Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Amplitude modulation was developed in the beginning of the 20th century. It was
the earliest modulation technique used to transmit voice by radio. This type of modulation
technique is used in electronic communication. In this modulation, the amplitude of the
carrier signal varies in accordance with the message signal, and other factors like phase
and frequency remain constant. The modulated and its spectrum consists of the lower
frequency band, upper frequency band and carrier frequency components. This type of
modulation requires more power and greater bandwidth; filtering is very difficult.
Amplitude modulation is used in computer modems, VHF aircraft radio, and in portable
two-way radio (Tarun Agarwal, 2014).
Figure 1 shows a modulating wave, a carrier wave, and the resulting waveform after
the modulation process, on the bottom. Note that the shape of the top of the modulated
signal is the same as that of the modulating wave. At the bottom, the shape is also the same
but is inverted (upside down) forming a kind of “envelope” or channel. In addition, note
that there is no change in the frequency of the carrier wave (Olenewa, 2016).
Frequency Modulation
In this type of modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the message signal, and other parameters like amplitude and phase remain constant.
Frequency modulation is used in different applications like radar, radio and telemetry,
seismic prospecting and monitoring newborns for seizures via EEG, etc. This type of
modulation is commonly used for broadcasting music and speech, magnetic tape recording
systems, two way radio systems and video transmission systems. When noise occurs
naturally in radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an
advantage in cancelling the noise (Tarun Agarwal, 2014).
Figure 2 illustrates the FM signal and simple modulation sine wave (top graph).
The bottom of the image shows the result of frequency FM modulation in frequency. Notice
how the modulated wave frequency changes proportionally, based on the change in input
signal amplitude, which effectively enables the receiver to reproduce the modulating signal
with the correct amplitude (or volume) of the sound. The rate of change of modulated signal
(frequency) follows the rate of input change, or modulating signal, which, in turn, allows
the receiver to reproduce the frequency at the output (Olenewa, 2016).
Phase Modulation
In this type of modulation, the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with
the message signal. When the phase of the signal is changed, then it affects the frequency.
So, for this reason, this modulation is also comes under the frequency modulation.
Generally, phase modulation is used for transmitting waves. It is an essential part of many
digital transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies like GSM,
WiFi, and satellite television. This type of modulation is used for signal generation in al
synthesizers, such as the Yamaha DX7 to implement FM synthesis (Tarun Agarwal, 2014).
Figure 3 shows an example of four different phase shifts with respect to the
reference signal shown at the top of the image, to illustrate the phase change (Olenewa,
2016).
Table 1: Comparison between AM, FM, and PM.
Feature AM FM PM
Semi-directional Antennas
Semi-directional antennas come in many different styles and shapes. Some semi-
directional antennas types frequently used with wireless LANs are Patch, Panel, and
Yagi (pronounced “YAH-gee”) antennas. All of these antennas are generally flat and
designed for wall mounting. Each type has different coverage characteristics. These
antennas direct the energy from the transmitter significantly more in one particular
direction rather than the uniform, circular pattern that is common with the
omnidirectional antenna (John Wiley & Sons, 2009).
Highly-directional Antennas
As their name would suggest, highly-directional antennas emit the most-narrow
signal beam of any antenna type and have the greatest gain of these three groups of
antennas.
Highly-directional antennas are typically concave, dish-shaped devices.
These antennas are ideal for long distance, point-to-point wireless links. Some models
are referred to as parabolic dishes because they resemble small satellite dishes. Others
are called grid antennas due to their perforated design for resistance to wind loading
(John Wiley & Sons, 2009).
Table 2: Comparison 3 Type of Antennas
Highly-Directional
Comparison Type Omnidirectional Antenna Directional Antenna
Antennas
Connect two
Often attached to the roof of a buildings that are miles
Yagi antenna is often used
Location used car or a truck for mobile away from each other but
for television reception.
application have no obstructions in their
path.
4. Adaptive array antenna is an antenna array provided with signal processing algorithms.
These algorithms are used to determine spatial signal parameters such as the direction of-
arrival (DOA) of the incoming signal, and to form the beam and steer it in the desired
direction while minimizing the interference. Thus, it can perform the following tasks:
a. Estimate the direction of arrival of all incoming signals including the interfering signals
and the multipath signals using the DOA algorithms such as Multiple Signal
Classification (MUSIC) and Estimation of Signal Parameter via Rotational Invariance
Techniques (ESPRIT) algorithms.
b. Determination and differentiation the intended signal from the rest of the unintended
incoming signals.
c. Steer the beam pattern in the direction of the intended signal and track it while putting
pattern nulls in DOA of interference and multi-path signals. This is will be done by
dynamically updating the weights of both phase and amplitude of signal at the different
array elements using adaptive algorithms such as Least Mean-Squares (LMS) and
Recursive-Least-Squares (RLS) algorithms.
The digital signal processor (DSP) is the key element of the adaptive array antenna
systems. But before analyzing and processing the received signals by the DSP, it is
necessary to down-convert the received signals to baseband frequencies by using the
frequency down converters and digitize these down converted signals by using Analog to
Digital (A/D) converters. After down-converting the incoming signals and digitizing them,
the DSP will be able to handle the received data information, calculate the complex
weights, and multiply the weights to each antenna element. In order to optimize the array
radiation pattern (i.e., producing maximum beam gain in the direction of the intended
signal) and shape the radiation pattern to minimize the interference.
In adaptive array antenna systems, two major strategies are normally used:
In the first strategy, a training sequence will be used as a part of the desired signal and
this training sequence should be also known at the receiver side, so in this case there is
no need to use a DOA algorithm. This training sequence, which is correlated with the
desired signal, will be then compared with what is received and the weights will be
adjusted and updated such that error signal between the known and the received signal
is minimized by using an adaptive algorithm. This scenario is usually appropriate for
Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) environments.
Figure 4: An overview of the major algorithms used in the adaptive antenna array systems.
In the second strategy, a DOA algorithm should be used to identify the directions and
the angles of arrival for all signals received by the array. Then, the weights will be
adjusted to get a maximum beam gain towards the intended angle-of-arrival and null
gain towards unintended signals by using an adaptive algorithm. This scenario is
usually not appropriate for Non-Line of-Sight (NLOS) environments where there are
many reflectors close to the receiver which resulting in many DOA angles and then the
DOA algorithm probably will fail to detect them correctly. Figure 4 provides an
overview of the major algorithms used in the adaptive antenna array systems.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Complex
A disadvantage of smart antennas is that they are far more complicated than a
traditional antennas.
More Expensive
As smart antennas are extremely complex, utilizing the latest in processing technology
they are far more expensive than traditional antennas.
Larger Size
Due to the antenna arrays which are utilized by smart antenna systems, they are much
larger in size than traditional systems.
Location
The location of smart antennas needs to be considered for optimal operation. Due to
the directional beam that ‘swings’ from a smart antenna locations which are optimal
for a traditional antenna is not for a smart antenna.
5. Telecommunication technology is one of the fastest growing technologies. Start with the
expansion of VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) technology utilization, Satellite
Technology which enables to carry out anytime, anywhere and by anyone.
In line with the rapid progress of the current era, mobile telecommunications technology
or mobile communication much in demand by the community. This is seen also in the
rapidly expanding telecommunications technology and mobile communication services in
the world (mobile evolution). The development of telecommunications technology,
especially in the field of cellular happens very rapidly due to the need to communicate and
exchange data quickly, easily and mobile.
1G Technology
1G is the first generation that began introduced in the 1970s (Siska, 2015), 1G
mobile technology is working using analog signal transmission only able to make phone
calls. 1G technology that has a role large enough to help the growth of the mobile market.
2G Technology
2G is the second generation that was introduced in 1990, the most prominent
difference of 2G technology is on the use of radio signals. 1G technology is still using
analog signals and 2G technology already uses digital signals that support voice calls, SMS
and MMS as well.
Then 2G technology was developed to 2.5G and 2.75G at 50 kbps speed, and developed
again into EDGE with a maximum speed of 1 Mbps (Siska, 2015).
3G technology
3G is the third generation that was introduced in 1998, 3G technology is the first
mobile broadband. In addition to the same capabilities as the previous generation, this
technology has the ability to transfer audio, graphics and video, for the purposes of video
streaming and video calls. In the beginning 3G technology only has speeds up to 2 Mbps,
and then developed again into 3.5G HSPA with DL speed up to 14 Mbps and UL speed up
to 5.76 Mbps. It then evolves into a 3.75G HSPA + technology with a maximum speed of
DL up to 168 Mbps and maximum UL up to 22 Mbps (Siska, 2015).
4G Technology
4G is the fourth generation that was introduced in 2009, 4G LTE technology
formulated jointly by members of 3GPP. An Indonesian Khoirul Anwar who has been
living in Japan for 12 years, and a researcher at JAIST is not an inventor of the 4G LTE
technology. Khoirul Anwar is only the patent holder of one of many technologies for
transmitter with dual FFT concept in SC-FDMA method which can be used as 4G LTE
uplink method. The latest mobile technology is called LTE (Long Term Evolution) and
also LTE-A (Long Term Evolution Advance) LTE technology has a speed of DL up to 100
Mbps and UL to 50 Mbps. The speed can still be much faster again according to the release
category used by the operator, the speed is theoretically determined from LTE Cat 1 to
LTE Cat8 as in the following table (Siska, 2015).
4G Operator #1 : Telkomsel
Telkomsel became the largest mobile telecommunications operator in Indonesia
with 139.3 million subscribers as of December 31, 2014 and a market share of 51% as of
January 1, 2007. Telkomsel's network has covered 288 international roaming networks in
155 countries by the end of 2007. Telkomsel has become a mobile operator the seventh in
the world that has more than 100 million subscribers in one country as of May 2011.
In December 8, 2014, Telkomsel officially launched the first commercial 4G LTE mobile
service in Indonesia. Telkomsel 4G LTE service has data access speed reaching 36 Mbps.
Telkomsel currently holds more than 100,000 BTSs that cover about 98% of the population
in Indonesia. As the world's No. 6 largest mobile operator in terms of subscribers,
Telkomsel is the market leader in the telecommunication industry in Indonesia which is
now believed to serve more than 143 million subscribers by 2015-2016. In an effort to
guide the development of the mobile telecommunication industry in Indonesia into a new
era of mobile broadband services, Telkomsel has consistently implemented 3G technology,
HSDPA, HSPA + roadmaps, and the development of Long Term Evolution (LTE) network.
Telkomsel is now developing broadband network in 100 major cities in Indonesia. To assist
customer service, Telkomsel is now supported by 24 hour call center and 430 service
centers spread all over Indonesia (TELKOMSEL, 2014).
Agarwal, A., Desai, N. R., Makker, K., Varghese, A., Mouradi, R., Sabanegh, E., & Sharma, R.
(2009). Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RF-EMW) from cellular phones
on human ejaculated semen: an in vitro pilot study. Fertility and Sterility, 92(4), 1318–
1325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.08.022
Agarwal, A., Singh, A., Hamada, A., & Kesari, K. (2011). Cell phones and male infertility: A
review of recent innovations in technology and consequences. International Braz J Urol,
37(4), 432–454. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-55382011000400002
Indosat. (2015). Indosat Ooredoo Menghadirkan Pengalaman Digital Terbaik Melalui 4Gplus.
Retrieved from http://ooredoo.com/id/media/news_view/indosat-ooredoo-menghadirkan-
pengalaman-digital-terbaik-melalui-4gplus/
John Wiley & Sons. (2009). CWNA Certified Wireless Network Administrator Official Study
Guide.
Moskowitz, J. M., & Ph, D. (2013). The UC Berkeley Prevention Research Center limits that
adequately protect children and adults from non-thermal as well as thermal health risks .
Wireless devices must be tested in a manner that resembles how consumers actually use
them , and the wireless .
Noviadhista, U. F. (2016). Seperti ini kondisi terbaru jaringan 4G di Indonesia. Retrieved from
https://www.techno.id/telco/seperti-ini-kondisi-terbaru-jaringan-4g-di-indonesia-
1603057/mengenal-fdd-dan-tdd-6239.html
Oni, O. M., Amuda, D. B., & Gilbert, C. E. (2011). Effects of Radiofrequency Radiation From
Wifi Devices on Human Ejaculated Semen. Ijrras, 9(2), 292–294.
Revindran, R., Suhas, R. C., & Deshpande, A. a. (2013). Smart Antenna A New Technology, (5),
128–136.