DEFORESTATION AND LANDSLIDES IN SOUTHWESTERN WASHINGTON

Daniel Rogge
Geography 361 Environmental Hazards

Above image source: http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/slides/landslideimages.htm

It estimated that the planet's population is set to double by the year 2065. With our ever
growing population the demand for natural resources such as oil, water, land, and timber is
constantly increasing and without proper planning we run the risk of not only exhausting the
supply of these resources, but also increasing the possibility of creating environmental hazards
along the way. This is what is occurring in many areas across the western coast of the U.S.,
especially in the state of Washington. The clear cutting of old growth timber in Washington has
caused a number of disasters to local ecosystems, human infrastructure, and human life.

What are landslides and how do they occur?

Landslides have always existed on our planet. Generally classified as mass movements of
rock, debris, and soil down a slope of land. While landslides are a naturally occurring
environmental hazard they have recently increased in frequency in certain areas due to human
activity. Although there are many different causes of landslides, they all have two things in
common. According to Geoscience Australia's website at http://www.ga.gov.au "...they are the
results of the failure of the soil and rock materials that make up the hill-slope and they are driven
by gravity."

Natural causes of Landslides:

Earthquakes: Seismic activities have always been a main cause of landslides throughout the
world. Any time plate tectonics move the soil that covers them moves with it. When
earthquakes occur on areas with steep slopes, many times the soil slips causing landslides.
Furthermore, ashen debris flows caused by earthquakes can also trigger mass movement of
soil.
 Heavy Rainfall: When sloped areas become completely saturated by heavy rainfall many
times landslides can occur. Without the aid of mechanical root support the soil simply runs off
when it contains too much water.

Human causes of Landslides:

Clear Cutting: Method of timber harvesting which completely removes all old growth timber
from the area. This method is hazardous because it destroys the existing mechanical root
structure in the area.

Mining: Mining operations that use blasting techniques often cause other areas that are at the
risk of sliding to slide due to vibrations under the soil.

Clear cutting and its effects on landslides

Above image source: http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/slides/landslideimages.htm

Over the years, many case studies have proven that the mass removal of large trees and
vegetation has a had a drastic increase on the probability of landslides occurring (Heiken, 1997).
These studies have laid out several mechanisms of clear cutting that have contributed to the
increase:
Large trees provide strong root structures that penetrate fragile cracks in the underlying
bedrock and anchor the soil.
Old growth trees natural have large leaf surface areas which cause much water transfer. The
water is drawn up from the soil and eventually transpired back to the atmosphere.
Forests create a canopy of foliage high up in the air to help dissipate rain fall over large areas.
Heavy logging machinery damages precious topsoil and decreases its ability to absorb water.
Logging slashes (leftover tree limbs) or debris blocks natural drainage basins.
Anytime large amounts of vegetation are removed from an area the delicate root systems
eventually die off which leaves the soil vulnerable to over saturation.
 Above image source: http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/slides/landslideimages.ht

A study done by Richard Meehan was conducted in 1991 and a few of his conclusions were as
followed: "The frequency of mass erosion [landslides, debris flows, earthflows, etc] is strongly
linked to the type and intensity of land treatment in the basin. Although most mass movements
are associated with roads and their drainage systems, many originate on open slopes after
logging has raised soil water tables and decreased root strength." [Meehan, 1991 page 194] He
also stated that: "The increase in mass movement due to clear cutting varies widely, ranging
from 2-4 times in Oregon and Washington...to 31 times in the Queen Charlotte Islands... An
increase of 6.6 times...is probably closer to the norm." [Meehan, 1991, page 194]

Future Problems
Landslides are very powerful and destructive forces that can decimate ecosystems, wipe out
man made infrastructure, and take even take human life. Studies at the United States Geological
Survey have conducted show that an average of 25 to 50 people die each year from landslides
and over 2 billion dollars of economic damage occurs annually within the U.S.
Above image source: http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/slides/landslideimages.htm

The damage that landslides cause on the environment is equally devastating to the damages
caused to man made structures. Loss of habitat is caused by landslides which upsets the
ecosystem. Animal and insect species are forced to compete for space. Also when landslides
occur the flow of soil and debris can eventually leak into surrounding water supplies such as
rivers and streams which can then threaten the habitat of aquatic species. For example, many
areas of California, Oregon, and Washington are seeing a rapid decline in native salmon species
as a result of landslides destroying or contaminating spawning beds. Furthermore, when area of
old growth timber is clear cut it allows for non-native species which can damage the existing
ecosystem that local plants and animals depend on. Old growth trees act as keystone species,
which are the most fundamental species in an ecosystem. To remove them can completely
eradicate the existing ecosystem.

Conclusions and Solutions

Above image source: http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/slides/landslideimages.htm

 It is obvious that landslides have become a very serious problem, especially in Washington
and other coastal regions of the United States, and although landslides can occur as a result of
natural processes, many of these landslides can be avoided with proper planning and the
implementation of different timber harvest techniques. Many communities that have come to
depend upon timber harvesting as their primary economic function have begun to lobby for
alternative methods in which the harvesting is carried out to not only insure future yields, but
also to prevent more occurrences of environmental hazards in their areas. One main method that
logging companies have begun to adopt is old growth selective felling, which allows most of old
growth trees to remain. This method has proven to be very successful in preventing landslides
yet has also allowed timber companies to maintain production.

Hazard Map of Landslides in the U.S.

Above image source:http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/nationalmap/national.html

EXPLANATION
LANDSLIDE INCIDENCE
Low (less than 1.5% of area involved)
Moderate (1.5%-15% of area involved)

High (greater than 15% of area involved)

 LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY/INCIDENCE
Moderate susceptibility/low incidence
High susceptibility/low incidence

High susceptibility/moderate incidence

Susceptibility not indicated where same or lower than incidence. Susceptibility to

landsliding was defined as the probable degree of response of [the areal] rocks and
soils to natural or artificial cutting or loading of slopes, or to anomalously high
precipitation. High, moderate, and low susceptibility are delimited by the same
percentages used in classifying the incidence of landsliding. Some generalization
was necessary at this scale, and several small areas of high incidence and
susceptibility were slightly exaggerated.

Sources

http://www.umpqua-watersheds.org/local/landslides/slides.html
http://www.ga.gov.au/urban/factsheets/landslide_causes.jsp
http://www.ga.gov.au
http://www.umpqua-watersheds.org/local/landslides/slides.html#plane

Bilby, R. E., K. Sullivan and S. H. Duncan. 1989. The generation and fate of road-surface
sediment in forested watersheds in southwestern Washington. Forest Science 35: 453-468
Chamberlin, T. W., R. D. Harr and F. H. Everest. 1991. Timber harvesting, silviculture, and
watershed processes. In Influences of forest and rangeland management on salmonid
fishes and their habitats. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 19: 181-205
Gray, D. H. 1970. Effects of forest clear-cutting on the stability of natural slopes. Bulletin of the
Association of Engineering Geologists 7: 45-66
Jones, J. A. and G. E. Grant. 1996. Peak flow responses to clear-cutting and roads in small and
large basins, western Cascades, Oregon. Water Resources Research 32: 959-974
McCashion, J. D. and R. M. Rice. 1983. Erosion on logging roads in northwestern California:
How much is avoidable? Journal of Forestry 81: 23-26
Meehan,William R. 1991.Influences of Forest and Rangeland Management on Salmonid Fishes
and their Habitats
Reid, L. M. and T. Dunne. 1984. Sediment production from forest road surfaces. Water
Resources Research 20: 1753-1761

https://people.uwec.edu/jolhm/eh2/rogge/index.htm, jan 2018

LANDSLIDES
A landslide is a mass movement of material, such as rock, earth or debris, down the slope of a
hill or cliff. They can happen suddenly or move slowly over long periods of time.

Landslides are classified by their type of movement. The four main types of movement
are falls, topples, rotational slides, translational slides and flows. Landslides can be classified as
just one of these movements or, more commonly, can be a mixture of several.
At the BGS we study the landslides that happen in the UK. Large landslides occur around the
world and also in the sea.

Why do landslides happen?

Like sand sliding off a tipper truck, slopes eventually fail because they become too steep to hold
onto their load.

A landslide may occur because the strength of the material is weakened. This reduces the power
of the 'glue' that cements the rock or soil grains together. Located on a slope, the rock is then no
longer strong enough to resist the forces of gravity acting upon it.

What can increase the chance of a landslide?

Several factors can increase a slopes susceptibility to a landslide event:
 water (rainfall or the movement of the sea) — this acts as a grease to the material
increasing the likelihood that it will slip and also adds extra weight to the rock
 erosion processes — such as coastal erosion and river erosion
 steepness of slope
 type of 'rocks' — soft rock such as mudstone or hard rock such as limestone
 shape of the rock 'grains'
 jointing and orientation of bedding planes
  arrangement of the rock layers
 weathering processes — for example freeze-thaw reduces the stickiness (cohesion)
between the rock grains.
 lack of vegetation which would help bind material together
 flooding
 volcanoes and earthquake activity nearby
 man's activity — mining, traffic vibrations or urbanisation which changes surface water
drainage patterns

There are some kinds of landslides, they are:

Falls
Falls are landslides that involve the collapse of material from a cliff or steep slope.
Falls usually involve a mixture of free fall through the air, bouncing or rolling.
A fall type landslide results in the collection of rock or debris near the base of a slope.
A good example of a fall landslide is the Rock fall at Pennington Point.

Rock fall Debris fall

Earth fall

Topples
Like a domino that falls over when tapped by a playing card, a topple landslide may occur when
a cliff is eroded, by waves at its base, continually losing strength and eventually the rock mass
rotates forward and falls downward.
 Quartzite talus cones (and scree) on the south-west slopes of Foinaven, Highlands, Scotland.

Topple failures involve the forward rotation and movement of a mass of rock, earth or debris out
of a slope. This kind of slope failure generally occurs around an axis (or point) at or near the base
of the block of rock.

A good example of a site experiencing topple failures is Aldborough, UK.

A topple often results in the formation of debris or a debris cone at the base of the slope; this pile
is called a talus cone. New talus cones don't have any plants growing on them. Old talus cone
can have weeds and even trees on them.

A topple landslide 'in progress' at Portland, Dorset. The arrow points to a forward-tilted rock
mass that will eventually fall down the cliff face.
 Debris topple
Rock topple

Earth topple

Flows
Around 200 residents of Maierato, Italy, were evacuated from their homes in February 2010 after
prolonged heavy rainfall. The enormous mudflow split the side of a hill and buried several roads.
Satellite pictures from NASA show the path of the landslide.

The 2009 debris flow at the on A83, known as the Rest and Be Thankful Pass, Scotland. After a
long period of heavy rain, some time on the morning of 8 September 2009, a landslide occurred
that blocked the road for two days causing a 55-mile detour. This was the second time the road
had been closed at this location in two years.
Flows are landslides that involve the movement of material down a slope in the form of a fluid.
When material on a slope becomes saturated with water, making it much heavier, it may develop
into a debris flow or mud flow.

The flow of material, a slurry of rock and mud, may pick up trees, cars and even houses. The
debris flow can often block streams causing flooding as their path is diverted.
Flows often leave behind a distinctive upside-down funnel-shaped deposit where the landslide
material has stopped moving.

A good example of a flow landslide is at the A85 road, Glen Ogle, Stirlingshire or the Rest and
Be Thankful Pass (A83), Argyll.

Solifluction flow

Debris flow

Earth flow
Rotational slides

The 1993 landslide at Holbeck Hall, North Yorkshire. The areas of grass show the rotated blocks
on landslide. As it developed further it became a debris and mud flow that covered the rocks on
the beach below.

A slide type landslide is a down-slope movement of material that occurs along a distinctive
surface. If this slip surface is curved the slide said to be rotational. The slip surface of a rotational
landslide tends to be deep. Blocks of failed material can rotate as they fail and can at times be
seen to tilt backwards towards the slope.

A good example of a rotational landslide is the Holbeck Hall landslide, in Scarborough North
Yorkshire, England. The 1 million tones of cliff failed as a rotational landslide over a couple of
days in June 1993 and destroyed the Hotel at the top of the cliff. The rotated blocks can be seen
as grass covered 'benches' in the photograph.
 Multiple rotational slide

Single rotational slide

Successive rotational slides

http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/hazards/landslides/rotationalSlides.html, feb 2018

Translational slides

Like the layers of caramel shortbread slipping over one another in the hot sun, in a translational
landslide the mass moves along a roughly planar, flat, surface with little rotation or backward
tilting.
A slide-type landslide is a down-slope movement of material that occurs along a distinctive
surface of weakness such as a fault, joint or bedding plane.

If the slip surface is straight then it is termed translational or planar.

Translational landslides have occured at Nefyn, Lleyn Peninsula, Wales, along with variety of
other landslide types including rotational failures, flows, falls and debris slides.

Rock slide

Debris slide

Earth slide
http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/hazards/landslides/translationalSlides.html, feb 2018
The Science of Earthquakes
Originally written by Lisa Wald for “The Green Frog News”

What is an earthquake?

An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another. The
surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s surface
where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the
surface of the earth is called the epicenter.

Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks. These are smaller earthquakes that happen in the same
place as the larger earthquake that follows. Scientists can’t tell that an earthquake is a foreshock
until the larger earthquake happens. The largest, main earthquake is called the main shock. Main
shocks always have aftershocks that follow. These are smaller earthquakes that occur afterwards
in the same place as the main shock. Depending on the size of the main shock, aftershocks can
continue for weeks, months, and even years after the main shock!

What causes earthquakes and where do they happen?

The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle and crust. (figure 2) The crust
and the top of the mantle make up a thin skin on the surface of our planet. But this skin is not all
in one piece – it is made up of many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of the earth. (figure
3) Not only that, but these puzzle pieces keep slowly moving around, sliding past one another
and bumping into each other. We call these puzzle pieces tectonic plates, and the edges of the
plates are called the plate boundaries. The plate boundaries are made upof many faults, and most
of the earthquakes around the world occur on these faults. Since the edges of the plates are
rough, they get stuck while the rest of the plate keeps moving. Finally, when the plate has moved
far enough, the edges unstick on one of the faults and there is an earthquake.

Why does the earth shake when there is an earthquake?

While the edges of faults are stuck together, and the rest of the block is moving, the energy that
would normally cause the blocks to slide past one another is being stored up. When the force of
the moving blocks finally overcomes the friction of the jagged edges of the fault and it unsticks,
all that stored up energy is released. The energy radiates outward from the fault in all directions
in the form of seismic waves like ripples on a pond. The seismic waves shake the earth as they
move through it, and when the waves reach the earth’s surface, they shake the ground and
anything on it, like our houses and us! (see P&S Wave inset)

How are earthquakes recorded?

Earthquakes are recorded by instruments called seismographs. The recording they make is called
a seismogram. (figure 4) The seismograph has a base that sets firmly in the ground, and a heavy
weight that hangs free. When an earthquake causes the ground to shake, the base of the
seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight does not. Instead the spring or string that it is
hanging from absorbs all the movement. The difference in position between the shaking part of
the seismograph and the motionless part is what is recorded.

How do scientists measure the size of earthquakes?

The size of an earthquake depends on the size of the fault and the amount of slip on the fault, but
that’s not something scientists can simply measure with a measuring tape since faults are many
kilometers deep beneath the earth’s surface. So how do they measure an earthquake? They use
the seismogram recordings made on the seismographs at the surface of the earth to determine
how large the earthquake was (figure 5). A short wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much
means a small earthquake, and a long wiggly line that wiggles a lot means a large earthquake.
The length of the wiggle depends on the size of the fault, and the size of the wiggle depends on
the amount of slip.

The size of the earthquake is called its magnitude. There is one magnitude for each earthquake.
Scientists also talk about the intensity of shaking from an earthquake, and this varies depending
on where you are during the earthquake.

How can scientists tell where the earthquake happened?

Seismograms come in handy for locating earthquakes too, and being able to see the P wave and
the S wave is important. You learned how P & S waves each shake the ground in different ways
as they travel through it. P waves are also faster than S waves, and this fact is what allows us to
tell where an earthquake was. To understand how this works, let’s compare P and S waves to
lightning and thunder. Light travels faster than sound, so during a thunderstorm you will first see
the lightning and then you will hear the thunder. If you are close to the lightning, the thunder will
boom right after the lightning, but if you are far away from the lightning, you can count several
seconds before you hear the thunder. The further you are from the storm, the longer it will take
between the lightning and the thunder.

P waves are like the lightning, and S waves are like the thunder. The P waves travel faster and
shake the ground where you are first. Then the S waves follow and shake the ground also. If you
are close to the earthquake, the P and S wave will come one right after the other, but if you are
far away, there will be more time between the two. By looking at the amount of time between the
P and S wave on a seismogram recorded on a seismograph, scientists can tell how far away the
earthquake was from that location. However, they can’t tell in what direction from the
seismograph the earthquake was, only how far away it was. If they draw a circle on a map
around the station where the radius of the circle is the determined distance to the earthquake,
they know the earthquake lies somewhere on the circle. But where?

Scientists then use a method called triangulation to determine exactly where the earthquake was
(figure 6). It is called triangulation because a triangle has three sides, and it takes three
seismographs to locate an earthquake. If you draw a circle on a map around three different
seismographs where the radius of each is the distance from that station to the earthquake, the
intersection of those three circles is the epicenter!

Can scientists predict earthquakes?

No, and it is unlikely they will ever be able to predict them. Scientists have tried many different
ways of predicting earthquakes, but none have been successful. On any particular fault, scientists
know there will be another earthquake sometime in the future, but they have no way of telling
when it will happen.
Is there such a thing as earthquake weather? Can some animals or people tell when an
earthquake is about to hit?
These are two questions that do not yet have definite answers. If weather does affect earthquake
occurrence, or if some animals or people can tell when an earthquake is coming, we do not yet
understand how it works.

https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/eqscience.php, january 25, 2018

What are earthquakes?
Most people living in California have at one time or another experienced an earthquake. Without
warning we wake up in the middle of the night because of the sometimes violent, sometimes
slow rolling motion of the earth; other times we are driving on the freeway, walking in the mall,
or even just watching television when an earthquake occurs. So what are earthquakes? What
causes them? Why do earthquakes feel so different from one another?

Earthquakes are the Earth's natural means of releasing stress. When the Earth's plates move
against each other, stress is put on the lithosphere. When this stress is great enough, the
lithosphere breaks or shifts. Imagine holding a pencil horizontally. If you were to apply a force to
both ends of the pencil by pushing down on them, you would see the pencil bend. After enough
force was applied, the pencil would break in the middle, releasing the stress you have put on it.
The Earth's crust acts in the same way. As the plates move they put forces on themselves and
each other. When the force is large enough, the crust is forced to break. When the break occurs,
the stress is released as energy which moves through the Earth in the form of waves, which we
feel and call an earthquake.

Types of earthquakes
There are many different types of earthquakes: tectonic, volcanic, and explosion. The type of
earthquake depends on the region where it occurs and the geological make-up of that region. The
most common are tectonic earthquakes. These occur when rocks in the earth's crust break due to
geological forces created by movement of tectonic plates. Another type, volcanic earthquakes,
occur in conjunction with volcanic activity. Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes in
underground caverns and mines, and explosion earthquakes result from the explosion of nuclear
and chemical devices. We can measure motion from large tectonic earthquakes using GPS
because rocks on either side of a fault are offset during this type of earthquake.

Forces
A force can be thought of as a push or pull. Force has both magnitude and direction, therefore it
is a vector. From physics and Newton's 2nd law, we know that force is equal to a change in an
object's momentum (mass x velocity) which describes the quantity of motion. Often, in the
discussion of geology and earthquakes we use terms that describe force and the result of force on
the Earth. When a force is applied to an object, the object is said to be under stress. Stress is the
deforming force per area. Stress produces strain, the actual deformation. Stress and strain are
related, so it is easy to determine one from the other if you know the value of proportionality, a
constant value that relates strain to stress, of the substance that is being deformed (different for
each individual material.)

Forces in the Earth

There are three main forces that drive deformation within the Earth. These forces create stress,
and they act to change the shape and/or volume of a material. The following diagrams show the
three main types of stress: compressional, tensional, and shear. Stress causes the buildup of
strain, which causes the deformation of rocks and the Earth's crust.

Compressional stresses cause a rock to shorten. Tensional stresses cause a rock to elongate, or
pull apart. Shear stresses cause rocks to slip past each other.
What causes stress?
So far we understand that there are different types of earthquakes, caused by forces under the
Earth's crust that change the shape of the material they are acting on, and produce a variety of
waves which we feel. But what are these forces? Where do they occur? What causes them?

The explanation for the majority of earthquakes in recent years falls under the category of plate
tectonics. When two plates interact at their boundaries they put forces on each other. These
forces of reaction cause physical and chemical changes at their boundaries. Plates move side to
side, up and down, and also interact head on. Earthquakes also occur in these areas where new
plates are being created and old plates are being sub-ducted into the Earth's interior. Earthquakes
which are due to the interaction of plates are called inter-plate earthquakes. But what about intra-
plate earthquakes, which occur across one plate? Less common than earthquakes that occur at
plate boundaries, these earthquakes are due to local systems of forces, such as lack of strength or
changes in temperature below the Earth's crust. Most often they are due to movement on pre-
existing faults.

Elasticity
In an earlier example, we described what happened to a pencil when force was applied to both of
its ends. We said that the first sign of the force on the pencil was seen when the pencil bent
slightly. The ability of the pencil to bend shows that it has elastic properties. This means that the
pencil is allowed to be deformed, or have its shape changed, but returns to its original shape
when the force on it is released. Like the pencil, or a rubber band, rocks have elastic properties.
This means that when forces are applied to rocks, such as pulling, pushing, twisting, or
compression, they change their shape. Rocks, like all other materials with elastic properties, have
an elastic limit, a point at which any additional force will permanently deform the object's shape.
Sometimes there is plastic deformation, which means that the shape of an object can be changed
an additional amount beyond it's elastic limit before it breaks; other times, if the substance is
brittle, it breaks at its elastic limit before any plastic deformation occurs. As we know from the
pencil and rubber band, when a substance with elastic properties breaks there is some
displacement or total change in position. There is also elastic rebound, in which the objects
return to their original shape after they have been broken apart. During an earthquake, seismic
waves are generated as a result of this type of rebound.

Waves
There are three types of waves that are created when stress is released as energy in earthquakes:
P, S, and surface waves. The P wave, or primary wave, is the fastest of the three waves and the
first detected by seismographs. They are able to move through both liquid and solid rock. P
waves, like sound waves, are compressional waves, which mean that they compress and expand
matter as they move through it. S waves, or secondary waves, are the waves directly following
the P waves. As they move, S waves shear, or cut the rock they travel through sideways at right
angles to the direction of motion. S waves cannot travel through liquid because, while liquid can
be compressed, it can't shear. S waves are the more dangerous type of waves because they are
larger than P waves and produce vertical and horizontal motion in the ground surface. Both P
and S waves are called body-waves because they move within the Earth's interior. Their speeds
vary depending on the density and the elastic properties of the material they pass through, and
they are amplified as they reach the surface. The third type of wave, and the slowest, is the
surface wave. These waves move close to or on the outside surface of the ground. There are two
types of surface waves: Love waves, that move like S waves but only horizontally, and Rayleigh
waves, that move both horizontally and vertically in a vertical plane pointed in the direction of
travel.

Detection and recording

Earthquakes vary in size. Those that do the most damage are extremely large, but some are so
small they are almost undetectable. So, how are these measurements recorded? And how is their
size determined?

Geologists use seismographs to record the surface and body waves. Inside a seismograph
designed to measure horizontal motion, a weight is freely suspended. As waves from earthquakes
reach the seismograph the mass stays in relatively the same place, while the ground and the
support move around it. This movement is recorded on magnetic tape by a pen attached to the
mass. In a seismograph designed to measure vertical motion, the mass is connected to a spring,
so as the ground and support move up and down, the pen on the mass measures the vertical
motion. The metal tape which the motion is recorded on is marked with lines that correspond to
one minute intervals. When motion is recorded a seismogram is created, which tells about the
waves--how big they were and how long they lasted. P waves are recorded first, followed by S
waves and then surface waves. While surface waves are the last to reach the seismograph, they
last the longest time.

Using the information from the seismogram, the epicenter and focus of the earthquake can be
determined. The focus is the point on the fault at which the first movement or break occurred.
The epicenter is the point on the surface directly above the focus. Once several seismograph
stations have determined their distance from the epicenter, the actual epicenter can be located,
using triangulation, on a map.

Measurement
Earthquakes can be measured in several ways. The first way is to describe the earthquake's
intensity. Intensity is the measure, in terms of degrees, of damage to the surface and the effects
on humans. Intensity records only observations of effects on the crust, not actual ground motion
or wave amplitudes which can be recorded by instruments. While intensity helps to determine
how large of an area was effected, it is not an accurate measure of the earthquake for many
reasons. Two such reasons are: only the effect on an area showing the greatest intensity is
reported, which can imply a greater or lesser intensity than what actually occurred, and the way
in which seismic waves travel varies as they pass through different types of rocks, so some areas
near by may feel nothing because they are built on faulted rock, while other areas quite a
distance from the foci will feel the effects because they are built on compact homogenous rocks.

The second type of measurement is the magnitude of the earthquake. Magnitude does not
depend on population and effects to ground structures, but rather on wave amplitude and
distance. Magnitude is determined using mathematical formulae and information from
seismograms. One such magnitude scale is the Richter scale. This magnitude scale is
logarithmic; meaning each step in magnitude is exponentially greater than the last.
To determine the Richter magnitude, information collected by seismometers is used. Using a
seismogram, the time difference between the recording of the P wave and the S wave is
determined and matched to a corresponding distance value. The single maximum amplitude
recorded on the seismogram is calculated and a line is drawn between the amplitude scale and
the distance scale. The line crosses another scale, which corresponds to the magnitude. While
this type of measurement is the most well known, the Richter scale is not as accurate a
measurement as believed. Originally designed specifically for California, the Richter magnitude
scale becomes an approximation in other states and countries. Also, the type of wave whose
amplitude is to be measured is not specified, and it does not distinguish between deep and
shallow foci.

Below is a chart that shows how to measure Richter magnitude by an "eyeball" fit. First, the
amplitude of the surface wave is measured on a seismogram produced by a Wood-Anderson
seismometer (a specific type of seismometer) and then it is compared with distance from the
earthquake or the S-P time (which is the amount of time between the P-wave and S-wave arrival)
to yield a magnitude.

There are many other magnitude measurements. In addition to Richter magnitude, there is also
body wave magnitude and surface wave magnitude. These magnitude scales differ by the type of
wave amplitude that is measured from the seismogram and the mathematical formula used to
determine the magnitude. They are all, however, logarithmic scales.

A third type of measurement is called the seismic moment. Using the seismic waves and field
measurements that describe the fault area, the moment, a parameter related to the angular
leverage of the forces that produce slip on a fault, can be measured. This moment can be related
to a corresponding magnitude for easier interpretation, called the moment magnitude. The
benefit of this type of measurement is that it gives a consistent and uniform measure of the size
of an earthquake of any magnitude anywhere in the world, and because it takes into account fault
geometry. Along with this new type of measurement, the individual amplitudes of body and
surface waves are being measured as well.

A new type of measurement

Another way to measure vertical and horizontal movement of the earth is through the use of
GPS. GPS is navigation and positioning system developed by the Department of Defense in the
early 1970's. Among its many applications, scientists use GPS to monitor the movement of the
Earth's crust, all over the world, between and during earthquakes. From these measurements,
maps and models can be created to show how fast and in what direction the crust is moving due
to both plate and fault movement. SCIGN, the Southern California Integrated GPS Network, is
one of the newest GPS arrays, designed to produce detailed information about movements in
Southern California. By using GPS and networks such as SCIGN, it will be possible in the near
future to reduce damage to buildings, freeways, utilities, and homes, and improve emergency
preparedness and response by determining, in advance, areas and structures in those areas at
greatest risk.

http://scecinfo.usc.edu/education/k12/learn/plate5.htm, Last modified on 8/13/98 by Maggi

Glasscoe (scignedu@jpl.nasa.gov), october 25, 2015
THE SCIENCE OF SINKHOLES
Categories: Featured, Natural Hazards
Posted on March 11, 2013 at 5:48 am
Last update 5:13 pm By: Jessica Robertson (jrobertson@usgs.gov) and Randall Orndorff
(rorndorf@usgs.gov)

A devastating sinkhole occurred in Florida on February 28, 2013, raising questions and concerns
about this incredible phenomenon. Around 20% of the U.S. lies in areas susceptible to sinkhole
events, highlighting the need for research and to be informed about this hazard.

What is a Sinkhole?
Geologically, a sinkhole is a depression in the ground that has no natural external surface
drainage. Basically this means that when it rains, all of the water stays inside the sinkhole and
typically drains into the subsurface.

Sinkholes are most common in what geologists call, “karst terrain.” What’s that? These are
regions where the type of rock below the land surface can naturally be dissolved by groundwater
circulating through them. Soluble rocks include salt beds and domes, gypsum, and limestone and
other carbonate rock. Florida, for instance, is an area largely underlain by limestone and is highly
susceptible to sinkholes.

When water from rainfall moves down through the soil, these types of rock begin to dissolve and
spaces and caverns develop underground. Sinkholes are dramatic because the land usually stays
intact for a period of time until the underground spaces just get too big. If there is not enough
support for the land above the spaces, then a sudden collapse of the land surface can occur.

USGS map showing areas of the contiguous United States that are underlain by relatively soluble
rocks with potential for cave and natural sinkhole formation. Note that the delineated areas are
generalized; actual potential for sinkhole development varies locally within each region.

Keep in mind though that while collapses are more frequent after intense rainstorms, there is
some evidence that droughts play a role as well. Areas where water levels have lowered suddenly
are more prone to collapse formation.
Areas Most Susceptible
About 20% of our country is underlain by “karst terrain” and is susceptible to a sinkhole event.
The most damage from sinkholes tends to occur in Florida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri,
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania.

Different Types and Various Severities

Collapse sinkhole in a salt dome in Daisetta, Texas (September 2008). Photo Credit: Randall
Orndorff, USGS

Sinkholes can be characterized into two types. First, there are cover-collapse sinkholes, which
can develop abruptly (over a period of hours) and cause catastrophic damages. Secondly, there
are cover-subsidence sinkholes, which form slowly over time with the ground gradually
subsiding or deflating. These types of events can be less noticeable and go undetected for long
periods.

Sinkhole collapses can range in size and severity. Sinkholes can vary from a few feet to hundreds
of acres and from less than one to more than 100 feet deep. Sinkholes can have dramatic effects,
especially in urban settings. They can contaminate water resources and have been seen to
swallow up swimming pools, parts of roadways, and even buildings.

Is There a Sinkhole on Your Property?

This is a difficult question, and unfortunately there isn’t a very efficient system to determine this
quite yet. It is recommended that people constantly observe their property for things such as
small holes in the ground or cracks formed in a structure’s foundation. People can also check to
see if they live in areas underlain by soluble rock, and they can do so by checking with county
offices, local or state geological surveys, or the USGS.

Even Humans Cause Sinkholes

While sinkhole collapses are frequent in karst areas, there are a variety of other circumstances
that can lead to such events. Many sinkholes form from human activity. Collapses can occur
above old mines, from leaky faucets, when sewers give way, or due to groundwater pumping and
construction.
Think about all the changes that occur when water-drainage patterns are altered and new systems
are developed. And when industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created, the resulting
substantial weight of the new material can trigger an underground collapse of supporting
material.

Aquifer systems are another factor in sinkholes. The sediment above the aquifer system may be
delicately balanced by ground-water fluid pressure, meaning that the water below ground is
actually helping to keep the surface soil in place. Groundwater pumping for urban water supply
and for irrigation can produce new sinkholes. If pumping results in a lowering of groundwater
levels, then underground structures could fail and thus sinkholes can occur.

Cover-collapse sinkhole in limestone near Frederick, Maryland (September 2003). Photo Credit:
Randall Orndorff, USGS

Start with USGS Science

Starting with science is important to understanding where sinkholes are likely to occur and
making the best decisions to protect life and property. Scientists at the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) play a key role by developing geologic maps of the nation.

By mapping the nation, the USGS contributes important geologic and topographic information
needed to understand karst regions and local areas. Detailed geologic mapping helps to define
areas of soluble rock at the surface and in the subsurface, thus educating the land planners, policy
makers, and the public about sinkhole risk.

These USGS maps and data are essential to many other purposes, including assessing ground-
water quality and contamination risks; predicting earthquake, volcano, and landslide hazards;
characterizing energy and mineral resources and their extraction costs; waste repository sifting;
land management and land-use planning; and general education.

https://www2.usgs.gov/blogs/features/usgs_top_story/the-science-of-sinkholes/?from=textlink,
april 26, 2017
Sinkholes
Sinkholes are caused by erosion. They may appear suddenly and have devastating
consequences.
RELATED STORIES

VIEW IMAGES
PHOTOGRAPH BY OCTAVIO JONES, THE TAMPA BAY TIMES VIA
ASSOCIATED PRESS

Sinkholes are cavities in the ground that form when water erodes an underlying rock layer.
Two types of sinkholes exist. One forms when the roof of a cave collapses and exposes the
underground cavern. The second type forms when water dissolves the rock underneath soil
and creates an underground chasm. Without rock to support it, the soil layer collapses and
creates a hole on the surface.
VIEW IMAGES

PHOTOGRAPH BY CHARLIE RIEDEL, AP

Sinkholes have both natural and human causes. Land made of a soft underground rock
layer, such as rock salt around the Dead Sea or limestone in Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula,
are often riddled with sinkholes, since the rock layer is easily dissolved.

Manmade sinkholes are created when city development compromises the structural
integrity of underlying rock. Roads, buildings, and other types of construction may cause
water to collect in certain areas and wash away the supporting rock layer (especially at low
sea levels and after a heavy rainfall).

W A T C H : S I N K H O L E D E S T R O Y S H O M E S I N F L O R I D A Watch a sinkhole destroy

Florida homes in minutes.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/sinkhole/, may 10, 2017

WHAT IS A TSUNAMI, HOW ARE THEY CAUSED AND WHAT DOES IT MEAN?
Aisling Moloney, Friday 8 Sep 2017 11:13 am Share this article with Facebook Share this article
with Twitter Share this article with Google Plus Share this article through email

Japanese tsunami in 2011 (Picture: REUTERS/Mainichi Shimbun)

A tsunami, meaning ‘harbor’ wave in Japanese, is a huge wave that is caused by earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions or landslides that occur under the sea.

When an undersea volcano erupts or an earthquake shakes the ocean floor, water becomes
displaced and begins to form a tsunami.

Tsunamis can approach the shore suddenly as water draws back from the shoreline – this is the
trough of the huge wave following behind.

A tsunami is not just one huge wave; a series of large waves will follow behind. Tsunamis can
cause mass flooding as the wave crashes onto the shoreline and the momentum and force pushes
it well onto land.

The disaster of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (Picture: Saeed Khan/AFP/Getty)
Erosion can also occur because of a tsunami as water erodes the foundations of coastal
structures.

Tsunamis are often caused by earthquakes and these occur when the tectonic plates that make up
the Earth’s surface move against each other and collide causing seismic waves.

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was triggered by a 9.3 magnitude earthquake with the initial
surge wave of the tsunami measuring 33 meters.

It was the largest earthquake-generated tsunami in history.

Certain places in the world are subject to earthquakes and tsunamis more than others as there are
only seven tectonic plates covering the earth and the borders of these plates lie in certain areas.

Foundations of the houses destroyed by the earthquake and the tsunami of 2011 in Japan
(Picture: Eric Lafforgue/Art in All of Us/Corbis/Getty)

The cause of the most powerful earthquake in 230 years in Mexico which sparked a tsunami this
week was due the possible collision of the Cocos plate which runs along the west of Mexico and
the Caribbean plate or the Nazca Plate which contains Mexico and borders the west of
Guatemela, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.
Where the earthquake struck on Wednesday night (Picture: EPA/ANGEL HERNANDEZ)

When the waves of a tsunami reach shallower water the height of the surging wave can increase
by several meters but the shallow water slows the wave down. Waves get closer together when
they near the shore in shallow water, increasing their impact as they have also grown in size.

The speed of the tsunami waves depend on the depth of the ocean rather than the distance from
the source of the tsunami.

Police officers search for the remains in the wake of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami, on the
coast of Kesennuma, Japan (Picture: Getty Images)

A tsunami is not to be confused with a tidal wave which is caused by the gravitational pull of the
sun and moon rather than movement below sea level.

http://metro.co.uk/2017/09/08/what-is-a-tsunami-how-are-they-caused-and-what-does-it-
mean-6912145/, DECEMBER 20, 2017
WHAT IS A TSUNAMI?

What causes a tsunami?

The most common cause is a seafloor earthquake. Other triggers are undersea landslides,
undersea volcanic eruptions, and meteorite impact. Sudden changes to the seafloor cause the
ocean to flow away from the disturbance, creating waves.

How Tsunamis Form

A tsunami is a series of waves generated in
an ocean or other body of water by a
disturbance such as an earthquake, landslide,
volcanic eruption, or meteorite impact. The
picture at the left shows how an earthquake can
generate a tsunami in the overlying water.

Undersea earthquakes, which typically occur

at boundaries between Earth's tectonic plates,
cause the water above to be moved up or down.
Tsunami waves are formed as the displaced
water, which acts under the influence of gravity,
attempts to find a stable position again.

Undersea landslides, which can be caused by

large earthquakes, can also cause tsunami waves
to form as water attempts to find a stable
position.

Undersea volcano eruptions can create enough

When movement along a fault moves the
seafloor upward, water is also pushed
upward and becomes tsunami waves. As
the waves approach shallower water, they
become higher.
force to uplift the water column and generate a
tsunami.
Asteroid impacts disturb the water from above,
as momentum from falling debris is transferred
to the water into which the debris falls.
https://www.windows2universe.org/earth/tsu
nami2.html, April 28, 2016 by Jennifer
Bergman, accessed January 13, 2018

How fast do tsunami waves travel?

In the open ocean, tsunami waves travel at 600kph to 700kph. In the deep ocean, waves from a
large tsunami may be as little as 60cm high. They pass ships unnoticed. As they encounter
shallow water, they slow down to about 30kph and increase in height.
http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/previous.events/Indonesia_10-25-10/10-25-10.htm,January 13, 2018

How far inland can a tsunami go?

http://gcaptain.com/tsunami-info-graphics/, January 13, 2018

In low-lying coastal areas they can travel a long way inland. In parts of Thailand, the tsunami
went 3 km inland destroying almost everything in its path. In Banda Aceh, the tsunami surged
6km inland.

Why does the seawater recede a long way out, sometimes hundreds of meters, before
coming back in as a tsunami?
Tsunamis are not just moving lumps on top of the ocean surface, they also include hollows, and
sometimes the hollow reaches the coast first. When this happens, the ocean first draws down and
sucks water away from coastlines. It then rushes back in with enormous speed and force as the
lumps arrive. People who notice the receding water have as little as five minutes to flee inland to
higher ground.

How does seawater destroy buildings?

Easily! A tsunami is not just seawater. It picks up a huge amount of debris which gives it added
destructive power. People don't die just from drowning, many are killed by being hit by debris
and heavy objects in the surging torrent. A retreating tsunami wave can cause as much damage
as the initial forward surge. A tsunami can exert huge forces against the side of a building. In
Thailand, engineers calculated that modern reinforced concrete walls of hotels were blown out
by tsunami waves generating as much pressure as 3000kg/sqm. This is far greater than
earthquake design loadings.

Is a tsunami a dream come true for extreme surfers?

No. A tsunami is not a wave in the classical sense, but a raging torrent of water that surges inland
with enormous power - much more power than a surfer can handle. Besides the waves do not
stop at the shore, so surfers may find that they crash into buildings or all the other debris caught
up in the surging water. Invariably a tsunami consists of successive surges or torrents and equally
violent return flow to the sea. The first wave or torrent of a tsunami is not necessarily the biggest.
The second or third or even much later waves may be bigger. Intervals between successive
waves can vary. It may just be minutes, or it could be more than an hour.

https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Our-Science/Natural-Hazards/Tsunami/What-is-a-Tsunami,
JANUARY 13, 2018
SEP 29, 2015 @ 08:00 AM
How Geologists Determined The Way That Mountains Formed

David Bressan , CONTRIBUTORI deal with the rocky road to our modern understanding of
earth Opinions expressed by Forbes Contributors are their own.
Asked why he wanted to climb Mount Everest, George Mallory famously responded "because
it´s there." But there was also a more practical reason - "for the stone from the top for
geologists."

This wasn't a jest - geologists were intensely interested in Everest. When Mallory, together with
Sandy Irvine, attempted the ascent June 6, 1924, mountaineer and geologist Noel Ewart Odell -
the last person to see the two alive - was collecting rocks at the base of the summit era of the
8,848 metres (29,029 ft) a.s.l. high mountain.

Other geological evidence, especially fossils of organisms, collected by Odell demonstrated that
"the summit of Mt. Everest is marine limestone." Geologist and author John McPhee pointed out
this geological contradiction – the highest point on earth was once an ancient seafloor.

Mount Everest, view from Kala Patthar (5.700 m), with most important geological formations
added. Image by Uwe Gille (2005), used under creative commons license.

The discovery of shells and remains of marine organism high on mountains was not completely
new for the time. Renaissance artist and naturalist Leonardo da Vinci had recognized shells
embedded in the rocks of the "mountains of Parma and Piacenza," arguing correctly that the
flood described in the Bible could not transport and deposit undamaged shells so high on the
mountains. Da Vinci speculated that parts of earth´s crust had instead collapsed into large
subterranean cavities filled with water. The displaced water would itself push other parts of the
crust up. This mechanism, thought da Vinci, could explain the distribution of mountains and
valleys.
Unfortunately, da Vinci never published these observations and speculations. Thus, many
European naturalists continued to consider the Biblical Flood as a good explanation for the
observed geological oddities found in mountains. The catastrophic flood and its strong currents,
they thought, would redeposit sediments and fold and disrupt the newly formed layers of rocks.

Physician Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, one of the first naturalists to publish about the Alps, used
examples of large-scale folds observed in the Swiss Alps as evidence for the veracity of the
Biblical account of the Flood. Sedimentary rocks are widespread in plains and valleys and it´s
easy to observe how rivers and occasionally floods erode, transport and deposit new sediments.
However, in mountains the situation is more difficult to explain. Naturalists, like Scheuchzer,
couldn't really determine from where the water needed to cover the highest peaks, came from or
disappeared to after the Flood.

The mountains around the Urnersee, from Scheuchzer´s "Helvetiae Stoicheiographia"

published in 1716 (image in public domain).

In the 18th and 19th centuries, geologists started to accurately map the distribution of rocks and
disposition of their layers. Additionally, volcanoes were better understood and were now
considered important geological forces. Soon, geologists recognized that in mountain ranges - or
at least in the Alps - layered sedimentary rocks surrounded a central core of undifferentiated
rocks, which were formed by slow cooling of intruded lava-like rocks.
German geologist Leopold von Buch was convinced that mountains formed like a bubble on
earth´s crust: magma from earth´s mantle pushes up, displaces and folds the Earth's crust, and
finally forms a mountain. Von Buch´s "crater of elevation" theory became very popular at the
time and was shared by most European geologists. French geologist Elie de Beaumont, adopting
von Buch´s theory, could seemingly use it to explain even the complex geology of the Alps.

Beaumont explained that different tilted layers of sediments, as found in the Alps, were formed
by periodic "magmatic" pulses. In a first phase, the horizontally deposited sediments were tilted
by the intrusion of a large magmatic core. In a later phase, the already tilted layers become even
steeper and then new layers - partly formed by the erosion of older layers and partly as the
mountain-forming process increasingly involves a larger area - start to tilt. However, British
geologists later showed that this theory couldn't work as proposed. If a mountain formed around
a single bubble of magma, the all the layers should be disposed like in an onion. But ther the
strata in the Alps were tilted chaotically and often even folded.
A new theory - the Contracting Earth theory - was later formulated by the American geologist
James Dwigth Dana. This theory explained mountains and continents as products of a cooling
and subsequently shrinking earth. Like an old and dry apple, the theory explained, the shrinking
surface of Earth would develop fissures (basins) and wrinkles (mountains).

Following on this work, Austrian Geologist Eduard Suess published in his multi-volume
work Das Antlitz der Erde this hand-colored map, the different colors of which show the
preserved old "cores of crust" surrounded by the younger basins today filled with oceans.
Curiously, he suggested that the deep-sea trenches found along the borders of the Pacific are
zones where the seafloor is pushed under the continents.

The Contracting Earth theory could explain the immense forces needed to crack and fold rocks.
But it failed to explain the irregular distribution of mountains on Earth. According to the
theory, features of the Earth's crust should be distributed randomly on the surface of the cooling
and uniformly shrinking planet. However, even a short glimpse on a map or globe shows that
mountain ranges are not randomly distributed, but rather form long chains, like the Alps,
Caucasus, or Himalayas; or are instead found along one side of a continent, like the Rocky
Mountains or the Andes, but not on the other side.

Thus, a better theory was needed to explain how Mount Everest came to be...
Odell will, after his return from Everest, introduce a young John Tuzo Wilson in "the wonders of
field geology.” John “Jock” T. Wilson was born October 24, 1908 in Ottawa and after the
encounter with Odell he decided to study physics and geology. Wilson will make a remarkable
career with the Canadian and U.S. Geological Survey, studying in 1946 and 1960 the geological
evolution of the Canadian Shield, a very old and stable segment of crust, which he interpreted
first as the primordial rest of a contracting earth.

When in 1960 continental drift is discussed between geologists, Tuzo will reject at first this idea,
but soon he recognizes that the theory of continental drift solves various problems that a
contracting earth hypothesis can´t explain. Tuzlo will later introduce with the mid-ocean ridges,
subduction zones and a third type of faults, the oceanic transform faults, the modern concept
of Plate Tectonics. With this theory geologists are finally able to explain how Everest formed.
When India, pushed by plate tectonics, collided with the Asian continent the former seabed was
uplifted, forming the towering (and still growing) peaks of the Himalaya.

https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2015/09/29/how-geologists-determined-the-way-that-
mountains-formed/#240bb7d9453c, march 18, 2018
What is a volcano?

Redoubt volcano with minor ash eruption. Photograph taken during observation and gas data
collection flight by AVO staff March 30, 2009.

Volcanoes are openings, or vents where lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt on to the
Earth's surface. Many mountains form by folding, faulting, uplift, and erosion of the
Earth's crust. Volcanic terrain, however, is built by the slow accumulation of erupted lava.
The vent may be visible as a small bowl shaped depression at the summit of a cone or shield-
shaped mountain. Through a series of cracks within and beneath the volcano, the vent connects
to one or more linked storage areas of molten or partially molten rock (magma). This connection
to fresh magma allows the volcano to erupt over and over again in the same location. In this way,
the volcano grows ever larger, until it is no longer stable. Pieces of the volcano collapse as rock
falls or as landslides.

How do volcanoes erupt?

Illustration of the basic process of magma formation, movement to the surface, and eruption
through a volcanic vent.
Molten rock below the surface of the Earth that rises in volcanic vents is known as magma, but
after it erupts from a volcano it is called lava. Magma is made of molten rock, crystals, and
dissolved gas—imagine an unopened bottle of soda with grains of sand inside. The molten rock
is made of the chemicals oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium,
potassium, titanium, and manganese. After cooling, liquid magma may form crystals of various
minerals until it becomes completely solid and forms an igneous or magmatic rock.

Originating many tens of miles beneath the ground, magma is lighter than surrounding solid
rock. It is driven towards Earth's surface by buoyancy, it is lighter than the surrounding rock, and
by pressure from gas within it. Magma forces its way upward and may ultimately break though
weak areas in the Earth's crust. If so, an eruption begins.

Magma can be erupted in a variety of ways. Sometimes molten rock simply pours from
the vent as fluid lava flows. It can also shoot violently into the air as dense clouds of rock shards
(tephra) and gas. Larger fragments fall back around the vent, and clouds of tephra may move
down the slope of the volcano under the force of gravity. Ash, tiny pieces of tephra the thickness
of a strand of hair, may be carried by the wind only to fall to the ground many miles away. The
smallest ash particles may be erupted miles into the sky and carried many times around the world
by winds high in the atmosphere before they fall to the ground.

How many volcanoes are there?

Geologist collecting a fresh sample of a slow-moving lava flow at Kīlauea volcano in Hawaii.

Scientists have identified 169 volcanoes within the United States that most likely will erupt at
some point in the future. Most of these volcanoes are located in Alaska, a state where eruptions
occur almost every year. The rest of the volcanoes are located throughout the American West,
and in Hawaii (see our volcano activity map for their locations). Kīlauea volcano on the Island of
Hawai‘i is one of the most active volcanoes on Earth. It has been erupting almost nonstop since
1983!

There are about 1,500 potentially active volcanoes worldwide, not counting the volcanoes under
the oceans. About 500 of these have erupted in the past 100 years. Many of these are located
around the Pacific Ocean in what is known as the "Ring of Fire." In the U.S., volcanoes along the
west coast and in Alaska (Aleutian volcanic chain) are part of the Ring of Fire, while
Yellowstone and Hawaiian volcanoes form over a "hot spot."

See the Eruption, Earthquakes, and Emissions around the world since 1960.

What are the main types of volcanoes?

Cinder Cone
SP Crater and lava flow (dark area to right of cinder cone) in the northern part of San Francisco
Volcanic Field, Arizona.

Cinder cones are the simplest type of volcano. They are made of small pieces of solid lava,
called cinder, that are erupted from a vent. The ground shakes as magmarises from within the
Earth. Then, a powerful blast throws molten rocks, ash, and gas into the air. The rocks cool
quickly in the air and fall to the earth to break into small pieces of bubbly cinder that pile up
around the vent. They accumulate as a small cinder cone that can be as high as a thousand feet
above the surrounding ground. If the wind is blowing during the eruption, cinder is carried
downwind before its deposited into an oval shape. Eruptions that form cinder cones also feed
lava flows that spread outward from the eruptive vent. When you climb a cinder cone you can
usually find the bowl-shaped crater marking the location of the vent. If eruptions of cinder and
lava flows happen repeatedly from the same vent, the overlapping layers can form a composite
volcano (stratovolcano). When looking at a map, you will find that thousands of cinder cones
exist in western North America and in other volcanic areas of the world.

Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano)

Mount Mageik volcano viewed from the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Katmai National Park
and Preserve, Alaska. Mageik's broad summit consists of at least four separate structures.

Some of the Earth's grandest mountains are composite volcanoes—sometimes called

stratovolcanoes. They are usually tall with steep even sides and are made out of repeating layers
of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and volcanic bombs. Some composite volcanoes rise
over 8,000 feet above their surroundings, but they reach much higher elevations when compared
to the level of the sea (called above sea level). Ojos del Salado in Chile is the tallest composite
volcano on Earth with a summit elevation (height above sea level) of 22,615 feet; the tallest in
the U.S. is Mount Rainier in Washington State with a summit elevation of 14,410 feet. Some of
the most famous and beautiful mountains in the world are composite volcanoes, including Mount
Fuji in Japan, Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Mount Shasta in California, Mount Hood in Oregon,
and Mount St. Helens in Washington.

Shield Volcano

Shield-volcano Mauna Kea viewed from the northern slope of Mauna Loa (cinder cones in the
foreground) shows off its broad shield shape. The bumps on its profile are large cinder cones.
 Shield volcanoes are built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. Lava pours out of vents in all
directions, either from the summit (top) or along two to three rift zones (fractures) that radiate
out from the summit like spokes on a bicycle wheel. As lava flows overlap one another, they
construct a broad, gently sloping domeshape that from far away appears similar to a warrior's
shield. Shield volcanoes build up slowly by the growth of thousands of lava flows that spread
widely over great distances, and then cool as thin sheets. On Earth, some of the most massive
volcanoes are shield volcanoes. In northern California and Oregon, many shield volcanoes are up
to 3 or 4 miles wide and as tall as 1,500 to 2,000 feet. The Hawaiian Islands are made of a chain
of shield volcanoes including K?lauea and the world's largest active volcano, Mauna Loa.
Looking at pictures of volcanoes, you can usually identify them by shape as being a shield
volcano or stratovolcano.

Lava Dome

Lava dome at Novarupta, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Katmai Alaska, was erupted in 1912.

Lava domes are technically lava flows, but they contain lava that is too thick to flow away from
the vent. Lava squeezes out of the vent and accumulates as a giant pile over and around the vent.
Some domes form pointy spines, while others appear as a giant muffin, as opening flower petals,
or as steep-sided stubby flows or tongues. Lava domes often grow within craters or upon the
flanks of large steep-sided composite volcanoes. Lava domes can be dangerous. They grow
largely by expansion from within. As fresh magma fills the inside, the cooler and harder outer
surface shatters and spills hot rock and gases down the mountainside. The circle-shaped
Novarupta Dome that formed during the 1912 eruption of Katmai Volcano, Alaska, measures
800 feet across and 200 feet high. This domewas one of the last squirts of lava to emerge during
a much larger and long-term eruption. The eruption at Katmai was the largest and most violent
eruption ever to occur within the United States.

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https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vhp/about_volcanoes.html, december 24, 2017