displacements.
2.4 Type of Load and Stresses Induced
If the part experiencing a force is prevented from moving (i.e. it is constrained), then the body
may be deformed by the applied force. Stresses and strains measure this deformation. (Stresses
& Strains are widely studied in Solid and Structural Mechanics or Strength of Materials)
To design a machine part it is necessary to know the forces, which the part must sustain.
2.5 Motion of the Parts
If the part experiencing a force is not prevented from moving, then the body may move (changes
its position when a force is applied to it)
The study of motion of bodies and the forces which cause this motion is called dynamics (Kine-
matics and Kinetics).
Engineering Design: 2.6 Manufacturability 11
To design a machine part which will be motion, it is necessary to know the motion of the part
since forces and their relations change during the motion of the part.
2.6 Manufacturability
The component should be designed such that its production requires the minimum expenditure
of labor and time.
2.7 Cost
Cost has always been the major factor of consideration while designing the machine elements or
machine and in this age of competition it has become more important. The aim is to reduce the
manufacturing costs in any circumstance
The best machine design is the one which helps get the finished product with all the major
functionalities and highest possible quality at the lowest possible cost. Gone are the days when
expensive and bulky materials were used for making the machine elements.
There should be maximum possible standard parts in the design of the machine. This will help
reduce the cost of the machine and ensure easy availability of the parts. With standard parts the
design can be modified easily.
2.8 Wear Resistance
Wear is the removal of the material from the metallic surface when two surfaces rub with each
other. If there is more removal of the material, the component will become weaker and eventually
break.
The wear of the contacting surfaces can be reduced by the lubrication of the surfaces, increasing
the strength or the hardness of the working surfaces. The effect of wear can also be reduced by
increasing the surface, so that during the lifetime of the mating machine elements they will not
fail even if there is some wearing between them.
2.9 Lubrication
Lubrication between the two mating surfaces of the elements of the machine help reducing fric-
tion between them and wearing of the two surfaces, which results in the increase in life of the
components of the machine.
Engineering Design: 2.10 Operational Safety 12
2.10 Operational Safety
For the safety of the operator of the machine, the hazard producing things from the machine
should be eliminated and the design should confirm to the safety codes.
2.11 Efficiency
Earlier machines used to be very heavy and consume lots of power. Now the trend is of full
functional machines consuming low power and giving high output in terms of the number of the
products manufactured. Some computer controlled machines can manufacture the components
very fast and are highly efficient.
2.12 Assembly and Disassembly
The elements of the machine should be such that the machine can be assembled very easily. For
the mass production of the complex machines like automobiles, type writers etc, the concept of
unit assemblies are common. The unit assemblies are assembled together to form the complete
machine.
Like assembly, the disassembly of the machine also should be easy so as to easily carry out
replacement of the parts, and repair and maintenance of the machine and machine elements.
2.13 Servicing and control
The machine and its element should be simple enough so that very little maintenance and servicing
is required. The repair and maintenance of the machine should be easy and cheap and simple
replacements should be available.
2.14 Reliability and Durability
The reliability of the machine is a very important if the machine has to find the huge market in
the business.
The longer the life of the machine, the more it develops the reputation of being the dependable
machine and hence this will increase its sale.
Hence at the time of designing, reliability and durability should be given priority. For this the
machine should be designed for least maintenance requirements and long-life.
Engineering Design: 2.15 Standards 13
2.15 Standards
Following the standards makes designing easier and availability of various parts faster and easier.
2.16 Selection of Materials
The materials selected for the machine elements during the design should be easily available at
lowest possible costs.
The designer should have thorough knowledge of the properties of the materials and their behavior
under working conditions. Important characteristics of materials are:
• Strength
• Stiffness and flexibility
• Durability
• Weight
• Resistance to heat, corrosion and wear
• Machinability
• Ability to cast, weld or harden
2.17 Aesthetic and Ergonomics
When designing the machine the aesthetics and ergonomics of the machine should be given due
consideration without affecting its functionality.
Aesthetic refers to the general appearance of the machine. The machine or product should be
appealing to the eyes for easy marketability.
Ergonomics refers to the design process of putting into proper account the interaction between
the machines, products and systems with the people that use them.
2.18 Number of machines to be built
Designing of the machine will depend a lot on the number of machines to be manufactured. If few
numbers of machines are to be manufactured then expensive materials and high production costs
can be considered, but for the mass production economy of the machine should be top priority.
Chapter 3
Design Constraints
3.1 Introduction
In engineering design, a design constraint refers to some limitation on the conditions under which
the invention (product, machine or system) is developed, or on the requirements of the system.
Constraints help a design engineer understand more the design problem.
A design constraint is normally imposed externally, either by the organization or by some external
regulation. They are technical, economic, social, environmental, and political constraints.
During the design, it is important to identify each design constraint since the design constraints
place an overall boundary around the design process.
There must be clear evidence in your design project that you have addressed the constraints that
are relevant to your project.
3.2 Safety Constraints
Any product or system should be designed without safety of the users in mind.
However, it is impossible to design for a product which cannot fail or hurt people. But the degree
of risk should be considered acceptable and designers must specify the products lifetime, include
warnings, required safety trainings and modes of failure analysis.
3.3 Manufacturing Constraints
Manufacturability is defined as designing a system that can be produced efficiently, reliably and
within acceptable costs
Engineering Design: 3.4 Economic Constraints 15
There may be some limitations towards achieving this. These include
• Lack of skills.
• Lack of facilities
• Inadequate finances
This constraint can be addressed by designing a product to reduce the number of parts, simplify
fabrication methods required, or utilize common parts and materials.
3.4 Economic Constraints
Any product or system should have an economic value. This should be based on:
• The cost of making the product (including fixed and variable costs) - design costs, develop-
ment costs, manufacturing costs and the costs of facilities
• the pricing of a product - can it compete in the marketplace
which pose some limitations on the design.
3.5 Environmental Constraints
Any design should give consideration to the ways that the product impacts the environment, from
its manufacture to its use and finally to its disposal.
This will pose some limitations especially on the
• Design: For instance the design should ensure minimal air and noise pollution
• Material selection: For instance only those materials which are not harmful to the environ-
ment and are easily disposable should be used.
• Choice of the production processes: Only those production methods which are not harmful
to environment should be adopted.
Engineering Design: 3.6 Legal/Ethical Constraints 16
3.6 Legal/Ethical Constraints
Engineers need to be aware of codes of conduct and regulations that provide standards and guide
the interactions of engineers with others, both inside and outside of the profession.
These include:
• Standards and regulations governing group of products.
• Ethics public safety, health, welfare and integrity
• Intellectual Property patents, trademarks, copyrights
3.7 Political Constraints
An engineer needs to understand how engineering and political activities interact, and how to
work effectively in this environment. Some of these interactions will put some limitations on the
design. Key points to examine are:
• Government as a regulator and policy maker.
• Government as a customer.
3.8 Time Constraints
Design process is iterative and adequate time is required for successful development of a prod-
uct. Any design engineer should integrate the time requirements and client expectations without
compromising the quality of the design.
Effort should be made to adhere to the developed time plans of the design activities.
3.9 Functional Constraints
Functional requirements of a product or system will definitely put some limitations on its design.
Functional requirements will determine the:
• Overall geometry - Size and space requirement.
• Motion of parts Type of the motion and the mechanism to achieve this.
• Forces involved Load type, direction and magnitude

Engineering Design: 3.10 Ergonomic Constraints 17
• Energy and power requirements.
• Properties of materials to be used
• Control system to be used Either electrical, hydraulic, mechanical or pneumatic.
3.10 Ergonomic Constraints
The ergonomic requirements such as man-machine relationships, operation, height, layout, lifting
position, control and displays among will put some limitations on the design of any product or
system.
Chapter 4
Innovative Design
4.1 Introduction
The term innovation has its roots from the Latin word novus, which means new and is derived
into the verb innovare thats means to make new. Therefore, in the broadest context, to innovate
is to begin or introduce (something new) for the first time, and innovation has the meaning of the
act of introducing something new.
Successful innovation is about creating value:
• either by improving existing products or systems (incremental innovation)
• or by developing products and systems which has not existed before (radical innovation)
However, both kinds of innovation require the following: an understanding of and insights into
consumer needs; and development of creative and novel solutions.
In addition, innovation is generally associated with the following:
• the willingness to take risk
• accepting high levels of ambiguity and uncertainty original thinking
• a passion to drive the idea through to conclusions
• the ability to inspire passion in others
The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell on March 10, 1876 was a truly innovative
design. Since its invention, many then tried to evolve and hence improve it over many decades,
but very little actually changed until the next innovative and technological jump occurred, and
that was the mobile phone. This created a whole new market along with new competition, and
Engineering Design: 4.2 Reasons why Innovative Design is Very Necessary 19
since then, this technology has been evolving once moreevery once in a while showing signs of new
innovation, such as the inclusion of cameras and video-calling and the integration of pda, internet
access, and mp3 facilities into one device.
Although the emphasis is on innovation, designers must test their ideas against prior design.
Engineers can design for the future but must base results on the past.
4.2 Reasons why Innovative Design is Very Necessary

(1) Meeting a client request: In a design company, a client may submit a request for developing
an artifact. It is often unlikely that the need will be expressed clearly. The client may know
only the type of product that he or she wants; for example, I need a safe ladder. Often a
client asks for a modification of an existing artifact to make it simpler and easy to use. In
addition, companies may want to provide customers with new, easy-to-use products.
(2) Survival: Its been said before companies that are not innovating will not survive. Staying on
the cutting edge of your industry requires big thinking and the willingness to think differently.
Before your ideas can become a strategic imperative you must transform how you think. Are
you a catalyst for change?
(3) Increase the revenue: Its a tough market and indulgence is out. If you want customers to
open up their wallet, give them a reason to buy your product. Show them something new an
innovation that adds value to their lifestyle. What do you offer the market that is different
from any other company and do extremely well?
(4) Constructive discontent: Many innovative designs arise from a creative individuals dissatis-
faction with, and desire to improve, existing products
4.3 Principle steps of Innovative Design
There are four major steps in any innovative design:
(1) Generate new ideas to solve the problem.
(2) Incubate the best idea: Incubation could just be further theoretical development before im-
plementing the idea.
(3) Implementation
(4) Exit or sustain the project: The innovation can’t go on for ever. A plan is finally developed on
how to exit the idea so it becomes embedded with the other services that you already deliver
Engineering Design: 4.3 Principle steps of Innovative Design 20
Figure 4.1:
The innovative design is an iterative process which starts from problem recognition, design syn-
thesis, analysis all through to the final production of the product as shown in Figure 4.1.
Design synthesis in innovative design requires creative thinking.

4.3.1 Creative Methods in Innovative Design
Mental blocks can occur which prevent creativity. These normally occur through the designer’s
inability to become divorced from old habits and familiar modes of thought, developed over many
years of inadequate design practices.
To be an innovative designer, it is necessary to divorce the mind from the practicalities of manu-
facturing techniques, the life of the product, and particular types of material.
There are several design methods which are intended to help stimulate creative thinking by trying
to increase the flow of ideas, by removing mental blocks that inhibit creativity or by widening the
area in which a search for solution is made.
These methods include:
Brainstorming
This is conducted as a small group session of between 4-8 people to discuss and generate new
design ideas and solutions most of whom will subsequently be discarded.
The people in a brainstorming group should be diverse and knowledgable in different areas. The
essential rules of a brainstorming session are:
• No criticism is allowed during the session. Evaluate the ideas after the session is complete.
• A large quantity of ideas is wanted
• Keep all ideas short
• Try to combine and improve on the ideas of others
There is a school of thought that says a group of people with its diverse knowledge, perception
and relationships with ideas can be dramatically more powerful in solving a problem than one
person alone.
Synetics
Synetics is different from brainstorming in that the group tries to work collectively towards a
particular solution , rather than generating a large number of ideas.
A synetic session starts with the problem as presented by the client or the management. Analogies
are then sought that help to make the strange problem familiar. A solution is then sought on the
understood problem.
Checklists
One of the simplest methods for generating new ideas is to make a checklist. The checklist
encourages the user to examine various points, areas, and design possibilities. For example to
improve a device, you may want a checklist like this:
• Ways the device could be put to other uses.
• Ways the device could be modified.
• Ways the device could be rearranged.
• Ways the device could be magnified.
• Ways the device could be reduced, etc.
Attribute Listing
With attribute listing, all the major characteristics or attributes of a product, object, or idea are
isolated and listed. Then, for each attribute, list ideas as to how each of the attributes could be
changed. Again, as in brainstorming, all ideas are listed no matter how impractical. After all the
ideas are listed, evaluate each idea bringing to light possible improvements that can be made to
the design of the product. For example, how can we improve a telephone design?
Creative process
There is a thought sequence if followed can stimulate creative thinking:

Engineering Design: 4.4 Case Studies of Innovative Design 23
• Recognition: This is the first acknowledgement that a problem exists.
• Preparation: This is the application of the deliberate effort to understand the problem.
• Incubation: This is a period of leaving the problem to mull over in the mind, allowing
ones’subconscious to go to work.
• Illumination: Is the perception or formulation of the key idea
• Verification: Is the hard work of developing and testing the idea.
4.3.2 Overcoming Obstacles of Creative Thinking
Here are some specific actions and attitudes that can be employed to overcome obstacles to creative
thinking:
• Avoid placing unnecessary constraints on the problem being solved.
• Search for different ways to view the problem, avoiding preconceived beliefs and stereotypical
thinking.
• Recognize that there are non-engineering solutions to many problems. Consider approaches
that other disciplines might use. 4
• Look for relationships that are remote and solutions that are unusual and nontraditional.
Most creative thought involves putting experiences and thoughts into new patterns and
arrangements.
• Divide complex problems into manageable parts and concentrate on solving one part at a
time.
• Allow time for incubation, after periods of intensive concentration.
• Be open to a variety of problem-solving strategies.
4.4 Case Studies of Innovative Design
4.4.1 Ballbarrow (1974)
After seeing a wheelbarrow get stuck in muddy ground, Dyson was inspired to design a ballbarrow
(Figure 4.2) with wide plastic ball wheel and plastic hopper. The Ballbarrow was far stabler and
lighter than a traditional wheelbarrow.
Dyson got the key idea for a ball-shaped wheel from his experience as a designer in an engineering
company called Rotork, where he learned about balloon tyres produced by rotational moulding
Figure 4.2:
for amphibious vehicles. This is a clear case of the transfer of an idea and technology from one
application to another. From this basic idea, Dyson developed the Ballbarrow concept, from
initial sketches and drawings, to a prototype with a fibre-glass wheel moulded around a football,
to patents and the finished design.
Existing wholesalers and retailers of garden equipment did not think this novel design would sell
and so Dyson initially marketed the Ballbarrow by mail order. He discovered that it sold well,
even at about three times the price of conventional wheelbarrows. The Ballbarrow was launched in
1975 and after about four years Dyson sold the business to a major manufacturer. The Ballbarrow
is still in production over fifteen years after its introduction and is now widely available through
retailers.
4.4.2 Cyclone Vacuum Cleaner
Dysons next invention and enterprise arose from a production problem in the Ballbarrow factory.
The resin powder used to coat the metal parts of the Ballbarrow kept clogging the filtration system.
Dyson was advised to install an industrial cyclone (similar to that used to remove dust from the air
in sawmills and other industrial plant) to separate the fine powder from the air. While installing
the cyclone James Dyson got the idea for a domestic cleaner that used the cyclone principle to
separate the dust from dirty air.
Although it may be argued that the cyclone cleaner idea arose by chance, it is significant that
Dyson is always on the lookout for such ideas and chance favours the prepared mind
Commercializing the vacuum cleaner was not an easy task, but Dyson did not give up.
4.4.3 Strida Bicycle
The Strida is an innovative design of folding bicycle intended for short distance use and to link
with other modes of transport.
Strida is a portable, belt-driven, folding bicycle with a distinctive ’A’-shaped collapsible frame,
designed by UK engineer and designer Mark Sanders. The first model, Strida 1, was released in
1987 and the latest, Strida 5.2, in 2009.
Mark Sanders designed the Strida while he was a mature postgraduate student on the joint
Royal College of Art/Imperial College Industrial Design Engineering course (although he had
been thinking about folding bicycles while working as a mechanical engineer before joining the
course). As with the Ballbarrow the Strida arose from personal need, Sanders was commuting
from Windsor to London and felt that a folding bicycle would both meet his transport needs and
provide a suitable college project.
(a) Unfolded strida (b) Folded strida
Figure 4.3: Strida bicycle

Assignment
Briefly discuss five other innovative designs clearly outlining the following on each:
• What motivated the designer to innovate.
• The designer’s source of ideas.
• The designer’s different approaches to developing those ideas;
• The problems which were faced by the designer in commercializing the innovated product
(If any).
Example 4.4.1. By way of an example, consider the case of a machine which operates a mech-
anism to move a table a certain distance and return it in one revolution of the drive motor. The
purpose is to reject bottles from a conveyor. Fig. 4.4 shows a diagrammatic representation of the
problem. It is required to design a simple mechanism to achieve this motion.
Solution
As stated above, design sketches should be made and suitably annotated to show the important
features of each design (Figs. 4.5 - 4.6.
Figure 4.4: Design case study

Figure 4.5: Designs A


Figure 4.6: Design B and C comparisons of the designs
Chapter 5
Analysis and Presentation of Designs
5.1 Introduction
For engineers to move from ideas to a preliminary design, they must analyze the possible solutions
and determine which ones are unworkable and which might have promise.
The promising ideas are then molded and worked into plans. Preliminary designs evolve through
analysis and synthesis.
Analysis is breaking apart the whole idea and studying its individual components. Synthesis
involves putting together many facts, laws, or principles into a whole idea that will accomplish
some result or solve a problem.
There are many techniques an engineer might use to determine if an idea is promising.
• Preliminary sketching or analysis may give some insights.
• Laboratory tests can need to be run on a component to see if it will work in a given situation.
• Perhaps a large research project may need to be undertaken to examine the validity of a
process, or its consequences if used as a solution.
The engineer must critically examine and study possible solutions, and constantly eliminate poor
or inappropriate solutions.
5.2 Use of Models
To facilitate the design process, engineers often rely on models. A model simplifies a system or
process so that it may be better studied, understood, and used in a design. There are three
common models used in engineering: mathematical, simulation, and physical.
Engineering Design: 5.2 Use of Models 30
5.2.1 Mathematical Models
Mathematical models usually consist of one or more equations that describe a physical system.
Many physical systems can be described by mathematical models. Such models can be based on
scientific theories or laws that have stood the test of time, or they may be based on empirical
data from experiments or observations (Newton laws, friction laws, fluid flow laws, electricity laws,
among others).
Mathematical models are usually employed for simple systems. The difficulty in deriving the
equations for complex systems out weighs their usefulness.
5.2.2 Computer Simulation Models
A computer program is developed to describe a system, and this model may then be subjected to
many different operating conditions to mimic the physical system.
The computer simulation models are developed as follows:
• Directly from the mathematical models by converting them into a computer algorithm which
is implemented as a computer program. There are very many softwares which can be used
for this purpose:
– Matlab
– C++
– Fortran
– Maple
– Mathematica
– Mathcad, etc
• Building a visual prototype computer model. The following commercial softwares can be
used to do this:
– MSC ADAMS - For analysis of motion of multi-body systems.

– ANSYS - Which is a Finite Element Analysis based software and can do vibration
analysis, structural analysis, heat transfer, computational fluid dynamics, among many.
– Inventor, etc.
Engineering Design: 5.3 Prototypes 31
5.2.3 Physical Models
Physical models have long been used by engineers to understand complex systems.
Physical models have the advantage in that they allow an engineer to study a device, structure, or
system with little or no prior knowledge of its behavior or need to make simplifying assumptions.
They are currently not widely used due to invention of computer which can generate models which
exactly represent the physical system.
5.3 Prototypes
The first product which is build from the design is called the prototype.
Many designers use prototypes to test and evaluate the operation of the design. The designer
evaluates the prototype to try to discover:
• If the design really satisfies the needs.
• If the design is reliable.
• If there ar any weak areas of the design and attempts to improve upon them.
• If the product will compete successfully with similar products.
• If the product is economical to manufacture and to use.
No idea should be discarded solely on the basis of one prototype or one test. Many great designs
have been discarded prematurely and many working prototypes have failed to give acceptable
products.
5.4 Communication of Designs
After selection of the preferred design, it must be communicated to those who must approve it,
support it, and translate it into reality.
This communication may take the form of an engineering report, or a set of plans and specifica-
tions. Plans and specifications are the engineers means of describing to a manufacturing division
or to a contractor sufficient detail about a design so that it can be produced or constructed.
Engineering drawings, written and oral communications, and scheduling and planning a design
project are very important in implementing a design smoothly and efficiently.
Engineering Design: 5.4 Communication of Designs 32
5.4.1 Engineering Drawings
Engineers create detailed technical drawings that show what the design looks like, what parts are
necessary, how to assemble it, and how to operate it once constructed.
These graphical specifications are probably the most important type of documentation for engi-
neering design problems. They communicate visually to the technical team what verbal communi-
cations cannot adequately convey. The drawings must be done clearly and according to standards
and conventions accepted by the team.
Any engineering designer should be able to make and interpret these technical drawings.
5.4.2 Written Communication
Memorandums, often called memos, are a brief and effective way to keep everyone involved aware
of the designs progress. Memos can be distributed to one person or to a list of people within the
organization who have an interest in the subject.
A technical report is a much longer and complete record of the design process. It should include
everything that was done to solve the problem. As with any communication the technical writing
should be clear, direct, and readable by the intended audience. There are many types of reports
written by engineers, but in general they all include the following information:
• Cover page, stating title of project, company name, author, and date
• Abstract, giving a short overview and summary of the work
• Table of Contents
• Body of the report, which elaborates on the problem solved, presents background material,
procedure used, results and significance of work.
• Conclusions and recommendations, which summarize the results and significance of work.
• Appendices, for the reader who wants to know everything about the work.
5.4.3 Oral Communication
At different stages during the design process an engineer may be called upon to give an oral
progress report to the design team, the supervisor, or management and marketing people.
The objectives of an oral presentation are the same for a written report: the engineer wants
to communicate information and convince the audience. The methods used however are very
different. The most important element in for a successful oral presentation is preparation. Here
are some pointers for a good oral presentation:
Engineering Design: 5.4 Communication of Designs 33
• Be very familiar with the subject of the presentation.
• Know how much time is allotted for the presentation.
• Practice the presentation to cover everything completely within the time limit.
• Know your audience. Match presentation level with audiences understanding level.
• Speak clearly and eloquently.
• Master the use of audio-visual aids. Have simple and uncluttered visual materials. Do not
put too much information on one visual.
• Have a good summary and conclusion to highlight the important parts of the presentation.
• End the presentation, by asking the audience if they have any questions.
Chapter 6
Manufacturing Considerations in Design
6.1 Introduction
Manufacturing of the product is an important link in the chain of events that begins with the
concept of probable product and ends with a competitive product in the market place.
Product design, selection of materials and processing of the materials into finished components
are closely related to one another.
At the design stage, it is important to ensure that the components are manufacturable.
Manufacturing can be considered as processing the available material into useful components of
the product, e.g. converting mild steel sheet into a car body.
The knowledge of manufacturing processes is of great importance for a design engineer.
Manufacturing processes can be classified into three broad categories:
• Casting processes
• Deformation processes
• Material removal processes.
The optimum manufacturing method for a part is usually selected by considering the following
factors:
(i) The material of the component
(ii) Cost of manufacturing
(iii) Geometric shape of the component
(iv) Surface finish and tolerances required.
(v) Quantity of parts to be produced

Engineering Design: 6.2 Casting Processes 35
6.2 Casting Processes
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a a molten metal is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
Figure 6.1:
It is one of the most important and oldest manufacturing process used in Mechanical Engineering.
There are several casting processes such as sand casting, shell-mould casting, die casting, cen-
trifugal casting or investment casting. However sand casting is the most popular casting process.
Today, it is nearly impossible to design anything that cannot be cast by one or more of the
available casting processes
Advantages of sand casting as a manufacturing process are:
• Tooling required for casting process is relatively simple and cheap. This reduces the cost of
manufacturing the product. Sand casting is one of the cheapest method of manufacturing.
• Almost any metal can be casted.
• Any component even with complex shape can be cast. There is no limit on the size of the
component.
Examples of machine elements which are easily made using casting are:
• Cylinder blocks.
• Housings of gearboxes.
• Pulleys
Engineering Design: 6.3 Deformation Processes 36
Disadvantages of sand casting process are:
• It is not possible to achieve close tolerances using casting. Hence cast components require
additional machining and finishing.
• Cast components have rough surfaces.
• Long and thin sections or projections are not possible for cast components.
6.3 Deformation Processes
In these processes, a metal, either hot or cold is plastically deformed into a desired shape. Examples
of these processes include:
• Rolling: For making plates and sheet metals.
• Forging.
• Extrusion.
• Wire drawing.
Forging is very common deformation process. It is the process of heating a metal to a desired tem-
perature in order to acquire sufficient plasticity, followed by operations like hammering, bending
and pressing, etc. to give it a desired shape. Examples of forging processes include, hand (smith)
forging, machine forging, drop forging, press forging, power forging, etc.
The smith or hand forging is done by means of hand tools and it is usually employed for small
jobs. When the forging is done by means of power hammers, it is then known as power forging. It
is used for medium size and large articles requiring very heavy blows. The machine forging is done
by means of forging machines. The drop forging is carried out with the help of drop hammers and
is particularly suitable for mass production of identical parts.
Example of machine parts made using forging are:
• Crank shafts,
• springs
• shafts
• connecting rods etc.
Advantages of forging process include:

Engineering Design: 6.4 Material Removal Processes 37
• Forged components can be provided with thin sections without reducing the strength. This
leads to light weight components.
• In forging there is relatively good utilization of material compared with machining.
• Forging process has rapid production rate and good reproducibility.
Disadvantages of forging process include:
• The tooling and equipment for forging process if very costly, hence forging is quite expensive.
• Forging is only economical for large scale manufacturing of the components
6.4 Material Removal Processes
Material is removed by means of sharp cutting tools to form the required shape. This is also called
machining. Examples of common machining processes are:
• Turning,
• milling,
• hobbing
• drilling,
• shaping,
• planing,
• griding etc
Parts which can be made through machining process include:
• Keys
• Gears
• Nuts and bolts.
Advantages of machining:
• Almost any metal can be machined.
• It is possible to achieve close tolerances for machined components.

Engineering Design: 6.5 Concurrent Engineering 38
• Machined components have good surface finish.
Disadvantages of machining:
• Machining process are costly.
• Rate of of production is low as compared to forging and casting.
• It is not possible to machine thin sections and projections.
• There is wastage of material during material removal process.
6.5 Concurrent Engineering
Currently, the trend is to bring design and manufacturing as a single engineering discipline. It is
called concurrent or simultaneous engineering.
Concurrent engineering is defined as a process of designing a product considering all aspects

simultaneously and early during design stage. These aspects include:
• Producibility
• Assembly
• Testability
• Installation
• Performance
• Reliability
• Maintainability
• Safety
• Cost
• Legal aspects
Chapter 7
Ergonomic Considerations in Design
7.1 Introduction
The word Ergonomics has its origin in two Greek words Ergon meaning work and Nomos meaning
laws. So it is the study of the man in relation to his work.
The word ergonomics is used commonly in Europe. In USA and some countries it is called by the
name “human engineering or human factors engineering”
Ergonomics is the scientific study of the relationship between people and their working envi-
ronment. The working environment may be taken to include any factor which could affect the
efficiency of the person working. In other words, ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific
discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of
a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order
to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.
Ergonomics fulfils the following purposes:
• Health and productivity of workers.
• Design of things such as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines and equipment
• Prevention of repetitive strain injuries, which can develop over time and can lead to long-
term disability
These purposes tend to achieve the following two broader objectives of ergonomics:
• To enhance the efficiency and effectiveness with which the activities (work) is carried out so
as to increase the convenience of use, reduced errors and increase in productivity.
• To enhance certain desirable human values including safety, reduced stress and fatigue and
improved quality of life.
Engineering Design: 7.2 Man-Machine Relationship 40
Thus, in general the scope and objective of ergonomics is “designing for human use and optimizing
working and living conditions”.
Categories of ergonomics include:
1) Physical ergonomics: This is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric,
physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.
2) Cognitive ergonomics: This is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory,
reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements
of a system. (Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance,
human- computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate
to human-system and Human-Computer Interaction design.)
3) Organizational ergonomics: This is concerned with the optimization of socio technical systems,
including their organizational structures, policies, and processes.(Examples include communica-
tion, crew resource management, work design, design of working times, teamwork, participatory
design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations,
telework, and quality management.)
7.2 Man-Machine Relationship
Any machine should be designed by putting into consideration that it will be operated by a man,
hence the machine and man will interact and they will have a relationship.
Any person who operates a machine may be considered as part of a closed control loop system in
which he or she receives and processes information and then acts on it. A typical control loop is
shown in Figure 7.1
Figure 7.1: Typical control loop

Information (e.g. the speed of a machine) is sent to the operator from a display element/instrument
via the display communication channel. A display is any source of information aiding the operator
to control the machine. Display instruments include dial gauge, digital read-outs and warning
lights. are classified into three groups:
(i) Displays giving quantitative measurements, such as speedometers, voltmeters, etc
(ii) Displays giving a state of affair, such as red lamp indicator
(iii) Displays indicating predetermined settings, such as fuel indicators in a car.
From display instruments, the operator gets the information about the operation of the machine.
If he feels like a correction is necessary he will operate the control elements of machine. These
control elements include;
• levers,
• knobs,
• switches,
• push buttons
• pedals
• hand wheels
• handles, etc
7.2.1 Design of Display Instruments
The basic ergonomic objective behind the display instruments is to minimize fatigue to operator
who has to observe them continuously. The display element should be easily and accurately
readable.
The ergonomic considerations in design of displays are:
(i) The scale on the display’s dial indicator should be divided into a suitable numerical scale,
for example 0-10-20-30 and not 0-5-30-55.
(ii) The pointer should have a knife edge with a mirror in the dial to minimize parallax error.
(iii) Vertical figures should be used for stationary dials, while radially oriented figures are suitable
for rotating dials.
(iv) The number of sub-divisions between numbered divisions should be as minimum as possible.
(v) The size of letters or numbers on the indicator should satisfy the following requirement:
reading distance
Height of the letter or number ≥ 200
(vi) The position of displays should be such that they can be seen by the operator with the
minimum physical effort
Dial displays can either be of moving pointer-fixed legend type or fixed pointer-moving legend type.
For ease of reading single values, the digital counter is undoubtedly the most efficient. However,
for detection of the progress of a particular measured quantity, a pointer- and-dial display would
be preferred.
A moving pointer is generally more easily read than a fixed pointer, but the fixed pointer may
prove more efficient over wide ranges of values.
Figure 7.2: Type of displays
7.2.2 Design of Control Elements
Most machine controls are hand operated. When a large force is required, to operate the controls
levers and hand wheels are used. When operating forces are light, push buttons or knobs are
proffered.
The ergonomic objective in design of control devices of a machine is to reduce operational diffi-
culties and thereby decrease the resulting physical and mental stresses.
The ergonomic considerations in design of controls are:
(i) The controls should be easily accessible and logically positioned. The control operation
should involve minimum motions and avoid awkward movement
(ii) The shape of the control component which comes in contact with the hands, should conform
with the anatomy of the human hands.
(iii) Proper colors produce psychological effects. The controls should be painted in red color in
grey background of machine tools to call for attention
Type of Controls
1) Hand-levers - Levers give a quick control action and can accommodate large forces. They are
not suitable for fine adjustments, but can provide efficient ON/OFF or step-by-step control.
Handles of levers should give an effective and comfortable grip, and be of sensible size for the
human hand. Fig 7.3 shows the optimum size of a hand-lever for human power grip should be
in the region of 44 mm diameter
Figure 7.3: Human hand power grip
2) Hand-wheels - Hand-wheels provide a controlling torque via both hands of the operator.
As with levers, hand-wheels are used when heavy loads are exerted. They can provide good
accuracy of adjustment, but are unsuitable where speed is essential. Generally, hand-wheel
should have a diameter between 305 mm and 356 mm.
3) Cranks - Crank are intended to provide torque via one hand. Smaller cranks (upto about 100
mm diameter) are used for fast control. Larger-diameter cranks would give a slower control
and increase torque capacity
4) Knobs - Rotating knobs are intended for light loading control with either two or three fingers,
or with the whole hand. Knobs are typically used in applications such as instrument control
panels.
The essential requirements of control knobs are that they are of comfortable size, are easily
rotated, have an efficient grip, and avoid any information being obscured by the operator’s
fingers.
Small control knobs (down to about 10 mm diameter) may be used for minimum loadings where
speed of adjustment is desired and coarse adjustment is permitted. Fine sensitive control will
require larger diameters (between 35 and 50 mm). Step-by-step switch knobs require higher
turning torques and are thus more efficiently operated with the whole hand. This will require
diameters up to 75 mm and sometimes operation by wrist movement.
Figure 7.4: Types of control knob
5) Push buttons and toggle switches - These are essentially used as light-load ON/OFF
controls and would normally be designed for operation by one finger, although large-energy
push buttons are sometimes designed for use of the whole hand.
Toggle switches should ideally have a minimum length of 12 mm and an angular movement of
450 .
Figure 7.5: Push buttons and toggle switches
6) Foot pedals - Pedals may be operated in the seated position, using the whole leg or by pivoting
the foot at the heel. They are not intended for use in the standing position.
These may be used for fast action control with medium/heavy loading capacity. However, they
lack the accuracy and range which may be obtained with hand controls.
Pivoting at the heel produces lighter load but gives more accurate control and is more suitable
for longer time durations. Figure 7.6shows some suggested dimensions to aid the designer of
this type of pedal
Engineering Design: 7.3 Workstation Design 45
Figure 7.6: Heel-pivot pedal control
7.3 Workstation Design
A well-designed workstation is important for productive work. Further, each workstation should
be designed to suit the needs of the individual worker (dependant upon height, reach, size, etc)
and take into account the type of machine being used and the task being performed.
A well-organized workstation (and workplace), that is well-lit, free from chemical hazards and
noise, and that minimizes material handling, will improve efficiency and reduce worker fatigue.
Sometimes even minor ergonomic changes in the design of equipment, workstations or job tasks,
that cost very little, can make significant improvements in worker comfort, health, safety and
productivity.
The following factors should be considered when designing a workstation:
(i) Workstation layout
(ii) Sitting and chair design
(iii) Standing work positions
(iv) Hand tools and controls
(v) Lifting
(vi) Job design

7.3.1 Workstation Layout
When you consider that most workers sit at the same workstation to perform the same tasks on
a daily basis, it makes sense to almost personalise the machine, chair etc or make it easy for such
equipment to be adjusted to suit each worker. If the workstation is poorly designed it can lead to:
• lower back injury;
• the development or aggravation of RSIs (Repetitive Strain Injuries);
• circulatory problems in the legs.
There are also a number of sensible provisions that managers/workstation designers can take to
improve the workstation. These include:
• identify the tools that are used the most frequently;
• place these most frequently used tools in the usual work area so that they can be reached
without stretching and without spending much time looking for them;
• where possible, containers should be provided for material inputs and outputs make sure
the containers are not too deep and consider if they can be mobile for faster transport to
the next operation.
7.3.2 Sitting and chair design
Lower back problems are on the increase as workers sit at their workstations all day. Often,
workers are provided with simple benches with no backrest.
A well-designed chair is essential one that is adjustable for individual workers, for the height
of the worktable and task, and that provides full lower back support. The chair should allow
workers to lean forward and backwards easily. The worker should have adequate leg room under
the worktable so that he/she can change the position of the legs easily. The feet should be flat
on the floor or the worker should be provided with a footrest this will eliminate pressure on the
thighs and knees.
Figure 7.7: Adjustable chairs with a backrest should be provided for all seated workers
7.3.3 Standing work positions
Standing for long periods on hard concrete floors, often in bare feet, can cause back pain, sore
feet and tired muscles. If a job must be done in a standing position, a chair or stool should be
provided for the worker so that he/she can sit down at regular intervals.
Figure 7.8: A standing workstation

When considering the height of workbenches, the job should be designed to allow the worker to
keep his/her arms low and the elbows close to the body, either by lowering/raising the bench if at
all possible, or by raising the worker with a platform. Consider Figure ??
Figure 7.9: Height of workbenches
7.3.4 Hand tools and controls
Hand tools should be designed putting into consideration the user in mind. The following are
some of considerations:
• choose tools that allow workers to use larger muscles in the shoulders, arms and legs, rather
than the smaller muscles in the wrists and fingers;
• do not use tools with spaces where fingers and skin can get caught
• choose tools that do not require the worker to bend the wrist, stoop, stretch or twist
• choose tools with handles that are long enough to fit the whole hand;
• where possible, tools should be appropriate for right and left-handed workers.
Controls have been discussed above.
7.3.5 Lifting
It is important to organize the work so as to minimize the amount of lifting and, where necessary,
to use mechanical means.
Engineering Design: 7.4 Ergonomic Case Studies 49
7.3.6 Job Design
Well designed jobs consider the workers mental and physical characteristics and tries to minimize
the amount of work that is boring, repetitive and lacks stimulation or interest.
Boring, repetitive work can lead to lack of motivation, stress and loss of productivity. Job rotation,
varied work, rest periods and giving workers a sense of accomplishment can all help to improve
the situation.
7.4 Ergonomic Case Studies
7.4.1 Car Dashboard and Interior
These are designed with a wealth of ergonomic considerations to ensure that the driver is com-
fortable and drives the car effectively and efficiently.
Figure 7.10: Dash Board of a Car
A dashboard (also called dash, instrument panel, or fascia) is a control panel placed in front of
the driver of an automobile for operation of the vehicle.
Items located on the dashboard includes the steering wheel and the instrument cluster. The
instrument cluster contains gauges and warning lights which include:
• speedometer,
• tachometer,
• odometer
• Fuel level gauge
• Water level gauge
• Oil warning light
• Belt warning light
• Door warning light
• Signal light
• Hand brake light
• Alternator light
• Full light indicator
These are displays where the driver gets information during the operation of the car. For instance,
from the dash board, the driver gets to know that the car lights are full and hence irritating to
the oncoming motorists. He/she may dim them by pulling a lever for that purpose.
The dashboard and interior of the car contains controls which include:
• Steering wheel
• Gearshift joystick
• Clutch pedal
• Brake pedal
• Handbrake
• Wipers
• Light on/off lever
Ergonomics have been considered in design of the car interior and dash-board. These include:
(i) Ergonomics have been considered in the size, shape, position and material of the steering
wheel, gears-tick, handbrake and foot pedal.
(ii) Ergonomics have been considered on size and shape of the dash board and arrangement of
displays and controls.
(iii) The driver’s seat is designed for maximum comfort and there is allowance for alignment.
7.4.2 Effectiveness of Ergonomics in Deere and Company
Deere and Company manufactures farm equipment. Workers in their construction department
performed a number of manual jobs that involved heavy objects. Workers needed to work while
being on their knees and bent over assembling machinery parts. Using hand tools like a wrench
was also being used repetitively and with difficult postures for their wrists.
At one workstation, employees had to lift a heavy lawn mower deck to attach it to the tractor.
They had to kneel while fastening the deck with one hand and also holding it with their other
hand.
It was revealed that a huge amount of time and money was lost due to the work environment not
being ergonomic. It was verified by an increasing loss of productive work time due to back injury
of workers which increased up to 31% in 1979. It also escalated workers medical compensation
costs by 15% per year. There were 12 cases of first-aid during one year. Four of the cases were
due to sprains, back injury and strained muscles. A worker assembling parts had to suffer back
problems because of working in awkward position for long hours. The company also lost 28% more
time due to workers’ over-exertion and back strains in 1984. For the same reason, the company
had to pay a 70% more medical compensation to workers in 1978.
The reasons and risk factors for these workers health issues were lifting and carrying heavy objects
weighing around 75 pounds, bending and kneeling of workers for prolonged times, workers with
hand tools like wrenches with awkward wrist positions. The hand job was also highly repetitive
further risking the workers’ wrists.
As a solution to these problems, the company initiated some ergonomics programs using the
NIOSH (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health) education for lifting. They started
an 8-hour ergonomics training program. The production design department was assigned a full
time ergonomist. They carried out a review of the office furniture and laid down guidelines for
new purchases. The company also trained their employees on the use of video displays.
As part of the engineering controls, the company put restrictions on lifting objects manually which
were heavier than 40 pounds. They redesigned the workstations at assembling plants to workers
did not have to bend or kneel. They changed the hand tools to save the workers from wrist strains
and installed a hoist at the assembly line for lifting of the lawn mower decks.
Benefits of these ergonomics initiatives showed as a reduced exposure of the workers to back injury
risks. It also increased their workers productivity substantially along with their efficiency. Workers
compensation cost was also decreased due to fewer cases of injury.
Effectiveness of these ergonomic initiatives resulted in 83% reduction in cases of back injury
which saved them considerable lost time. It also showed a 32% reduction in workers’ healthcare
compensation during the last 10 years. Workers participation and contribution in these initiatives
helped the company achieve these benefits.
Chapter 8
Use of Standards in Design
8.1 Introduction
Standards are an important part of our society. They define the characteristics a product should
conform to. These characteristics include materials, dimensions and shape of the product. In
other words, a standard is defined as a set of specifications for parts, materials or processes.
Standards serve as rules to measure or judge capacity, quantity, content, extent, value and quality.
The standards used in design are categorized as:
• Company standards: These are used in a particular company or group of sister companies.
• National standards: These are defined by a particular country. Example, those standards
defined by Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS).
• International standards which prepared by International Standards Organization (ISO).
The objective of standards in products is to reduce the variation of products. Any designer should
be aware of these standards and should consider them during the design process.
8.2 Types of Standards in Machine Design
8.2.1 Standards for materials
These standards define the specifications for various materials, their compositions, mechanical
properties and heat treatment. For instance:
a) The Aluminium Association gives standards for Aluminium alloys and groups them according
to the major alloying element as shown in the Table below:

Engineering Design: 8.2 Types of Standards in Machine Design 53
Table 8.1: Aluminium alloy designation
b) Kenya Standard KS 18:2010 gives out specifications of steels for buildings and constructions
c) East Africa EAS 30: 2000 specifies technical requirements for plain, and ribbed bars (both
hot-rolled and cold-twisted) designed for the reinforcement in ordinary concrete structures.
The standard covers two steel grades of plain bars PB 240 and PB 300 and Five steel grades of
ribbed bars RB 300, RB 400, RB 400W, RB 500 and RB 500W. The Grade number signifies
the minimum yield strength in Mpa.
d) Indian Standard IS 1570 specifies chemical composition of various grades of alloy steel. For
instance, an alloy steel designated by 55Cr3 has 0.5-06% carbon, 0.1-0.35% silicon, 0.6-0.8%
manganese and 0.6-08% chromium.
8.2.2 Standards for shapes and dimensions of commonly used ma-

chine parts
These machine elements include bolts, screws and nuts, rivets, belts and chains, ball and roller
bearings, wire ropes, keys and splines etc. For instance:
a) Indian Standard IS 2494 specifies dimensions and shape of the cross section of V-belts for
power transmission.
b) Kenya Standard KS 201:2010 sets out specifications of unified valves for liquefied petroleum
gas cylinders.
Engineering Design: 8.2 Types of Standards in Machine Design 54
8.2.3 Standards for fits, tolerances and surface finish of components
These give out specifications for selection of fits, tolerances (or upper and lower limits) for various
sizes of holes and shafts. For example:
a) ISO 286-1:2010, ISO 286-2:2010
b) IS 2709, IS 919
c) ANSI B4.2 (1978)
8.2.4 Standards for testing of products
These standards, sometimes called ’codes’ give procedures to test the products such as pressure
vessels, boilers, cranes, wire ropes, where safety to the operator is involved. Example:
a) IS 807 is a code of practice for design, manufacture, erection and testing of cranes and hoists.
b) EAS 119:2000 specifies a method for testing the tensile strength of constant cross section of
steel wire.
c) EAS 207:2001 prescribes the procedure for radiography as non-destructive testing of materials
8.2.5 Standards for engineering drawings of components
These standards gives out the general principles of presentation of technical drawings. They
specify the graphical representation of objects on technical drawings with the aim of facilitating
the international exchange of information on drawings and ensuring their uniformity. Example:
a) ISO 128 which contains 12 parts presents the international principles of technical drawings.
b) ISO 129 establishes the general principles of dimensioning applicable for all types of technical
drawings.
c) KS 06-325 specifies the general principles of presentation and practice to be applied to engi-
neering drawings in Kenya
Engineering Design: 8.3 Advantages of Standardization 55
8.2.6 Ergonomics and safety standards
The purpose of ergonomics standards is to provide information that engineers and designers need
to make equipment fit the human body. Ergonomics, or human factors engineering, takes into
account properties of the mind and body as they are manifested in peoples interaction with the
environment. To help designers accomplish this, many sources provide information required to
make a project ergonomic. There is information available concerning:
a) dimensions of the human body in several different work positions
b) information on the skeletal, muscular, respiratory and circulatory systems
c) human factors standards used to design specific items, such as hand tools and furniture.
8.3 Advantages of Standardization
Standardization offer the following advantages:
a) Since the standardized components are manufactured by a specialized factory, it relieves a

machine building plant of the laborious task of manufacturing those parts. Availability of
standardized parts such as bearings, seals, knobs, wheels, V-belts etc have reduced the manu-
facturing facility requiring in a design.
b) Standardized parts are easy to replace when worn out due to interchangeability
c) The standards of specifications and testing procedures of machine elements improve their qual-
ity and reliability.
d) Application of standardized parts reduce the time and effort needed to design a new machine.
This also reduces the cost.
Chapter 9
Economic Considerations in Design
The process of design is not complete until the designer has a realistic estimate of the cost required
to manufacture the product
There are three basic parts which together make the total cost of a product. These are; material
labor and overhead costs
Costs are classified as:
• Fixed and variable costs
• Direct and indirect costs
• Recurring and non-recurring costs
Fixed costs are independent of the rate of production of the products. They include salaries.
Variable costs vary with the rate of production and include material and direct labor costs.
A direct cost is a cost which can be directly assigned to a particular product such as material or
direct labor costs. Indirect costs are the costs which cannot be assigned directly to a particular
product. Such costs are spread over the entire factory.
Recurring costs are directly related to the manufacture of the product and occur over and over
again. On the other hand, non-recurring costs are one time costs such as capital investment costs.
Sometimes, it is required to find out economic lot size of production for s given product. It is
obtained by break-even analysis as shown in Figure 9.1.
The break-even point is obtained as follows:
• Since fixed costs such as overhead costs are independent of the rate of production, it is shown
by a straight line AB parallel to x-axis
Engineering Design: 9.1 Cost reduction 57
Figure 9.1:
• Variable costs such as direct labor or material costs are directly proportional to the rate of
production. They are shown by line OC.
• Adding the two costs gives the total cost of the product shown by line AD
• Sales amount (amount received by selling the products) is directly proportional to the rate
of production. Its shown by line OE.
• There will be a point of intersection P between lines AD and OE. It is observed that up
to point P, the total cost is is more than the sales amount indicating a loss. Past point P,
the total cost is less than the sales amount indicating a profit. Point P is called break-even
point.
• The rate of production should always be more than that of break-even point.
9.1 Cost reduction
Some of the guidelines for reducing the cost of a product are as follows:
1. Do not use a component or part that does not contribute to the value of the product.
2. Do not use a component or part whose cost is not proportional to its usefulness.
3. Do not provide any features to the component or finished product that are not absolutely
necessary.
4. Accept the change if part of the required quantity can be made out of cheaper and easily
available material.
Engineering Design: 9.1 Cost reduction 58
5. If the part of required quantity is made by a process or method costing less, then do use the
alternative process or method.
6. Use standard parts wherever possible.
7. Use proper toolings and manufacturing methods taking into consideration the quantities.
8. The cost of the component used should be proportional to its use or function.
9. Use the material, part best suited for the purpose.
10. Purchase the part instead of manufacturing in house, if suitable supplier can provide the
part of good quality at the reasonable price.

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EMG 2306 PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING

Lecture Notes Compiled By:

Mũtukũ Mũvengei (PhD)

1 Engineering Design Process 1

1.1 Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 The Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2.1 Identify the Need or Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2.2 Research about the Need or Problem (Background Research) . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.3 Develop Possible Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.4 Select the Best Possible Solution and Optimize it . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.5 Construct a Prototype to Test and Evaluate the Design Solution . . . . . . 5

1.2.6 Communicate the Design Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 Skills of a Good Engineering Designer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 Design Engineers Professional Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Factors to Consider in Engineering Design 9

2.4 Type of Load and Stresses Induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.5 Motion of the Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.8 Wear Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.10 Operational Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.12 Assembly and Disassembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.13 Servicing and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.14 Reliability and Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.16 Selection of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.17 Aesthetic and Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.18 Number of machines to be built . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.2 Safety Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.3 Manufacturing Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.4 Economic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.5 Environmental Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3.6 Legal/Ethical Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.7 Political Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.8 Time Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.9 Functional Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.10 Ergonomic Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.2 Reasons why Innovative Design is Very Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.3 Principle steps of Innovative Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.3.1 Creative Methods in Innovative Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.3.2 Overcoming Obstacles of Creative Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.4 Case Studies of Innovative Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.4.1 Ballbarrow (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.4.2 Cyclone Vacuum Cleaner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4.4.3 Strida Bicycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Analysis and Presentation of Designs 29

5.2 Use of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5.2.1 Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5.2.2 Computer Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5.2.3 Physical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5.4 Communication of Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

5.4.1 Engineering Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5.4.2 Written Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5.4.3 Oral Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6 Manufacturing Considerations in Design 34

6.2 Casting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

6.3 Deformation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6.4 Material Removal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.5 Concurrent Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7 Ergonomic Considerations in Design 39

7.2 Man-Machine Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.2.1 Design of Display Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

7.2.2 Design of Control Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

7.3 Workstation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7.3.1 Workstation Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7.3.2 Sitting and chair design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7.3.3 Standing work positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47