Gases

Chemistry Unit 3 Notes – Faiq Raedaya

Hydrogen H2 Ignite with gas, burns with a squeaky pop

Oxygen O2 Relights a glowing wooden splint
Carbon Dioxide CO2 Pass through limewater, goes cloudy, milky
Ammonia NH3 Damp red litmus paper turns blue
Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 Brown gas
Chlorine Cl2 Damp litmus paper rapidly bleached
Hydrogen Chloride HCl Steamy fumes, turns damp blue litmus paper red
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 Filter paper soaked in Potassium Dichromate changes colour from orange to green
Water H2O Cobalt chloride paper turns from blue to pink

Anions

Sulfate SO42- Add HCl, then BaCl2; white precipitate formed, insoluble in excess HCl
Sulfite SO32- Add dilute sulfuric acid and warm, SO2 gas given off (test above)
Carbonate CO32- Add dilute sulfuric acid, CO2 given off (test above)
Add to almost-boiling water, effervescence, CO2 produced (test above)
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3-
Add to CaCl2, no ppt., (carbonates will produce white ppt.)
Chloride Cl- Add dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate, white ppt. formed, soluble in dilute ammonia
Bromide Br- Add dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate, cream ppt. formed, soluble in conc. ammonia
Add dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate, yellow ppt. formed, insoluble in conc. ammonia
-
Iodide I All chlorine water, then add organic solvent, colourless hexane layer turns violet
Add starch, turns blue-black
Add Devarda’s alloy (or aluminium powder) and NaOH solution then warm, ammonia gas
Nitrate NO3-
produced (test above)

Cations

Ammonium NH4+ Warm in aqueous NaOH, ammonia gas produced (test above)
Lithium Li+ Crimson flame
+
Sodium Na Yellow flame
Potassium K+ Lilac flame
Magnesium Mg2+ No flame colour; add ammonium carbonate, white ppt. formed
2+
Calcium Ca Yellow-red/orange flame
Strontium Sr2+ Red flame
2+
Barium Ba Pale green flame

Organic Functional Groups

C=C Alkene Add bromine water, turns brown to colourless

C-OH Alcohol, carboxylic acid Add solid PCl5, steamy fumes of HCl produced, blue litmus turns red
Warm with aqueous NaOH, then add nitric acid and silver nitrate (see Halide tests
C-X Halogenoalkane
above)
RH-C=O Aldehyde Dark red precipitate when added to Fehling’s/Benedict’s solution.
RR’-C=O Ketone No colour change with Fehling’s/Benedict’s solution.
 Organic Techniques

Reflux

Reflux is where a substance is continuously and simultaneously evaporated and condensed, used because organic substances are
volatile and organic reactions are slow.

Main Features

 Round-bottomed flask
 Reflux condenser, water entering at the bottom and leaving at the top
o To prevent heat spots and more efficient cooling
 Top of the reflux condenser being open
o Prevent build-up of pressure
 Flask being heated using an electric heater and water bath
o Most organic substances are flammable

Reactions

 Oxidising a primary alcohol to a carboxylic acid

 Oxidising a secondary alcohol to a ketone
 Converting a halogenoalkane to an alcohol
 Converting an alcohol to a bromoalkene with KBr and 50% sulfuric acid

Distillation

Distillation is a technique used to separate volatile organic substances from non-volatile inorganic species.

Mixture is carefully heated, the vapour that comes over ±2°C of the boiling point is condensed and collected.

Main Features

 Round-bottomed flask containing the mixture

 Closed still-head fitted with a thermometer
o Bulb must be positioned at the intersection
 Leibig condenser with water entering at the bottom and leaving at the top
o To prevent heat spots and more efficient cooling
 Open receiving vessel, such as a beaker, open to the air
 Flask being heated using an electric heater or water bath
 Anti-bumping granules of silicon dioxide are used to prevent the formation of large
gas bubbles

Safety Issues

 Distillation and reflux must be carried out in a fume cupboard if the vapours are harmful, poisonous or irritant
 In distillation and reflux, there must be outlet to the air to prevent pressure from building up
 Gloves must be worn when corrosive substances are used, handle with care
 Flask should never be heated with a naked Bunsen flame, as most organic substances are flammable
 Don’t add the sulfuric acid too rapidly because the reaction is vigorously exothermic

Yield

Yield is always less than 100% because:

 Other reactions occurring

 Handling losses during purification
 Losses during transfer
Flame Test

How to carry out a simple flame test:

1. Dip a clean nichrome/platinum wire

2. in concentrated Hydrochloric Acid
3. Dip and scoop some solid, place in hot/blue/roaring Bunsen flame

Separating Funnel

In a question, look at the densities of the organic layer and the aqueous layer.

 Layer with lower density will be at the top

 Layer with higher density will be at the bottom
 Iodine with a hydrocarbon layer will be pink/purple

Steam Distillation

Steam distillation is used as an alternative to distillation to purify liquids that are

not volatile and are immiscible with water.

Steam is blown through the mixture and the water and the organic substance will
turn to vapour.

This vapour can be condensed and collected.

Drying Agents

Drying agents are inert chemicals used to remove water from an organic compound that is in solution.

Examples include:

 Calcium Chloride
 Potassium Chloride
 Magnesium Sulfate
 Sodium Sulfate

These drying agents are added to the solution of a compound that needs to be dried. The agents will easily pick up any extra
water from the compound solution and become hydrated.

The hydrated salts form clumps which can be filtered out or left behind during decanting resulting in a "dry" compound

Sodium Hydrogencarbonate may be used in a reaction NOT as a drying agent, but to remove and react with any excess acid in the
reaction mixture.

This is different to a DEHYDRATING AGENT, which removes water in a chemical reaction. Whereas the drying agent simply
removes water from a mixture.
 Enthalpy Change Measurements

Enthalpy of Combustion

To determine the enthalpy of combustion of a liquid, use flame calorimetry and the following steps:

1. Heat produced by the combustion of the fuel = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × ∆𝑡

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 – 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟

2. Amount of fuel burnt =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
3. Enthalpy of combustion, ∆𝐻𝑐 = −
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡

To increase accuracy of the experiment:

 Draught shield, insulation and lid placed around the calorimeter to maximise transfer of heat to
the water, and reduce heat loss to surroundings
 Stir water continually to ensure an even temperature throughout
 Temperature of the water should be measured for several minutes before lighting the fuel, and
several minutes after putting out the flame
 Draw a graph of temperature against time, and extrapolate, reducing error caused by heat loss
from the beaker to the surroundings
 Burner should be weighed before and after the experiment to an accuracy of 0.01g

Neutralisation and Precipitation Reactions

To determine the enthalpy of reaction for displacement, neutralisation and precipitation reactions, use polystyrene cup
calorimetry and the following steps:

1. Heat produced by the reaction = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × ∆𝑡

2. Amount of solute reacted = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
3. Enthalpy of reaction, ∆𝐻𝑟 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

To increase accuracy of the experiment:

 Nest the cups on top of each other and use an insulated stopper to reduce heat loss
 Using powdered solid to speed up rate of reaction
 Ensure one of the reactants is in excess
 Stir solution continually to ensure an even temperature throughout
 Measuring the temperature for several minutes before the start of the reaction and several
minutes after the reaction
 Draw a graph of temperature against time, and extrapolate to find theoretical temperature rise
 Measuring the volume of the solution using pipette instead of a measuring cylinder
 Titration

Performing a Titration

Titration is a procedure of careful addition of one solution to another solution a little at a time until a
specific end-point is reached.

Equipment

 Burette
 Pipette and pipette filler
 Conical flask
 Standard solution of known concentration
 Solution of unknown concentration
 A suitable indicator, e.g.
o Phenolphthalein, colourless in acid, purple in alkaline
o Methyl orange, red in acid, yellow in alkaline, end point is orange

To perform a simple acid-base titration:

1. Use the pipette and pipette filler to add 25 cm3 of alkali to a clean conical flask
2. Add a few drops of indicator and put the conical flask on a white tile (so you can see the colour of the indicator more easily)
3. Fill the burette with acid and note the starting volume
4. Slowly add the acid from the burette to the alkali in the conical flask, swirling to mix
5. Stop adding the acid when the end-point is reached (the appropriate colour change in the indicator happens). Note the final
volume reading
6. Calculate the titre = final volume – initial volume
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 until you get consistent readings

Titration Calculations

Make sure you know the overall equation of the reaction and the ratio of moles between the solutions.

1. Calculate the number of moles in the standard solution used in the titration
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

2. Use the stoichiometry of the equation to calculate the number of moles in the other solution used in the titration
number of moles of A in equation
moles of A = moles of B ×
number of moles of B in equation
3. Calculate the concentration of the second solution

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Making a Standard Solution

A standard solution is a solution containing a known concentration of a substance.

To make 250 cm3 of a standard solution with a concentration of 100 g/dm 3, you need to:

1. Accurately measure 25.0 g of the solid sample in a beaker.

2. Add 150 cm3 of distilled water and stir the mixture using a glass rod until the solid has completely dissolved.
3. Use a funnel to transfer the contents of the beaker into a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.
4. Rinse the beaker and glass rod thoroughly with distilled water and pour the rinsings into the volumetric flask.
5. Carefully add distilled water to the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus is level with the horizontal line on the
neck of the flask.
6. Holding the stopper into the neck of the flask, carefully turn the flask upside down several times to thoroughly mix the
solution.

25.00

Making a Single Salt Solution

For this example, we are making copper sulphate.

1. Weigh out about 5g of copper oxide and place this in the bottom of a 250ml beaker.
2. Use a measuring cylinder to measure 50 ml of dilute sulphuric acid and add to the beaker.
3. Place the beaker with the acid and copper oxide on a gauze on a tripod.
4. Warm this up a bit, until bubbling starts, and then remove the Bunsen.
5. When bubbling stops, filter the mixture you have made into a 100ml beaker.
 Common Questions

One of the most common questions they will ask you is to label a diagram of a reflux/distillation apparatus. Make sure
you know every part and feature of the apparatus and WHY they use it, e.g.:

Explain how the Liebig condenser works and its purpose in the apparatus shown.

Cold water passes through the condenser cools and condenses the vapours/gases rising from the reaction mixture,
preventing escape of reactants and products.

By considering the bonds in these two products, explain how infrared spectroscopy can be used to distinguish between
them.

Depends on the question, look at the functional groups in each substance.

For example, with an aldehyde and carboxylic acid: Carboxylic acid will have an O-H and C-O absorption peak.

Name the three additional pieces of apparatus, apart from clamps and stands, which are essential to convert the
apparatus shown at the start of part (g) (reflux) for distillation.

1. Thermometer
2. Stillhead
3. Conical/collecting flask

Suggest a suitable temperature range over which to collect the X distillate

Usually go down and up by 2 or 3°C

e.g., for a carboxylic acid with b.p. of 206°C, use the range 204-208

The distillate contains a trace of water. Suggest a drying agent that could be used to remove this.

Calcium chloride, magnesium sulfate, sodium sulfate

Calculate the percentage error in the students’ mean value for the enthalpy change for combustion of X compared with
the Data Booklet value.
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Evaluate the validity of each of the four reasons that the students put forward to explain the discrepancies between their
values and those in the Data Booklet.

1. % uncertainties in the thermometer and balance readings are very small

2. The rounding of the specific heat capacities is small
3. Heat losses will be large because the copper can is not insulated
4. Incomplete combustion will cause significant error as there will be insufficient oxygen

Give the name or formula of another anion which would produce the same observation with dilute hydrochloric acid as
the carbonate anion.

Hydrogencarbonate, HCO3-

Suggest a practical problem if solid phosphorus(V) chloride is used with these two dicarboxylic acids. (solids at room
temperature)

Rate of reaction between solids is slow

Suggest a reagent that could be used to confirm the presence of an acid group in either of the two compounds above,
and the positive observation that would be made.

Sodium/Potassium Carbonate solution, effervescence would be observed.

Suggest why the crucible is heated gently for the first three minutes

To avoid loss of solid due to ‘spitting’

What additional step after heating strongly for five minutes is needed to make sure that all of the water of crystallization
has been removed?

Heat to constant mass/weight

What should be done to make sure that all of the washing soda is transferred to the volumetric flask?

Washings/rinsings should have been transferred to the volumetric flask

Explain why only titrations 2 and 3 are used to calculate the mean titre.

Titration 1 is not concordant/an outlier/an overshot

Suggest why it is not possible to determine directly the enthalpy change for the thermal decomposition of X

Difficult to measure heat absorbed when heating any substance

Why is ethanol added very slowly down the condenser?

Reaction is extremely exothermic

One of the errors is that the flow of water in the condenser is the wrong way round. Explain the effect of this error

Condenser doesn’t fill properly/airlock forms/inefficient condensation/inefficient cooling/air bubbles form

Suggest why, in step 6, the crude iodoethane is washed with dilute sodium carbonate solution.

Remove/Neutralize/React with phosphoric acid

How would the (organic substance) be separated from the (solid)?

Decanting

To obtain pure X, one further step in the preparation is needed. What is this step?

Distillation

What would you observe when silver halide is left to stand in sunlight?

Goes dark/purple/grey due to formation of silver

Show by calculation that the uncertainty of the result of the experiment would not be improved significantly if a more
precise balance was used.

Calculate percentage uncertainty for the balance, show that it is less than the percentage uncertainty of the
temperature reading

A student carried out the experiment using water from a tap. What is the purpose of measuring the temperature of the
water at 0, 1 and 2 minutes from the time of starting the clock?

To check water temperature is steady / constant, to allow water temperature to equilibrate with surroundings

Explain the difference between a ‘dehydrating agent’, such as the phosphoric acid, and a ‘drying agent’, such as the
anhydrous calcium chloride.

Dehydrating agent removes water in a (chemical) reaction, Drying agent removes water mixed with other materials

Suggest one advantage of using glass wool, rather than filter paper, when removing the calcium chloride in Step 5.

Glass wool less absorbent/No cyclohexene left on wool/filter paper absorbs liquids