Week 4 exam (March 20) 8.00 -9.

15 am, Rex Vowels

Part A : Signal Processing

Chapter 1: Signals and Systems
Chapter 2: Discrete-Time Systems

Part B : Transform Methods

Chapter 1: Introduction to z-Transform

Part B: Transform Methods

Chapter 1: Introduction to z-
Transform
1.1 z-Transform
1.2 Properties
1.2.1 Linearity
1.2.2 Shifting
1.2.3 Time Reversal
1.2.4 Multiplication by Exponential Sequence
1.2.5 Differentiation in the z-domain
1.2.6 Discrete Convolution
1.3 Inverse z-transform
1.3.1 Relationship between the z-transform and the
Laplace Transform
1.4 Frequency Response Estimation
1.5 Pole-Zero Description of Discrete-Time Systems
1.6 A Second-Order Resonant System
1.7 Problem Sheet B1
Chapter 1: Introduction to z-Transform [1,3]
θ
Analogue Domain t = nT Discrete-time Domain
(Continuous-time Domain)
- x(t) x[n]
d
Laplace z-transform
i
Transform fa
g
X(s) θ = ω a T = 2π X(z)
i
ω-analogue fs
t s=jω z=ejθ
frequency -π≤θ≤π
a
X(ω) X(ejθ)
l θ -digital frequency

f jω Im(z)
z-Plane
rStable S-Plane
eRegion θ=π θ
q σ θ = -π Re(z)
u
e |z|=1(unit circle)
stable
n region
c
y
„ The primary role of the Laplace transform
in engineering is transient and stability
analysis of causal LTI system described by
differential equations.

„ The primary roles of the z-transform are

the study of system characteristics and
derivation of computational structures for
implementing discrete-time systems on
computers. The-transform is also used solve
difference equations.
1.1 z-Transform
„ The z-transform of a discrete-time signal
∞
z = rejθ, θ = digital frequency
X ( z) = ∑ x[n]z
n = −∞
−n
where z is a complex variable

two-sided
transform

„ In causal systems, x[n] may be zero when n < 0

∞
X ( z ) = ∑ x[n]z −n one-sided transform
n =0
„ Clearly, the z-transform is a power series with an
infinite number of terms and so may not converge for
all values of z.

„ The region where the z-transform converges is

known as the region of convergence (ROC) and in
this region the values of X(z) are finite

The step sequence: x[n] = ⎧

1 0≤n≤∞
⎨
⎩0 n<0
∞
X ( z ) = ∑1 ⋅ z − n = 1 + z −1 + z − 2 + ...
n =0

This is a geometric series with a common ratio of z-1.

The series converges if |z-1| < 1 or equivalently if |z| > 1
 −1 −2 1 z
X ( z) = 1 + z + z + ... = −1
=
1− z z −1
„ In this case, the z-transform is valid everywhere
outside a circle of unit radius whose centre is at the
origin (see below)

|z|=1 is a circle |z|=1 Im(z)

of unit radius
referred to as
the ‘unit circle’ region of
Re(z)
convergence
|z| > 1 then X(z) converges and |z| < 1 then it diverges

−1 −2 1
Let z = 2 ⇒ X ( z ) = 1 + 2 + 2 + ... = −1
=2
1− 2

Let z = 0.5 ⇒ X ( z ) = 1 + ( )
1 −1
2 +( )
1 −1
2 +K = 1+ 2 + 4 +K

So the Region Of Convergence (ROC) is seen to be bounded

⎧ z ⎫
by the circle |z| = 1, the radius of the pole of X ( z ) ⎨= ⎬
⎩ z − 1⎭
The delta sequence δ[n]:
∞
Z {δ [n]} = ∑ δ [n]z −n = 1
n =0

The geometric sequence: x[n] = an

∞
1 z a
X ( z) = ∑ a z n −n
= = for <1
a z−a z
n =0
1−
z
or equivalently, |z| > |a|.

when a = 1, x[n] = 1 for n ≥ 0 ie. x[n] = u[n]

z
X ( z) = ROC: |z|>1
z −1
The complex exponential sequence: x[n] = ejnθ
− jθ
−
{ }
∞
1 z z z e
z e jθn = ∑ e jθn z − n = jθ
= jθ
= jθ
× − jθ
n =0 e z − e z − e z − e
1−
z
z ( z − e − jθ ) z ( z − e − jθ )
= = 2
( z − e )( z − e ) z − (e jθ + e − jθ ) z + 1
jθ − jθ

z ( z − cos θ + j sin θ )
=
z 2 − 2 z cos θ + 1

jθnz ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ

Z {e } = 2 + j 2
z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1
z ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ
Z {cos θn + j sin θn} = 2 + j 2
z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1
 jθn z ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ
Z {e } = 2 + j 2
z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1
z ( z − cosθ ) z sin θ
Z {cosθn + j sin θn} = 2 + j 2
z − 2 z cosθ + 1 z − 2 z cosθ + 1

„ Exploiting the linearity property

z ( z − cos θ )
∴ Z {cos nθ } = 2
z − 2 z cos θ + 1
z sin θ
Z {sin nθ } = 2
z − 2 z cos θ + 1
1.2 Properties
1.2.1 Linearity ax[n] + by[n]←⎯→
Z
aX ( z ) + bY ( z )

1.2.2 Shifting Property (Delay Theorem):

x[n − k ]←⎯→
Z
z − k X (z )

A very important property of the z-transform is the

delay theorem.
Z {x[n − 1]} = z X ( z )
−1

Z {x[n − 2]} = z − 2 X ( z )

x[n] x[n-1] x[n] x[n-1]

z-1 ≡ T
X(z) z-1X(z)
Unit delay One sample delay
1.2.3 Time reversal:

x[− n]←
⎛1⎞
⎯→ X ⎜ ⎟
z
or ( )
X z −1
⎝z⎠

Example: Find the z-transform of x[n] = -u[n].

−1
z z z z
u[n]←⎯→ ; u[− n]←⎯→ −1
1
=
z −1 z −1 1− z

ROC: |z| < 1

 1.2.4 Multiplication by exponential
sequence:

a x[n]←
n
⎯→ X (a z )
z −1

As a special case if x[n] is multiplied by ejnθ

z
e jθn
x[n]←⎯→ X (e z )
− jθ

1.2.5 Differentiation in the z-domain:

z d
nx[n ]←⎯→ − z X (z )
dz
 1.2.6 Discrete Convolution:
If y[n] = x[n] * h[n] then Y(z) = X(z) . H(z)

⎧ ∞ ⎫
Z {x[n]* h[n] } = Z ⎨ ∑ u [k ]x[k ]⋅ u[n − k ]h[n − k ]⎬
⎩k = −∞ ⎭
∞
⎧ ∞ ⎫ −n
= ∑ ⎨ ∑ u[k ]x [k ]⋅ u[n − k ]h [n − k ]⎬ z
n = 0 ⎩k = −∞ ⎭
∞
⎧∞ −n ⎫
= ∑ u [k ] x [k ] ⎨∑ u [n − k ]h [n − k ] z ⎬ Let m = n−k
k = −∞ ⎩ n =0 ⎭
∞
⎧ ∞ −m−k ⎫
= ∑ u [k ] x [k ] ⎨ ∑ u [m]h[m] z ⎬
k = −∞ ⎩m = − k ⎭
 ∞
⎧ ∞
−m ⎫
= ∑ u [k ] x [k ] z ⎨ ∑ u [m]h [m] z ⎬
−k

k = −∞ ⎩m = − k ⎭
∞
⎧ ∞
−m ⎫
= ∑ x[k ] z ⎨∑ h[m] z ⎬
−k

k =0 ⎩m = 0 ⎭
X ( z) H ( z)
= X ( z) ⋅ H ( z)

x[n] y[n]
h[n]
X(z) H(z) Y(z)

y[n] = x[n] * h[n]

Y(z) = X(z) ⋅ H(z)
Example :
„ Concept of the transfer function

y[n] = a 0 x[n] + a1 x[n − 1] + a 2 x[n − 2] + b1 y[n − 1] + b2 y[n − 2]

Take the z-transform of both sides:

Y ( z ) = a0 X (z ) + a1 X ( z )z −1 + a2 X ( z )z −2 + b1Y ( z )z −1 + b2Y ( z )z −2
[ ] [
Y ( z ) 1 − b1 z −1 − b2 z − 2 = X (z ) a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z − 2 ]
Y ( z ) a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z − 2
H (z ) = =
X ( z ) 1 − b1 z −1 − b2 z − 2
Example :
„ Find the difference-equation of the following transfer
function
5z + 2
H ( z) = 2
z + 3z + 2
First rewrite H(z) as a ratio of polynomials in z-1
Y ( z) 5 z −1 + 2 z −2
= H ( z) =
X ( z) 1 + 3 z −1 + 2 z − 2
Y ( z ) + 3Y ( z )z −1 + 2Y ( z )z − 2 = 5 X ( z )z −1 + 2 X ( z )z − 2
Take inverse z-transform
y[n] + 3 y[n − 1] + 2 y[n − 2] = 5 x[n − 1] + 2 x[n − 2]

⇒ y[n ] = 5 x[n − 1] + 2 x[n − 2] − 3 y[n − 1] − 2 y[n − 2]

Example : If x[n] = u[n] – u[n-10], find X(z)?
9
1 − z −10
X ( z ) = ∑ (1) z − n =
n =0 1 − z −1

Example: If y[n] = -αnu[-n-1], find Y(z)?

∞
Y ( z) = ∑ − α n
u [− n − 1]z −n

n = −∞
n k
⎛α ⎞
−1
⎛z⎞∞
= − ∑ ⎜ ⎟ = −∑ ⎜ ⎟
n = −∞ ⎝ z ⎠ k =1 ⎝ α ⎠

∞ k
⎛z⎞
= 1− ∑ ⎜ ⎟
k =0 ⎝ α ⎠
 u[n+1] u[-(n+1)]

-1 n -1 n
z
The sum converges provided < 1 ie. |z| < |α|
α

1
Y ( z) = 1 − | z |<| α |
1 − zα −1

z
= | z |<| α |
z −α
„ Depict the ROC and pole and zero locations in
the z-plane

Im(z)

α Re(z)
1.2.6 Discrete Convolution
„ Compute the convolution y[n] of the digital signals
given by
x1[n] = [1, -2, 1];
x2[n] = 1 for 0 ≤ n ≤ 5,
x2[n] = 0 elsewhere
y[n] = x1[n] * x2[n] ⇒ Y(z) = X1(z) ⋅X2(z)
X1(z) = 1 –2z-1 + z-2
X2(z) = 1 + z-1 + z-2 + z-3 + z-4 +z-5
Y(z) = X1(z) ⋅ X2(z)
= 1-z-1 – z-6 + z-7
Inverse z-transform
y[n] = [1, -1, 0,0,0,0,-1,1]
Example :
„ Determine the system function H(z) of the system
shown below: y[n]
x[n] +

y[n] = x[n] + ay[n-1] T

ay[n-1] a
Y(z)
Y(z) = X(z) + az-1Y(z) X(z) +
z-1
Y ( z) 1
H ( z) = =
X ( z ) 1 − az −1 a
az-1Y(z)
 Basic z-Transforms
Signal Transform ROC

δ[n] 1 all z
u[n] 1 |z| > 1
1 − z −1
αn u[n] 1 |z| > |α|
1 − αz −1
nαn u[n] αz −1 |z| > |α|
(1 − αz −1 ) 2
cos(nθ) u[n] 1 − z −1 cosθ |z|>1
1 − z −1 2 cosθ + z − 2
sin(nθ) u[n] z −1 sin θ |z| > 1
1 − z −1 2 cosθ + z − 2
rncos(nθ) u[n] 1 − z −1 r cosθ |z| > r
1 − z −1 2r cosθ + r 2 z − 2
rnsin(nθ) u[n] 1 − z −1 r sin θ |z|>r
1 − z −1 2r cosθ + r 2 z − 2
z-Transform Properties

signal Transform
X[n] X(z)
ax[n] + by[n] aX(z) + bY(z)
X[n-k] z-kX(z)
anx[n] ⎛z⎞
X⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
x[-n] ⎛1⎞
X⎜ ⎟
⎝z⎠
x[n]*y[n] X(z)⋅Y(z)
nx[n] d
− z X (z)
dz
 −N
1− z
Note: S N = 1 + z + z
−1 −2
+ ... + z − ( N −1)
=
1 − z −1
1
If N →∞ S ∞ = −1
, |z-1| < 1
1− z
1.3 Inverse z-Transform

„ The inverse z-transform-Partial fraction

The inverse z-transform allows us to recover the

discrete-time sequence.

x[n] = Z-1[X(z)]

where X(z) is the z-transform of x[n].

Example :
Find x[n] for the following:
z −1
X ( z) =
1 − 0.25 z −1 − 0.375 z −2
z z ⎡ A B ⎤
= 2 = = z⎢ +
z − 0.25 z − 0.375 ( z − 0.75)( z + 0.5) ⎣ z − 0.75 z + 0.5 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜5⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟z ⎜ ⎟z ⎥
= z⎢ ⎝ ⎠ + ⎝ 5⎠ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎝5⎠ − ⎝5⎠ ⎥
⎢ z − 0.75 z + 0.5 ⎥ ⎢ z − 0.75 z + 0.5 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

4 −1 ⎡ z ⎤ 4 −1 ⎡ z ⎤
x[n] = z ⎢ − z ⎢
5 ⎣ z − 0.75 ⎦ 5 ⎣ z + 0.5 ⎥⎦
⎥
4
[ ]
= (0.75) n − ( −0.5) n , n > 0
5
1.3 Inverse z-Transform

„ Power series Method

„ Residue Method - evaluating the

contour integral
E.
 1.3.1 Relationship between the z-
transform and Laplace transform.

If we let z = esT, then z = e(σ +jω)T (T is the sampling period)

z = eσ T⋅ ejωT = eσ T⋅ ejθ -π ≤ θ ≤ π

Thus |z| = eσ T and

f
∠z = ωT = 2π = θ (θ = digital frequency)
fs
„ As ω varies from -∞ to ∞ the s-plane is
mapped to the z-plane as shown in Figure
2.10.

„ The entire jω axis in the s-plane is mapped

onto the unit circle. The left-hand s-plane is
mapped to the inside of the unit circle and
the right-hand s-plane maps to the outside of
the unit circle.
 (Half the z-plane
jω
sampling
s-plane frequency)

θ=π θ=0
σ θ = -π
If θ = π
Unit circle
|z|=1

Figure 2.10. Mapping of the s-plane to the z-plane.

„ In terms of frequency response, the jω axis is
the most important in the s-plane. In this
case σ = 0 and the frequency points in the s-
plane are related to points on the z-plane unit
circle by z = eσT.ejωT = 1 ejθ

jθ
z=e
1.4 Frequency Response Estimation
„ There are many instances when it is necessary to
evaluate the frequency response of discrete-time
systems. The frequency response of a system can be
readily obtained from its z-transforms.

„ For example, if we set z = ejθ, that is evaluate the z-

transform around the unit circle, we obtain the
Fourier Transform of the system.

H (θ ) = H ( z ) | z = e jθ , - π < θ < π

Fourier transform of the discrete-time system

Example :

1
H ( z) = −1
, 1 < a < 0 say a = 0.6
1 − az

„ Find H(θ). {H(θ)-the frequency response}

H (θ ) = H ( z ) | z =e jθ −π ≤θ ≤ π

Fourier transform of the discrete-time system.

H (θ ) = H ( z ) | z =e jθ =
1 1
=
1 − ae − jθ
(1 − a cosθ ) + ja sin θ
1 1
H (θ ) = =
(1 − a cos θ )2 + (a sin θ )2 1 − 2a cos θ + a 2

1 |H(θ)| 1
1− a
1+ a

θ
-π π
digital frequency

-fs/2 0 fs/2
f (analogue
frequency)
θ = ωT; θ = 2π f/fs:; θ = π ⇒ f = fs/2
fs= sampling frequency
 1.5 Pole-Zero Description of
Discrete-Time Systems
„ The zeros of a z-transform H(z) are the values of z
for which H(z)=0. The poles of a z-transform are
the values of z for which H(z)=∞ . If H(z) is a
rational function , then

Y ( z ) a0 + a1 z −1 + ... + aM z − M
H ( z) = =
X ( z ) 1 + b1 z −1 + ...... + bL z − L
( z − z1 )( z − z 2 ).......( z − z M )
= a0
( z − p1 )( z − p2 )......( z − pL )
„ The complex quantities (or may be real) z1, z2, z3 ….
are called zeros of H(z) and the complex quantities
(or may be real) p1, p2, p3 … are called the poles of
H(z). We thus see that H(z) is completely
determined , except for the constant a0, by the
values of poles and zeros

„ The information contained in the z-transform can be

conveniently displayed as a poles-zero diagram (see
figure in the next slide)
 Im(z)

0.75
|z|=1 0.5

-1 -0.5
Re(z)

In the diagram, ‘X’ marks the position of a pole and ‘O’

denotes the position of a zero.

The poles are located at z = 0.5 ± 0.5j and z = 0.75, a

single zero is at z = -1.
„ An important feature of the pole-zero
diagram is the unit circle |z|=1. The pole-zero
diagram provides an insight into the
properties of a given discrete-time system.

„ From the locations of the poles d zeros we

can infer the frequency response of the
E.
system as well as its degree of stability.

„ For a stable system, all the poles must lie

inside the unit circle. Zeros may lie inside, on,
or outside the unit circle.
Example :
„ Determine the transfer function H(z) of a discrete-
time system with the pole-zero diagram shown
below: Im(z)

0.5
|z| =1 0.5
-1
-0.5 Re(z)

K ( z − j1) ( z + j1)
H ( z) =
( z − 0.5 − 0.5 j ) ( z − 0.5 + 0.5 j )
K (1 + z − 2 )
=
1 − z −1 − 0.5 z − 2
Example :
Determine the pole-zero plot:

Im(z)
z
H ( z) =
z−a

Re(z)

|z|=a
Example :
Determine the pole-zero plot :
zM − aM ( z − z1 )( z − z 2 ).........( z − M )
H ( z ) = M −1 =
z ( z − a) z M −1
The zero z = a cancels the pole at z = a. Thus, H(z)
has M-1 zeros and M-1 poles as shown in the diagram
below for M = 8. Im(z)

z= a

Re(z)
8 poles

|z|=a
„ Consider a system, H(z) with two complex conjugate
poles in the z-plane :

Im(z)
p1 = re jθ
Poles
r p1 p2 = re − jθ

θ z1 = 0 ( zero)
θ Re(z)

|z|=1
p2
„ A typical transfer function might be:

z ⎡ A B ⎤
H ( z) = = z⎢ +
(z − re )(z − re )
jθ − jθ
⎣ z − re jθ
z − re − jθ ⎥
⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ 2 jr sin θ 2 jr sin θ ⎥
= z⎢ jθ
− − jθ
⎥
⎢ z − re z − re ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
H ( z) = −
j (2r sin θ ) ⎢⎣1 − re jθ z −1 1 − re − jθ z −1 ⎥⎦
h( n) =
1
j 2r sin θ
[(
re jθ ) − (re ) ]
n − jθ n

=
rn
j 2r sin θ
[
e jθn − e − jθn ]

h( n) =
1
sin θ
[
r n −1 sin nθ ] θ = frequency of
oscillation

This is the impulse response of the 2nd order

system with complex poles
„ We note that the impulse response will decay
away to zero provided r is less than one. [ r < 1]

„ Recall that r is also the distance from the origin in

the z-plane to the poles p1 or p2, so that system
will be stable if the poles in the z-plane lie inside
the unit circle.
Example :
Exponential decay
Poles inside sinewave (r<1)
unit circle Stable system

θ
-θ

rn
h( n) =
1
sin θ
[
r n −1 sin nθ ]
Poles on the
unit circle
1
θ

-1

r=1
 Exponential increasing
Poles outside unit (r>1)
θ circle
-θ
h(n) =
1
sin θ
[
r n −1 sin nθ ]
rn

one real Pole inside the

unit circle rn, θ = 0

n
Note :

„ A system that is both stable and casual must

have all its poles inside that unit circle within
the z-plane.

„ We cannot have a pole outside the unit circle,

since the inverse transform of a pole located
outside the circle will contribute either a right
sided increasing exponential term, which is
not stable, or a left-sided decaying
exponential term that is not causal.
 1.6 A second order Resonant System
(Complex Poles)

x[n] y[n]
+ r θ0
-b1
z -1

-b2
z -1
p1 = re jθ 0 = r cos θ 0 + jr sin θ 0
p2 = re − jθ 0 = r cos θ 0 − jr sin θ 0

1 z2
H ( z) = −1 −2
= 2 (A)
1 + b1 z + b2 z z + b1 z + b2
 „ All pole system has poles only (without counting the
zeros at the origin)

z2 z2 z2
H ( z) = 2 = =
z + b1 z + b2 ( z − p1 )( z − p2 ) ( z − re jθ 0 )( z − re − jθ 0 )
−1

z2 z2
H ( z) = jθ 0 − jθ 0
= (B)
z − r (e
2
+ e )z + r 2
z 2 − 2r cos θ 0 z + r 2

Comparing (A) and (B), we obtain

2π f 0
b1 = −2r cos θ 0 b2 = r 2
∴ Cosθ 0 =
− b1
θ0 =
fs
2 b2

θ0 = resonant frequency
„ We can derive H(θ) and the magnitude from

1
H ( z) =
1 + b1 z −1 + b2 z −2

b2 = r 2
b1 = −2r cos(θ 0 )
⎡ − b1 ⎤
θ 0 = cos ⎢−1
⎥
⎢⎣ 2 b2 ⎥⎦
 dB
IV

θ
−π π π
− π
4 θ0 =
4
I
 Magnitude response
50
I
II
40 III
IV

30

20
dB

10

-10

-20
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
theta
Example :
„ sketch the magnitude response for the system having
the transfer function

1 + z −1
H ( z) = π π
j −j
(1 − 0.9e 4 z −1 ) (1 − 0.9e 4
z −1 )
π
−j
The system has a zero at z = -1 & poles at z = 0.9e 4

∴ Magnitude response will be zero at θ = π and large at

θ0= ± π /4 because the poles are close to the unit circle.
 |H(θ)|

Magnitude 0.9
Response π/4
θ=π

-π -π/4 π/4 π θ
θ
θ=0
θ = -π
 Example :
„ Sketch the approximate magnitude response from
the pole-zero map given below:
dB
Im(z)

+ 0.8

Re(z)
- 0.8
-π -π/2 0 π/2 π
|z|= 1 θ

fs/2
-fs/2
Example :
„ Sketch an approximate magnitude response from the
pole-zero map given below:

Im(z) |H(θ)| in dB

+ 0.5
1 Re(z)
- 0.5

|z|=1 -π -π/2 0 π/2 π θ

 Summary of Part B Chapter 1
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that you should know:

„ The properties of z transforms and their application.

„ Discrete convolution in the time and z domains.

„ How to find the inverse z transform, given a transfer function.

„ The difference between a z transform and a Laplace transform and

when to use each.

„ Estimation of frequency response from a transfer function

„ Hand-calculate magnitude and phase responses for simple transfer

functions and plot them.
„ The pole-zero description of a discrete time system.

„ Given a pole-zero diagram, transfer function or difference

equation, how to find any of the other representations and discuss
the system’s stability with reference to the pole-zero diagram.

„ How to derive the resonance frequency equation for a second-

order resonance system (a complex pole pair).
Examples
A digital filter structure is shown below. Determine the Transfer function H(z).

X(z) a0 Y(z)
+
Z-1 -b1
+
Z-1
a0 b2
+

Y (z) a 0 + a 0 z −1
= H (z) = ;
X (z) 1 + b1 z −1 − b 2 z −2
Sketch an approximate magnitude response from the pole-zero map given below:

Im(z)

0.5 x
-1 1
Re(z)
-0.5 x

|H(θ)|

-π -π/2 0 π/2 π θ
Question 5(b)
Determine the magnitude response of the following filter and show that it has an all-pass
characteristic.
a − z −1
H ( z) = a <1 [4 marks]
(1 − a z −1 )

− jθ jθ
1 a − e a − e
H ( z ) = (1 + z − 2 ) H (θ ) = − jθ
→ H *
(θ ) =
2 1 − ae 1 − ae jθ
a 2 + 1 − ae jθ − ae − jθ
H (θ ).H (θ ) = H (θ ) = =1
* 2
jθ − jθ
1 + a − ae − ae
2

⇒ All - Pass filter

H (θ )
1

-π π θ
A first-order digital filter is described by the system function :

1 − a 1 + b z −1
H ( z) =
1 + b 1 − a z −1
Draw a canonic realisation of the transfer function H(z).

X(z)
Y(z)
+ +
Z-1
1-a/1-b b
a
Question 3
Sketch roughly the magnitude response corresponding to the pole-zero pattern given below:
Sketch an approximate magnitude response from the pole-zero map given below:

Im(z)

0.5 x
-1 0.5 1
Re(z)
-0.5 x

Mag

θ
The difference equation of a digtal filter is given by y(n) = x(n)-x(n-8)- y(n-2 )
Find the transfer function for the above filter.

Y ( z ) = X ( z ) − X ( z ) z −8 − Y ( z ) z −2
Y ( z) 1
= (1 − z −8 ).
X ( z) 1 + z −2
A first-order digital filter has a transfer function given by

1 + z −1
H ( z) = k
1 − a z −1
Determine the impulse response of the above digital filter H(z) and show that the filter is
stable if a < 1.

⎡ 1 z −1
⎤
H ( z) = k ⎢ −1
+ −1 ⎥
⎣1 − az 1 − az ⎦
[
h(n) = k a nu(n) + a n−1u(n − 1) ]
if a< 1, then h(n) decays to zero.
Therefore, stable system.