Reading For Test

Addis Ababa Science and Technology UNIVERSITY
Electromechanical Engineering Department
Introduction to mechatronics
Lecturer: Bereket Walle (MSc in Mechatronics engineering)
1.1 Introduction
• Even though development of automated mechanical systems
occurred long before, the term automation was not popular since
1940s.
• The term automation was introduced by Ford Motor Company to
denote a process in which a machine transferred a sub-assembly
item from one station to another and then positioned the item
precisely for additional assembly operations.
• But the early applications of automatic control systems appeared in
Greece from 300 to1 B.C.
Definition of Mechatronics
• The word "mechatronics" was registered as trademark by the
Yaskawa Electric Corporation company in Japan with the registration
number of in 1971.
• However, afterward the company released the right of using the word
to public, and the word "mechatronics" spread to the rest of the
world.
• The word, mechatronics, is composed of Mecha from Mechanism
and the tronics from electronics.
• Mechatronics is the application of complex decision making to the
operation of physical systems.
• Mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal design of
electromechanical products.
Def. Cont..
• A mechatronic system is not just a marriage of electrical and
mechanical systems and is more than just a control system; it is a
complete integration of all of them.
• Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field of science that includes a

combination of mechanical engineering, electronics, computer
engineering, telecommunications engineering, systems engineering
and control engineering .
• However, as technical systems have become more and more

complex the definition has been broadened to include more
technical areas.
Def. Cont..
• All of these definitions and statements about mechatronics are accurate and
informative, yet each one in and of itself fails to capture the totality of
mechatronics.
• Nowadays, the word is translated in each language and essential term for
industry.
• Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of mechanics, electronics, control
theory, and computer science within product design and manufacturing, in
order to improve and/or optimize its functionality.
• The measurement result expressed by a pointer deflection over a predefined
scale or a number representing the ratio between the unknown quantity and
the standard.
Key Elements of Mechatronics
• The study of mechatronic systems can be divided into the

following areas of specialty:
1. Physical Systems Modeling
2. Sensors and Actuators
3. Signals and Systems
4. Computers and Logic Systems
5. Software and Data Acquisition
The key elements of mechatronics are illustrated in Figure bellow
As the field of mechatronics continues to mature, the list of
relevant topics associated with the area will most certainly expand
and evolve.
Key Elements Cont…
Mechatronic system components
• A system can be thought of as a box or a bounded whole which has input
and output elements, and a set of relationships between these elements.
• The spring mass/force system input and output of this system follows the
Hooke’s law F = –kx, where F is force in N, x is distance in m and k is
stiffness of the spring.
• To replace the mechanics of this mechanical system with an equivalent mechatronics
based system, we need to have the basic controlling element, a microprocessor.
• Microprocessor processes or utilizes the information gathered from the sensor system
and generates the signals of appropriate level and suitable kind (current or voltage)
which will be used to actuate the required actuator .
• These sensors generate either digital signals (0 or 1) or analogue signals (milli-volts or
milli-amperes).
• These signals are then converted into right form and are attenuated to a right level which
can properly be used by the microprocessor to take generate the actuation signals.
• Various electronics based auxiliary devices viz. Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC),
Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC), Op-amps, Modulators, Linearization circuits, etc.
are used to condition the signals which are either received by the microprocessor from the
sensors or are sent to the actuators from the microprocessor.
• This mechatronics based spring-mass system has the input signals in the digital form
which are received from the ADC and Piezo-electric sensor. The digital actuation signals
generated by the microprocessors are converted into appropriate analogues signals.
• These analogue signals operate the hydraulic pump and control valves to achieve the
desired displacement of the piston-rod.
Assignment 1: Identify a mechatronics system being used by you in your daily routine.
Analyze its elements and state its importance in the functioning of that system.
• A Mechatronics system integrates various technologies involving sensors, measurement
systems, drives, actuation systems, microprocessor systems and software engineering.
Mechatronic cont…
Applications of Mechatronics
Mechatronics has a wide range of applications.
1. Design and Modelling
• Design and modelling are simplified to a large extent by the use of mechatronic systems.
• Basically, design involves drawing, analysis, and documentation.
• The computer is used to complete processes of design faster.
• The virtual modelling of a manufacturing plant gives an idea of the time taken for a
particular component to be manufactured and also shows virtually how the operations
will be performed.
• The mechatronic systems Digitizers, drum plotter, x-y plotter, printer, CD drives etc.
Give complete documentation of design drawings.
Applications Cont…
2. Manufacturing automation
Mechatronics has a variety of applications as products and systems in the area of ‘manufacturing
automation’.
Some of these applications of mechatronics in manufacturing are as follows:
1. Computer numerical control (CNC) machines
• Efficient operation of conventional machine tools dependent on operator skill and training.
• It is time consuming in work part setting, tool setting and controlling the process parameters
2. Tool monitoring systems : Offline methods are time consuming
3. Advanced Manufacturing Systems: such as FMS , CIM, CAD CAM
4. Industrial robots: robots used in Parts handling, Parts processing and Product building:
5. Automatic quality control and inspection systems
Supply of a good quality product or a system to the market is the basic aim of the manufacturing
industry.
A number of sensors and systems have been developed that can monitor quality continuously with or
without the ssistance of the operator.
Assignment 2
Visit to your nearby tool room or CNC work shop and prepare a case study on
a real life example on tool wear monitoring system employed in the same.
Applications cont…
Operations involved in design and manufacturing of a product
2. Software Integration
• Different kinds of real time application and system soft wares are used in manufacturing
industry for designing, testing, monitoring, and control of the manufacturing process.
3. Actuators and Sensors

• Mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators are widely used in the industry.
• Toggle linkage and quick return mechanics are typical examples of mechanical actuators.
• Switching devices, solenoid-type devices, ac/dc motors can be used as electrical actuators.
• The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being
measured.
• For example, an electrical resistance temperature device transforms the input of temperature
into change in resistance
4. Intelligent Control
• Feedback control systems are widespread not only in nature and the
home but also in industry.
• There are many industrial processes and machines which control
many variables automatically.
• Temperature, liquid level, fluid flow, pressure, speed, etc. are
maintained constant by process controllers.
• Adaptive control and intelligent manufacturing are the areas where
mechatronic systems are used for decision making and controlling the
manufacturing environment.
5. Robotics
• Robot technology uses mechanical, electronic, and computer systems.
A robot is a multifunctional reprogrammable machine used to handle
materials, tools, or any special items to perform a particular task.
• Manipulation robots are capable of performing operations, assembly,
spot welding, spray painting, etc.
• Service robots such as mail service robots, household servant robots,
nursing robots in hospitals are being used nowadays.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics
• The objectives of mechatronics are the following
1 To improve products and processes
2 To develop novel mechanisms
3 To design new products
4 To create new technology using novel concepts
• Earlier the domestic washing machine used cam-operated switches in order to
control the washing cycle. Such mechanical switches have now been replaced by
microprocessors.
• The application of mechatronics has helped to improve many
• mass-produced products such as the domestic washing machine, dishwasher,
microwave oven, cameras, watches, and so on.
• Mechatronic systems are also used in cars for active suspension,
antiskid brakes, engine control, speedometers, ABS, TCS, vehicle
collision avoidance systems etc.
• Future mechatronic systems on automobiles may include a fog-free windshield
based on humidity and temperature sensing and climate control, self-parallel
parking, rear parking aid, lane change assistance, fluid less electronic brake-
by-wire, and replacement of hydraulic systems with electromechanical servo
systems
• Mechatronic systems are not without their disadvantages. One disadvantage is
that the field of mechatronics requires a knowledge of different disciplines.
• The design cannot be finalized and safety issues are complicated in
mechatronic systems.
• Such systems also require more parts than others, and involve a greater risk of
component failure
1.2 review of Measurement system
• A fundamental part of many mechatronic systems is a measurement system.

• Its main function is to collect the information on system status and to feed it to the
micro-processor(s) for controlling the whole system.
• It is composed of the three basic parts i.e Sensor, signal processor and recorder .
• Sensor is a sensing device that converts a physical input into an output, usually a
voltage.
• Transducer is a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to
another form. It may be sensor or actuator.
• Signal processor is performs filtering, amplification, or other signal conditioning on

the transducer output.
• Recorder is an instrument, a computer, a hard-copy device, or simply a display that
maintains the sensor data for online monitoring or subsequent processing.
1.2 Measurement system Cont…
• For a mechatronics system designer it is quite difficult to choose suitable

sensors/transducers for the desired application(s).
• It is therefore essential to learn the principle of working of commonly used
sensors/transducers.
• Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the
production operations as well as process monitoring activities.
• Sensor technology has the following important advantages in transforming a
conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one .
1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of
manufacturing system. It helps operators to reduce the downtime of complete
manufacturing system by carrying out the preventative measures.
2. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
3. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.
Sensor/transducers specifications
• Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems.
• Mechatronics design engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or
measurement system to properly assess its performance.
• There are a number of performance related parameters of a transducer or measurement
system.
• These parameters are called as sensor specifications.
• Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal behavior of the
sensors.
• Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.
1. Range: indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
2. Span: The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input
3. Error: is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value.
4. Accuracy: is the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement result and a true
value of the measurand.
5. Precision: Is the closeness of repeated measurement values.
6. Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to
the per unit change in input value that causes the output change
7. Nonlinearity: The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a
sensor from the ideal curve.
8. Hysteresis: is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in

output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified range when approaching the point
first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter.
9. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter

that can be detected in the output signal.
10. Stability: Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time.
11. Dead band: The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values
for which there is no output.
12. Dead time: The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application
of an input until the output begins to respond or change.
13. Repeatability : It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value.
14. Response time: describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of
the measurand.
Measurement system Cont…
Example of measurement system

• Thermocouple is the transducer/sensor that convert the temperature in to small voltage.
• The amplifier increase the magnitude of the voltage.
• The ADC is a device that changes the analog signal to the coded digital signal.
• The LED record/display the scaled value of the temperature.
Classification of sensors based on their application in manufacturing.

• Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as
measurand, application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand
and thermodynamic considerations.
A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors

1. Potentiometer sensors
The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the slider over the wire.
Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the output voltage VA.
Applications of potentiometer
• These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure
that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
• These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies,
forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls.
• In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc.
• These are also used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
Capacitive element based sensor
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the
linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair
another. The linear displacement might take in two forms:
a. One of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
b. Area of overlap changes due to the displacement
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/work piece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between
the plate changes.
Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor.

Applications of capacitive element sensors
• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications to measure shape errors in the part being produced
• Assembly line testing to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design
features
Linear variable differential transformer

• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for
measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm
in general.
• The working principle of LVDT sensor is as shown bellow
• LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility.
Applications of LVDT sensors
• To measure the spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications

• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
Note; Let you have a read about the rest of the displacement and position sensor, Velocity, motion,
force and pressure sensors
Temperature and light sensors
Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or

contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors,
semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs
Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors are widely used
in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting etc.
1. Bimetallic strips
Bimetallic strips working principle:

• Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system.
• It contains two different metal strips bonded together.
• The metals have different coefficients of expansion.
• On heating the strips bend into curved strips with the metal with higher coefficient of
expansion on the outside of the curve.
• As the strips bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and
further touches.
• Then the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm.
• In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired application from heating above
the pre-set value of temperature.
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

• RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to
change in its temperature.
where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α
is the constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance.
• It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge.

• The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath.
• A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil.
• As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the
Wheatstone bridge.
applications areas:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing, Food Processing, Stoves and grills
• Textile production, Plastics processing, Petrochemical processing, Micro electronics
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement
3. Thermistors:
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature.
4. Thermocouple:
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature.
Light sensors
• A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light.

• There are different types of light sensors such as photocell/photoresistor and photo
diodes being used in manufacturing and other industrial applications.
1. Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR).
• It has a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity.
• It is made of a high resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS).
• The resistance of a CdS photoresistor varies inversely to the amount of light incident
upon it.
• Photoresistor follows the principle of photoconductivity which results from the
generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Applications of photo resistor

• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to
automatically control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and robots.
• The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a
specific reaction if a certain amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control
2. Photo diodes
Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric
current.
Signal Conditioning Devices
• Transducers sense physical phenomenon such as rise in temperature and convert the
measurand into an electrical signal viz. voltage or current.
• However these signals may not be in their appropriate forms to employ them
to control a mechatronics system.
1. Amplification/Attenuation
• Various applications of Mechatronics system such as machine tool control unit of a
CNC machine tool accept voltage amplitudes in range of 0 to 10 Volts. However
many sensors produce signals of the order of milli volts.
• This low level input signals from sensors must be amplified to use them for further control
action.
• Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are widely used for amplification of input signals.
• Operational Amplifier is a basic and an important part of a signal conditioning system.
• op-amp amplifies the difference between input voltages (V+ and V-). The
output of an operational amplifier can be written as
2. Filtering
• Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors like
improper hardware connections, environment etc.
• Noise gives an error in the final output of system.
• Therefore it must be removed.
• In practice, change in desired frequency level of output signal is a commonly noted
noise.
Following types of filters are used in practice:

1. Low Pass Filter
Low pass filter is used to allow low frequency content and to reject high frequency
content of an input signal
2. High Pass Filter

These types of filters allow high frequencies to pass through it and block the lower
frequencies.
3. Band Pass Filter

4. Band Reject Filter
Design project Proposal
• Project proposal is a pre-project plan in which the presenter will show or justify the
feasibility and visibility of the project work.
• Sometimes project proposal may have different structure while keeping the the existence of
major skeleton depend on the project type, the institution , etc
• According to AASTU the project proposal should contain or discuss the following major
issues;
1. Project Title: The title should accurately reflect the scope and content of the study
It should be short, clear and descriptive
1. Project Theme: The university or country may identify different active
project/research thematic areas. So the thematic area the project will focus on should be
explained well.
2. Executive Summary/Abstract:
It should contain the short summery of the proposal including the statement of problem,
methodology you will follow and the expected output or result you are looking for.
4. Introduction/Background : Here the existing system or literature should be revised well
with proper citation.
5. Statement of the Problem: Here The main problem that ignite someone to work the
project should be stated well.
6. Objective of the Project :
General; The expected outcome of the project and its advantage will bee explained here.
Specific; The task or approach that we will follow for the accomplishment of the project
will be stated here.
7. Materials and Methods
Materials; Here we have to list down and put short description about the working principle
and usage of materials we are planned to use in the project work.
Methods it is the way that will follow to accomplish the project and it shall be put with
flowchart
8. Expected Outcomes : It deals with the significant of the project for the customer.
5. Beneficiaries; Here who will be beneficial from the project should be listed.
6. Ethical Considerations; If the project violet some ethical or economical benefit of some
one/group it should be stated here
7. Budget Breakdown and funding mechanism
Here the budget the project work needs should be justified.
8. Time table/ schedule
Here the duration of the project will take and detail task breakdown should be stated.
9. Reference
All references we have cited in the proposal should be put here with proper format.
End of Chapter I
Chapter II
Actuation systems for

Mechatronics
2. Actuation Systems
• Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are
responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor or
control system into a controlling action on a machine of device:
• Most common types of actuators
1. Electric Actuator
2. Mechanical Actuators
3. Hydraulic & Pneumatic Actuator
1. Electrical Actuators are machines/devices that convert electrical
energy to mechanical energy.
• DC Motors
• Stepper Motors
• AC Motors
• Linear Motors (read by your self)
• Solenoids are also electrical actuator used within
mechatronic systems
A. Electrical Actuators are
• Easy to control
• From mw to MW
• Normally high velocities 1000 - 10000 rpm
• Several types
• Ideal torque for driving
• Excellent efficiency
DC Motors
• The most common actuator in Mechatronic systems is the DC motor
 Rotary actuators
 Power range: Fractions of watts to 100s of kW.
 Easy to control accurately
Advantages:
 Simple, cheap,
 Various sizes and packages.
Disadvantages:
 Limited overloading on high speeds
 Wear at rubbing surfaces
Basic Operation
Current flowing through a conductor in a magnetic field induces a
force perpendicular to the field and to itself.
Stepper Motors
Permanent magnet stepper motors
• Rotor is a permanent magnet and the stator is an electromagnet
• Rotor field is switched to create a rotating magnetic field
Variable reluctance stepper motors
• The rotor is made of soft steel (ferromagnetic)
• Motion is based on the attraction of rotor and stator poles
to position with minimum
• magnetic reluctance which allows maximum magnetic flux.
Principle of operation
Stepper Motor Applications
• More accurately controlled than a normal motor allowing
fractional turns or revolutions to be easily done
• Low speed, and lower torque than a comparable D.C. motor
• Useful for precise positioning
AC-motors
AC-motors
AC motors: Some applications
• Large Cranes or material handling systems

• Belts or conveyors
• High Speed Trains
• Electric Drive Haul Trucks (930E)
 Selection of a motor for a particular application is based
on Moment of inertia, Torque, Power and Cost.
B. Pneumatic Power Actuation
• Pneumatic actuation is widely used in the manufacturing industry
primarily in the field of automated system.
• Assembly, including jig and robot end-effector operation.
• Pneumatic power generally utilizes pressurized air as the power
transfer medium.
• Pneumatic power lies is used both for pneumatic power modulation
as well as for energy transfer devices
• The use of air as the operating fluid.
• The primary type of energy transfer device found in pneumatics is
the pneumatic cylinder.
• The motion of the cylinder occurs by applying pressurized air at one
of two ports found at the ends of the cylinder.
Figure: Pneumatic actuation operation.

C. Hydraulic Power Actuation
• Hydraulic fluid power basic operating principles are quite similar to
those of pneumatic fluid power systems.
• The difference in operating fluid, i.e. from air or gas in pneumatic
systems to liquids (generally oil) in hydraulics.
• Primarily, the use of liquids allows the achievement of very high
operating pressures
• Used where large forces and torques need to be applied.
• Hydraulic actuators can both be of a linear as well as a rotary nature.
• The difference lies in the robustness of the cylinders; In hydraulics
are designed to be capable with higher operating pressures thus are
made from steel with appropriate wall thickness whereas, in
pneumatic system it built from thin-walled aluminum.
• Hydraulic motors are quite commonly used where large torques
need to be transmitted and generally offer a higher power-to-weight
ratio when compared to electrical motors
D. Mechanical systems
• Although in mechatronics system microprocessor/electronic systems
are being used for many functions that previously were fulfilled by
mechanism; mechanisms are still being used to provide the following
functions:
1. Force amplification e.g. levers
2. Change of speed e.g. gears
3. Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another axis e.g. belt
4. Devices that transform motion from one form to some other required form.
 Eg: Transform linear motion into rotational motion and vice versa.
 rack-and-pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to linear
motion.
Types of Motion
• The motion of any rigid body can be considered to be a combination of translation and
rotational motions.
• Translation motion is a movement which can be resolved into components along one or
more of the three axis x,y or z.
• A rotational motion is one which has components rotating about one or more of the axis
Translation motion Rotational motion

Types of Motion…
• A complex motion is the combination of the translation and rotation
motions
Eg. Instruct a robot to pickup a pencil from a table: you should breakup
motion into small simple motion, e.g. instruct joint 1 to rotate by 20
degree then link 2 to be extended by 4 mm….etc
Freedom & Constraints
• Freedom and constraints A body that is free in space can move in three
independent, mutually perpendicular directions and rotate in three ways
about those directions. It is said to have six degree of freedom
• The number of degrees of freedom are the number of components of
motion that are required in order to generate the motion
• If a joint is constrained to move along a line then it has one degree
of freedom
• If a joint is constraint to move on a plane then it has two degree of
freedom
• Figure (a) shows a joint with just this one translational degree of freedom.
• Figure (b) shows a joint which has one translational degree of freedom one
rotational degree of freedom.
• The problem in a design is to reduce the number of degrees of freedom which
requires an appropriate number and orientation of constraint.
 Fixed body implies zero degree of freedom implies 6 constraints
 Concept in design: In fixing a body or guiding it to a particular type of
motion, the minimum number of constraints should be used “kinematics
design”
End of Chapter II
Chapter III
Semiconductor Device
&
Motor Controlling
Introduction
• Materials that permit flow of electrons are called conductors (e.g., gold,
silver, copper, etc.).
• Materials that block flow of electrons are called Insulators (e.g., rubber,
glass, Teflon, mica, etc.).
• Materials whose conductivity falls between those of conductors and insulators
are called semiconductors.
• Semiconductors are “part-time” conductors whose conductivity can be
controlled.
Energy Level
•There are three bands:
1.Valence band: have valence electrons
2.Forbidden band: have no electrons
3.Conduction band: full of excess free or
delocalized electrons
•The energy associated with each shell of an atom is
called energy level

Ionization:
is the mechanism whereby an electron can
absorb sufficient energy to break away from
the atomic structure and enter the conduction
band.
•And the energy associated with each electron
is measured in electron volts (eV).
Temperature Effect
Semi Conductor:
At 0K or absolute zero (-273.15°C), all the valence
electrons of semiconductor materials find themselves
locked in their outermost shell of the atom with
energy levels associated with the valence band.
However, at room temperature (300 K, 25°C) a large

number of valence electrons have acquired sufficient
energy to leave the valence band, cross the energy
gap and enter the conduction band.
Insulator: The energy gap is typically 5 eV or more,
which severely limits the number of electrons that
can enter the conduction band at room temperature.
Conductor: The conductor has electrons in the
conduction band even at 0K. Quite obviously,
therefore, at room temperature there are more than
enough free carriers to sustain a heavy flow of
charge, or current.
• Positive Temperature Coefficient
Conductor
• Negative Temperature Coefficient
Insulator • Constant Temperature Coefficient
Semiconductor
Temperature oc
Covalent Bonds
• When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline material,
they arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern.
• The atoms in the crystal structure are held together by
covalent bonds
• The covalent bonding of an Intrinsic Si, Pure Si, is shown
below.
Silicon Crystal
 At 0°K, each electron is in its lowest possible energy state, and each
covalent bounding position is filled.
 If a small electric field is applied, the electrons will not move →
silicon is an insulator
Conduction Electrons and Holes
• If the temperature increases, the valence electrons will gain some
thermal energy, and breaks free from the covalent bond
• It leaves a positively charged hole
• In orderto break from the covalent bond, a valence electron must
gain a minimun energy
Eg: Bandgap energy
• An intrinsic (Pure) Si crystal at room temp had sufficient heat
(thermal) energy for some valance electrons to jump the gap from
the valance band into the conduction band, becoming free
electrons, called conduction electrons.
Electron and Hole Current
• When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, the thermally
generated free electrons in the conduction band, will be attracted to the
positive end
• This is called electron current.
• Another current in the valance band is created because of the movement of
valance electrons filling the vacant holes.
• This relative motion of holes is called, hole current
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
ni: intrinsic carrier concentration for free electrons (same for holes)
Where;
B: constant related to specific semiconductor material
Eg: Bandgap energy (eV)
T: Temperature (°K)
K: Boltzman Constant (86 E-06 eV/°K)
Semiconductor Constants
Types of Semiconductor Materials
 The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by
the addition of certain impurity atoms into the relatively pure semiconductor
material.
 These impurities, although only added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million, can alter
the band structure sufficiently to totally change the electrical properties of the
material.
 Such semiconductor material are called Extrinsic material

Extrinsic Semiconductor
• A pure Si wafer is said to act as an insulator.
• The electron or hole concentration can be greatly increased by adding controlled amounts of
certain impérities
• For silicon, it is desirable to use impurities from the group III and V.
• An N-type semiconductor can be created by adding phosphorus or arsenic
 Why pure Si wafer is act as an insulator?

 In order to make useful semiconductor devices, materials such as phosphorus (P)
and boron (B) are added to Si to change Si’s conductivity. This process is called
doping.
• There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable importance to
semiconductor device
fabrication: n- and p-type.
• Semiconductors are classified in to P-type and N-type emiconductor
• P-type: A P-type material is one in which holes are majority
carriers
i.e. they are positively charged materials (++++)
• N-type: A N-type material is one in which electrons are majority
charge carriers i.e. they are negatively charged materials (-----)
N-Type Silicon
• Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth which have
5 valence electrons will form n-type silicon when doped.
• When antimony impurity is added to Si, every antimony atom’s four valence electrons are
locked up in covalent bond with valence electrons of four neighboring Si atoms. However,
the 5th valence electron of Sb atom does not find a binding electron and thus remains free
to float.
• When a voltage is applied across the silicon-antimony mixture, free electrons migrate
toward the positive voltage end.
• When antimony is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is doped with
antimony.
• The resulting mixture is called N-type silicon (N: negative charge carrier silicon).
• The pentavalent impurities are referred to as donor impurities.
P-Type Silicon
• Trivalent impurities e.g., boron, aluminium, indium, and gallium have 3 valence electrons.
• When boron is added to Si, every boron atom’s 3 valence electrons are locked up in
covalent bond with valence electrons of 3 Si atoms.
• However, a vacant spot “hole” is created within the covalent bond between one boron atom
and a neighboring Si atom.
• The holes are considered to be positive charge carriers.
• When a voltage is applied across the silicon-boron mixture, a hole moves toward the
negative voltage end while a neighbouring electron fills in its place.
• When boron is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is doped with boron.
The resulting mixture is called P-type silicon (P: positive charge carrier silicon).
• The trivalent impurities are referred to as acceptor impurities.
• The n- and p-type materials represent the basic building blocks of
semiconductor devices.
• We will find in the next section that the “joining” of a single n-type material
with a p-type material will result in a semiconductor element of considerable
importance in electronic systems.
P-N Junction
• If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part of one part is n-
type and the other part is p-type, a p-n junction forms at the
boundary of the two regions.
• In order to examine the charge situation, assume that separate blocks
of p-type and n-type materials are pushed together. Also assume that
a hole is a positive charge carrier and that an electron is a negative
charge carrier.
This is how the diode is formed
• where the arrow indicates the direction of positive current flow.

Operation of Diodes
No Bias Condition:
No external voltage is applied:

VD = 0V and no current is flowing ID = 0A.
Forward Bias
• The point at which the diode changes from No Bias condition

to Forward Bias condition happens when the electron and
‘holes’ are given sufficient energy to Cross the p-n junction.
• This energy comes from the external voltage applied across the
diode.
• The Forward bias voltage required for a
• • Silicon diode VT = 0.7V
• • Germanium diode VT =0.3V
Forward Bias : Connect positive of the Diode to positive
of supply…negative of Diode to negative of supply
Reverse Bias: Connect positive of the Diode to negative of supply
and the negative of the diode to positive of supply.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the

reverse saturation current and is represented by Is.
I-V characteristics of Ideal Diode
• Diode always conducts in one direction.

• Diodes always conduct current when “Forward Biased” ( Zero resistance)
• Diodes do not conduct when Reverse Biased (Infinite resistance)
On the fig bellow look at the horizontal line!
• In the non-conduction region, ideally
• All of the voltage is across the diode,
• The current is 0A,
• The reverse resistance (RR) is defined as RR = VR/IR,
• The diode acts like open.
I-V characteristics of Ideal graph
On the figure above look at the vertical line!

In the conduction region, ideally
 The voltage across the diode is 0V,
 The current is infinite
 The forward resistance (RF) is defined as RF = VF/IF,
 The diode acts like a short.
Actual Diode Characteristics
Note the regions for No Bias, Reverse Bias, and Forward Bias conditions.
Look closely at the scale for each of these conditions!
Majority and Minority Carriers in Diode
• A diode, as any semiconductor device is not perfect!

• There are two sets of currents:
Majority Carriers
• The electrons in the n-type and ‘holes’ in the p-type material are the source of
the majority of the current flow in a diode.
Minority Carriers
• Electrons in the p-type and ‘holes’ in the n-type material are rebel currents.
• They produce a small amount of opposing current.
Other Types of Diodes
Zener Region
• Another detail about the diode is the useful Zener region.
• The diode is in the reverse bias condition.
• At some point the reverse bias voltage is so large .
• The reverse current increases dramatically the diode breaks down.
• This maximum voltage is called avalanche breakdown voltage and the
current is called avalanche current.
• A Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias at the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
called the Zener Voltage (VZ).
• Used to supply regulated voltage for the load.
It also used to generator simple square-wave
• Made specially to operate in the reverse breakdown region.
• Useful as a “reference” voltage in many circuits.
2. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
This diode when forward biased emits photons. These can be in the visible
spectrum.
The forward bias voltage is higher, usually around 2-3V.

Diode Application
And/ or gate ( switching)
For ideal diode D1 & D2 what will be the current through R1 and R2?
Rectification;
• Converting ac to dc is accomplished by the process of rectification.
• Two processes are used:
• Half-wave rectification;
• Simplest process used to convert ac to dc.
A diode is used to clip the input signal excursions of one polarity to zero.
Full-wave rectification.
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process
called full-wave rectification.
CLIPPERS
• There are a variety of diode networks called clippers, that have the ability
to “clip” off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining
part of the alternating waveform.
• The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of diode clipper-
one resistor and diode.
CLAMPERS
• The clamping network is one that will “clamp” a signal to a different dc level.
• The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive element,
Steps to analyze clamping networks:
1. Start the analysis of clamping networks by considering that part of the input
signal that will forward bias the diode.
2. During the period that the diode is in the “on” state, assume that the
capacitor will charge up instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the
network.
3. Assume that during the period when the diode is in the “off” state the
capacitor will hold on to its established voltage level.
4. Throughout the analysis maintain a continual awareness of the location and
reference polarity for Vo to ensure that the proper levels for Vo are obtained.
5. Keep in mind the general rule that the total swing of the total output must
match the swing of the input signal.
Diode Arrays
Multiple diodes can be packaged together in an integrated circuit (IC) as

display.
Example: Seven segment display
Diode Limitations
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Construction
• The BJT is, a semiconductor device, constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two p-n junctions
• The three regions are called emitter, base, and collector
• There are two types of BJTs
–NPN and PNP type
Transistor mode of Operation
• In order for a BJT to operate properly as an amplifier, the two p-n
junctions must be
• correctly biased with external dc voltages.
–The base-emitter junction forward biased
–The base-collector region reverse biased
Cont…
• To demonstrate the mode of operation of pnp transistor first let us consider the forward
bias base emitter P-N junction as shown in figure
• The depletion region has been reduced in width due to the applied bias, resulting in a
heavy flow of majority carriers from the p- to the n-type material.
Cont.…
• For the next case consider the reverse-biased base collector N-P
Junction only The flow of majority carriers is zero, resulting in a
minority-carrier flow, as indicated;
• The arrow in the graphic symbol defines the direction of emitter
current (conventional flow) through the device.
BJT Characteristics & Parameters
• The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc collector current
(IC) to the dc base current (IB) and is designated dc beta (βDC ).
• The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is
the dc alpha (αDC).
BJT Circuit Analysis
• Consider the basic transistor bias circuit configuration
• Three transistor dc currents and three dc voltages can be identified.
• IB: dc base current , IE: dc emitter current, IC: dc collector current
• VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
• VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base
• VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter
• When the base-emitter junction is forward biased, it is like a forward-
biased diode and has a nominal forward voltage drop of
• Since the emitter is at ground potential, applying KVL

Collector Characteristic Curves
• A curves show how the collector current, IC, varies with the
collector-to-emitter voltage, VCE, for specified values of base
current, IB.
• Assume that VBB is set to produce a certain value of IB and VCC
is zero.
• For this condition, both the base-emitter junction and the base-
collector junction are forward-biased because the base is at
approximately 0.7V while the emitter and the collector are at 0V.
• The base current is through the base-emitter junction because of
the low impedance path to ground and, therefore, IC is zero.
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFYING ACTION
Let’s take common base configration
 For the common-base configuration the ac input resistance is quite small and
typically varies from 10Ω to 100Ω.
 The output resistance is quite high and typically varies from 50kΩ to 1MΩ.
• Using a common value of 20Ω for the input resistance and 100kΩ for output
resistance, we find that
• Typical values of voltage amplification for the common-base
configuration vary from 50 to 300. The current amplification
(IC/IE) is always less than 1 for the common-base configuration.
• This latter characteristic should be obvious since
IC= αIE
and α is always less than 1.
Operational Amplifiers
Single-ended Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Amplifies difference between inputs
Operational Amplifier
• Output gain high
• A ~= 106
• Tiny difference in the input voltages result in a very large output
voltage
• Output limited by supply voltages
• Comparator
• If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
• If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
• If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
3-stage Op-Amp
Why are they useful?
• Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy Op Amps ideally increase the
signal amplitude without affecting its other properties
Inverting Op-Amp
Uses: Analog inverter

Non-inverting Op-Amp
Uses: Amplify…straight up
Calculate the output voltage of a non inverting amplifier shown above for values of V1 2V,
Rf 500k, and R1 100k.
Cont.…
• From the circuit shown above what will be the output has R1 =100k and Rf =500k, what
output voltage results for an input of V1 2 V?
Cont.…
Differential amplifier realized with inverting connections

Summation
Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs until a threshold is reached.

Motor Controlling
• Transistors are electronic devices that can act as either amplifiers or Switches
• We’ll be using them as switches that control the flow of power to the motor.
• Note how Digital Logic at the Base controls Power Flow in the other two ports
Motor Controlling
• By turning our transistors (switches) ON and OFF really fast, we change
the average voltage seen by the motor.
• This technique is called Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM).
• The higher the voltage seen by the motor, the higher the speed.
• We’ll manipulate the PWM Duty Cycle.
Motor Controlling
Motor Controlling
• If we switch our transistors too quickly, the current won’t have enough
time to increase.
• The period (not to be confused with duty cycle) of our PWM needs to be
long enough for the current to reach an acceptable level:
Motor Controlling
Motor Controlling
Direction Control using the H-Bridge
• The H-Bridge Chip has a “Direction Pin” that can be set using digital logic High/Low
This pin enables/disables flow through the transistors
• H-Bridges are used to control the speed and direction of a motor.
• They control the motor using Power Electronics… transistors to be precise.
DC motor speed controller
• LED provides a visual cue to the user that the microcontroller is running properly.
• The speed input device is a potentiometer which can be wired to produce a voltage input.
• The voltage signal is applied to a microcontroller which is decision making device to control a DC motor to
rotate at a speed proportional to the voltage comes from the pot.
• ADC and DAC in the system used to communicate between the analog and digital components.
• The power amplifier used to boost the voltage and source the necessary current to the motor.
Stepper motor position and speed controller
• Controlling the position and speed of a stepper motor, which can be commanded to move in
discrete angular increments.
• Stepper motors are useful in position indexing applications, where you might need to move
parts or tools to and from various fixed positions (e.g., in an automated assembly or
manufacturing line).
• Stepper motors are also useful in accurate speed control applications (e.g., controlling the
spindle speed of a computer hard-drive or DVD player), where the motor speed is directly
proportional to the step rate.
Stepper motor cont…
• The input devices includes a pot to control the speed manually, four buttons to
select predefined positions, and a mode button to toggle between speed and
position control.
• In position control mode, each of the four position buttons indexes the motor
to specific angular positions relative to the starting point (0, 45, 90, 180).
• In speed control mode, turning the pot clockwise (counter clockwise)

increases (decreases) the speed.
• The LED provides a visual cue to the user to indicate that the PIC is cycling
properly.
• ADC converter is used to convert the pot’s voltage to a digital value.
• A microcontroller uses that value to generate signals for a stepper motor driver
circuit to make the motor rotate.
End of Chapter III

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Addis Ababa Science and Technology UNIVERSITY

Electromechanical Engineering Department

• Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field of science that includes a

• However, as technical systems have become more and more

• The study of mechatronic systems can be divided into the

3. Actuators and Sensors

• A fundamental part of many mechatronic systems is a measurement system.

• Signal processor is performs filtering, amplification, or other signal conditioning on

• For a mechatronics system designer it is quite difficult to choose suitable

8. Hysteresis: is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in

9. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter

Example of measurement system

Classification of sensors based on their application in manufacturing.

A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors

Capacitive element based sensor

• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

• Feed hopper level monitoring

Linear variable differential transformer

Applications of LVDT sensors

• To measure the spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications

Temperature and light sensors

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or

Bimetallic strips working principle:

2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

• It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge.

• A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light.

Applications of photo resistor

Signal Conditioning Devices

Following types of filters are used in practice:

2. High Pass Filter

3. Band Pass Filter

Actuation systems for

• Large Cranes or material handling systems

Figure: Pneumatic actuation operation.

Translation motion Rotational motion

•The energy associated with each shell of an atom is

called energy level

However, at room temperature (300 K, 25°C) a large

 Such semiconductor material are called Extrinsic material

 Why pure Si wafer is act as an insulator?

• where the arrow indicates the direction of positive current flow.

No external voltage is applied:

• The point at which the diode changes from No Bias condition

The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the

• Diode always conducts in one direction.

On the figure above look at the vertical line!

• A diode, as any semiconductor device is not perfect!

The forward bias voltage is higher, usually around 2-3V.

Multiple diodes can be packaged together in an integrated circuit (IC) as

• Since the emitter is at ground potential, applying KVL

Uses: Analog inverter

Differential amplifier realized with inverting connections

Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs until a threshold is reached.

• In speed control mode, turning the pot clockwise (counter clockwise)

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