IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No.
1, January 1981 409
TRANSFORMER MO)DELS FOR TRANSIENT STUDIES BASED ON FIELD MEASUREMENTS
E.P. Dick, Member
Ontario Hydro
Research Division
Toronto, Canada
Abstract - A variety of models has been developed
to represent transformers in switching surge studies.
However, there is a paucity of data on the character-
istics of large power transformers to provide parame-
ters for utilization in the models. This paper des-
cribes a low power field method of saturating large
transformers and plotting the instantaneous magnetiza-
tion curve. Results on a 25 MVA unit allowed the ac-
curacy of several equivalent circuits to be compared.
Minor hysteresis loops were observed to obey simple
relationships from which two magnetizing inductance
models were developed.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Switching surge and other types of overvoltage
studies have been carried out for many years using
model networks (TNAs). More recently digital computer
programs have been developed for the purpose[l]. As a
consequence, physical and analytical models have been
developed for the various elements of a power system.
These include generators, circuit breakers, and trans-
mission lines, with frequency-dependent losses if
required. Transformers, too, have been represented,
often by linear networks for simulations not involving
saturation, ie, where the magnetizing branches could
be neglected.
There are, however, many studies in which trans-
former saturation effects are crucial, for example,
the overvoltages resulting from loss of load at the
end of a long line with radial generation. Nonlinear
ferromagnetic effects including possible ferroreson-
ance predominate in such situations. Saturation ef-
fects are ?lso important in protective relay applica-
tions as affected by inrush currents, and in problems
connected with generation of harmonics and with Tran-
sient Interference Factor (TIF). For these studies, a
variety of models has been developed[l-51 whose va-
lidity has been verified by comparison with perform-
ance of miniature model transformers, or by simulation
of power system disturbances. Very little data on
saturation characteristics of large power transformers
has been available because it was assumed that this
would require energization from a high power source at
voltages considerably exceeding their rating.
In this paper we shall discuss a low power test
method which has been used in the field to obtain the
instantaneous magnetization characteristics of large
transformers. Using this method, a 250 MVA autotrans-
former, and two independent winding units rated 83.3
and 25 MVA have been tested to levels approaching
F 80 244-4 A paper recommended and approved by the
IEEE Transmission & Distribution Committee of the IEEE
Power Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEE
PES Winter Meeting, New York, NY February 3-8,1980.
Manuscript submitted September 4, 1979; made available
for printing November 16, 1979.
0018-9510/81/0100-0409$00.75© 1981 IEEE
W. Watson, Senior Member
rated current. The 25 MVA transformer with 110/44/4
kV Y/Y/A windings was available to us for an extended
period and provided most of the results presented
here. An evaluation of the accuracy of several equiv-
alent circuits has resulted. At lower currents, the
described method also permitted observation of the be-
haviour of minor hysteresis loops through reversals of
the excitation. The results show that hysteresis
curves tend to follow a certain simple relationship
from which two models will be derived.
2.0 TEST METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT
OF TRANSFOMER CHARACTERISTICS
From Faraday's law, the induced voltage in a coil
with changing flux linkage is:
dk
v =
dt
(1)
therefore A fvdt
That is, the change in flux linkage of a coil can
be measured by integrating the induced voltage. This
is the basis of the classical ballistic galvanometer
method of measuring flux and of flux-meters. The
principle can be applied with modern instrumentation
utilizing an electronic integrator[6].
The application of this method to tranisformers
requires that a changing current be applied to one
winding and the transient voltage appearing across a
second winding be integrated to determine the flux
linkage. In fact, if a reversible dc supply is used,
the method can be regarded as excitation by very low
frequency ac, whereby high flux levels can be obtained
with the application of low voltage and low power.
2.1 Measuring Mutual Inductance
The basic circuit of the instrumentation is shown
in Fig. 1. The dc source S supplies varying current
to the winding N1 of the transformer. As the flux 02
changes, the voltage v2 appearing at the terminals of
coil N2 is integrated by the operational amplifier A2
with the integrating time constant R4C2. In fact, the
flux linkage is proportional to the integrator output:
J v2 dt
vA2 =( (2)
where R2 << R4 and may be neglected.
A signal proportional to current ij, is obtained
across the shunt Rs in the primary circuit. This
signal, vil, together with the flux-linkage signal vA2
can be fed to an X-Y recorder which plots flux linkage
against supply current. By reversal of the supply a
complete hysteresis loop can be plotted between posi-
tive and negative current limits determined by the
supply power, source impedance and winding resistance
R1.
410

EXCI TED WVINDING (i) MEASURED WINDING (A)

+

Fig. 1. Test Method for Measuring Flux Linkage as a

Function of Current
Fig. 2. Typical Test Arrangement
2.2 Measuring Self Inductance
3.0 RESULTS
Also shown in Fig. 1 is operational amplifier A1
and integrating components R3 and C1. Here, due to 3.1 Saturation - Single Phase
winding resistance R1, pot3ntial v1 is not equal to
the induced voltage on winding N1. The output of this Fig. 3 shows the magnetization curve for maximum
integrator vA] can be made proportional to flux link- available output of the welding set - about 150 A at
ages A1 in coil N1 by subtracting a voltage propor- 150 V. For this test, the welding set supplied cur-
tional to the resistance drop R1ii in the transformer rent to one phase of the High Voltage (HV) winding at
winding. This compensating voltage is derived from terminals H3 and Ho. The induced voltage on the Low
the shunt Rs fed to the operational amplifier through Voltage (LV) winding X3 and XO was integrated for the
adjustable resistor Rc. With a constant current il in flux linkage signal. The scales in per unit are de-
the winding, resistor Rc is adjusted utitil the resist- fined by the transformer rated MVA and voltage for the
ance drop is exactly compensated as shown by no change given tap position.
in the output of integrator A1.
2.3 Practical Test Considerations
pU A'it/I
Fig. 2 shows a more detailed diagram of the .2
(:
1
particular test set-up used on the 25 MVA transformer.
A 400 A gasoline-powered dc welding generatot, the
polarity of which could be reversed by a field switch, 0.8
was used for the tests. A number of precautions were
taken to protect the instrumentation aned the operators
against high voltages in case of accidental open-cir- 0. 4'
cuits occurring in the high inductance circuits in-
volved. Particular care is also required with the in-
strumentation and it has been found desirable to uti- - 0. 8
Ii -lo- I
- 0. 6 -0. 4 -0. 2 0.2 0.4 0.6 PU
lize a good operational amplifiet for the integration.
The offset voltage resulting from internal drift of -0. 4: pu ON H3
this amplifier must be negligible, in comparison with
the induced winding voltage, over the period of a ctm-
plete test cycle which may typically be 100 seconds. -0. 8
The drift in offset voltage of the amplifier can be
checked periodically between tests. Haaving achieved
this, where the self inductance characteristic of a
coil is beirig recorded, the resistive drop component
must be carefully balanced out. Heating of the trans- -1.6 J
former winding or of the current shunt may also cause
errors through changes in the compensation.

Fig. 3. Magnetitation Curve for High Current Applied

to One Phase
 411
TABLE I

COMPARISON OF TEST AIR-CORE INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTANCE CALCULATED FOR THREE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

Calculated Air-Core Inductances

Air-Core
Current Flux Test Star Detailed Simplified
Supplied Linkage Inductance Equivalent Equivalent Equivalent
to at Pu pu % Error pu % Error pu % Error
HV HV 0.198 Fitted 0.198 0.0 0.207 +4.5
HV LV 0.124 0.120 - 3.2 0.126 +1.6 0.129 +4.0
HV Ter 0.076 0.120 +58.0 0.076 0.0 0.076 0.0
LV HV 0.127 0.120 - 5.5 0.126 -0.8 0.129 +1.6
LV LV 0.131 0.116 -11.0 0.131 0.0 0.125 -4.8
LV Ter 0.078 0.120 +54.0 0.077 -1.2 0.076 -2.6
Ter HV 0.076 0.120 +58.0 0.076 0.0 0.076 0.0
Ter LV 0.076 0.120 +58.0 0.077 +1.2 0.076 0.0
Ter Ter 0.076 0.173 +128.0 0.076 0.0 Fitted

Near the origin, the apparent absence of hystere-

sis and the extreme slope (high inductance) are strik-
ing. Following a relatively sharp knee, the curve
straightens with saturation to a constant inductance.
Since the relative permeability of the iron core is
now reduced to unity, this may be called the air-core
inductance. Above the knee of the curve, the reluct- 1.
ance of the two core legs returning the flux is low
compared to the saturated leg under test. Consequent-
ly, the equivalent per phase inductances above the
knee may be read directly from these results. Under ,4
60 Hz testing, the highest point reached would have
required about 15 MVA apparent power at a voltage of
95 kV (1.5 pu). Here the welding set supplied only dc
resistive losses of 23 kW at about 150 volts.
Fig. 4 details, with an expanded flux linkage
scale, all winding combinations of applied current and
measured flux linkage on one phase. Per unit (pu)
scales remove the effect of winding turns. The weld- No _ A
ing set was only able to excite the tertiary winding 1 HV HV
to about 0.2 pu current, but tertiary flux linkages up 2 HV LV
to that point (curve 7) closely matched those measured 3 HV Ter
on the HV winding (curve 3). At test currents under 4 LV HV
0.1 pu, the curves merge, showing the difficulty of 5 LV LV
identifying leakage inductances between windings from 6 LV Ter
7 Ter HV,LV,
open-circuit testing. All the saturated values extra- Ter
polated back to the flux linkage axis meet at A s
(1.345 pu). This value, independent of particular
windings., represents the pu flux contained by the iron I,I.I 1- IL,
core under full saturation. Any additional flux ef- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 pu
fectively travels in air with the amount of coupling
between different windings dependent on their geo-
metry. Other transformers have been tested with As as
low as 1.18 pu. Fig. 4. Magnetization Curves at High Current for
Various Winding connections
The air-core inductances at 0.8 pu current were
measured from Fig. 4 and the results appear in Table ance 0.20 pu) could be expected as the flux linkage in
I. each core leg exceeds 1.4 pu.

3.2 Saturation - Three Phases Paralleled
On a core-type transformer, flux associated with
neutral current returns outside the windings through
an air gap, structural steel and the tank. Fig. 5
shows the magnetization curve at high neutral current
with the three HV windings paralleled. In contrast,
to the results of Fig. 3 (same scales), the maximum
inductance at the origin has greatly decreased to 5.20
pu. At about 0.1 pu current per phase, part of the
iron flux path saturates - evidently the iron tank -
leaving 1.33 pu inductance. Test current was limited
to 0.6 pu with three phases energized. However, the
results of Fig. 3 predict further saturation (induct-
DC offset in neutral current increases apparent
power requirements, and could operate transformer pro-
tection. For shell-type and single phase transformers
the flux shift caused by neutral current directly in-
creases the positive sequence magnetizing current.
For a core-type transformer, the flux shift resulting
from a given neutral current may be noted on Fig. 5.
The increase in positive sequence magnetizing current
for this flux shift may then be seen on Fig. 3. For
example, a dc neutral current (HV) of 270 A (0.5 pu
per phase) in the core-type transformer shifts the
average flux by 1.0 pu. Fig. 3 shows that a similar
shift in a shell-type transformer would require only
about '0.01 pu current (5.4 A in neutral). Thus a
412

At flux linkages close to zero, the per phase

equivalent hysteresis current is 67% of 0.0007 pu
(0.0005 pu or 56 mA on the HV winding). The maximum
per phase equivalent inductance is 150% of 1700 pu
(2500 pu). The limiting time constant associated with
L "I := 0- 2 - this inductance and winding resistance is about 3000
s. Consequently, when two transformers are parallel-
ed, a small dc offset could persist for many minutes.
3.4 Minor Hysteresis Loops
The described 25 MVA transformer was no longer
available at the time that these tests were made. The
Lm= 5.2C hysteresis phenomenon was not expected to be sensitive
to scale, but this premise was checked by cycling an 8
0.2 0.4 0.6 MVA and a small laboratory model transformer through
various hysteresis loops. With the proper scale ad-
(PER PHASE) justments, the results showed no practical differ-
ences.

Fig. 7, therefore, shows a set of curves obtained

on the laboratory transformer with scales adjusted to
those of the 25 MVA unit. A small variable-current
source supplied the drive power. The current was
first cycled to relatively large values - about 0.01
pu - to define the major loop. Beginning at point 1,
Fig. 5. Magnetization Curve at High Current for 3- the current was then cycled at decreasing levels to a
Phases Paralleled (Core-Type) final reversal at 9 followed by a large positive
increase.
core-type transformer is less likely to be affected by
direct currents in the neutral.
3.3 Major Hysteresis Loop
Hysteresis may be observed at lower values of
test current. Fig. 6 shows the magnetization curve
for one phase driven to 0.1 pu current. Leakage
fluxes were negligible compared to magnetizing flux at
these lower currents since all winding connections
produced the same curve. Below the knee of the curve,
the reluctance of the two core legs returning the flux
is about 50% of that in the leg being tested. Con-
sequently, the per phase equivalent inductance can be
calculated as 1.5 times the measured values.

Pu 4A
Lm = 1700
1 .2 ii-*
o = 0.59 0.8.

i.
-0.06 -0.04 -0.02 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 x
pu
10o
ih = 0. 0007

Fig. 7. Magnetization Curve at Low Current Showing

Minor Hysteresis Loops

Several observations can be noted from the

I.I figure:
1. The incremental inductance following a current
reversal appears to have a slope similar to the
Fig. 6. Magnetization Curve at Reduced Current Show- air-core inductance (0.2 pu).
ing Major Hysteresis Loop
 413
2. The shape of the magnetizing curve following a
reversal appears to fit a simple template orient-
ed either up or down, with a reference point on x y
the template superimposed on the reversal point.
3. Due to symmetry, each curve tends to return to
the reversal point previous to the last. For 0037
example, after 9 the curve returns to 8.
4. Immediately upon overtaking a former reversal
point, the template is shifted to a position de-
fined by the next previous reversal point. For
example, during the final increase in current and
after overtaking 8, the curve reverted to being
defined by 7. Close inspection of the figure
confirms a step change in slope on the final
curve at 8. Following a similar process, the CONNECT IN
curve then passed through 6, 4 and 2 with a step A ON 3 + 'S
change in slope at each.
5. The loops converge to a non-zero flux linkage
between 8 and 9 which depend on the location of
the first reversal at 1. Thus the symmetry of
minor loops is not necessarily aligned with that
of the major loop. Fig. 8. Conventional Star-Equivalent Circuit of 25
MVA Transformer
6. The remanence is not sufficient to specify the
magnetization curve. For example, if 9 had been 4.2 Detailed Equivalent Circuit
the starting remanent point, developing the curve
for increasing current would have required a There exists a principle of duality between mag-
knowledge of the previous reversal points. netic and electric circuits; ie, MMF and current, flux
and potential, reluctance and inductance are duals.
These observations are limited to static hysteresis The idea was to derive a new electric equivalent cir-
effects independent of excitation frequency. Under 60 cuit from its magnetic counterpart which would be
Hz excitation, eddy current losses can be represented associated with physical reluctances and flux paths[7,
with shunt resistance [3,6]. 8].
4.0 TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Fig. 9 illustrates the flux branches and nodes
assumed for the 25 MVA core-type transformer. Posi-
The equivalent circuit is useful in approximating tive sequence magnetizing flux would flow around core
systems with distributed flux fields by using lumped
elements. The penalty paid may be a loss of physical
insight into the location of the flux paths and the
nature of their reluctances.
4.1 Star-Equivalent Circuit
The star-equivalent circuit of Fig. 8 is some-
times used to model three winding transformers. The
leakage inductances Lh, Lx and Ly are calculated from
short circuit test results. Since one of the induct-
ances is often negative, no attempt is made to associ-
ate real fluxes with these elements.

When the circuit is extended to include satura-

tion, a nonlinear magnetizing element Lm has sometimes
been added at the star point[l] (p. 12h). The low c3
zero-sequence inductance of a core-type transformer
has been modelled by a delta connection through Los C

also connected at the star point.

The leakage inductances in Fig. 8 were calculated
from short circuit data of the 25 MVA transformer. e "I
"I

The magnetizing inductance was chosen to fit the dc I I,

test results of Fig. 4 with current and flux linkage
measured at the HV winding. Lo was taken from Fig. 5.
The remaining dc test results were then simulated by I

considering unit current applied to one of the termin- Id

als of Fig. 8 and calculating the resulting pu flux
linkages or transfer inductances. Table I lists these
calculated inductances and compares then to measured
values. The discrepancy is particularly large for the HV LV T
tertiary winding. This problem has been discussed
qualitatively in reference[2].
Fig. 9. Flux Paths Assumed in Core-Type Transformer
414
legs and yokes. The outside phases have additional
reluctance resulting from the core yokes between a1
and a2, etc. Zero sequence flux flows from a to b
outside the windings through end frames, air and
tank. Leakage flux may experience higher reluctance
between a and c due to flux shields which protect the
end frames. The detail shows the breakdown of flux
paths assumed between, and distributed within, each of
the three windings.
The topological dual of the magnetic equivalent
circuit is the required electric equivalent circuit,
one phase of which is shown in Fig. 10. The induct-
ances may be related to physical geometry in the
transformer as follows:
1. The negative inductances -Lh h6, -Lx . 6,p -L
~~~~y
6 result from the distribution of leakage flux
through the finite winding section. They are
approximately proportional to winding radial
thickness.
2. The leakage inductances Lhx and Lxy are propor-
tional to the distance between winding mean
radii.
3. The leakage inductances Lh 2 and L'± 2 are
proportional to that part of the inner and outer
winding not considered in 2 above.
4. The shield inductance Ls is related to the air
gap and flux shields at the end of the windings.
5. The zero sequence inductance L. results from the
flux path through end frames, air and tank and as
shown in Fig. 5 is nonlinear.
6. The magnetizing inductance Lm depends on the
reluctance of the core leg.
7. The yoke inductance Lk accounts for the addition-
al flux path length in yoke region and should be
omitted in the centre phase.
H x y OF THE MAGNETIZING INDUCTANCE
Fig. 10. Detailed Equivalent Circuit of 25 MVA Trans-
former
The numerical values for the inductances (Fig.
10) werecalculated from both short circuit and dc
test results (Fig. 4). An iterative approach was used
since equivalent circuits of this size are difficult
to synthesize. Air-core inductances derived from Fig.
10 are listed in Table I for comparison with other
equivalent circuits. The number of elements makes
this circuit too cumbersome for most studies.
4.3 Modified Star-Equivalent Circuit
The detailed equivalent circuit had shown that
the magnetizing inductance should be connected near
the inner (tertiary) winding and the zero sequence in-
ductance near the outer (HV) winding. As illustrated
in Fig. 11, the star-equivalent circuit could be modi-
fied without increasing the number of elements. Table
I shows this change reduces the error significantly.
x
H 0.0775 0.0530
y
Lh
1.33
CONNECT IN
A ON 3 ¢'S
Fig. 11. Simplified Equivalent Circuit for 25 MVA
Trans former
5.0 MODELLING THE HYSTERESIS
Power system studies which require the modelling
of magnetizing inductance may be divided into two
types. The first type safely neglects hysteresis
which as shown in section 3.3 represents only 0.0005
pu of the winding rating. Examples include studies of
the effects of saturation on over-voltages or high-
current ferroresonance from excess shunt capacitance.
Saturation may be modelled in the A-i plane by single-
valued functions of varying levels of complexity.
The second type must simulate the effect of hys-
teresis. Examples are studies of transformer deener-
gization and current chopping, low-current ferroreson-
ance with series capacitance and studies in which high
frequency losses are important. The challenge has
been to develop simple models that correctly simulate
hysteresis including complexities of minor loops.
5.1 Template Method
The results of section 3.4 suggest that minor
hysteresis loops are part of a uniform template. Such
a template may be constructed from an algebraic func-
tion - say a hyperbolic[4] equation of the form:
(i - A/m1 - bl) (i - A/m2 - b2) = Cl (3)

The current is conveniently chosen as the dependent
variable since A is already specified by the state
equations in a transient program. The detail in Fig.
12 shows how the hyperbolic curve is asymptotic to
lines of slope ml and m2 which are derived from the
air-core and the maximum unsaturated inductances. The
parameter Ci in equation (3) is chosen to develop the
required curvature. The remaining constraints on
parameters b1 and b2 locate the m2 asymptote a con-
stant distance S from the reversal point Pk (S is the
distance between the major hysteresis loops) and en-
sure that the curve passes through Pk. The template
orientation (up or down) is made dependent on the sign
of Ak or change in flux linkage. In summary, the co-
ordinates of a point Pk (Ak, ik) specify a particular
template position which allows calculation of the in-
stantaneous current from flux linkage.
Fig. 12. Modelling Minor Hysteresis Loops Using Tem-
plates
The memory characteristic of iron noted in
4ection 3.4 can be modelled by a fitst-in-last-out
(FLLO) stack register. When a reversal point is re-
cognized by a change in sign of AX the coordinates are
pushed into the stack. The lowest stack coordinates
are used to define the template through Pk and equa-
tion (3). The program must also monitor whether a
previous reversal point has been overtaken. This is
done by checking the present curve position against
the coordinates in the second lowest stack register.
When this occurs, the entire stack is lowered two
positions and the template redefined by an earlier re-
versal point. The lowest two stack entries are dis-
carded.
In Fig. 12, for example, the remanent point is
given by R and a check of the first AA may show it to
be negative. Since the previous reversal history is
unknown, the simplest possibility would have been the
415
reversal at point PO. This PO can be initially cal-
culated and placed in the stack. The trajectory pro-
ceeds to P1 where a reversal occurs. The stack now
contains P1, PO with the template defined by P1 and
the point checked for overtaking being PO. After two
further reversals, the stack contains coordinates from
P3, P2, PI, P0 in that sequence. After overtaking P2,
the stack is lowered two positions leaving P1, PO. If
flux linkage continues to increase, PO will be over-
taken and no coordinates will be available for defin-
ing the template or checking for overtaken points.
This difficulty is removed if arbitrarily large rever-
sal points P+ and P_ lying on the major hysteresis
loop are initially loaded into the stack.
Saturation may be modelled by applying a suitable
scaling function to the A axis as indicated by the
dotted lines. Fig. 13 shows a computer simulation in
Fortran of the test curves in Fig. 7.
-0 .10 -0 .02 0 .06 0.
CURRENT x 1O-
Fig. 13. Simulation of Minor Hysteresis Loops Using
Template Method
5.2 Decomposition Method
This model described by Yamashita is remarkable
in being able to generate complex hysteresis loops
using a number of elements with simple characteristics
[5]. The comparison between such elements and flux
domains in iron is physically appealing.
Fig. 14 illustrates the decomposition of a mag-
netization curve including a minor loop into backlash
elements with straight edges. The elements are elec-
trically connected in parallel such that the element
currents ik, sum to the total magnetizing current i.
The instantaneous inductance depends on the number of
backlash elements in saturation. Specifically, the
shape of the curve Cl, when entering saturation, de-
pends on the element inductances Lk and their various
saturation levels tAsk.
416

A A
4

ol
0

If Fig. 15. Equivalent Circuit for Modelling Backlash

Elements

Fig. 14. Decomposition of Magnetization Curve Into

Simple Backlash Elements
Minor hysteresis loops result when the direction
Ak
of excitation,reverses. All elements not saturated at 1.i.

that point now track lines parallel to their induct-

ance Lk but at a flux-level lower than Ask. Conse-
quently, with this model the initial slope of a minor
hysteresis loop is the same as the air-core induct-
ance. (Section 3.4 observation 1).
The shape of the curve C2 when leaving saturation
or performing a minor loop depends on the element in-
ductances Lk and their various hysteresis current in-
tercepts tihk. Since the backlash element with the
lowest inductance absorbs most of the current change
the 'elements unsaturate progressi'vely in reverse
order.

Fig. 15 shows a method of modelling these back-

lash elements on a network transients program such as
the- one described in reference[1]. This program pro-
ceeds in finite time steps to calculate potential, -1A
current and flux linkage on any desired network ele-
ments. With'minor program modifications, the switches
Sk and current sources Ik may be set at each time step
to a desired state or level. In fact the current
source level needs to be changed only for those time
steps where the switch is opening. The switch current
on opening may be' slightly higher than ihk due to the
finite step size of the program. To avoid abrupt Fig. 16. Switching.Control for Each Backlash Element
changes in element current (resulting in voltage
oscillations), the current source is simply set equal negative change in current Ai in region III or a posi-
to the switch current prior to opening. tive Ai in region I.

Fig. 16 details the flux linkage - current plane
for a single backlash element. In region II the
switch must be closed since current is less than ih or
flux linkage exceeds A In order to perform a major
loop, a to f, it is necessary to have the switch open
in reg'ions I and III. However, when -performing a
minor loop, g to j, the switch must be closed in
regions I and III when the excitation reverses at g
and i. This may be recognized by a negative change in
flux linkage AA in region III or a positive AA in
region L. '-
At point i, a further condition must be taken
into account. As shown by the detail, AA was detected
negative at point 3 followed ,by the switch closing.
At point 4, which could still be in region III, AA is
no longer strictly negative. To prevent the switch
from opening, this situation is recognized from the
-The transients program was modified with the as-
sistance of Dr. H.W. Dommel at the University of
British Columbia. About 50 Fortran statements were
changed or added. The switch and current source were
implemented as a new two-terminal element labelled a
flux switch with parameters As, Ar, and ih. The pa-
rameter Ar Specifies an initial remanent flux.
The flux switches were tested by modelling the
magnetization characteristic of the 25-MVA transformer
mentioned in section 3. Four flux switches connected
to appropriate inductances were used per phase. Fig.
17 shows the result of simulating several minor loops
of increasing amplitude with current supplied to one
phase. Close inspection of the curves reveals at
least 7 distinct slopes. The flux switches present in
the other two phases were coupled through the three-
limb core effect and provided the additional break-
points.
 417

4. However, ac excitation is necessary if information

OI. about losses at 60 Hz or higher frequencies is
desired.
-I

Accurate equivalent circuits were derived from

physical flux paths and verified from results of a 25
MVA transformer. The star-equivalent circuit was im-
I

proved when the magnetizing element was connected at

the inner winding terminal. The delta connection to
model the effect of the three limb core should be made
at the outer winding terminal.

,'
Minor hysteresis loops were observed to obey
.0 simple relationships which describe the shape of the
curves and the significance of the reversal points.
These observations led to the construction of a tem-
I REMANENCE
-i m-
plate model with the storage of reversal points in a
INAL stack-type memory. This model assumes that hysteresis
.i
i:
77 I
and saturation are independent. In contrast, the de-
composition method assigns hysteresis and saturation
I :,.i
--7

]-,, T
parameters to each backlash element. The decomposi-
tion method was implemented into the transients pro-
_I.
gram of reference[l] and minor hysteresis loops were
_
Li
--I -f-
simulated.
-aLLL REFERENCES
Fig. 17. Magnetization Curve Resulting from Decompos-
ition Method [1] "Electromagnetic Transients Progam (EMTP) User's
Manual", Bonneville Power Administration,
The same model was also used to simulate the Revised November, 1977.
results of Fig. 4 and tests involving 60 Hz short cir-
cuits, closing/tripping onto an infinite bus, and a [2] H.W. Dommel, "Transformer Models in Simulation
ferroresonant study. The initial results show there of Electromagnetic Transients", 5th Power
may be a problem in choosing a small enough step size Systems Computation Conference, Cambridge
to accomodate both hysteresis and high current satura- (England), September 1-5, 1975, Paper No 3.1/4.
tion accurately. The tow magnetizing inductance fol-
lowing an excitation reversal tends to produce large [3] N. Germay, S. Mastero and J. Vroman, "Review of
current changes per time step. The. flux switches do Ferroresonance Phenomena in High-Voltage Power
not have time to open before the hysteresis intercept System and Presentation of a Voltage Transformer
has been overshot. Several thousand time steps per Model for Predetermining Them", CIGRE, 1974
power system cycle appear necessary when using a five- Session Paper 33-18.
slope model.
[4] A. Semlyen and A. Castro, "A Digital Transformer
6.0 -CONCLUSIONS Model for Switching Transient Calculations in
Three-Phase Systems" , PICA Conf, 9th, Proc, New
The paper has described a field method of satur- Orleans, LA, June 2-4, 1975, p. 121-126.
ating large transformers and plotting the magnetiza-
tion curve. Several advantages and limitations of [5] H.. Yamashita, E. Nakamae, M.S.A.A. Hammam and K.
using dc to energize the transformer were shown: Wakisho, "A Program to Analyze Transient
Phenomena of Circuits Including Precisely
1. Transformers rated 25-250 MVA.have been saturation Represented Transformers", IEEE PES Summer
tested at currents approaching their thermal Meeting, July, 1975, A 75 403-6.
rating. The power source supplies only small
resistive losses - typically 0.1% of the [6] G.W. Swift, "Power Transformer Core Behaviour
transformer rating. Under Transient Conditions", IEEE Transactions
PAS-90, No 5, September/October, 1971, p. 2206.
2. The plotted magnetization curve is instantaneous,
ie, does not require conversion from rms quanti- [7] G.R. Slemon, "Magnetoelectric Devices, Trans-
ties. ducers, Transformers and Machines", John Wiley
and Sons, 1966, p. 168.
3. The current reversals can be easily controlled to
investigate minor hysteresis loops. [8] G. Kron, "Equivalent Circuits of Electric
Machinery", John Wiley and Sons, 1951, p. 26.
 418
Discussion
Adam Semlyen (University of Toronto): This paper contains important Phase c
and useful new information and basic knowledge related to core type
transformer modelling. It addresses basically the problem of producing
a simplified but sufficiently accurate transformer equivalent with cor-
rect representation of leakage, non-linear iron, and zero sequence in-
ductances. Special attention is given to hysteresis modelling with startl-
ing, new results regarding the effect of past history on minor loops.
While the losses associated with hysteresis are relatively small in large
transformers, hysteresis is very important to establish the remanence
conditions in the iron. Is the hysteresis model described in the paper
valid for a wider class of core material?
The transformer equivalent of Fig. 10 appears to be quite general for
a network with five terminals. This general condition is reemphasized in fo 1HX fXY tm
Fig. A, where the terminals are H, X, Y, 0, and 1, corresponding to
those in Fig. 10. The complete polygon between these terminals will
have ten branches. The authors have eleven. I assume that topological
considerations may produce such redundancies, just as they produce
simplifications, as shown in Fig. 11. Is this correct?
The simplified equivalent circuit of Fig. 11 is conceptually and prac-
tically important. The authors have retained only those branches bet-
ween terminals (Fig. A) where fluxes can topologically be identified. Fig. B Transformer model for building the simple equivalent circuit of
First two branches between H-X and X-Y to account for the two basic Fig. A. The path of +. may be ferromagnetic
leakage fluxes (between high and medium, and between medium and
low voltage windings). Then a corrective branch between H-Y, to ac- transformer representation of Fig. B. Fluxes are represented by double
count for the complexity produced by incomplete flux linkages. Zero- line arrows in air and in saturable parts of the core, where, for nonzero
sequence fluxes and core leg fluxes are clearly on opposite sides of the reluctances, non-infinite inductances appear in the equivalent circuit.
three windings: they are represented by the branches L. and Lm. All Since the sum of all fluxes represented in Fig. B is zero, the respective
other branches have been omitted. It is important to note that the resul- inductances in Fig. A form a loop. It is interesting to note that, if the
tant simplified model (Fig. 11) is still almost as good as the comples yoke saturates Lk#oo], the zero-sequence current is not the magnetizing
equivalent of Fig. 10, while the conventional model of Fig. 8 is incorrect current of L..
and useless (Table I). The latter has connected the magnetizing bran-
ches to the starpoint of the leakage inductances: L. should instead be Manuscript received February 4, 1980.
connected to the high-voltage terminal, and Lm to the low-voltage
terminal.
If the yoke can saturate, then it may be represented by a single non-
linear branch Lk, connected in the simplified equivalent in the way
shown in Fig. 10, or between 0 and 1 in Fig. A. In the case of five limb
cores, often met at large powers, L. is non-linear for the external phases
and so is Lk, because of reduced iron cross-section.

E. P. Dick and W. Watson: We thank Professor Semlyen for his com-

ments regarding this paper. As mentioned in Section 3.4, our hysteresis
models were based on measurements of a small laboratory transformer
(built 1960 with Armco 'B' 0.014-inch silicon steel). Further tests by
others of transformers with newer magnetic materials would be
valuable. Due to the low currents required, the welding set in Figure 2
could be replaced by a portable regulated power supply. We believe the
hysteresis mechanism will remain the same while changes in the loop
shape can be accommodated in the models with parameter adjustments.
Professor Semlyen has discussed equivalent circuits in some detail.
While the network of Figure 10 could be reduced to ten branches with
identical terminal characteristicis, all branches may become non-linear.
As well, if winding resistances were added to the leakage inductances,
the network becomes frequency dependent and is no longer redundant.
Every branch in Figure 10 has been topologically identified with a
physical flux path. The branches removed for Figure 11 are less crucial,
but not less physical.
current The inductance values in Figure 10 are saturated values. Figure C has
been added here to clarify how these inductances vary at lower currents.
In a three-limb transformer, yoke inductance Lk saturates at a level
close to the core leg inductance Lm since the cross-sectional area is the
same. In a five-limb transformer, Lm and L, in the outer phases saturate
at lower levels due to the reduced cross-sectional area in the yoke and
added limbs respectively.
Fig. A Terminal model for one phase Finally, the paper contains an error in Section 3.3. When converting
single phase measurements to per phase values, the hysteresis current in-
tercept ih (Figure 6) is multiplied by 0.5 since the magnetic path per
If the corrective branch, represented by dotted line in Fig. A, is phase is about half the test length. Accordingly, the second paragraph
should begin: "At flux linkages close to zero, the per phase equivalent
ted, the transformer equivalent is reduced to two leakage branch es and hysteresis current is 50% of 0.0007 pu (0.0004 pu or 42 mA on the HV
three magnetizing branches. These have direct physical signifiLcance, winding)."
since they can be related to identifiable fluxes. The equivalent 141 cnrcuit
LUIL
can be obtained directly, by the procedure of reference [7] usij,ng the Manuscript received April 16, 1980.
 419

pu

0.,

0.

i
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 pu

LIMBS PHASE ELEMEN T L sat. TRACE

3 outside Lm 0. 076
3 outside L 1. 330 2
3 outside Lk 1.670 3
3 centre Lm 0.076 1
3 centre Lo 1.330 2
3 centre Lk missing
5 outside Lm 0.076
5 outside Lo 1. 330 4
5 outside Lk 1.670 5
5 centre Lm 0.076 1
5 centre Lo . 330 2
5 centre Lk missing

FIGURE C
NON-LINEAR INDUCTANCES FOR
3 AND 5-LIMB TRANSFORMERS