DENUMERABLE SETS 1

We just found out that

N \ {0} ∼
=N
and
N∼ = Z.
These two statements can be generalized.
Let us begin with a generalization of the first statement. Firstly, with a similar
argument, you can prove that for any m ≥ 0,
N \ {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , m} ∼
=N
Exercise Prove the above isomorphism.
Secondly, one does not necessarily needs N itself here: this would work with any
denumerable set. We thus ca formulate the following generalization for the above
observations.
Proposition. Let S be a denumerable set, and let T ⊆ S be its finite subset. Then
the set S \ T is denumerable.
Proof. We make use an induction argument in |T |, the amount of elements in T .
The base case when |T | = 0 (that happens exactly when T = ∅) is clear.
We thus assume that the statement is true for all T with |T | = k. Let now
|T | = k + 1, and let x ∈ T . Then |T \ {x}| = k, and the set S \ (T \ {x}) is
denumerable by the inductive assumption. We have that
S \ T = (S \ (T \ {x})) \ {x}
is denumerable. It thus suffices to prove the following claim: for a denumerable set
U and x ∈ U , the set U \ {x} is denumerable. Let us prove this claim. Since U is
denumerable, there is an isomorphism
f : N → U,
and we have to construct an isomorphism
g : N → U \ {x}.
Since f is surjective, there is n ∈ N such that f (n) = x. Set
(
f (m) if m < n
g(m) =
f (m + 1) if m ≥ n.
It is now easy to derive the injectivity and surjectivity of g from the corresponding
properties of f . 
Exercise Prove that any subset of a denumerable set is countable.
Exercise Prove that, for a denumerable set S and a finite set T , the set S ∪ T
is denumerable.
Let us now pass to our second observation above. The set Z, being denumerable,
is a union of two denumerable sets:
Z = N ∪ {−n | n ∈ N∗ },
1
2

where N∗ = N \ {0}. That observation suggests the following proposition.

Proposition. Let S and T be denumerable sets. Then the set S ∪T is denumerable.
Proof. I will give a proof under additional assumption S ∩ T = ∅.
Exercise Prove that if the proposition is true under the assumption S ∩ T = ∅,
then it is true without this assumption. Make use of our previous propositions.
We have isomorphisms
f : N→S
and, since N = N \ {0} is denumerable,
g : N∗ → T.
Define a map
h : Z→ S ∪T
by (
f (x) if x ≥ 0
h(x) =
g(−x) if x < 0
Clearly, h is injective and surjective if so are both f and g. Since Z is denumerable,
we conclude that so is S ∪ T . Note that if S ∩ T 6= ∅, the map h above fails to be
injective. 
Besides the union and difference of sets, we have cartesian products.
Proposition. Let S and T be denumerable sets. Then the set S×T is denumerable.
Proof. The following diagram illustrates ”snake” argument which proves that N×N
is denumerable.
(0, 0) −−−−→ (0, 1) (0, 2) −−−−→ (0, 3) (0, 4) −−−−→ . . .
 x  x
   
y  y 
(1, 0) ←−−−− (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) ...
 x  x
   
y  y 
(2, 0) −−−−→ (2, 1) −−−−→ (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) ...
 x
 
y 
(3, 0) ←−−−− (3, 1) ←−−−− (3, 2) ←−−−− (3, 3) (3, 4) ...
 x
 
y 
(4, 0) −−−−→ (4, 1) −−−−→ (4, 2) −−−−→ (4, 3) −−−−→ (4, 4) ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

One simply goes along the arrows, and associates the number of a step with the
ordered pair achieved at the step. In this way one establishes an ismomorphism
h : N → N × N.
In particular,
0 7→ (0, 0),
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1 7→ (0, 1),
2 7→ (1, 1),
3 7→ (1, 0),
4 7→ (2, 0),
and so further. Now, since S and T are denumerable, we have isomorphisms
f : N → S and g : N → T.
We define
F : N×N→S ×T
by
F ((a, b)) = (f (a), f (b)).
Exercise Prove that F is an isomorphism since so are both f and g.
Exercise Prove that the composition F ◦ h is an isomorphism.
Since
F ◦h : N→S×T
is an isomorphism, we conclude that S × T is denumerable as required. 
There is an alternative way to prove this proposition. I now provide a proof
which avoids ”snake” argument.
Exercise Show that it suffices to prove that the set N∗ × N∗ is denumerable.
Proposition. The set N∗ × N∗ is denumerable.
Proof. Consider the map
f : N∗ × N∗ → N
defined by
f (a, b) = 2a−1 (2b − 1) − 1.
Exercise Show that f is a bijection.