GIS Manual

Basic
Geographical Information System
Raghu N. Prajapati
Assistant Professor
Nepal Engineering College
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
1.0 Introduction 1-20

1.1 The philosophy of GIS 4
1.2 Need of GIS 6
1.3 History of GIS 6
1.4 Spatial operation 7
1.5 Component of GIS 8
1.6 Different types of data 11
1.7 Vector representation 11
1.8 Raster representation 16
1.9 Function of GIS and its applications 20
2.0 Data capture and automation 24-46

2.1 Sources of data 24
2.2 Data capture 25
2.3 Introduction to map 27
2.4 Manual Digitization and Scanning system 33
2.5 Geo referencing 34
2.6 Projection systems 35
2.7 Coordinate systems 42
2.8 Accuracy and precision 45
3.0 Database concept and design 47-55

3.1 Databases for GIS 47
3.2 Database processing and management systems 47
3.3 Database design 49
3.4 Data dictionary 55
4.0 Remote sensing 56-65

4.1 What is remote sensing? 56
4.2 Milestones in the History of Remote Sensing 58
4.3 Remote-sensing satellite 59
4.4 Type of Remote Sensing 60
4.5 Remote-sensing images 61
4.6 Use of remote-sensing data in GIS 62
4.7 Electromagnetic Spectrum 62
5.0 Geographic analysis 66-72

5.1 Introduction; Spatial analysis and its
application areas 66
5.2 Overlay operations 69
5.3 Network analysis 70
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5.4 Relationship of modelling to Analysis 72
6.0 Output and Information communication 73-82

6.1 Important aspects in design of output maps 73
6.2 Cartographic tools and visual variables 74
6.3 Data output types 75-76
7.0 Application of GIS 77-82

7.1 Characteristics of GIS Technology 77
7.2 Spatial data infrastructure 77
7.3 Component of spatial data infrastructure 78
7.4 Institutional and Organizational
Considerations 79
7.5 Outlook GIS trends 79
7.6 Digital terrain model 81
Reference 83
Basic Exercise 84-110
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information

system used to digitally represent and analyze the geographic features
present on the Earth' surface and the events (non-spatial attributes linked to
the geography under study) that taking place on it. The meaning to represent
digitally is to convert analog (smooth line) into a digital form.
"Every object present on the Earth can be geo-referenced", is the

fundamental key of associating any database to GIS. Here, term 'database' is
a collection of information about things and their relationship to each other
and 'geo-referencing' refers to the location of a layer or coverage in space
defined by the co-ordinate referencing system.
What is GIS?
GIS is an acronym for:
• Geographic Information Systems (US)
• Geographical Information Systems (UK, Aust., Canada)
• Geographic Information Science (Academia)
An understanding of what Geographic Information Systems represent may
be helped by considering the component parts of the term separately.
Geographic...
This term is used because GIS tend to deal primarily with `geographic' or
`spatial' features. These objects can be referenced or related to a specific
location in space. The objects may be physical, cultural or economic in
nature. Features on a map for instance are pictorial representations of spatial
objects in the real world. Symbols, colors and line styles are used to
represent the different spatial features on the two-dimensional map.
Information...
This represents the large volumes of data, which are usually handled within a
GIS. All real world objects have their own particular set of characteristics or
descriptive attributes. This non-spatial alphanumeric data plus locational
information needs to be stored and managed for all spatial features of
interest.
Conventionally maintained as paper files, computer technology has enabled

much more efficient handling and management of information within
automated database management systems.
Systems...
This term is used to represent the systems approach taken by GIS, whereby
complex environments are broken down into their component parts for ease
of understanding and handling but are considered to form an integrated
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whole. Computer technology has aided and even necessitated this approach
so that most information systems are now computer based.
Computer systems are becoming vital for the storage and manipulation of the
increasing volumes of data, the handling of complex spatial algorithms and
the integration of data of different scales, projections and formats. All of
which are essential to GIS.
Therefore, Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based

information system used to digitally represent and analyse the geographic
features present on the Earth' surface and the events (non-spatial attributes
linked to the geography under study) that taking place on it.
A GIS is typically made up of a variety of information systems like

Cartographic Display System, Map Digitising System, Database
Management System, Geographic Analysis System, Image Processing
System, Statistical Analysis System and Decision Support System (Fig.1.1).
In many ways, learning GIS involves learning to think - learning to think
about patterns, about space, and about processes that act in space.
Fig. 1.1: GIS and Related Disciplines
Defining GIS
A GIS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by
spatial / geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database
system with specific capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set
of operations for working with the data. It may also be considered as a higher
order map.
GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and

statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other
information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and
private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning
strategies.
A Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used
to digitally reproduce and analyse the feature present on earth surface and the
events that take place on it. In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the
data has geographical reference as its denominator, it becomes imperative to
underline the importance of a system which can represent the given data
geographically.
A typical GIS can be understood by the help of various definitions given

below:-
 A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for
mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on
Earth
 Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing,
retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the
real world for a particular set of purposes"
 Arnoff in 1989 defines GIS as, "a computer based system that
provides four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced data :
Data input
Data management (data storage and retrieval)
Manipulation and analysis
Data output”
Hence GIS is looked upon as a tool to assist in decision-making and

management of attributes that needs to be analysed spatially.
GIS & Related mapping technologies

In order to enable spatial data manipulation and results, a GIS must include
the following characteristics, based on the above components:
a. A database management system (DBMS)

b. Analysis capability
c. Spatial geo-referencing
d. Graphics input and output
Related types of mapping software may have some but not all of these
capabilities:
CAD: Computer Assisting Drawing, e.g. AutoCAD, Micro station c, d

GDS: Graphic Design System, e.g. CorelDraw, Illustrator d
DBMS: Database Management System, e.g. Oracle, Sybase a
DIPS: Digital Image Processing System, e.g. PCI, Erdas b, c, d
GPS: Global Positioning Systems, e.g. Garmin, Trimble c, d

Each of these may perform better than a GIS at their specialty, but only a
GIS has all four components. e.g. mapping software may be better for map
production, image processing for satellite image data.
1.1 Philosophy of GIS

The proliferation of GIS is explained by its unique ability to assimilate data
from widely divergent sources, to analyse trends over time, and to spatially
evaluate impacts caused by development.
For an experienced analyst, GIS is an extension one's own analytical

thinking. The system has no in-built solutions for any spatial problems; it
depends upon the analyst.
The importance of different factors of GIS in decreasing order is as under:

* Spatial Analysis
* Database
* Software
* Hardware
GIS involves complete understanding about patterns, space, and processes or
methodology needed to approach a problem. It is a tool acting as a means to
attain certain objective quickly and efficiently. Its applicability is realized
when the user fully understands the overall spatial concept under which a
particular GIS is established and analyses his specific application in the light
of those established parameters.
Before the GIS implementation is considered the objectives, both immediate

and long term, have to be considered. Since the effectiveness and efficiency
(i.e. benefit against cost) of the GIS will depend largely on the quality of
initial field data captured, organizational design has to be decided upon to
maintain this data continuously. This initial data capture is most important.
1.1.1 Advantages of GIS

The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for
implementation and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS
has been in vogue primarily due to the advantage mentioned below:
* Planning of project
* Make better decisions
* Visual Analysis
* Improve Organizational Integration
1.1.2 Planning Of Project

Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a
large spatial component, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at
the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more
than one base maps, example: the generation of a land use map on the basis
of a soil composition, vegetation and topography. The unique combination of
certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the
various modules within GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width.
and distance.
1.1.3 Making Decisions

The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as
it is for other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated
decision making system but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support
of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in
tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve
territorial disputes, and sitting pylons in such a way as to minimize visual
intrusion.
1.1.4 Visual Analysis

Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using
DTM/3D modeling, landscape can be better visualized, leading to a better
understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant
calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion
volume (Example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels,
dams, roads, embankments, land leveling) and hydrological modeling
becomes easier.
Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences
GIS can prove extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating
scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable
tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as population
distribution, market localization and other related features.
1.1.5 Improving Organizational Integration

Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its
main benefits is improved management of their own organization and
resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets together by
geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and
communication. By creating a shared database one department can benefit
from the work of another--data can be collected once and used many times.
As communication increases among individuals and departments,

redundancy is reduced, productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational
efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company the customer and
infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned
maintenance, affected people can be informed by computer-generated letters.

1.2 Need of GIS
Many professionals, such as foresters, urban planners, and geologists, have
recognized the importance of spatial dimensions in organizing & analyzing
information. Whether a discipline is concerned with the very practical
aspects of business, or is concerned with purely academic research,
geographic information system can introduce a perspective, which can
provide valuable insights as
 70% of the information has geographic location as it's denominator

making spatial analysis an essential tool.
 Ability to assimilate divergent sources of data both spatial and non-
spatial (attribute data).
 Visualization Impact
 Analytical Capability
 Sharing of Information
1.2.1 Factors Aiding the Rise of GIS.

* Revolution in Information Technology.
Computer Technology
Remote Sensing
Global Positioning System
* Communication Technology.
* Rapidly declining cost of Computer Hardware, and at the same time,
exponential growth of operational speed of computers.
* Enhanced functionality of software and their user-friendliness.
* Visualizing impact of GIS corroborating the Chinese proverb "a
picture is worth a thousand words."
* Geographical feature and data describing it are part of our everyday
lives & most of our everyday decisions are influenced by some facet
of Geography.
1.3 History of GIS

Work on GIS began in late 1950s, but first GIS software came only in late
1970s from the lab of the ESRI. Canada was the pioneer in the development
of GIS as a result of innovations dating back to early 1960s. Much of the
credit for the early development of GIS goes to Roger Tomlinson. Evolution
of GIS has transformed and revolutionized the ways in which planners,
engineers, managers etc. conduct the database management and analysis.
1960’s – Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) – developed by

Roger Tomlinson.
- In USA a similar system developed for processing natural
resources data
1970’s – Main developments took place in universities in the US, Canada
and UK
- Commercial agencies like ESRI and Intergraph staring to develop
and offer
- Growing awareness of the need for sound and stable structure to
store and analyze map data becoming a dominant trend
1980’s – Marked with the widespread availability of PCs, tremendous
progress on research on spatial data structures, indexing methods
and spatial databases
- In 1988 with the formation of NCGIA major contributions
towards the progress in GIS research.
1990’s – Breaking through of object orientation in system and database
design.
- Geo-informatics in professional recognition, spatial information
theory – theoretical basis for GIS
- GIS enters medium and small businesses and new domains such
as geo-marketing
- Evolution of Desktop GIS, Internet GIS
1.4 Spatial Operation

Many computer programs can handle geographic data such as those
described below:
a) Spreadsheets (e.g. Lotus 1-2-3, QuatroPro): A spreadsheet can be

thought of as a large imaginary piece of electronic paper that can
contain information in rows and columns, which is used for all sorts
of (mathematical) operations for producing graphs. Spreadsheets are
often used in combination with GIS.
b) Database Management Systems (e.g. Oracle, dBase): A database

management system (DBMS) is a set of programs which is a
collection of information about things and their relationships to each
other and which maintain and manipulate data in a database. A
DBMS only handles “attribute data” and cannot handle maps. It
generally forms an integrated part of GIS.
c) Computer Aided Design (e.g. AutoCAD): CAD systems are for

capturing and manipulating drawings. Point, line and polygon objects
are stored in vector
d) Cartographic packages (e.g. Aldus Freehand, CarthoGraphix):

Cadrtographic packages of desktop mapping systems are for selective
dearch and display of information from spatial databases fand for the
production of high quality output maps which meet cartographic
standards. In this sense, they form a useful addition to GIS, since the
output facilities of most GIS are still unsatisfactory.

e) Photogrammetrical software (e.g. DMS): Photogrammetrical
packages are designed to take point sample data (mostly of terrain
elevations) from aerial photograph, satellite images and GPS (global
positioning system) data and then produce digital elevation model
(DEM) and contour maps. They form an important input source for
GIS.
f) Image Processing Software (e.g. ERDAS): Image processing

software is designed to handle satellite images, or scanned aerial
photographs. The information from such images can be extracted by
several kinds of image enhancement techniques and classification
methods. Output maps from image processing software often form
the input into GIS. This software using geographic data is that only
GIS permit spatial operations on the data.
1.4.1 Spatial Objects

Spatial Objects or Spatial Individuals for Geographic Features are the things
located on or near the surface of the earth. Geographic features can occur
naturally and also can be found with manmade constructions (road, power
pole) and can be subdivisions of land (political divisions).
1.5 Components of GIS

GIS constitutes of five key components:
* Hardware
* Software
* Data
* People
* Method
1.5.1 Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The
choice of hardware system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to
Super Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer forms the
backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets its input through the Scanner or a
digitizer board. Scanner converts a picture into a digital image for further
processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF,

BMP, JPG etc. A digitizer board is flat board used for vectorisation of a
given map objects. Printers and plotters are the most common output devices
for a GIS hardware setup
1.5.2 Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and
display geographic information. GIS software in use is MapInfo, ARC/Info,
AutoCAD Map, etc. The software available can be said to be application
specific. When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop MapInfo is
the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If the
user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS, ARC/Info is the
preferred option. For the people using AutoCAD and willing to step into
GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option.
1.5.3 Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or
purchased from a commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic
data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can also be
attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data
resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to maintain

their data, to manage spatial data.
1.5.4 People
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The
people who use GIS can be broadly classified into two classes. The
CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects? The use of
this vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the
responsibility of a GIS engineer/user.
1.5.5 Method
And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan
and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to
each organization. There are various techniques used for map creation and
further usage for any project. The map creation can either be automated
raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned
images. The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by
any survey agency or satellite imagery.
1.6 Different types of data

Database in GIS can be considered as a collection of spatially referenced
data that acts as a model of reality. There are two important components of
geographic database: its geographic position and its attributes or
properties. In other words, spatial data (where is it?) and attribute data (what
is it?).
A GIS data model, often known as a geo-relational model, is a formal

collection of spatial operators that act on a spatial database in order to relate
the user to the real world. GIS users have two primarily spatial data models:
vector and raster. Each has different advantages, so the best choice depends
on your application.
Vector data consist of points, lines (arcs) and polygons formed from lines
joining x and y coordinates. Most map data are vector. Vector systems
handle databases and map output more effectively.
Raster data are organized in grids, one value per grid square. All
photographs and images are raster. Map data can be converted to raster
usually for purposes of analysis, which is faster and easier in raster than
vector.
1.7 Vector Representation
Vector files
Vectors refer to the storage of information about points, lines and polygons
which is stored in terms of their co-ordinates. In below fig., a vector file
would describe a dark square by locating the corners a, b, c and d and filling
the polygon with the colour. In a vector file, every object has a location. This
is very useful for GIS analyses because it is possible to get information such
as how far apart two objects might be or whether two areas overlap.
a. Points:
 have no length or area at the given scale
 usually have a single X, Y coordinate
 represent a feature that is too small to be displayed as a line or area

A Point: This is the simplest representation of a spatial object but the choice
of entities that will be represented as points depends on the scale of the map
or study. One of the key attributes of a point is its geodetic location, often
represented as a pair of numbers (such as latitude and longitude).
b. Arcs / Lines:
 have length but no width
 are accompanied by a set of coordinates
 represent a geographical feature that is too narrow to have area, such
as a creek or road
A Line: On a map lines generally consist of two or more points joined
together by a straight line. The closeness of the points dictates the quality of
the linear representation, so a convoluted line would require many points to
represent it accurately. Lines have no width, and thus, a specific location
must be on one side of the line or the other, but never on the line itself.
Nodes - are special kinds of points, usually indicating the junction between
lines or the ends of line segments.
c. Polygons / Areas:
 have an area that is given by the arcs/lines that make the boundary.
 are used to represent features that have area (e.g. lakes, large cities
and islands)
Area or Polygon: This type of spatial information is composed of
connecting lines that form a closed area. It may be made up of a single
closed loop or a number of lines whose start and end points join. Simple
polygons are undivided areas, while complex polygons are divided into areas
of different characteristics.
Surfaces: Surfaces are a more complex description of a geographical entity

and are used to represent continuous data. Examples include terrain relief,
and environmental parameters such as temperature, rainfall and pollution
concentrations. Surface data may be held as point data where a third value
represents the height, or isolines (contours) which are lines of equal value.
Surface data can be stored in a variety of different ways, using both the raster
and vector data models.
There are two basic data models: vector and raster.
1.7.1 Vector Data Model

The vector model is based on points joined together to form lines and lines
joined together to form polygons. This model can precisely replicate map
information. These models represent an abstraction of the real world and, in
the case of spatial data; entities or objects are represented as points, lines,
polygons and surfaces.
Characteristics
 Based on objects (points, lines, areas).
 Constructed using arcs, nodes and vertices.
 Resolution can be independent of detail.
 Every point has a unique location.
Advantages
 Compact data structure for homogenous areas.
 Efficient encoding of topology.
 Better suited for map output.
 Create good Digital Elevation Model (DEM)/ Digital Terrain Model
(DTM).
Disadvantages
 More complex data structure.
 Overlay operations are more complex.
 High spatial variability is less efficiently stored.
 Cannot store (continuously varying) image data.
Unlinked: Vector data stored in an unlinked or spaghetti format can be

described as a collection of lines and points with no real connection. The
features are stored as strings of coordinates with no particular relationship to
each other. A number of G1S software (for example ARCINFO) adopts
unlinked data structures for their data capture processes. This allows one to
digitize data without defining any relationships. These can be established
later (for example using the command "clean" in ARCINFO) and create
topology. Consequently, the term unlinked or spaghetti data is also
associated with raw digital data. It may be described as non-intelligent
because no relationships or connections have been established. In terms of
graphic presentation, unlinked data is acceptable; however, it is not possible
to interrogate the data.
Topology: In most G1S software, topology is defined in terms of
connectivity, adjacency and contiguity or containment. Each of these
categories records a particular aspect of the data.
Connectivity - Describes the linking of points or polygons to each other
Adjacency - Summarizes the sharing of a common boundary of two regions

or Polygons
Contiguity - Is a term that describes the touching of spatial entities (usually

polygons).

The topological data structure relies on each line or arc that forms part of a
boundary to an area or polygon having certain information - the point or
node at which it starts and the point or node at which it finishes. This
information gives direction to the line and thus the area to the left and the
area to the right can also be defined.
List of Coordinates
Vertex Dictionary

Dual Independent Map Encoding format

Arc Node Topology
Fig.1.2: Examples of Vector Model
1.8 Raster Representation

In a raster file, the entire study area is divided up into a regular grid. Each
grid square or pixel is assigned a value the information is stored pixel by
pixel. In below fig., a raster file would describe the dark square by listing
which pixels were coloured (rows 2 to 4 and columns b to d). In a raster file,
every location has a value. Raster files are very useful in GIS for mapping
how a continuous variable (such as altitude) varies over space.

When you scan a paper map and create an image file (such as a *.gif or *.jpg
file), the image is stored in raster format. You can use the image in MapInfo
by registering its exact spatial location. To do this you need to know the
precise co-ordinates of at least four points on the image. MapInfo will use
these control points to locate the image correctly. You can open vector and
raster images at the same time. However, remember that you will only be
able to select and work with map objects in a vector image. Raster images do
not contain map objects, just a grid of pixels each with its own attribute
value(s).
1.8.1 Raster Data Model

Geographical space is divided into equal sized cells. Each cell has a single
value, which could relate to a category of information within a theme. The
most important component of a layer is its resolution. The resolution of a
map or image is the smallest feature that can be represented or is visible. In
terms of a raster grid, it is dependent upon the pixel: picture element size.
Features that are smaller than a grid cell may not be represented. High
resolution refers to rasters with a small cell dimension and means lots of
detail and., therefore, lots of cells. The converse is true for low resolution.
Rasters with low resolution contain large cell dimensions, there are fewer
cells and these cells cover a wider geographical area.
Characteristics
 Simple 'grid' structure of rows and columns.
 Based on cells or picture elements (pixels).
 Linear feature (e.g. a road) is a contiguous set of cells.
 Resolution based on size of grid (cell) -> the smaller the cell, the
higher the resolution.
 Features are considered homogenous within a pixel.
 Storage increases with the square of the resolution.
Advantages
 A simple data structure.
 Overlay operations are straight forward.
 High spatial variability is efficiently represented (e.g. relief).
 Only raster can store image data (e.g. photos).

Disadvantages
 Data structure is not compact (though it can be modified).

 Topological relationships are harder to represent.
 Map output can appear 'blocky'.
Run Length Coding: Geographical data tends to be spatially auto-

correlated, meaning that objects that are close to each other tend to have
similar attributes. Due to this principle, neighboring pixels or cells are
expected to have similar values. Thus instead of repeating pixel values, it is
possible to code the raster as groups of values, for example: run, length and
value. By doing this, the amount of storage space required to hold the
information is reduced. This technique would not be of use for digital
elevation model data or any type of data where neighboring pixels almost
always have different values.
Chain Coding: This data structure involves the tracing of the shape of each
object, and thus recording the outer pixels. To achieve chain coding it is
necessary to choose one object and a start point for the coding within the
matrix. It is necessary to trace the shape of the object, recording the direction
in which one is moving as well as the number of pixels traced until one
changes direction.
Quadtree Encoding: The basis of the quadtree data structure is to

recursively divides the raster into quarters. Once the raster has been divided
into 4, each quarter is examined to determine whether all pixels have the
same value. If all pixels do have the same value, then this quarter is not sub-
divided any further. Where this is not the case, then each of the non-
homogenous quarters is divided into 4. Each of these quarters are examined,
and that are not homogenous are subdivided again. This recursive
subdivision is complete once every 'quarter' is homogenous.

Fig.1.3: Examples of Raster Model
1.8.2 ATTRIBUTE DATA
Non-spatial attribute data refers to attributes (i.e. "what is it") that do not
represent the location information of the feature(s). We will look at how this
data is stored and two functions (join & relate) used to connect two or more
data sets. Data attributes correspond to the three types of classification
recognized in cartography: nominal, ordinal and interval.
1.8.2.1 Attribute Tables

 Attributes are stored in an Attribute Table.
 Every vector layer MUST have an associated table
 These are linked to spatial data by a feature code number ('id').
 Attributes are stored in columns as 'items'
 Rows display the attributes for each feature and are known as
'records'
 Queries can be based on records (what is here?), or items (how often
does this occur?)
Table 1.1: Layout of Attribute Tables
1.9 Function of GIS and its Applications

Computerized mapping and spatial analysis have been developed
simultaneously in several related fields. The present status would not have
been achieved without close interaction between various fields such as utility
networks, cadastral mapping, topographic mapping, thematic cartography,
surveying and photogrammetric remote sensing, image processing, computer
science, rural and urban planning, earth science, and geography.
The GIS technology is rapidly becoming a standard tool for management of

natural resources. The effective use of large spatial data volumes is
dependent upon the existence of an efficient geographic handling and
processing system to transform this data into usable information.
The GIS technology is used to assist decision-makers by indicating various

alternatives in development and conservation planning and by modeling the
potential outcomes of a series of scenarios. It should be noted that any task
begins and ends with the real world. Data are collected about the real world.
Of necessity, the product is an abstraction; it is not possible (and not desired)
to handle every last detail. After the data are analysed, information is
compiled for decision-makers. Based on this information, actions are taken
and plans implemented in the real world.
1.9.1 Function of GIS

There are four basic functions of GIS namely – Data Capture, Data
Management, Spatial Analysis and Presenting Results
1.9.1.1 Data Capture

Data used in GIS come from many different sources, are of many types and
are stored in different ways. A GIS provides tools and methods for the
integration of different data into a format to be compared and analyzed. Data
sources are mainly manual digitization / scanning of aerial photographs,
paper maps and existing digital data. Remote sensing satellite imagery and
GPS are also data input sources for GIS.
1.9.1.2 Data Management

After data are collected and integrated, GIS provides facilities which can
contain and maintain data. Effective data management includes all of the
following aspects: data security, data integrity, data storage and retrieval and
data maintenance abilities.
1.9.1.3 Spatial Analysis

Spatial analysis is the most important function of GIS which makes it
distinct from other systems such as Computer Aided Design and Drafting
(DCDD). The spatial analysis provides the functions such as spatial
interpolation, buffering and overlay operations.
1.9.1.4 Presenting Results

One of the most exciting aspects of GIS is the variety of different ways in
which the information can be presented once it has been processed.
Traditional methods of tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented by
maps and three-dimensional images. These capabilities of GIS have given
rise to new fields such as exploratory cartography and scientific
visualization. Visual presentation is one of the most fascinating aspects of
GIS for communicating the results of analysis to policy makers.
1.9.2 Major areas of application

 Different streams of planning
Urban planning, housing, transportation planning architectural
conservation, urban design, landscape.
 Street Network Based Application

It is an addressed matched application, vehicle routing and
scheduling: location and site selection and disaster planning.
 Natural Resource Based Application
Management and environmental impact analysis of wild and scenic
recreational resources, flood plain, wetlands, acquifers, forests, and
wildlife.
 View Shed Analysis

Hazardous or toxic factories sitting and ground water modeling. Wild
life habitat study and migration route planning.
 Land Parcel Based

Zoning, sub-division plans review, land acquisition, environment
impact analysis, nature quality management and maintenance etc.
 Facilities Management
Can locate underground pipes and cables for maintenance, planning.
1.9.3 Types of queries a GIS can answer

Till now GIS has been described in two ways:
1. Through formal definitions, and
2. Through technology's ability to carry out spatial operations, linking
data sets together.
However there is another way to describe GIS by listing the type of

questions the technology can (or should be able to) answer- Location,
Condition, Trends, patterns, Modeling, Spatial questions. There are five
types of questions that a sophisticated GIS can answer:
Location What is at………….?

The first of these questions seeks to find out what exists at a particular
location. A location can be described in many ways, using, for example place
name, post code, or geographic reference such as longitude/latitude or x/y.
Condition Where is it………….?

The second question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to
answer. Instead of identifying what exists at a given location, one may wish
to find location(s) where certain conditions are satisfied (e.g., an unforested
section of at-least 2000 square meters in size, within 100 meters of road, and
with soils suitable for supporting buildings)
Trends What has changed since…………..?

The third question might involve both the first two and seeks to find the
differences (e.g. in land use or elevation) over time.

Patterns What spatial patterns exists…………..?
This question is more sophisticated. One might ask this question to
determine whether landslides are mostly occurring near streams. It might be
just as important to know how many anomalies there are, that do not fit the
pattern and where they are located.
Modeling What if……………..?

"What if…" questions are posed to determine what happens, for example, if
a new road is added to a network or if a toxic substance seeps into the local
ground water supply. Answering this type of question requires both
geographic and other information (as well
as specific models). GIS permits spatial operation.
Spatial Questions
“How many people work with GIS in the major centers of Delhi" OR
“Which centers lie within 10 Kms. of each other? ", OR “What is the shortest
route passing through all these centers". These are spatial questions that can
only be answered using latitude and longitude data and other information
such as the radius of earth. Geographic Information Systems can answer such
questions.

2.0 DATA CAPTURE AND AUTOMATION
2.1 Sources of Data

While modeling is what a GIS is most often used for, it would be Impossible
to obtain results without a reliable database. You must create the database
from geographic source data. Geographic data are generally available in two
forms: Analogue and Digital Data (Figure 2.1 Sources of Geographic Data).
Fig. 2.1: Sources of Geographic Data
2.1.1 Analogue data - a physical product displaying information visually

on paper or film. A number of different analogue data sources are available
as:
 Standardized map sheets
 Mylar map transparencies
 Aerial photos
 Tabular Data
 Written reports
2.1.2 Digital data - information formatter or a computer readable file.

There are number of different type digital data sets, which can be purchased
and directly used in a GIS. Some of them are listed below
 DEM – Digital Elevation Model. files from the US Geographical

Survey (Elevation Data)
 Digital satellite data can be obtained at different resolutions from
various sources

 Other data can be obtained in digital format such as DXF or SIF data
files, which are generated by other software
A GIS must be able to accept various types of data from various sources.
Time, money, accuracy, and suitability are considered while deciding how
much of your database you create in-house and how much you obtain in
existing digital form. Creating a database will consume a substantial portion
of an initial GIS budget and database maintenance should be considered in
any proposed GIS budget.
2.2 Data Capture

The functionality of GIS relies on the quality of data available, which, in
most developing countries, is redundant or inaccurate. Although GIS is being
Used widely, effective and efficient means of data collection have yet to be
systematically established. The true value of GIS can be realized if the
proper tools to collect spatial data and integrate them with attribute data are
available.
Fig.2.2: Data Capturing System in GIS
There are six main methods used to input data in a GIS: Keyboard,
Coordinate Geometry, Digitizing, Scanning, Global Positioning Systems
(GPS), and File Import
2.2.1 Keyboard
This is mostly for attribute data, coordinates are mostly collected by 3 and 5
below
2.2.2 Co-ordinate geometry (COGO)
This is most commonly used for high precision municipal data, based on
azimuth / distance from known points, rather than a grid system such as
UTM. It is not common in natural resources.
2.2.3 Digitizing
Characteristics
 Line following with puck cross-hairs in point or stream mode.
 Usually inputs 'classified' map data with attributes.
 Tablet sizes (12" x 18" -> 36" x 48").
 Cheap but tedious, can also be done 'heads-up' from computer
monitor.
2.2.4 Scanning
Characteristics
 Electronic detector moves across image.
 Flat-bed (up to 11" by 17") and drum (full sheet).
 Most suitable for continuous image or full map sheet.
 Creates raster data: 1-8 bit or 24 bit (3 x 8 bit).
 High resolution versus large storage.
 Creates single layer of values (monochrome) or 3 to multi layers
(colour).
Fig. 2.3: Scanning System

2.2.5 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
A growing source of data since the early 1990s: mostly spatial data e.g. new
features such as trails, cut blocks. Attributes can be added during data
collection via a data table, or added in the Lab. See lecture notes Chapter for
more details on GPS. Smoothing of lines collected is done using GIS
software.
2.3 Introduction to Map

2.3.1 The Geoid
Earth is not a perfect sphere, it is ellipsoidal. The ellipsoidal earth is the
'Geoid'. The difference in the major and minor axes has been estimated since
the nineteenth century. The latest should be the most accurate using satellite
technology the difference representing the amount of 'polar flattening' is
about 1/300. These ellipsoids have formed the basis for each Datum, defined
as: "a set of values that serve as base for mapping"
Fig.2.4: The geoid

2.3.2 Maps
Map is the representation of the earth's surface/pattern as a whole or a part of
it on the plane surface, with the conventional signs, drawn to a scale and
projection so that each and every point on it correspond to the actual
terrestrial or celestial position. Besides depicting various features of the
earth, it has a network of the parallels of latitudes and meridians of
longitude. These parallels and meridians, known as geographic co-ordinates,
serve as co-ordinates for locating the absolute positions of the various points
on the ground.

A map portrays 3 kinds of information about geographic features:
• Location and extent of the feature
• Attributes (characteristics) of the feature
• Relationship of the feature to other features
The amount of information to be represented on the map depends on -

1. Scale
2. Projection
3. Conventional signs
4. Skill of the draftsman
5. Methods of map making
Natural and man-made features, district, state and international boundaries

are depicted on maps by symbols called conventional signs. Distribution of
population, crops etc. are shown on maps with special symbols such as dots
circles, colours and shading. Latitude and longitude are also shown on map.
Title, legends, scale, directions and other feature texts are also given on the
map.
2.3.2.1 Elements of a Map

The main elements of a map are-frame, title, key (legend), scale, labels and
north arrow. These are often called annotations. In addition to these, graphic
image, grids, graticule, and outline and filled box are also used as
annotations. Annotations are text and graphic elements that help viewers
interpret the information appearing on a map. All annotations are individual
objects and, as such, can be moved, resized, deleted and hidden.
Frame: The frame holds the entire map together and defines the bounds
within which the map information is displayed. It should be present but
should not be too thick so as to distract the user from the contents of the
map.
Title: The title is probably the most important map element since it tells the
user what information to look for in the map. A good map title should
contain information about the location of the study area and
objectives/purpose of study in a short and concise manner.
Legend: The legend (key) explains what the colours, patterns, line types and
symbologies on the map signify. The closer a symbol represents the nature of
the entity, the lesser the explanation required. For example, a wiggy blue line
clearly identifies the entity as a river.
Scale: The scale bar is an important element since it provides the user with
an indication of the geographical size of the area. Sometimes the scale of a
map is represented only by a representative fraction like 1:50,000. These
should always be augmented with a scale bar because if a map is enlarged or
reduced the representative fraction in the original scale is no longer valid at
the new scale and could be misleading.
Charts: Bar, line and pie charts that graphically measure numeric data in a
point data layer can be displayed on a map as annotations. If the data
contains both actual and forecast or target values, radar charts can be used as
annotations to optimally display this information. A radar chart is similar to a
pie chart, but uses the radius of each pie slice to represent actual values as a
percentage of target values. Chart annotations can only be created using the
numeric data from a point data layer and the charts are linked to each point
location.
North Arrow: A north arrow orients a map. Normal orientation has a north
arrow pointing to the top edge of the map, but abnormal orientations are
sometimes necessary to improve the fit of an awkwardly shaped study area
into a map. The north arrow should be drawn simply and at a size that does
not clutter the rest of the map.
Label: The label is a piece of text that is used to give a name or value to a
geographical entity. For example, settlements and rivers are labeled with
their names.
Graphic Image: A graphic image can be displayed on the map. Example:

Company logo.
Grids: Grids display a series of dotted lines that are spaced evenly in the
vertical and horizontal directions.
Graticule: Graticule is a network of lines representing longitude and latitude

or projection X/Y coordinates.
Outline and filled box: An outline box or a filled box can be created to
enhance the display. For example, an outline box can be placed around a
legend. Or, if a legend is placed on top of an image, a filled box behind the
legend can highlight the legend from the image.
2.3.3 Types of Maps & GIS Data

Maps are generally classified based on two characteristics -
1. Scale
2. Purpose or Content.
According to map scales, maps can be divided into three categories:

1. Small-scale maps with scales smaller than 1:1,000,000
2. Medium-scale maps with scales between 1:75,000 and 1:1,000,000
3. Large-scale maps with scales larger than 1:75,000
Fig.2.5: Map scales: 1:1,000,000 (left), 1:500,000 (middle), 1:100,000 (right)
According to purpose, maps may be classified as -

Cadastral Maps
This word has been derived from French word 'Cadastre' meaning register of
territorial properties.
Cadastral maps drawn to register the ownership of landed property by

demarcating boundaries or buildings. Such maps are especially prepared by
the government and its scale will usually be 1:4000.
Wall Maps and Atlas maps

The world as a whole or in hemisphere is represented on the wall map,
generally used as a classroom teaching aid.
Topographic maps are general maps that portray a section of the Earth's
surface and accompanying features. These features usually represent the
visible landscape and terrain.
Thematic maps are more specific than topographic maps. Thematic maps
depict information which may or may not be directly observable such as
population density, forest type, land use, or amount of rainfall.
These maps are prepared to serve some special purposes with reference to a
specific theme.
• Astronomical Map - Showing heavenly features
• Relief maps - Shows elevation differences of the surface.
• Geological Maps - Shows rock features, earth crust of earth etc.
• Weather Maps - Shows weather condition - Daily, Monthly, Annual etc.
• Climatic Maps - Shows climatic conditions.
• Vegetation Map - Shows Flora
• Cultural Map - Shows Cultural Pattern
• Political Map - Shows boundaries between different states
• Military Map - Shows routes and points for military purposes.
• Historical Map - Shows past events
• Tourist Map - Shows tourist's important features
Since GIS data are stored in a database, and not as a cartographic product, it
is not necessary to make a major distinction between topographic and
thematic data. Rather, GIS data can be recognized as separable into two
types:
Spatial data: allows us to answer the question "where is it?"

 Stored in x and y (geo-referencing)
 Gives information on the location and shape of features
 Can tell us the relationships among two or more geographical
features
Attribute data: allows us to ask the question "what is it ?"

 'Character string' (Nominal/Ordinal) - e.g. pine, spruce; high,
medium, low
 'Integer' (Ordinal/Interval) - e.g. 1, 2, 3, 46, 864
 'Real' (Interval) - e.g. 2.5, 56.8, 3.168
 'Binary' (Nominal) - e.g. presence or absence of a type (forest/non-
forest)
Fig.2.6: Types of Map
2.3.4 Scale
It is both impossible and impractical to represent a section of the Earth's
surface at its full size. Therefore maps and GIS data show a scaled portion of
the Earth's surface.
Scale = the amount of reduction (expressed as a ratio)
e.g. 1:10,000 => a reduction in size / detail by 10,000 times
=> 1cm = 10,000cm (or 1cm = 100m)
A larger scale is reduced by a lesser amount. Hence 1:50,000 is a larger scale
than 1:250,000.
Another common method is the representative fraction (RF) method, in

which both map distance and the ground distance are given in the same units,
as a fraction, thereby eliminating the need to include units of measure.
Graphic or bar scale is another basic method of expressing scale. Measured

ground distances appear directly on the map
Data collected at a specific scale are suitable only for similar scales
 At smaller scales, large scale data are too complex

 At larger scales, small scale data are too generalized
As scale is reduced -> fewer elements, fewer details

As scale is reduced -> more polygons become points and arcs
2.4 Manual Digitization and Scanning System
2.4.1 Digitizing
The most common method of capturing data on a map and putting them into
a computer file is digitizing consists of tracing features on a map which has
been mounted on a digitizing tablet. By pressing a button on the cursor key
pad, the X, Y coordinate location of each features are recorded.
2.4.2 Digitizing Techniques

After preparing the map and placing it on the digitizing tablet, you are ready
to trace the points and lines with digitizing cursor or keypad. The keypad
records the position at which the cross hairs intersect. The buttons on the
keypad are programmed to perform functions such as recording a point or the
beginning of a line. As the keypad button is pressed, the computer records
the current x, y coordinate location of that position in digitizer units.
An intersection is formed whenever two of more lines meet at the same

location. When digitizing, you may choose to input each intersection
explicitly with a node (discrete digitizing) and input a number of longer lines
without nodes (spaghetti digitizing).
2.4.3 Manual Digitizing

Manual Digitizing still is the most common method for entering maps into a
GIS. The map to be digitized is affixed to a digitizing table and a pointing
device (called the digitizing cursor or mouse) is used to trace the features of
the map. These features can be boundary lines between mapping units, other
linear features (rivers, roads etc) or point features. The digitizing table
electronically encodes the position of the cursor with a precision of a fraction
of a millimeter. The most common digitizing table uses a fine grid of wires,
embedded in the table. The vertical wires will record the y-coordinates of the
horizontal ones, the X-coordinates.
The range of digitized coordinates depends upon the density of the wires
(called digitizing resolution) and the settling of the digitizing software. A
digitizing table is normally a rectangular area in the middle, separated from
the outer boundary of the table by a small rim. Outside of this so-called
active area of the digitizing table, no coordinates are recorded. The lower left
corner of the active area will have the co-ordinates X=0 and Y=0. Therefore,
make sure that the (part of the) map that you want to digitize is always fixed
within the active area.
2.4.4 Scanning System

The second method of obtaining vector data is with the use of scanners.
Scanning (or scan digitizing) provides a quicker means of data entry than
manual digitizing. In scanning, a digital image of the map is produced by
moving an electronic detector across the map surface. The output of a
scanner is a digital raster images consisting of a large number of individual
cells ordered in rows and columns. For the conversion to vector format, two
types of raster images can be used.
In the case of chloroplast maps of thematic maps, such as geological maps,

the individual mapping units can be separated by the scanner according to
their different color or grey tone. The resulting image will be color or grey-
tone images.
In the case of scanned lines maps, such as topographic maps, the result is a
black and while image. Black lines are converted to a value of 1, and the
white areas in between lines will obtain a value of 0 in the scanning image.
These images, with only two possibilities (1 or 0) are also called binary
images.
The raster image is computer processed to improve the image quality and is
then edited and checked by an operator. It is then converted into vector
format by special computer programs which are different for color/grey tone
images and binary images.
2.5 Geo-referencing
 Lines of longitude (meridians) - converge at Poles
 Lines of latitude (parallels) - are equally spaced
 Not a rectangular system - one degree varies in size
The graticule is not a 'rectangular' system and is hence poorly suited to GIS,
since 'one degree', and square areas, are not uniform across the world, nor in
map projections. As a further complication, since we have a '0' line both in
latitude and longitude with values either side, latitude and longitude in
computer mapping / GIS involves negative numbers south of the equator
(latitude) and west of the Greenwich Meridian. The system most commonly
used in Nepal at least is the Modified Universal Transverse Mercator
(MUTM) system.
2.6 Projection Systems
2.6.1 Map projections
A map projection is a method of showing the 3-D planet Earth on a 2-D
plane, inevitably causing distortions. The distortion can occur in distance,
area, shape, or direction. Each projection will result in different types and
amounts of distortion.
The 3 main types of projections are:
Azimuthal (or planar) - all points maintain their true compass bearing.
Cylindrical - lines of longitude and are of equal length.
Conic - distortion increases away from the standard parallel (where the cone
touches the globe.)
2.6.2 Mercator Projection (1569)

 Most common projection to 20th century (cylindrical projection)
 Lines of constant compass bearing (called "rhumb lines")
 Maintains shapes (N-S is stretched equally to E-W)
 Low distortion near equator
 Areas enlarged away from equator (cannot show poles)
2.6.3 Transverse Mercator

 'Flipped' 90 degrees from standard Mercator
 Low distortion near central meridian
 Areas enlarged away from CM
 Basis for the UTM system (see below)
2.6.4 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) System

The UTM system is used for mapping and GIS in many countries. The basic
details of this system include:
 World is divided into 60 N-S 'zones' (Nepal in 44 and 45 zones )

 Each zone is 6 degrees longitude wide
 Zone varies in width: 668 km at equator, 115 km at 80N
 Distortion = 0 at Central Meridian (zone center)
 Misaligned with earth graticule away from CM
 Coordinates given by 'easting' (first) and 'northing'
 Easting (6 digits): relative to CM = 500,000 (meters)
 Northing (7 digits): relative to Equator = 0 (meters)
 Equator to Pole = 10,000,000 meters
 Adjacent map sheets and digital tiles match within a zone
 Adjacent sheets and tiles DON'T match between zones
 Used for scales > = 1 : 250,000; not used for smaller scales
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system is commonly

used in GIS because it has been included since the late 1950s on most USGS
topographic maps. The choice of the transverse Mercator, probably now used
more than any other projection for accurate mapping, has an interesting
history. The story begins with the observation that the equatorial Mercator
projection distorts areas so much at poles, nevertheless produces minimal
distortion laterally along the equator.
Johann Heinrich Lambert modified the Mercator projection into its

transverse form in 1772, in which the "equator" instead runs north-south.
The effect is to minimize distortion in a narrow strip running from pole to
pole. Gauss further analyzed the projection in 1822, and Kruger worked out
the ellipsoid in 1912 and 1919 adjusting for "polar flattening". As a result,
the projection is often called the Gauss conformal or the Gauss-Kruger,
although the name transverse Mercator is used in the United States.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates define two dimensional,

horizontal, positions.
UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree longitudinal strips extending from 80

degrees South latitude to 84 degrees North latitude.
UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones extending north and south
from the equator.
There are special UTM zones between 0 degrees and 36 degrees longitude
above 72 degrees latitude and a special zone 32 between 56 degrees and 64
degrees north latitude.
Each zone has a central meridian. Zone 14, for example, has a central
meridian of 99 degrees west longitude. The zone extends from 96 to 102
degrees west longitude.
Eastings are measured from the central meridian (with a 500km false easting
to insure positive coordinates).
2.6.5 North American Datum (NAD)

The UTM system (and other projections and systems) are based on a
surveyed ellipse that approximates the spheroid that is the Earth. This
ellipsoid has a slightly different equatorial and polar radius, due to 'polar
flattening'. Although it is only about 1/300th of the earth's radius, the
calculation of this ellipsoid over the last century has lead to different ground
coordinates.
Coordinates are based on a 'DATUM'; a basis for mapping. In North

America there have been two standard 'datum' (North American Datum =
NAD)
NAD27 based on Clarke (1866)

 measured by traditional survey; was used for conventional mapping
NAD83 based on WGS (1980-84)

 measured by satellite geometry; is now the standard for digital
mapping

NAD27 versus NAD83: the 'NAD shift'
There can be a difference of up to 200 metres in Northings (and 70 metres in
eastings). The conversion of data from the earlier standard to the newer
standard is critical in large scale mapping, and is known as the 'NAD
shift'.Data based on the two different NAD standards will not 'match' or
overlay at large scales.
2.6.6 Projection Classification by 'Developable Surface'

Projections can be made literally by projecting a globe onto a surface; these
are 'perspective' projections. Projections can also be made geometrically, by
mathematical construction; these are 'non-perspective'. More commonly,
projections are classed according to the three types of developable surfaces
 Generating globe (GG): a scaled down representation of the world

used to generate the projection
 Developable surface (DS): the flat surface onto which projection is
made, either a plane, cylinder or cone
Plane: a plane touches the GG at a point. These are zenithal or azimuthal

projections which always preserve direction from point of projection.
Cylinder: the GG is enveloped by a cylinder. These are obviously called

cylindrical projections. For this type of map, the cylinder is cut along the
length and unrolled after the projection has been developed.
Cone: the GG sits under a cone, touching along a pre-selected line of latitude
--> conic projections. This is developed by cutting the cone at the base to
the apex and unrolling.
In addition, there is a fourth group that does not use a conceptual generating
globe. These are known as geometric and also 'conventional', and are
generally 'pseudo-cylindrical'.
In all projections, distortion is least where the DS touches GG and increases

as distance between them increases. This is from a point for azimuthally
projections and from a line for cylindrical and conic. Projections can be
further subdivided depending on the relative orientation of the DS and GG

2.6.7 MAP PROJECTION EXAMPLES
Azimuthal Projections
These azimuthal projections are the earliest types ad were devised by the
'Ancient Greeks'. In each case, the globe touches the projection plane at a
point: the simplest case is the polar.
a. Gnomonic
 Point of origin is at the centre of the GG.
 Scale increases rapidly from the centre, so the equator can't be
shown.
 The advantage of this projection is that it is the ONLY one where all
great circles are straight lines.
b. Stereographic
 Point of origin is at far pole.
 Scale increases from centre, but not as much as gnomonic.
 Can show one hemisphere, but with increasing distortion.
 It is a conformal projection.
c. Orthographic
 Point of origin at infinity (like a projector), or distant planet.
 Scale decreases from centre, can only show 1 hemisphere.
 It shows the perspective as seen from space, e.g. the earth from the
moon.
d. Equidistant
 Light source is located between stereographic and orthographic.
 Can only be approximated by perspective methods: hence is a non-
perspective projection
 All meridians are standard lines, so equatorial areas are exaggerated
 An advantage is that the parallels are equally spaced (polar case)
e. Equal-Area
 Origin between orthographic and equidistant to compensate for
stretching, not possible exactly by perspective methods; but it is
equal-area.
 Each of the five has equatorial and oblique versions, which are less
easy to construct, but can be centered on any chosen location, yes
even Prince George.
2.6.8 Cylindrical Projections
The cylindrical projections date from the 16th century. The globe is
'wrapped' by a cylinder, which is 'unwrapped' at a convenient line (180
degrees E/W most commonly). The equator becomes the standard line. All
projections have a rectangular grid, with parallels of equal length. Meridians
are at right angles, equally spaced. They are especially well known as a
result of the widespread use of Mercator's projection, for better or worse.
a. Mercator Projection (1568): 'the navigator's friend'

 Lines of constant compass bearing (rhomb lines) are straight lines,
crucial for early navigation.
 N-S stretching to match E-W, hence shapes are 'maintained'.
 Scale Factor is the same in two directions at any point, and hence is
conformal.
 It exaggerates polar areas greatly: x4 at 60, x30 at 80, infinite at poles
(which cannot be shown)
b. Transverse Mercator
 Standard line is on a selected line of longitude (meridian).
 This projection is the basis for the (Universal) UTM system and is
used in many countries, including
 Australia, Canada, US and UK.
 Each UTM zone is 6 degrees of longitude wide, each Central
Meridian is a standard line.
 The UTM system consists of 60 UTM projections
C. Gall's Projection (1880) / also known as Peters (1972)

 Details are projected 'stereographically' from the other side of globe.
 E-W stretching is matched by N-S compression, for an Equal-Area
projection.
 Used recently by UNESCO and religious organizations to emphasize
the importance of the third world compared to the impression given
by Mercator's projection, but while areas are preserved, shapes are
(grotesquely) distorted.

2.6.9 Conic Projections
Conic projections date from the 18th century. The cone opens out to form a
'pie' shape with concentric parallels, and meridians as radial spokes. The
standard line can be located at chosen latitude: there are no oblique and
transform cases, since the ability to select a standard parallel makes them
redundant. Cylindrical and azimuthal projections could be considered as the
extreme cases of the conic (highly acute or highly flattened cones
respectively).
2.6.10 Conventional Projections

These are also called 'pseudo cylindrical'. The parallels are generally equally
spaced as in the cylindrical projections, but are made proportional to their
real length to minimize overall distortion. They are geometrically
constructed.
a. Sinusoidal
 Central area has least distortion (as opposed to the band around
equator in cylindrical).
 Meridians are not at right angles. Equal area is preserved at the cost
of shape.
 Parallels equally spaced, correct length.
b. Mollweide / Homolographic (1805)

 Equal area but less distortion than sinusoidal.
 More 'pleasing shape' particularly in high latitudes.
 Parallels are not true to scale, too long above 40 degrees.
 The 90 E/W line forms a circle; meridians equally spaced.
 Parallels spaced closer together from equator to maintain equal-area.
c. Goode's Homolosinal (1923)

 Goode's (1923) combines < 40 degrees sinusoidal and > 40 degrees
Mollweide.
 Join at 40 degrees latitude, where they are the same length.
 Equal-area; often used in modern atlases
 Often seen in 'interrupted' form: saving distortion by cutting out
ocean areas.
d. Robinson's
 Adopted by National Geographic in 1988.
 The poles are shown as lines to preserve shape in extremes.
2.7 Coordinate Systems

The geographic co-ordinate system is a spherical coordinate system
composed of parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. Both divide the
circumference of the earth into 360 degrees which are further subdivided into
minutes and seconds. Unlike the equator in the latitude system, there is no
natural zero meridians. In 1884, it was finally agreed that the meridian of the
Royal Observatory in Greenwich, U.K., would be the prime meridian.
Mercator is an international rectangular coordinate system which extends

around the world from 84 degrees north to 80 degrees south. The world is
divided into 60 zones, each covering six (6) degrees longitude. Each zone
extends three (3) degrees eastwards and three degrees westwards from its
central meridian. Zones are numbered west to east from the 180 degree
meridian. Nepal falls under zones 44 and 45.

Fig.2.7: Co-ordinates System
The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to define
latitude and longitude

Around the spherical shape of the earth, simple geometry is used to create a
spherical grid system that corresponds to the rules of geometry. This grid
system, known as the spherical grid system, places two sets of imaginary
lines around the Earth; east-west lines called parallels and north-south lines
called meridians. Parallels are lines that encircle the globe from east to west.
The equator is the parallel that lies exactly halfway between the North Pole
and South Pole. Parallels are used to measure latitude - that is, the angular
distance from the equator toward either pole. Latitude is measured in degrees
of a circle. Any point on the equator has latitude of zero degrees, written 0o.
The North Pole has latitude of 90o north and the South Pole has latitude of
90o south. Every other point on the Earth has latitude somewhere between 0 o
and 90o. Parallels are sometimes called
lines of latitude.
Fig.2.8: Lines of latitude encircle the

globe from the east to west
Fig.2.9: Lines of longitude

extend from the pole to pole
Meridians are lines that extend halfway around the globe from the North
Pole to the South Pole. By international agreement, mapmakers begin
counting meridians from the line that passes through Greenwich, England, a
borough of London. The Greenwich meridian is also known as the prime
meridian. Meridians are used to measure longitude - that is, the angular
distance east or 7west from the prime meridian. Like latitude, longitude is
measured in degrees of a circle. Meridians, which are sometimes called lines
of longitude, run from 0o at Greenwich to 180o. The meridian lies halfway
around the globe from the prime meridian. Between the prime meridian and
the 180o meridian are lines of west longitude (west of the prime meridian)
and the lines of east longitude (east of the prime meridian). Longitude and
latitude can be used to pinpoint any place on earth. Distances and areas must
be calculated using spherical geometry and the Earth's radii to the points in
question. In applications, latitude and longitude are usually used in
describing major land areas.
2.8 Accuracy and Precision

Precision is how exactly a location is specified (relates to the exactness of
the method used). And Accuracy is how close recorded location is to true
value (relates to the exactness of the result).
Accuracy is relates to how "true" the data is to the real world. This also
relates to textual data. Spatial data accuracy can be a direct result of both the
collection and capture processes. Consideration should also be given to:
“how well does a GIS represent the real world and how well do GIS analyses
compute the accurate values?"
Spatial data that is captured can only be as good as the source maps from
which it is being captured. Another significant issue to consider is that of
precision. This is a term used in computing that often refers to the number of
decimal places or significant digits in a measurement. Precision is not,
however, the same as accuracy. It measures the exactness with which a value
is expressed, whether the value is right or wrong. A large number of
significant digits therefore, do not necessarily indicate that the measurement
is accurate. It is important to realize that a GIS may work at high precision,
mostly much higher than the accuracy of the data itself.
Positional Accuracy: This term refers to the closeness of Locational

information (usually co-ordinates) to their real world position. There are a
number of accuracy standards but conventionally, maps are accurate to
approximately 0.5mm.This is equivalent to 25 meters on a 1:50 00 scale
map. The precision of the co-ordinates, which represent the cartographic
elements, will depend on the scale at which they are captured. There are a
number of standard tests that can be carried out to measure positional
accuracy. It can be measured, for instance, by reference to original or new
survey data or more detailed cartographic sources. The quality of a 1:50 000-
scale map could be tested against a number of 1:10 000 scale maps. This
type of evaluation is undertaken statistically using cartometric testing
techniques.
Attribute Accuracy: This measures the closeness of attribute values to their

true value. Attribute accuracy must be analyzed in different ways depending
on the nature of the data. Two classes can be considered. In the assessment
of continuous attributes (such as surfaces), accuracy can be expressed as a
measurement error. For example, elevation accuracy may be recorded as
"plus or minus 1 meter". The other is a categorical attribute, such as those
used for the classification of polygons. Rules need to exist for so-called non-
homogenous areas. For example, if an area is 60% one category and 40%
another category then a decision on how should it be classified must be
made. The classification system must remain consistent.
Completeness: Completeness relates to the amount of information recorded

within a dataset. These can be associated with verification and classification.
The amount and distribution of features, for instance, may vary within the
dataset. Furthermore, the classification system may or may not be a good
representation of the data in question. For example, need to avoid
overlapping classes or systems open to misinterpretation.
Logical Consistency: This term is associated with the relationship between

data elements within a dataset. It also relates to the maintenance of those
relations. For example, does a one always digitize from the center of a road
or along which riverbank does one measure? It is difficult to measure logical
consistency and perhaps, therefore, it is best to consider such aspects of the
data before they are entered into the GIS.

3.0 DATABASE CONCEPT AND DESIGN
Database Management Systems (DBMS) are an integrated and crucial

component of most successful GIS. DBMS are used to store, manipulate and
retrieve data from a database. A key element in creating a spatial database is
database design using a variety of data modeling techniques. Although the
range of DBMS structures used in GIS includes inverted list, hierarchical,
network and relational designs, it is the latter which has come to dominant
the field. Two mini approaches have been used in the design of GIS software
systems: the hybrid and integrated models. Both have advantages and
disadvantages for specific applications. Looking to the future, the main
issues facing the spatial database world are the likely impact of the ideas of
the object-oriented community and the need to develop distributed systems
capable of handling temporal data in an efficient manner.
3.1 Databases for GIS

Among the different threads that can be observed in the development of GIS
methodology, one major one has been the progressive realization of the
importance of database management systems (DBMS). Initially for handling
map attribute data, but increasingly for handling digital cartographic data
also. While many of the operations required for data manipulation in 615 are
now seen to be specific instances of more general classes of database
problem, standard database tools have also been shown to have a number of
limitations when applied to GIS processing.
The first section examines the fundamental characteristics of DBMS. This is

followed by sections on data modeling, database design, database structures
and alternative methods of utilizing a DBMS within GIS. The final section
examines future developments and the ways in which they may contribute to
the solution of outstanding technical and methodological problems in
database management for GIS.
3.3 Database Processing and Management System

To clarify definitions at the outset, the term ‘database management system
(DBMS)’ will be used to refer to a software package for the storage,
manipulation and retrieval of data from a database. A database is a collection
of one or more data files or tables stored in a structured manner, such that
interrelationships which exist between different items or sets of data can be
utilized by the DBMS software for manipulation and retrieval purposes. The
database will, in general, serve the data requirements of a variety of users
rather than a single individual. If the restriction is enforced that the DBMS
software provides the only means of access to the database, there are a
number of important implications.
The method of data storage can be considered independently of the

programs that access the database. A controlled and standardized approach
to data input and update can be enforced, with appropriate validation checks
to ensure data integrity and consistency between data files. Security
restrictions on access to specific data subsets can be applied.
A consistent approach can be adopted for managing simultaneous multi-user

read and update operations on specific files or tables. It is these factors,
coupled with the elimination of unnecessary redundancy in data storage
because multiple users can share data, that gives the combination of DBMS
software and database its greatly enhanced efficiency and productivity in
data management as compared to individuals working with their own
programs and file structures
The central component of a DBMS is the kernel software, usually written in

C or FORTRAN, which controls the processing of queries, access paths to
data, storage management, indexing and multi-user read, update operations.
Linked to the kernel are a variety of interfaces to the user. These include
query language interfaces, bulk data loaders, screen forms management
systems, menu handlers, report writers and programming language
interfaces. Query language interfaces allow the user to issue ad hock queries
against the database which result in data from one or several linked tables or
files being retrieved. These queries are expressed in high level languages,
which formerly were often system specific. Now there is convergence in the
commercial marketplace on SQL, the ANSI standard for DBMS query
languages. If the query language contains additional procedural functionality,
which SQL itself does not, it can be called a ‘fourth generation language’.
Since these languages operate with query language commands, which may
individually cause large amounts of program code in the database kernel to
be executed, they are at once very powerful and potentially CPU intensive.
3.4 Database Design

Definition
A database is a shared collection of data designed to meet the needs of
multiple us. A does not have to be computerized. However, due to the high
power and relatively low price of current technology, as well as the
increasing availability of data prepared in the digital form, most databases
are intended for computer use. Databases all share a number of
characteristics including those listed below
3.4.1 Physical and logical database design

As a database is likely to a shared resource which as it develops will come to
represent a major investment by any given organization, it is most important
that this investment is protected by careful database design. An initial
distinction should be made between physical and logical design. Physical
design is concerned with the location of different parts of the database within
the file system of the computer. This may include considerations such as
spreading the database across multiple disk drives to balance input/output
load or for security in the event of disk media failure. Physical design is the
responsibility of the database administrator and should he quite distinct from
logical design, which represents the user’s view of the interrelationships
between data sets stored in the database. if physical and logical design are
kept separate, users can access their data sets without having to concern
themselves with details about where and how those data sets are physically
stored.
3.4.2 Data analysis

The first stage in logical database design is the use of data analysis
techniques to develop a clearly defined conceptual model of the relationships
between different data sets. These relationships may be specific or a small
number of data sets required for a single user, or they may extend to all the
components of a large corporate database. Regardless of the size of system,
if this conceptual model is not built correctly. the likely outcome will he an
inefficient database e structure with unnecessary redundancy in data storage
and a poor match to users’ requirements for data access and retrieval.
There are varieties of data analysis or data modeling techniques that can be
used, but the entity—relationship model approach (Chen approach) has met
with the widest acceptance. Chen’s approach is based on a number of
fundamental concepts including entity sets, attributes, domains, relationship
sets and mappings. Entity sets represent the generic structure of phenomena
which are relevant to the specific database being designed. They might be
towns, census districts, hotels or national parks for example. Each entity
belonging to a particular entity set will have a number of characteristics or
attributes. In the case of census districts these might include an identification
number, X, Y coordinates of a centroid and a list of census variables. Each
attribute will have a range of possible values which constitutes its domain or
value-set. For example, identification numbers may range between 1 and
9999 or hotels may have tourist guide quality ratings between 1 and 5.
Relationship sets are formally defined as subsets of the cross product of two
or more entity sets. The specific relationship between individual members of
the respective entity sets provides the sub-setting mechanism, for example
the fact that certain members of the hot el set are located in a particular town.
Specific relationships or mappings between entities sets may take a variety
of forms. One-to-one mappings refer to the situation where, for example,
each town has one and only one set of municipal offices, while a one-to-
many mapping would be where a town had a number of hotels. Many-to-
many mappings deal with cases such as that of wholesalers distributing
goods to different shopping centers. Each centre will be served by multiple
wholesalers and each wholesaler will distribute goods to several centers. A
number of refinements in the specification of relationships are possible
depending, for instance on whether or not they are defined to be mandatory
(every hotel must be located in one and only one town).
Using these fundamental concepts, it is possible to develop sophisticated

models of data interrelationships. The availability of diagramming methods
linked to the concepts allows graphical representations of models to be
drawn. These are powerful aids to model articulation and as a means of
communication. A simple example involving national parks, scenic trails and
landscape features is given in Figure
3.4.4 Type of DBMS Structure
Once the data analysis is complete, the resulting data model must be
implemented using suitable DBMS software. This might be developed in-
house, but unless the organization is large and the programming resources
considerable, it is unlikely it would have the required facilities. More likely,
the software will be one of the large numbers of systems currently available
commercially. These systems can he broadly categorized into four main
types:
1. Hierarchical Database Management System

2. Network Database Management System
3. Object Oriented Database Management System
4. Relational Database Management System
Important new approaches, which have not yet established a major presence
in the commercial marketplace, are discussed in a later section. While some
software packages may have characteristics drawn from more than one of the
above types, in general the category into which any given package falls gives
a clear indication of the way in which it structures data sets and their
interrelationships at the level of logical database design. It should he noted
also that the first two categories developed from refinement and
improvement of commercial approaches to data management and are largely
represented by older systems. While the last two are in turn both more recent
in origin and more soundly based on theoretical, rather than pragmatic
considerations. Choosing any one of these different types of system will have
a major impact on the way in which the data model for a particular
application problem maps onto the underlying database structure.
1) Hierarchical database

• A hierarchical database organizes data as one object of interest
related to many other objects of interest. The tree-like structure is
referred to as an ordered set of parent/child relationships. In this
model, a parent can have one or more children. Child cannot have
more than one parent. When real world’ data relationships are of this
type, the hierarchical model is an effective representation model.
• Hierarchical are familiar relationships. Examples are plant and

animal taxonomies, a dendritic river drainage pattern, and the
organization of a file cabinet into several drawers, each of which
contains a number of folders which may contain one or more
documents, and so on. Note that the relationship is always from one
to many; the model does not support from many to one.
• The hierarchical model includes an implementation strategy that

requires the extensive use of physical pointers. These pointers
become part of the data structure and are therefore explicit. That is,
the relationships that are believed to exist become hard-wired into the
implementation. This may make a hierarchical database very efficient
in processing data demonstrating such a relationship, but very
difficult to process data which does not conform
2) Network Database
• Network database extend the hierarchical model and allow from many
to one relationship to be represented. Street patterns, shown in the
graphic above, illustrate networks. When modeled in this way, many
streets can be associated with one intersection. The network and the
hierarchical model make extensive use of physical pointers to identify
relationships. Because of the requirements to traverse the database
along physical pointers, hierarchical and network databases have an
embedded implementation scheme?
• The network model is very effective in management of geographic

information, especially for establishing linear features and their
relationships
3) Object Oriented Database
• In this model the data are arranged in classes and sub-classes, which
are a set of objects grouped into categories and with link of various
kinds. All objects in the same class share a set of properties (attribute)
and methods (requests)
• The above diagram is normally termed as object model diagram, which

illustrates relationships among classes. The diagram depicts inheritance
type of relationship. Inheritance relationships illustrate the Is Kind Of
relationship and allow for a progressive refinement of classes from the
more general to the more specific. Super-classes define more general
aspects which subclasses inherit and further define additional more
specific characteristics and behavior. When looking for a particular
request or attribute, search the class and then also the super-classes.
• The categories inherit hierarchically the properties and methods of the

class in the preceding rank. For example, a deciduous forest sub-class
will inherit the properties and methods of the forest class. The
principles of object-oriented databases are aimed at overcoming some
of the disadvantages f classic structured (in particular the layer based
system). The object-oriented programming makes use of the above
concept. Typically, behave a format like this: Object .Request
4) Relational Database
o A relational database is a perception of data as collections of tables that
are logically associated to each other by shared attributes.
 A relation can represent all the information that can be represented in a

hierarchy with one less data object, a physical pointer.
 Any data element can be found in a relation by knowing the table

name, the attribute (column) name, and the value of the primary key.
The advantage of these systems is that they are very flexible and can
reply to any kind of query formulated with logical and mathematical
operations.
A relational database is a collection of files that are perceived as two-

dimensional tables. The columns are referred to as attributes and the rows are
termed tuples or occurrences. The value for any attribute is termed an entry
and is the smallest unit of data within the database. That is, an entry cannot
be reduced to a smaller structure without loss of information. For example, if
the smallest unit of data is name, then the entry RAM cannot be reduced to a
set of individual characters, R A M, and still maintain the original meaning.
The table construction is used in several areas other than relational database
systems. Spreadsheets, arrays, and statistical matrices are, for example,
structured in this way. In these other areas there is a different terminology,
however. Within an array, an individual value is termed an element; while
within statistics, rows, or observations, are distinguished from columns, or
variables. These are not necessarily relational structures, however, since in
addition, a relational table, or relation, must conform to the following six
properties:

Most common type
A record in Table A can have many matching records in Table B, but a
record in Table B has only one matching record in Table A
• Each column, termed an attribute, has a unique name.

• The left-to-right order of columns is irrelevant.
• Each attribute entry is single valued; no repeating groups or arrays are
allowed.
• Entries in any one column are of the same kind.
• The top-to-bottom order of rows is also irrelevant.
• Each row is unique, and is called a record
About Relationships in a Database

A relationship works by matching data in key fields - a field with the same
name in both tables
1. One-to-one relationship (1:1)
2. One-to-many relationship (1: m)
3. many-to-many-relationship (m: m)
3.5 Data Dictionary

Name Source Data Scale Projection Description
Transportation LRMP 1985 1:50,000 UTM Road codes
Landuse LRMP 1986 1:50,000 UTM Land use codes
Landsystems LRMP 1984 1:50,000 UTM Land systems
Data dictionary is one from of metadata. Its main purpose is to act the
“users’ guide” to the database. It catalogues the source data for all coverage
in the database and is the focal; point for data standardization. The function
of the data dictionary is to
- Make the data more comprehensible
- Reduce data redundancy
- Improve data integrity
The data dictionary can be placed into a database file for on – line listing. It
can then be used for automatic map and report generation.

4.0 REMOTE SENSING
4.1 What is remote sensing?

We perceive the surrounding world through our five senses. Some senses
(touch and taste) require contact of our sensing organs with the objects.
However, we acquire much information about our surrounding through the
senses of sight and hearing that do not require close contact between the
sensing organs and the external objects. In other words, we are performing
remote sensing all the time.
Remote Sensing is the science and art of acquiring information (spectral,

spatial, and temporal) about material objects, area, or phenomenon, without
coming into physical contact with the objects, or area, or phenomenon under
investigation. Without direct contact, some means of transferring information
through space must be utilized. In remote sensing, information transfer is
accomplished by use of electromagnetic radiation (EMR).
Generally, remote sensing refers to the activities of

recording/observing/perceiving (sensing) objects or events at distant
(remote) places. Remote sensing is defined as the science and technology by
which the characteristics of objects of interest can be identified, measured or
analysed without direct contact. Remote sensing deals with gathering
information about the Earth from a distance. This can be done a few metres
from the Earth’s surface, from an aircraft flying hundreds thousands of
metres above the surface or by a satellite orbiting hundreds of kilometres
above the Earth.
 The analogue unit of data collection is the photograph (aerial or from
space), from a camera.
 The digital unit is the pixel, created by using a scanner.
 Scale is a function of distance from the object, system quality and
resolution.
 Analogue or digital systems can generate various images along the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 All photographs are also 'images' but digital images are not
photographs.
 A digital image processing system must be RASTER, but may also
have vector capabilities.
 VECTOR systems may have some raster options, such as image
display.
 Traditional uses of remote sensing are interpretation, location &
updating
 Digital applications are classification & feature extraction

In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between
incident radiation and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use of
imaging systems where the following seven elements are involved. Note,
however that remote sensing also involves the sensing of emitted energy and
the use of non-imaging sensors.
Fig.4.1: Satellite Process
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the first requirement for remote

sensing is to have an energy source, which illuminates or provides
electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source
to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it
passes through. This interaction may take place a second time as the energy
travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the
target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the
properties of both the target and the radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been
scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in
contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by

the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and
processing station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy
and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted,

visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the
target, which was illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is

achieved when we apply the information we have been able to extract from
the imagery about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new
information, or assist in solving a particular problem. These seven elements
comprise the remote sensing process from beginning to end.
4.2 Milestones in the History of Remote Sensing
1839 Invention of photography
1910 First use of aerial photography (World War I: photo interpretation)
1920 Development of photogrammetry for mapping
1940 Military use of radar (World War II)
1950 Use of colour photography and infra-red
1962 Term 'remote sensing' first appeared
1970 Launch of first weather satellites (Nimbus, Tiros)
1972 Launch of Landsat 1 (named ERTS -1) and multispectral sensor
(MSS)
1982 Landsat 4 and 'the next generation sensor': Thematic Mapper (TM)
1985 UNIX workstations and improved PCs enabling widespread use of
digital imagery and GIS
1986 SPOT-1 satellite (France)
1990 Other satellites: e.g. India, Japan, USSR; airborne spectrometers (e.g.
CASI)
1995 Other satellites: e.g. India, Japan, USSR; airborne spectrometers (e.g.
CASI)
2000 High resolution private sector satellites
NOAA
It is the first generation of National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration satellites and was as the first operation operational remote
sensing satellite system. The third generation NOAA satellites are also
successfully used for vegetation monitoring, apart from meteorological
monitoring. It is equipped with Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
(AVHRR) sensors, and is established at an altitude of 850 km. in polar orbit.
GMS
Geo-synchronous meteorological satellite. It is established at an altitude of
36,000 km, and its main purpose is meteorological observations
Landsat
Landsat is established at an altitude of 700 kms is a polar orbit and is used
mainly for land area observation.
SPOT
(Système Pour l'Observation de la Terre) is a series of Earth observation
imaging satellites designed and launched by CNES (Centre National
d'Études Spatiales) of France, with support from Sweden and Belgium.
SPOT-1 was launched in 1986, with successors following every three or four
years. All satellites are in sun-synchronous, near-polar orbits at altitudes
around 830 km above the Earth, which results in orbit repetition every 26
days. They have equator crossing times around 10:30 AM local solar time.
SPOT was designed to be a commercial provider of Earth observation data,
and was the first satellite to use along-track, or pushbroom scanning
technology.
IRS
The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite series, combines features from
both the Landsat MSS/TM sensors and the SPOT HRV sensor. The third
satellite in the series, IRS-1C, launched in December, 1995 has three sensors:
a single-channel panchromatic (PAN) high resolution camera, a medium
resolution four-channel Linear Imaging Self-scanning Sensor (LISS-III), and
a coarse resolution two-channel Wide Field Sensor (WiFS). The
accompanying table outlines the specific characteristics of each sensor.
4.3 Remote-sensing satellite

Remote-sensing satellites are equipped with sensors that look down at the
earth. They are eyes in the sky constantly observing the earth.
Fig.: Remote Sensing Satellite
4.3.1 Why remote sensing?

Remote-sensing satellite images gives a synoptic (birds eye) view of any
place on the Earth’s surface. This allows us to study, map and monitor the
Earth’s surface at local and/or regional/global scales. It is cost effective and
gives better spatial coverage compared to ground sampling.
4.3.2 How does remote sensing work?

Electro-magnetic radiation reflected or emitted from an object is the usual
source of remote sensing data. A device to detect the electro-magnetic
radiation reflected or emitted is called a remote sensor or sensor. Cameras or
scanners are examples of remote sensors. A vehicle to carry the sensor is
called a plat- form. Aircraft or satellites are used as platforms.
The characteristics of an object can be determined using its reflected or

emitted electromagnetic radiation. That is each object has a unique
characteristic of reflection or emission if the object type or environmental
conditions are different. Remote sensing is a technology to identify and
understand the object or the environmental conditions through the
uniqueness of its electro-magnetic reflection or emission. This concept is
illustrated in Figure.
Fig.4.2: Remote Sensing System
4.4 Type of Remote Sensing

1) Passive Remote Sensing makes use of sensors that detect the
reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from natural sources. The
sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or absorbed
and then re-emitted, as it is for thermal infrared wavelengths. Remote
sensing systems, which measure energy that is naturally available, are called
passive sensors. Passive sensors can only be used
to detect energy when the naturally occurring
energy is available. For all reflected energy, this
can only take place during the time when the sun is
illuminating the Earth. There is no reflected energy
available from the sun at night. Energy that is
naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be
detected day or night, as long as the amount of
energy is large enough to be recorded. A sensor
classified as a combination of passive, non-
scanning and non-imaging methods is a type of profile recorder, one example
is a microwave radiometer. An example of a sensor classified as a passive,
non scanning imaging method is a camera e.g. an aerial survey camera or a
space camera, for example large cameras (LFCs) on board space shuttles.
2) Active Remote Sensing makes use of sensors that detect reflected

responses from objects that are irradiated or artificially generated energy
sources such as radar. On the other hand, provide their own energy source
for illumination. The sensor emits radiation, which is directed toward the
target to be investigated. The radiation reflected from that target is detected
and measured by the sensor. Advantages for active sensors include the ability
to obtain measurements anytime, regardless of the time of day or season.
Active sensors can be used for examining
wavelengths that are not sufficiently provided by
the sun, such as microwaves, or to better control
the way a target is illuminated. However, active
systems require the generation of a fairly large
amount of energy to adequately illuminate
targets. An example of an active, none scanning
and non imaging sensor is a profile recorder such
as a laser spectrometer and a laser altimeter. An
active, scanning and imaging sensor is radar, for
example synthetic aperture radar (SAR), which can produce high resolution,
imagery, day or night, even under cloud cover.
4.5 Remote-sensing images

Presently there are several remote-sensing satellite series in operation.
Different satellite systems have different characteristics e.g. resolutions,
number of bands and have their own importance for different applications.
Remote-sensing images are normally digital images. In order to extract

useful information, image processing techniques are applied to enhance the
image to help visual interpretation, and to correct or restore the image if the
image has been subjected to geometric distortion, blurring or degradation by
other factors. The photographic process uses chemical reactions on the
surface of light-sensitive film to detect and record energy variations. It is
important to distinguish between the terms images and photographs in
remote sensing. An image refers to any pictorial representation, regardless of
what wavelengths or remote sensing device has been used to detect and
record the electromagnetic energy. A photograph refers specifically to
images that have been detected as well as recorded on photographic film.
Photos are normally recorded over the wavelength range from 0.3 mm to 0.9
mm - the visible and reflected infrared. Based on these definitions, we can
say that all photographs are images, but not all images are photographs.
There are many image analysis techniques available and the method used
depends upon the requirements of the specific problem concerned.
A photograph could also be represented and displayed in a digital format by

subdividing the image into small equal-sized and shaped areas, called picture
elements or pixels, and representing the brightness of each area with a
numeric value or digital number. Indeed, that is exactly what has been done
to the photo to the left. In fact, using the definitions we have just discussed,
this is actually a digital image of the original photograph! The photograph
was scanned and subdivided into pixels with each pixel assigned a digital
number representing its relative brightness. The computer displays each
digital value as different brightness levels. Sensors that record
electromagnetic energy, electronically record the energy as an array of
numbers in digital format right from the start.
4.6 Use of remote-sensing data in GIS

Remote-sensing data can be integrated with various other geographic data.
There has been an increasing trend in integration of remote-sensing data into
GIS for analytical purposes. There are many ways to use remote-sensing
data; some examples are illustrated as below.
Land cover maps or vegetation maps classified from remote-sensing data can
be overlaid on to other geographic data to enable analysis for environmental
monitoring and its change. Image data are sometimes also used as image
maps, with an overlay of political boundaries, roads, rivers, etc. Such an
image map can be successfully used for visual interpretation (Figure 5.5 and
5.6).
Fig.4.3: Satellite Image of Kathmandu
Fig.4.4: Satellite image of Kathmandu urban (a-1997, b-1988)
4.7 Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths
(including gamma and x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including
microwaves and broadcast radio waves). There are several regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which are useful for remote sensing.
For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV portion of the spectrum has the
shortest wavelengths, which are practical for remote sensing. This radiation
is just beyond the violet portion of the visible wavelengths, hence its name.
Some Earth surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals, fluoresce or
emit visible light when illuminated by UV radiation.
The light, which “our eyes - our remote sensors” - can detect, is part of the
visible spectrum. It is important to recognize how small the visible portion
is relative to the rest of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation around us,
which is "invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing
instruments and used to our advantage. The visible wavelengths cover a
range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 µm. The longest visible wavelength is
red and the shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as
particular colours from the visible portion of the spectrum are listed below. It
is important to note that this is the only portion of the spectrum we can
associate with the concept of colours.
 Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 µm
 Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 µm
 Green: 0.500 - 0.578 µm
 Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 µm
 Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 µm
 Red: 0.620 - 0.7 µm
Blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the visible
spectrum. They are defined as such because no single primary colour can be
created from the other two, but all other colours can be formed by combining
blue, green, and red in various proportions. Although we see sunlight as a
uniform or homogeneous colour, it is actually composed of various
wavelengths of radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible and infrared
portions of the spectrum. The visible portion of this radiation can be shown
in its component colours when sunlight is passed through a prism, which
bends the light in differing amounts according to wavelength.
The next portion of the spectrum of interest is the infrared (IR) region which
covers the wavelength range from approximately 0.7 µm to 100 µm - more
than 100 times as wide as the visible portion. The infrared region can be
divided into two categories based on their radiation properties - the reflected
IR, and the emitted or thermal IR. Radiation in the reflected IR region is
used for remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the
visible portion. The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7
µm to 3.0 µm. The thermal IR region is quite different from the visible and
reflected IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted

from the Earth's surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR covers
wavelengths from approximately 3.0 µm to 100 µm.
The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing is the
microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers the longest
wavelengths used for remote sensing. The shorter wavelengths have
properties similar to the thermal infrared region while the longer
wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
The EM spectrum describes the range of wavelengths of energy that can be

recorded using remote sensing. This includes shorter wavelengths that are
reflected energy and medium -longer wavelengths that are emitted energy.
The unit of measurement is the nanometre (nm) and also the micrometre.
1 micrometre = 1000 nanometres
1 metre = 1 million micrometres
The major portions of the EM spectrum used in remote sensing for mapping
and GIS applications are:
a. Visible wavelengths (.4-.7 micrometres or 400-700 nm)

Blue 0.4 to 0.5 (400 to 500 nm)
Green 0.5 to 0.6 (500 to 600 nm)
Red 0.6 to 0.7 (600 to 700nm)
b. Near infrared .7 - 1.3mu and Mid IR (1.3 -3mu)

Wavelengths up to about 1.1 micrometres can be captured using
photography; longer wavelengths REQUIRE a scanner, which can be used
for all wavelengths. Energy in the near & mid IR is non-visible, reflected.
c. Far IR (Thermal) 3 - 14mu

In these wavelengths, we record energy emitted from the earth
d. Microwave (including radar) 1mm - 1 metre

5.0 GEOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduction; Spatial Analysis and its Application areas

When you think of a name and address database, you probably visualize a
table of data in rows and columns. What you might miss is that each of these
records represents a person or family that lives in a particular place
(location). Further- more, that particular place (location) can tell us
something about a person’s standard of living, neighborhood, access to
schools, access to hospital, distance to the main market, vulnerability to local
crime, exposure to pollution levels and so on. Through GIS analysis, it
allows us to visualise the bigger picture by allowing us to see patterns and
relationships within the geographic data. The results of analysis give insight
into a place help focus actions or select an appropriate option. The beauty of
GIS is its ability to perform spatial analysis.
5.1.1 Spatial analysis

Spatial analysis is a process for looking at geographic patterns in data and
relationships between features. The actual methods used can be simple just a
map of the theme being analysed or more complex involving models that
mimic the world by combining many data layers. Spatial analysis allows us
to study real-world processes. It gives information about the real world that
may be the present situation of specific areas and features or the changes or
trends in a situation. For instance, it may be able to answer where and by
how much are forest areas decreasing or increasing? or where are urban areas
growing in the Kathmandu valley? and so on.
5.1.2 Spatial Analysis Application Area

a) Environmental analysis
- Vegetation cover mapping
- Wildlife habitat display
- Hazardous waste clean up
b) Business analysis
- Location analysis and site selection
- Proximity to transportation analysis
- Service center
c) Social analysis
- Census data exploration
- Housing studies
- Disease spread prediction
d) Hydrological analysis
- stream ordering
e) Agriculture analysis
- Forestry
- Precision forming

5.1.3 Spatial analysis functions
Spatial analysis functions range from simple database query to arithmetic
and logical operation to complicated model analysis. Each of these functions
is briefly described below.
5.1.3.1 Database query

Database query is used to retrieve attribute data without altering the existing
data. The function can be performed by simply clicking on the feature or by
means of a conditional statement for complex queries.
The basic GIS functions are those that display all or a selection of the objects
under investigation. This may include graphic elements and selected
attributes. Such analysis operations are known as query functions. They can
be divided into two categories -spatial and attribute.
All spatial query functions are based around the GIS features (points, lines,
polygons, surfaces) and there are five geometric functions to investigate -
circle, rectangle, polygon, and line and point search. These can be developed
into a host of more complicated queries.
An attribute query relies on the non-geometric datasets linked to spatial data.
The queries are generally broken down into a series of elements that initially
identify the field of interest and then the search can be carried out using
specific characteristics. Results may be in the form of a table, or displayed as
spatial data. Criteria for attribute queries may be based on numeric or textual
searches or alphanumeric matching. In addition, the database software
associated with the GIS may have a query language available. These are
designed to enable the user to tailor queries in a particular manner.
Logical Operations:
Use either algebra or logical operations
Searches can be further developed to employ a set of algebra or logical
operations.
This are-
 > greater than
 < less than
 = equal to
Alternatively, a combination of the above can be used. All GIS packages
should be able to perform these operations, plus perform Arithmetic (+; -; *)
and Boolean operations (and, or, not, xor).
The conditional statement can involve Boolean (logical) operators and, or,
not, xor (exclusive of or) or relational (conditional) operators=, >, <, <> (not
equal to).

5.1.3.2 Reclassification
 Used to dissolve or merge information, or simple classify
 Number of options included changing attribute values without altering
the geo-metric properties of the spatial data or removal of boundaries
between merged regions
 Issue of what happens to attribute data - rules embedded/available in
the chosen software
Within GIS data, one is often required to dissolve and merge information, in
other words reclassify. In addition, it may be necessary for simple
classification operations to be accomplished. GIS software should also be
able to carry out most of these functions. How the classification or
reclassification is achieved, however, varies according to the type of
software being used. Classification operations may involve changing
attribute values without altering the geometric properties of the spatial data.
Likewise reclassification functions may involve the removal of boundaries
between merged regions, when data has for instance, been aggregated to a
higher spatial unit than that at which it was collected. There are many
choices for this type of analysis and similarly there are often a number of
options with system commands
Reclassification operations involve the reassignment of thematic values to

categories of an existing map. The following are examples. Classify an
elevation map into classes with intervals of 500 m (Figure 5.1).
Fig.5.1: Classification of an Fig.5.2: Reclassify a VDC (village

elevation map of Kathmandu development committee) map
valley into different intervals based on population density

5.2 Overlay Operations
Overlay is a GIS operation in which layers with a common, registered map
base are joined on the basis of their occupation of space. The overlay
function creates composite maps by combining diverse data sets. The overlay
function can perform simple operations such as laying a road map over a
map of local wetlands, or more sophisticated operations such as multiplying
and adding map attributes of different value to determine averages and co-
occurrences.
Raster and vector models differ significantly in the way overlay operations
are implemented. Overlay operations are usually performed more efficiently
in raster-based systems. In many GISs a hybrid approach is used that takes
advantage of the capabilities of both data models. A vector-based system
may implement some functions in the raster domain by performing a vector-
to-raster conversion on the input data, doing the processing as a raster
operation, and converting the raster result back to a vector file. The region
wide, or "cookie cutter," approach to overlay analysis allows natural features,
such as forest stand boundaries or soil polygons, to become the spatial
area(s) which will be analyzed on another map
Overlay is at the core of GIS analysis operations. It combines several spatial

features to generate new spatial elements. Overlay can be defined as a spatial
operation that combines various geographic layers to generate new
information. Overlay is done using arithmetic, Boolean and relational
operators, and is performed in both vector and raster domains.
5.2.1 Vector Overlay

During vector overlay, map features and their associated attributes are
integrated to produce a new composite map. Logical rules can be applied to
determine how the maps are combined. Vector overlay can be performed on
various types of map feature: polygon-on-polygon, line-on-polygon, and
point-on- polygon. During the process of overlay, the attribute data
associated with each feature type are merged. The resulting table will contain
all the attribute data.
5.2.2 Raster overlay

In raster overlay, the pixel or grid cell values in each map are combined
using arithmetic and Boolean operators to produce a new value in the
composite map. The maps can be treated as arithmetic variables and perform
complex algebraic functions. The method is often described as map algebra.
The raster GIS provides the ability to perform map layers mathematically.
The map algebraic function uses mathematical expressions to create new
raster layers by comparing them.
There are three groups of mathematical operators in the map calculator:

arithmetic, Boolean, and relational.
Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /) allow for the addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division of two raster maps or numbers or a combination
of the two.
Boolean operators (and, not, or, xor) use Boolean logic (true or false) on the
input values. Output values of true are written as 1 and false as 0.
Relational operators (<=, <>, =, >, >=) evaluate specific relational

conditions. If the condition is true, the output is assigned 1; if the condition is
false, the output is assigned 0.
Below fig. illustrates land-use and land-cover changes over time in the
Kathmandu Valley (Figure 5.3). The analysis is done by overlaying land-
use/land-cover data from different dates. The figure shows the land-use/land-
cover data for 1978 and 1995, and the changes between 1978 and 1995
derived from these data. This is the analysis of connectivity between points,
lines and polygons in terms of distance, area, travel time, optimum paths, etc.
Connectivity analysis consists of the following analyses.
Fig.5.3: Land coverage changes in Kathmandu valley between 1978 and 1995
5.2.3 Buffer Operation

The operation of buffer is a frequently used spatial operation. It is used to
create zones around selected geographic objects in order to perform
proximity analysis. Using this operation the characteristics of an area
surrounding a specified location are evaluated. The kind of analysis is called
proximity analysis and used whenever analysis requires identifying
surrounding geographic features. The buffer operation will generate polygon
features type irrespective of geographic features and delineates spatial
proximity. For example what is the effect of urban areas if the road is
expanded by one hundred meters to delineate five kilometer buffer zone
around the national park to prevent from grazing?
5.3 Network analysis

Network analysis is commonly used for analysing the movement of
resources from one location to another through a set of interconnected
features. It includes determination of optimum paths using specified decision
rules. The decision rules are likely to be based on minimum time or distance,
and so on.
Figure 5.4 demonstrates an example of optimum paths based on minimum

distance. The figure shows the locations of a number of hospitals within the
ring road of Kathmandu. If there has been an accident outside the ring road
(e.g. at Bhaktapur) it may be important to know which is the closest hospital
and what is the shortest route to that hospital for an ambulance. Network
analysis identifies the closest hospital as Bir Hospital and indicates how to
go there.
Fig.5.4: Hospital Network of Kathmandu
5.3.1 Proximity analysis

Proximity analysis is the measurement of distances from points, lines and
boundaries of polygons. One of the most popular types of proximity analysis
is buffering by which a buffer zone with a given distance is generated around
a point, line or area as shown in Figure 5.5. Buffering is easier to generate
for raster data than for vector data.
Fig. 5.5: Buffer operation

5.4 Relationship of Modeling to Analysis
a) Decision models search through potential alternatives to arrive at a
recommendation
b) Decision support models process raw data into forms that are directly
relevant to decision making
c) Data characterization models are used to develop a better understanding
of a system to aid in characterizing a problem or potential solutions

6.0 OUTPUT AND INFORMATION COMMUNICATION
Visualisation
Visualisation is defined as the translation or conversion of spatial data from a
database into graphics. These graphics are in the form of maps that enable
the user to perceive the structure of the phenomenon or the area represented.
The visualisation process is guided by the saying how do I say what to
whom, and is it effective? How refers to the cartographic methods that are
used for making the graphics or map. I refer to the cartographer or GIS user
who is preparing the map. Say refers to the semantics that represent the
spatial data. What refers to the spatial data and its characteristics, and the
purpose of the map? Who refers to the maps audience? The usefulness of a
map depends upon the following factors.
6.1 Important Aspects in Design of Output maps

Presenting results of the analysis is the procedure by which information from
the GIS is presented in a form suitable for the user. Remember that the
results of GIS are used in planning and decision making processes. Since
data analysis is not usually carried out by decision makers and planners, the
information should be presented to them in such way that they are able to
make sound decisions. Usually, presentation of the results of GIS is given in
the form of a graphic of map. When you make a map you should be aware of
the following important aspects in the design of output maps.
6.1.1 Who is going to use it?

The maps audience or users will influence how a map should look. A map
made for school children will be different from one made for scientists.
Similarly, tourist maps and topographic maps of the same area are different
in content and look as if they are made for different users.
6.1.2 What is its purpose?

The purpose of a map determines what features are included and how they
are represented. Different purposes such as orientation and navigation,
physical planning, management and education lead to different categories of
map.
6.1.3 What is its content?

Its usefulness also depends upon the contents of the map. Contents can be
seen as primary content (main theme), secondary content (base-map
information) and supporting content (legends, scale, etc).
6.1.3 What is the scale of the map?

The map scale is the ratio between a distance on a map and the
corresponding distance in the terrain. Scale controls the amount of detail and
extent of area that can be shown. Scale of the output map is based upon
considerations such as the purpose of the map, needs of the map user, map
content, size of the area mapped, accuracy required etc.
6.1.4 What is the projection of the map?

Every flat map of a curved surface is distorted. The choice of map projection
determines how, where and how much the map is distorted. Normally, the
selected map projection is that which is also used for topographic maps in a
certain country.
6.1.5 Accuracy
GIS has simplified the process of information extraction and communication.
Combining or integrating data sets has become possible. However, this has
created the possibility of integrating irrelevant or inconsistent data. The user
should be aware of aspects of data quality or accuracy such as What is the
source of data? Are the places at correct locations? Are the attribute values
correct? Are the themes correctly labelled? Are the data complete?
6.2 Cartographic Tools and Visual Variables

A cartographer disposes of the following tools in representing information in
a map
 The basic types of spatial data: point, lines and area
 Volumetrically shaped : mountain shown with hill shading
 Text, for legend information, topographical information and codes of
mapping units
 Other symbols, such as pie graphs or bar graphs, to display statistical
information within mapping units.
For conveying relevant information about these cartographic tools, a

cartographer can use several visual variables. The following visual variables
are available.
Position
The position of the point, line or area features is of course, given by the
information already contained in the map. However the position of these
features in itself gives plenty of information. For example, the distribution of
landslides connotes the most susceptible areas.
Form
The form of objects is a very important variable. The form of the features is
also determined by the information on the map. However, the cartographer
can manipulate the forms of objects, by generation. The form of point, line or
area features is important for reading the map: complex forms attract the eye
and suggest complexity continuous lines imply continuous boundaries; and
broken lines imply uncertainty.

Orientation
The orientation of objects can be manipulated to convey certain information
variation in orientation creates an impression of movement and instability.
Orientation is not used very frequently. The most obvious application is the
use of dip- strike symbols.
Texture
Texture is defined as the variation in density of the graphical elements under
constant value, i. e. with the same overall grey expression. Increased density
contrasts attract interest.
Value
It is visual variable that refers to the values on a grey scale, ranging from
white to black. Increasing darkness implies increasing importance. The
higher the quantitative value, the darker it is represented.
Size
The higher the value in size, the larger the symbol. Thicker lines are more
important than thin lines.
Colour
Visual variables of colour:
Hue: The wavelength of a particular colour. What we mean when we refer t

colours as red, green, etc. Black, white and grey are called heels’ colours.
Value (Intensity): Also called brightness. It is an amount of light reflected

by a colour. We can reduce the value of a colour by adding black to it.
Saturation: The relative pureness of the colour. The degree to which a

colour departs from a natural gray of the same value is satuaration.
6.3 Data Output Types

Data are output in one of three formats: viz., softcopy, hard copy and
electronic/digital.
Soft copy output is the format as viewed on a computer screen. This may be
text or maps / images in black and white or colour. Because the output is
displayed on a computer screen and can be erased from the screen at any
time, this type of output is regarded as non permanent. Soft copy allows the
operator to interact and to preview data before it final output.
Hardcopy output is a permanent means of display. The information is

printed of plotted on paper, photographic film, transparencies, or similar
material. Maps / images and tables are usually output in this format.

Electronic output consists of computer compatible files. Information is
stored on a disk, computer compatible tape, optical disk or any other
computer storage media. Although, in general, the information can be erased,
the electronic output is considered to be permanent. It is used to transfer data
to another computer system, either for additional analysis or to produce hard
copy output at another location.

7.0 APPLICATION OF GIS
A geographic information system is an information management tool that

helps us to store, organise and utilise spatial information in a form that will
enable everyday tasks to be completed more efficiently. Since its rapid
growth over the last two decades, GIS technology has become a vital element
for us to maintain and integrate information. GIS software, and the hardware
required to operate it, has become much more affordable and easy to use.
This has resulted in the ability to develop a GIS without making large
investments in software, hardware and the support staff that were once
needed to implement it. With the implementation of GIS, we see dramatic
improvements in the way we access information, execute responsibilities and
respond to requests from citizens, potential developers and other clients.
7.1 Characteristics of GIS Technology

GIS as an information technology (IT) are:
a) Integrating (information such as Internet and production processes.
e.g. DTP, Computer aided manufacturing
- I T will changes the way how information is used, and how products
are being made
b) Decentralising in the sense, that factual knowledge and know how

become expressed in SW and readily available to non-specialists.
- in any process of production and exchange
c) Customizing : Its allow the industrial production of client specific

products in small numbers (e.g. Serial letters, customized maps, lean
production)
- Generation of new products, not just automating the manufacturing of
existing products.
7.1.1 Importance of Data in GIS

- Data are the fuel of GIS
- Cost of data
- Data are the longest – living part of most GIS
7.1.2 GIS Cost
- Data input (Labour intensive) 70%
- Database maintenance and management 10%
- Hardware/software 10%
- Personnel 10%
Total: 100%
7.2 Spatial Data Infrastructure

Spatial Data Infrastructure emerged in 1980 to advance spatial data sharing
by taking advantages of the ubiquity of the internet and its ease of use has
matured and is evolving into an infrastructure for the delivering of
geoprocessing services, the so called geographical service infrastructure.
Characteristics of Infrastructures
Infrastructures are designed for multiple users, often for multiple purposes
- Users may or may not have to pay fees for usage e.g. telephone
network, roads statistical (census) data: cost of individual
establishment is prohibitive. For an IS to work, following issues have
to be resolved
- Technical standards
- Access, usage cost, financing
- Institutional / organizational issues (who is responsible for what)\
7.3 Component of Spatial Data Infrastructure

7.3.1 at technical level:
a) Metadata describing the data in terms deifications, accuracy, age, lineage,
copyright, etc.
b) Standards are basically agreements on how things should be. When

starting up spatial data standards, one can usually take over 80-90% from
international standards that are available (e.g. FGDC). Essentially, standards
guarantee a certain quality to the user, and thus enhancing the reliability of
any GIS application without having to invest much time into difficult
investigation:
Standards should regulate:

- Accuracy
- Update Frequency
- Compatibility
- Data formats and exchange standards
- Data documentation (Metadata)
c) Trained Staff:
Three main issues have to be addressed in education and training
programmmes on GIS
- Technical officers must become agents of change and they must be
provided with the tools to be that
- Education has to be done concurrency at all levels at hierarchy
(technical, middle and high management), and also the client have to
be educated on the new technologies
- A critical mass of trained people (at least 10% of staff in an
institution) is required
7.3.2 at policy level:

a) Institutional / organizational arrangement
Access:
- How to find existing info in the first place
- Who will get access to the SDI? Security / political considerations?
Freedom of information or restricted Government property.
Use:
- Infringement on privacy rights
b) Copyright and Liability

Copyright:
- Technically relatively difficult to enforce on data
- What about derived/’value added’ products
- Strict specification and statements of ‘fitness for use’ required
d) Pricing and financing

- Quantity difficult to measures
- Its use is not exclusive, i. e. if I sell it, I still have it
- It has the character of a public good
e) Research and Development

- Development of new products and services
The traditional model of product development (from science through
technology to the market) has become too expensive. A new market driven
approach to science and technology is required this means that 60-90% of
total R & D expenditure will be spent in the technology sector according to
market demands.
f) Education and Awareness Building

- To reach out to a wider public and build a critical mass of users
- To bridge the gap between producers and potential users of
geographic information.
7.4 Institutional and Organizational Considerations

Institutional and organizational arrangements identify the responsibilities of
the various stakeholders in a spatial data infrastructure and they define the
work flow within and between organizations. They can be formalized or an
informal practice, but require a certain continuity.
It is clear that such institutional and organization arrangements are a crucial

part of any SDI, at whichever level-from project to international. Without
them, the SDI will not materialize in the first place, or it will remain unused.
The production of GIS data will still require specialists who are often quite
far away from the users. To avoid non-use, misuse and duplication spatial
databases, a close cooperation between users and producers is essential.
7.5 Outlook GIS Trends
7.5.1 GIS Technology Trends

a) Computer Technology
- Distributed computing
Client server architecture
Multitasking capability
- High quality graphics
3-D or topographic modeling
- Network Environment
Network Transparency
- Graphical User Interface
User-friendly software
Usability Engineering
b) Database Management Technology

- Relational Database Management System
- Object Oriented Database Technology
c) Spatial Modeling
- Powerful software tools
- Spatial database management
d) Satellite Technology
- Remote Sensing
- Radar Satellite
e) Global Positioning System (GPS)
f) Scaning Technology
g) Communication Technology
- Internet
- High Speed Modern
h) Multimedia Technology
- Audio / Video
- CD / ROM
i) Printing Technology
- True colour printing capacity
7.5.2 Social Trends

- GIS moving from the domain of scientists and computer freaks to the
public and commercial mainstream; e.g. marketing
- Data is becoming a commodity with a price but increasing amounts of data
are also being put into the public domain.

7.6 Digital Terrain Model
The complexity of topography

 It is continuously varying, with a third dimension
 It is multi-faceted e.g. elevation, aspect, slope, shape
 It can be represented in raster (GRID) or vector (TIN)
 The complexity of topography
 It is continuously varying, with a third dimension
 It is multi-faceted e.g. elevation, aspect, slope, shape
 It can be represented in raster (GRID) or vector (TIN)
7.6.1 Generation of DEM data

Data generation for maps: Photogrammetry: stereo overlap in air photos ->
contours
Digital data generation: there have been two main methods:
a. Digitizing of contour lines
b. Directly via digital photogrammetry -> 'mass' points and 'breaklines' -hard
or soft
Also these secondary methods:

a. Scanning of contour lines and then raster - vector conversion
b. Stereogrammetry from two digital satellite images
Most users do not generate their own elevation data, they purchase or acquire
files.
a. Mass points (lattices)
b. Contour lines
c. GRIDs (interpolated from points, or lines)
DEM Surface analysis

DEM surfaces for GIS work: must be GRID (raster) or TIN (vector)
7.6.2 Raster
Raster data are stored as elevation values per pixel: Integer stores actual
elevations in feet or meters

Advantages: simple data structure, some analyses are computationally easy.
Disadvantage: may create large files unnecessarily in flat areas; features
may be blurred by resolution
7.6.3 Vector
Stored in Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN): a series of triangles
(Delauney / Thiessen Polygons).. Heights and x, y at vertices: topology is
stored in the relationship between nodes, edges and slope facets.
Advantages: variable data density depending on landscape, significant

points or lines can be encoded e.g. peaks, ridges, valleys, encarpments.
Disadvantages: more complex, needs more processing to generate, triangle
facets are often evident in processing
All products can be created from a GRID or a TIN

a. Elevation: Displayed as: Elevation (grayscale), color range (hypsometric
tints) and contour maps (not analytical).
b. Slope: Calculated in degrees between adjacent pixels or from TIN.

Slope (degrees) = angle opposite rise/run varies between 0 (flat) and 90
degrees (vertical); 1 to 1 slope is 45 degrees
Slope (percent) = rise/run * 100 varies from 0 (flat) to infinite (cliff); 1 to 1

slope is 100%
GIS gives area, but also 'slope area' which is more different for steeper slopes
c. Aspect:
Calculated in degrees of azimuth from north in a clockwise direction, hence
north is both 0 and 360. Cardinal directions are 90 (E), 180 (S), 270 (W), 0
and 360 (N). Note that 0 = 360! Flat slopes are given a unique integer for
aspect (e.g. -1 or 9999)
d. Shaded relief:
Describes the amount of reflected light from a surface assuming given light
source; angle can be selected, but NW origin is usual (315, 45) used in GIS
map output, not analysis.
7.6.4 DEM Applications

a. Cartographic output
b. GIS theme analysis/ queries
c. Recreation and landscape planning
d. Line of sight
e. Volume estimation
f. Watersheds (using convexity / concavity)
g. Modeling - what happens if?
h. Visualization and Animation
Reference
1.0 Shrestha B. et.al (2001), GIS for Beginners, Introductory GIS Concepts
and Hands on Exercises, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal
2.0 Jha R.N. (2005), Introduction to Geographical Information System, M.
Sc. GIS Manual, Water Resources Engineering Program, Institute of
Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Nepal.
3.0 Centre for Environment, Natural Resources and Information
Management (2001), Training Manual for GIS Tools Operator for
Department of Land Information and Archives, Kathmandu, Nepal.
4.0 University of Arkansas Libraries, ArcGIS Desktop Tutorial
5.0 Oregon Environmental Public Health Tracking Program, ArcGIS Quick
Start Manual
6.0 ICIMOD “Training Manual on GIS Application and Remote Sensing.”

Basic
Exercise

1. Introduction
A. What is ArcMap?
Arc map is the primary display component of ArcGIS. It includes
tools for working with tables, visualizing, analyzing and charting
data and creating maps. You can save, print or export maps to other
applications such as word documents or PowerPoint presentations.
B. Opening a Map
From the start menu:

 Click the Start button on the Window taskbar
 Browse to Programs.
 Browse to ArcGIS.
 Click ArcMap.
From ArcMap:
 Click the Open button on the standard toolbar.
 Click the dropdown arrow and browse to the folder with the map.
 Click the map you want to open.
 Click Open.
C. Table of Contents
The Table of Contents shows the data layers used in the map. It is
used primarily to turn layers on and off, access the layer properties,
and rearrange the order in which the layers are drawn on the map.
To show the table of contents:

 Click Window on the Main menu.
 Click Table of Contents. It will appear as a large window on the
left side of the screen (see example, above).
To turn a layer on or off: Check the box next to the layer's name

Display tab:
The display tab at the bottom of the table of contents shows how
layers are organized. Layers at the top of the list are drawn over
layers lower on the list. You can drag and drop layers up and down
the list to change the order.
Source tab:
The Source tab at the bottom of the table of contents shows the
layers the way that they are organized in the source folders or
databases. If a data table is included in your map, you can only see it
in the Source tab.
D. Two Views of a Map - Data or Layout View

There are two ways you can work with a map. Each view allows you
to visualize and manipulate the map in different ways.
Data view:
Data View is for exploring, classifying, analyzing, displaying, and
querying the data (titles, North arrows and scale bars are not
visible).
Layout view:
Layout View is used to prepare your map for printing or for export
to another application like a word document or PowerPoint
presentation. In this view, you will see how the final version of the
map will appear. You can add borders, scale bars, North arrows,
legends, titles and text.
2. Tools Toolbar
With the ArcMap toolbar Tools you can explore and query map data
to get information. You can point to features to find out what they
are; you can examine the attributes of a particular layer, search the
data to find features with a specific characteristic and measure
distances on the map.

A. Zoom
 Click the Zoom In button or Zoom Out button on the

toolbar.
 Move the pointer over the map, click once to zoom near a point or
click and drag a rectangle for an area you want to zoom in or out of.
 Zoom in or out on the scene by decreasing the virtual
camera's field of view using these buttons.
B. Pan
 Click the Pan Button on the Tools toolbar to move the map
image.
C. Full Extent
 Click the Full Extent button to return to the full extent of the
data and show the whole map.
D. Previous Extent
 Click the Back or Forward buttons on the Tools toolbar to

move between the current display and the previous display.
E. Select Elements
To select an element on the map, click the Select Elements tool

then click on the item on the map that you want to select.
E. Select Features
Features can be selected by attributes, location or graphics using the
select features icon. See the Arc GIS Help for detailed instruction about
using this tool.
F. Identify Features
 Click the Identify tool The Identify Results dialog box opens.
 Click the pointer over the map feature you want to identify. The
feature under the pointer that is in the top layer will be identified. A
box will open with the attribute information for that feature.

G. Find Features
The Find function searches in all fields, in a specific field, or in the

primary display field to find features with particular characteristics.
H. Measuring distance
 Click the Measure button on the Tools toolbar.
 Use the mouse pointer to click and draw a line representing the
distance you want to measure. Click once for each line segment or at
each corner. Double-click to end the line.
 The distance will read out at the bottom left side of the screen.
3. Standard Toolbar
A. Undo - Redo
Undo reverses the last command or action; Redo re-instates the
previously undone command or action.
B. Add Data
Adding a layer using Add Data button:
Click the Add Data button. Click the Look in dropdown arrow and
navigate to the folder that contains the layer. Click the layer (.lyr) or
other data type and click Add. The new layer will appear on your map.
C. Data Editor Toolbar
The Data Editor Toolbar contains the various commands you will need
to edit geographic features in your database. You must add the Editor
Toolbar to ArcMap before you can edit data.
Adding the Editor toolbar:
 Click Tools, then click Editor Toolbar, or
 Click the View menu; click Toolbars, then check Editor.
A. ArcCatalog
ArcCatalog is the database design and data management component of
ArcGIS.
B. ArcToolbox
The ArcToolbox is a separate window inside ArcGIS. The toolboxes are
sets of tools used for advanced data management and analysis. There are
hundreds of tools grouped into toolsets in the Toolbox.
Opening the ArcToolbox window:

Click the Show/Hide ArcToolbox Window button on the Standard
toolbar of the ArcGIS to open the ArcToolbox window. A list of
toolboxes is displayed in the window.
Placing the ArcToolbox window:
 Open the ArcToolbox window.
 Click on the bar at the top of the ArcToolbox window and drag the
window to your preferred location.
 Drop the window into place by releasing the mouse button.
B. Help ?
When you need more information or want to learn how to perform a
specific task, use the Help system. It provides detailed information
about tools, commands, and dialog boxes.
Finding the information you need:

 To access the complete Help system, click Help on the main Menu
then click the help icon
 Click the What's This button to get help on a command in a
dropdown menu or on a button on a toolbar, and then click the item.
 To get help on an option in a dialog box, click the? (Help) button at
the top of the dialog box, and then click the option.
4. Entering Data into a Table

A. Attribute Tables
A database is only as good as the information in it. You will need to
edit the information in your database to keep it accurate and up to date.
ArcMap lets you edit the attributes of the features displayed. You can
change any of the attribute values that appear in a table as well as add
and delete records.
Open an attribute table:
 Right-click the table layer in the table of contents that you want to
view or edit.
 Click Open Attribute Table. The layer's attribute table opens.
Editing the attributes (data) takes place in an edit session. When you
begin an edit session, you will see this icon next to the Options

button on the table to indicate that the table can be edited. (The fields
that you can edit will have a white background in the field header.)
When you have finished editing the data table, you can save your work,
end the edit session and export the table as a .dbf if desired.

B. Edit Sessions
Starting the edit session:

 To display the Editor toolbar, if not already showing,
click the '•Editor Toolbar button on the ArcMap Standard
toolbar.
 Click the Editor menu and then click Start Editing. The
Editor Toolbar is now active.
Saving edits:
When you're finished editing, you can save any changes you've made or
quit editing without saving. You can also save the edits you've made at
any time by clicking Save Edits from the Editor menu. Any edits you
have made are saved to the database.
C. Changing or Adding Records To change a record:
 Click Editor on the Editor Toolbar and click Start Editing.

 Right-click the layer you want to edit and click Open Attribute
Table.
 Click the cell containing the attribute value you want to change.
 Type the value and press Enter. The table is updated.
To add a record:
 Right-click the layer or table you want to edit and then click Open
Attribute Table.
 Click the Move to end of table button or scroll to the end of the
table.
 Click a cell in the last empty record and type a new value. A new
record is added at the bottom of the table.
D. Deleting Records
 Right-click the layer or table you want to edit and click Open
Attribute Table.

 Select what you want to delete (selecting highlights it in blue). Press
and hold the Ctrl key while clicking to select additional records.
 Press the Delete key on the keyboard. If any geographic features are
associated with the records, they will be deleted also.
E. Undoing Edits
To undo a record entered in the table, click the Undo button. It will
undo a row at a time (not individual cells). Clicking the Undo button
again will delete another row. You can undo rows made during the
current edit session back to the point at which you last saved your edits.
Closing an edit session:

 Click the Editor menu and click Stop Editing.
 Click Yes to save changes. Click No to quit without saving.
F. Exporting Data
To export edited data for geocoding or publication onto a network
system you will need to export the table as a database file (.dbf).
 Click Options at the bottom of the attribute table.
 Click Export.
 Click Export All Records.
 Browse to the location you want to store the database file.
Rename the file as needed. Click OK.

5. Working with Tables
A. Adding or Removing Fields (columns)
You can add or remove fields (columns) from a table. The person in
charge of designing or managing the database typically does this task.
Fields cannot be added or removed when others are using the data and
Fields cannot be added or removed during an edit session.
Adding Fields to a table:

 Right-click the layer or table you want to add a field to in the
table of contents and click Open Attribute Table.
 Click Options in the table to which you want to add a field.
 Click Add Field. Type the name of the field.
 Click the Type dropdown arrow and click the field type.
 Set any other field properties as necessary. Click OK.
Deleting Fields from a table:

 Right-click the layer or table you want to delete a field from in the
table of contents and click Open Attribute Table.
 In the table, right-click the header of the field you want to delete.
 Click Delete Field.
 Click Yes to confirm the deletion. Deleting a field cannot be
undone.
B. Changing Columns and Sorting Records

Changing column width:

 Move the mouse to the edge of the column you want to resize. You
will see the pointer icon change.
 Click and drag the column's edge to the desired width. A black line
indicates where the edge of the column will be located.
 Drop the edge of the column. The column is resized.
Rearranging columns:
 Click the heading of the column you want to move.
 Click and drag the column heading. A red line indicates where the
column will be positioned.
 Drop the column. After you drop it, the column will appear in the
new position.
Sorting records by one column:

 Click the heading of the column whose values you want to use to
sort the records.
 Right-click the selected column's heading and click Sort Ascending
or Sort Descending. The table's records will be sorted.
Sorting records by two or more columns:

 Rearrange the table's columns so the column whose values will be
sorted first appears to the left of the column whose values will be
sorted second (see 'rearranging columns', on the previous page).
 Click the heading of the first column you want to use to sort the
records.
 Press the Ctrl key on the keyboard and click the
second column's heading.
 Repeat step 3 until you've selected all columns that will be used to
sort the table's records.
 Right-click a selected column heading and click Sort Ascending or
Sort Descending. The table's records will be resorted.
C. Finding and Selecting Records

Use the navigation buttons at the bottom of the table window to move to
the next, previous, first, or last record in the table. You can select
records by pointing and clicking at them or by querying the attribute
table for records or files with a certain attribute or characteristic.
Selected features will be highlighted.

Finding a specific record number:
 Open the attribute table.
 Type in the number of the record you want in the box at the bottom
of the table and press Enter. The table will scroll to the record.
Selecting all records:
 Click Options in the table and click Select All.
Viewing all records or just selected records:

 Open the table. Look at the bottom of the table for selection display.
 Click Show All to view all records or click Show Selected to view
only the selected records.
Interactively selecting records from a table:

 Select a feature in the table by clicking to the left of a record.
 Hold down the Ctrl key and click additional features to select them.
 To deselect a feature, hold down the Ctrl key and click the feature.
 To clear the selection, Click Options at the bottom of the table and
click Clear Selection.
Selecting records by querying attributes:
 Click Options at the bottom of the table you want to query and click
Select By Attributes.
 Double-click the field from which you want to select.
 Click the logical operator you wish to use (such as equals "=").
 Click the Get Unique Values button, then scroll to and double-click
the value in the Unique Values list you wish to select. Or, you can
type a value directly into the text box.
 Click Verify to verify that our selection has valid logic and syntax.
 Click Apply then Click Close. Your selection will be highlighted.
 To clear the selection, Click Options at the bottom of the table and
click Clear Selection.

D. Summarizing Data
Sometimes the information you have about map features is not
organized the way you want. For instance, you may have bird data by
zip and you want it by city. Or, you can summarize the data to get
descriptive statistics such as the count, average, minimum, and
maximum value. A new table can be created from summarizing the data.
Summarizing data in a field (column):
 Right-click the field heading of the field you wants to summarize

and click Summarize.
 Check the box next to the summary statistics you want to include in
the output table.
 Type the name and location of the output table you want to create or
click the Browse button and navigate to a workspace.
 Click OK. Click Yes when prompted to add the new table to
your map.
Statistics for selected field (column):
 Right click a field (column) heading in the attribute table.
 Click statistics.

6. Making Graphs
Graphs present complex information in an easy-to-understand manner.
The information displayed on a graph comes directly from the attribute
table. Once created, you can add a graph to your map or print it out.
A. Graphing by Record (row) or Field (column)

With some graphs, you can graph data using either records or fields. For
instance, suppose you have data on birth and death rates by country:
Graphing by record (row) allows you

to compare the birth rates and death
rates for individual countries.
Graphing by field (column) plots the

birth rates and death rates together
for all countries.
C. Graphing by Record (row) or Field (column)

 Click the Tools menu, point to Graphs, and click Create.
 Click the Graph type and subtype you want. Click Next.
 Click the dropdown and click the layer or table you want to graph.
 Check to graph only the selected features or records.
 Check the fields you want; use the arrow keys to order your columns.
 Click an option to graph data series using Records or Fields. Click
Next. Type a title for the graph.
 Check Label X Axis With, then click the dropdown and click a field.
 Check Show Legend.
 To show graph on layout check Show Graph on Layout. Click Finish.

D. Modifying a Graph
You can control the visual aspects of the graph to create an effective
display of your data. For example, you can choose what type of you
wants to use, add titles, label axes, and change the color of the graph
markers (such as the bars in a bar graph).
Changing the graph type:
 Right-click the title bar of the graph window and click Properties.
 Click the Type tab.
 Click the Graph type you want to use.
 Click the Graph subtype you want to use.
 Click OK.
Adding a title to a graph:
 Click the Appearance tab.
 Type a title.
 Click OK.
Changing graph marker colors:

 Click Advanced Options.
 Click the Markers tab.
 Click the marker you want to change.
 Click the Color dropdown and click a color.
 Click OK.

Adding a legend to a graph:
 Check Show Legend
 Click a legend position.
 Click OK.
Controlling the x-, y-, and z-axes of the graph:
 Click the Appearance tab. Click Advanced Options.
 Click the Axis tab.
 Click the axis you want to modify.
 Set the position of the axis.
 Set the scale, or numeric range, for the axis.
 Click OK.
Zero Origin: Axis from zero to maximum data value.
Variable Origin: Axis range is set to the actual data range.
User Defined: You specify the coordinate range for the axis.
Drawing trend lines on a graph:
 Click Advanced Options.
 Click the Trends tab. Not all graph types support trend lines. If the
tab is not available, the graph type does not support it.
 Check All Sets to draw trend lines for each attribute value that you
are graphing.
 Check the line types you want to add to the graph.
 Type a value to add your own limit lines (drawn along a specified
y- axis value).
 Click OK.
E. Exporting a Graph
When you want to use a graph in another application, you can export it
to one of these formats: bitmap (.bmp), JPEG (.jpg), GIF (.gif), and
Windows metafile (.wmf).
How to export a graph:

 Right-click the title bar of the graph window and click Export.
 Click the Save in dropdown arrow and navigate to the location
where you want to save the exported graph.
 Type a name for the graph.
 Click the Save as type dropdown arrow and click the type of file
you want to export.
 Click Save.

7. Symbolizing Data
A. Using a Symbol to Represent a Feature:

The map layers should use symbols that are intuitive to understand.
Use simple symbols that represent the feature being displayed.
Sometimes being able to see where something is and

where it isn't can show you exactly what you need to know. It
can reveal patterns and trends that can help you make better decisions.
Select a single symbol to represent features:
 Right-click the layer you want to symbolize in the table of contents
and click Properties.
 Click the Symbology tab. Click Features.
 Click the Symbol button to change the symbol.
 Click a new symbol or change the color or size of the symbol in
the Symbol Selector dialog box. Click OK.
 Type a Label for the feature. The label appears next to the symbol
in the table of contents. Click OK. (You may need to zoom in to
see the changes you have made.)
A. Using Color to Represent Categories

You can use a different color to represent each category of a feature.
For example, if your land use was designated as agricultural,
residential and commercial, each category could be a different color.
By symbolized each value with a different color, you can show how
similar features are distributed (clustered or dispersed), how they are
located in relation to each other or how much of one category there is
compared to other categories.

You can also use color to represent unique values of a feature. For
example, you could map each zip code in the county as a different
color.
Select and label categories:

 Right-click the layer in the table of contents and click Properties.
 Click Symbology tab; click Categories. Unique Values is the default.
 Click the Value Field dropdown arrow and click the field that
contains the values you want to map.
 Click the Color Ramp dropdown and click a color scheme.
 Click Add All Values to add all unique values to the list.
 Click a label in the Label column and type a new more descriptive
label for your table of contents and map legend. Click OK.
B. Using Color to Represent Quantity (Graduated Color Map)

You can represent quantities on a map by varying the colors. For example,
by using darker shades to represent greater amounts.When you draw features
with graduated colors, the quantitative values are grouped into classes and
each class is identified by a color.
 Right-click a quantitative layer in table of contents; click Properties.

 Click the Symbology tab.
 Click Quantities. (Graduated Colors is the default selection.)
 Click the Value dropdown; click the quantitative field to map.
 Click the Normalization dropdown arrow and click a field to
normalize the data. ArcMap divides this field into the Value to
create a ratio.
 Click Classify; click the Method dropdown; click desired
classification.
 Click the Classes dropdown; click the number of classes you want.
 Click OK on the Classification dialog box.
 Click the Color Ramp dropdown; click a color scheme to display the
data. Click OK on the Layer Properties dialog box.

C. Using Size to Represent Quantity (Graduated Symbol Map)
You can also represent quantities by symbol size. Like graduated color
maps, graduated symbol maps are useful to show the ranking of values.
When making a graduated symbol map, choose the range of symbol sizes
carefully. Each symbol size should be distinct. The largest symbols need to
be small enough that neighboring symbols don't overlap too much and the
smallest symbol needs to be big enough that it can be seen.
 Right-click the quantitative layer you want to show with graduated
symbols in the table of contents and click Properties.
 Click Quantities and click Graduated symbols.
 Click the Value dropdown and click the field that contains the
quantitative value you want to map.
 Click the Normalization dropdown arrow and click a field to
normalize the data. ArcMap divides this field into the Value to
create a ratio.
 Type the minimum and maximum symbol sizes and click Classify.
 Click the Method dropdown; click the classification method you
want.
 Click the Classes dropdown arrow; click the number of classes you
want to display. Or, click Exclusion to remove unwanted values
from the classification, for example, null values or extreme outliers.
 Click OK on the Classification dialog box, click OK on the dialog
box.
D. Using Dots to Represent Density (Dot Density Map)

To create a dot density map, you choose how many features each dot
represents and the size of the dot. Try different combinations of amount

and size to see which one best show the pattern. Be careful that the dots
are not so close as to form solid areas that obscure the pattern or so far
apart that variation in density is hard to see.
 Right-click the quantitative layer you want to show with dot densities
in the table of contents and click Properties.
 Click Quantities and click Dot density.
 Click the field under Field Selection with the values you want to
map.
 Click the arrow button to add fields to the field list.
 Double-click a dot symbol in the field list to change its properties.
 Type the dot size or click the slider to adjust the size.
 Type the dot value or click the slider to adjust the value.
 Check Maintain Density to preserve the dot density when you zoom
in. The dot size will increase so an area will visually appear as
dense. If unchecked, the dot size will not change. Click OK.
F. Mapping Two or More Characteristics (Multivariate Map)

Unlike maps that display one characteristic (category or amount),
multivariate maps display two or more characteristics at the same
time.This map shows the level of human impact on the natural landscape
of Australia. Major habitat types are shown with different colors, and
the level of disturbance for each habitat is shown with a graduated
symbol.
The larger the symbol, the higher impact on the particular habitat.

8. Making a Map
Working in layout view:
Work in layout view when you are making a map for a report, presentation,
or other application. Switch to Layout view by clicking on the View menu
and then on Layout View. The entire map is displayed
A. Page Setup
Setting page size and printer properties:
 Right-click the page in layout view and click Page and Print Setup,
or click File and click Page and Print Setup.
 Click the Name dropdown arrow and click the printer you want to
use.
 Click the Printer Paper Size dropdown arrow and click the page
size that's appropriate for your map.
 Click OK.
(Because the Use Printer Paper Settings box is checked, the Map Page
Width and Height text boxes will be updated with the new page size
and the page orientation.)
Setting page orientation:

 Right-click the page in layout view and click Page and Print Setup, or
click File and click Page and Print Setup.
 Click Portrait or Landscape orientation under Printer Setup, Paper if the
Use Printer Paper Settings is checked. If you are not using the printer
paper settings, click Portrait or Landscape orientation under Map Page
Size. Click OK.

B. Adding Map Elements
Adding a title:
 Click the Insert menu and click Title.
 Type a title for the map.
 Click and drag the title into place with
Modifying a title:
 With the title selected, click the Font dropdown on the Draw
toolbar; click a font.
 Click the font size dropdown; click a size.
 Click Bold, Italic, or Underline to change the style of the text.
 Click the Font Color dropdown and click a color.
Adding text:
 Click the Insert menu and click Text.
 Type the text you want to appear on the map layout; press enter
 Right click on text, then click Properties reformat the text.
 Click OK.
 Click and drag the scale text into position on your map.
Adding a neatline (the border around the map elements):

 Click the Insert menu and click Neatline.
 Click the Placement and Grouping options desired.

 Select the Border, Background and Shadow options desired.
 Click OK.
Adding a legend
A legend shows the symbols used to represent features on the map. By
default, the legend patches are points, straight lines, or rectangles that match
the map symbols. You can customize the legend patches.
 Click the Insert menu; click Legend.

 To remove a legend item, click it, and then click the left arrow
button.
 Use the Up and Down buttons to order the legend items. Click Next.
 Type a title for the legend. Set text color, font, and size; click Next.
 Click the Border dropdown and click a border (or not).
 Click the Background dropdown and click a background (or not).
 Click the Drop Shadow dropdown and click a drop shadow (or not).
Click Next.
 Click a Legend Item in the list to modify the symbol patch.
 Set the Patch properties as desired and click Next. Click Finish.
Adding a North arrow:

A North arrow provides geographic orientation. ArcMap has many
styles of North arrows that can be customized to suit your map layout.
 Click the Insert menu and click North Arrow.

 Click a North arrow.
 Click OK.

 Click and drag the North arrow into place on your map.
Optionally, resize the North arrow by clicking and dragging a
selection handle.
Adding a scale Bar:

Scale bars provide a visual indication of the size of features and
distances between features on the map. A scale bar is a line or bar
divided into parts and labeled with its ground length, usually in
kilometers or miles. If the map is enlarged or reduced, the scale bar
remains correct.
When you add a scale bar to a map, the number and size of the divisions
might not be exactly as you would like them.
For example, you might want to show four divisions rather than three or
show 100 meters per division instead of 200. You might also want to
change the units that the scale bar shows or adjust how those units are
represented.

 Click the Insert menu and click Scale Bar.
 Click a scale bar. Click OK.
 Click and drag the scale bar into place on your map. Resize the text
on the scale bar by clicking and dragging a selection handle.
Customizing the scale bar:

 Right-click the scale bar and click Properties.
 Click the Scale and Units tab.
 Click the arrow buttons to set the number of divisions.
 Click the arrow buttons to set the number of subdivisions.
 Click the When Resizing dropdown and click how you want the
scale bar to respond when the map scale changes.
 Choose the units for the scale bar.
 Click Symbol and choose a text style for the scale bar labels.
 Click OK.
C. Resizing a Map Element

Map elements aren't always the size you want when they are added to a
map. You can change the size by selecting them and dragging the
selection handles.
D. Framing a Map Element

 Right-click the element on the map and click Properties.
 Click the Frame tab.
 Click the Border dropdown and click a border (or not).
 Click the Background dropdown and click a background (or not).
 Click the Drop Shadow dropdown and click a drop shadow (or not).
 Click OK.
 Saving, Printing and Exporting a Map
 Saving Maps

Saving a new map:
 Click the File menu and click Save As.
 Navigate to the location where you want to save the map document.
 Type a filename.
 Click the Save as type dropdown and click ArcMap Documents
(.mxd).
Saving a map that has previously been saved:
 Click Save on the Standard toolbar. If you haven't saved the
map before, you'll need to name it.
Printing Maps
 Previewing a map before printing:
 Click the File menu and click Print Preview. Examine the preview.
 Click Print if you want to continue and print. Otherwise, click Close.
Printing a map:
 Click the File menu and click Print. Verify the Printer is set
properly.
 Verify the Output Image Quality is set properly.
 Click Scale Map to fit Printer Paper.
 Click the Number of Copies arrows to change the number of printed
maps. Or, Check Print to File and you will be prompted for a
filename after you click OK. Click OK.
Exporting Maps
 Once you've created a map, you can export it as another file type
that is easily used with other applications. These are: PDF, EPS, AI,
and EMF.
 Exporting a map to an interchange and print format:
 Click the File menu and click Export Map.
 Navigate to where you want to save the export file.
 Click the Save as type dropdown and click PDF, EPS, AI, or EMF.
 Type a File name for the export file.
 Click the Options arrow to expand the options.
 Choose an output resolution on the General tab. (300 dpi is the
default for these formats and is usually a good choice.)
Exporting a map for import into graphics applications:

 Click the File menu and click Export Map.
 Navigate to where you want to save the export file.
 Click the Save as type dropdown arrow and click AI or TIFF.
 Type a File name for the export file.
 Click the Options arrow to expand the options. For high quality
images that are suitable for editing in a external software, click TIFF
from the Save as dropdown list and change the output resolution to
300 dpi or higher. Click Save.

A. Exiting ArcMap
 Once you have saved the work you want to save and exported the
maps or data for use in other applications, you can exit ArcMap by
clicking the File menu and then clicking Exit

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Basic

Geographical Information System

1.0 Introduction 1-20

2.0 Data capture and automation 24-46

3.0 Database concept and design 47-55

4.0 Remote sensing 56-65

5.0 Geographic analysis 66-72

6.0 Output and Information communication 73-82

7.0 Application of GIS 77-82

| By: Raghu N. Prajapati C

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information

"Every object present on the Earth can be geo-referenced", is the

Conventionally maintained as paper files, computer technology has enabled

Therefore, Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based

A GIS is typically made up of a variety of information systems like

Fig. 1.1: GIS and Related Disciplines

GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and

A typical GIS can be understood by the help of various definitions given

Hence GIS is looked upon as a tool to assist in decision-making and

GIS & Related mapping technologies

a. A database management system (DBMS)

CAD: Computer Assisting Drawing, e.g. AutoCAD, Micro station c, d

| By: Raghu N. Prajapati 3

1.1 Philosophy of GIS

For an experienced analyst, GIS is an extension one's own analytical

The importance of different factors of GIS in decreasing order is as under:

Before the GIS implementation is considered the objectives, both immediate

1.1.1 Advantages of GIS

1.1.2 Planning Of Project

1.1.3 Making Decisions

1.1.4 Visual Analysis

1.1.5 Improving Organizational Integration

As communication increases among individuals and departments,

| By: Raghu N. Prajapati 5

 70% of the information has geographic location as it's denominator

1.2.1 Factors Aiding the Rise of GIS.

1.3 History of GIS

1960’s – Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS) – developed by

1.4 Spatial Operation

a) Spreadsheets (e.g. Lotus 1-2-3, QuatroPro): A spreadsheet can be

b) Database Management Systems (e.g. Oracle, dBase): A database

c) Computer Aided Design (e.g. AutoCAD): CAD systems are for

d) Cartographic packages (e.g. Aldus Freehand, CarthoGraphix):

| By: Raghu N. Prajapati 7

f) Image Processing Software (e.g. ERDAS): Image processing

1.4.1 Spatial Objects

1.5 Components of GIS

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1.6 Different types of data

A GIS data model, often known as a geo-relational model, is a formal

1.7 Vector Representation

| By: Raghu N. Prajapati 11

Surfaces: Surfaces are a more complex description of a geographical entity

There are two basic data models: vector and raster.

1.7.1 Vector Data Model

Unlinked: Vector data stored in an unlinked or spaghetti format can be

Connectivity - Describes the linking of points or polygons to each other

Adjacency - Summarizes the sharing of a common boundary of two regions

Contiguity - Is a term that describes the touching of spatial entities (usually

| By: Raghu N. Prajapati 13

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| By: Raghu N. Prajapati 15

1.8 Raster Representation