Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
133–144
http://dx.doi.org/10.5957/JOSR.59.3.150011
Journal of
Ship Research
Keywords: welding residual stress; x-ray diffraction; finite element model; preheat
and inter-pass temperature; releasing temperature
DH36 ferric steel that is typically employed in offshore structure The stress components sw can be calculated as:
constructions. Table 1 shows the chemical compositions. The MIG
welding procedures are performed in the first two welding passes E 1
whereas the SAW welding procedures are employed automatically sf ¼ Defy ð3Þ
1 þ v sin2 y2 sin2 y1
in the final three welding passes. The welding procedures are
shown in detail in Table 2. In the numerical model for experimental Appling the differentiation of Bragg’s law yields:
calibration, the real welding time has been used in each welding
pass. Then, the interpass temperature was obtained numerically. dfy d0
efy ¼ ¼ ctgu0 ufy u0 ð4Þ
To monitor the temperature history during the welding process, d0
the K-type thermocouple with a precision of 0.75% T is directly where dwy, d0, uwy, and u0 indicate the spacing between the lattice
planes and the diffraction angles for measured and stress-free
Table 1 Chemical compositions of the DH36 steel plate (mass%) material in the direction defined by f and y, respectively.
Finally, the stress component sw is obtained:
C Si Mn P S Ti Nb
E 1
sf ¼ ctgu0 ufy1 ufy2 ð5Þ
0.16 0.34 1.45 0.025 0.020 0.022 0.025 1 þ v sin2 y2 sin2 y1
In the portable x-ray equipment, y1 ¼ 0 and y2 ¼ 50 (Estefen in the single and double electrode welding of the butted-
et al. 2012). To determine the surface stress component sf, it is jointed steel plate were monitored using the x-ray diffraction
necessary to measure the diffraction angles corresponding to the measuring system for more than 2 weeks after the removal
deformation from the lattice planes, with the normal characterized of the welding constraints by Estefen et al. (2012) and Estefen
by two angles y1 and y2. The detailed principal mechanism of et al. (2013).
measurement was described by Estefen et al. (2010).
This measuring technique is widely employed for several
practical engineering applications. Monin et al. (2009) and 3. Finite element model
Estefen et al. (2012) investigated the surface residual stresses
To save the computer time, a 2D FE model is carried out in the
in butt welded steel in MIG welding using the x-ray diffrac-
numerical simulation using finite element (FE) methodology
tion method. The welding residual stress relaxation behavior
based on ABAQUS code (2010), as shown in Fig. 4a. The 2D FE
model can give quite good residual stress fields in the mechani-
cal analysis (Lindgren 2001, 2006). The eight-node quadratic
heat transfer quadrilateral element is employed in thermal analy-
sis. In mechanical analysis, the generalized plane strain eight-
node quadratic element with reduced integration is employed.
The mesh with the minimum size of 0.5 mm 1.5 mm is
+
identical in both thermal and mechanical models. The experi-
mental setup for the high restrained boundary conditions along
the transverse sides is shown in Fig. 1b. The applied boundary
conditions in the numerical model are shown in Fig. 4b. The
displacements in x and y directions and the rotation around
z direction were restrained at one node on the bottom sur-
face. The displacement in y direction and the rotation around
z direction were restrained as shown in Fig. 4b. After the welding, 3.1. Thermal analysis and heat source model
the restrained boundary conditions are released when the temper-
ature cools to the environment temperature. A spring with a low For an isotropic material, the transient temperature field T (x, y,
degree of stiffness is applied in the y direction to resolve the z, t) is a function of the spatial coordinates (x, y, z) and time t.
rigid movement when releasing the restrained boundary condi- 2
› T ›2 T ›2 T ›T
tion, as shown in Fig. 4b. k þ þ þ q ¼ rc ð6Þ
›x2 ›y2 ›z2 ›t
The thermo–mechanical properties of DH36 are similar to those
of EN 10,025 S355J2G3 (Camilleri et al. 2013). Therefore, the where q, r, c, and k are the internal heat source, the material density,
temperature-dependent material properties for this steel from specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity, respectively, and
SYSWELD material laboratory (SYSWELD 2006) were used in T (x, y, z, t) is the temperature at the point (x, y, z) at time t.
the numerical simulations as shown in Fig. 5. The temperature increment based on the traveling instant point
heat source model was firstly developed by Rosenthal (1941):
02
exp 4pkRðtt0 Þ
dTt0 ¼ dQdt0 ð7Þ
rc½4pkðt t0 Þ3=2
k
Where k ¼ is the thermal diffusivity, (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is the loca-
rc
tion of the heat source dQ at a time t0 ; and R’2 ¼ (x x0 )2 þ
(y y0 )2 þ (z z0 )2 is the distance to the heat source center.
Since the traveling point heat source model was developed to
investigate the temperature in the welding process, several heat
source models were developed to analyze the heat transfer process
accurately during the welding process. Goldak (1984) combined
two semi-ellipsoidal heat source models and proposed a double-
ellipsoidal heat source model, as shown in Fig. 6.
The power density distributions of the front and rear quadrants
of this moving heat source model are depicted in equations (8) and
(9), respectively.
pffiffiffi " #
6 3ff hQ 3ðzz0 vtÞ2 3ðxx0 Þ2 3ðyy0 Þ2
qf ðx;y;zÞ¼ p ffiffiffi exp
af bcp p a2f b2 c2
Fig. 5 Thermo–mechanical properties from SYSWELD database for
EN 10,025 S355J2G3 steel (Camilleri et al. 2013) ð8Þ
af 4 4 10 10 10
ar 16 16 40 40 40
b 4 4 10 10 10
c 12 12 16 16 16
qc ¼ hðT T0 Þ ð10Þ
+
where x, y, and z are the local coordinates of the heat source
film coefficient and emissivity are defined as 20 Wm-2 K-1 and
model, x0, y0, and z0 are the initial coordinates of welding arc, v
0.85, respectively.
is the welding velocity along the z direction, t is the current time,
The thermal effects because of the solidification of the molten
Q is the power input, af and ar are the front and the rear semiaxes
pool are considered in terms of the latent heat effects. In this
of the heat source, respectively and the parameters b and c are the
study, the value of the latent heat is assumed as 270 kJ/kg. The
width and the depth of the heat source model, respectively. The
solid and liquid temperatures are assumed as 1440 and 1505 C
variables ff and fr, represent the heat apportionments of the heat
2af (Camilleri et al. 2013), respectively.
flux in the front and rear quadrants, where ff ¼ and
2ar af þar
fr ¼ are assumed, respectively. 3.2. Mechanical analysis
af þar
Although the 2D FE model was employed in this numerical The temperature fields obtained with a 2D numerical model
model, the 3D-double-ellipsoidal heat source model was adopted are employed as the initial predefined temperature fields in
to simulate the heat flux during the actual welding procedure. An the mechanical analysis. The total strain increment {de} at the
image of the 3D heat source in the 2D numerical model is integration point is governed by equation (12) below:
depicted in the Fig. 6. The 3D heat flux is traveling on the top
surface of specimen at a welding speed v. The heat flux will de ¼ deel þ depl þ deth ð12Þ
change for each increment as the heat source passes through the
2D model. where deel, depl, and deth are the elastic, plastic, and thermal strain
The parameters of the heat source model that significantly increments, respectively.
influence the temperature distribution should be initially determined Because of the phase-transformation-induced strain has insig-
in the thermal analysis (Smith & Smith 2009b; Joshi et al. 2013). nificant contribution to the total strain increment in low-carbon
In this study, the size of the fusion zone (FZ) in transverse and steel (Deng & Murakawa 2006), hence, the phase transformation
penetration directions were calculated based on the analytical effects on residual stress are neglected in this study. The creep
solution, which is developed by Fachinotti et al. (2011). Those strain increment is not considered in the present mechanical
sizes of FZs and the corresponding geometric parameters of heat analysis because the welding process is a very short heating pro-
source were employed as the training data of the neural network, cess (Deng 2013).
which was developed based on the Levenberg–Marquardt algo- The material annealing behavior is modeled using a built-in
rithm (Levenberg 1944; Marquardt 1963). A description of annealing facility in ABAQUS (2010) to eliminate the hardening
the neural network formulation and calibration are described in history when the temperature is above an annealing temperature.
detail by Fu et al. (2015). The welding procedures are shown in In this model, an isotropic annealing temperature (1300 C)
Table 2. Table 3 shows the predicted geometric parameters of heat (SYSWELD 2006) is applied, above which the accumulated
source model. equivalent plastic strain is set to zero. When the temperature
cools below the annealing temperature, the hardening behavior when the center of the 3D heat source arrives as shown in Fig. 8b.
is reactivated. Then the size of the high temperature region (>1440 C) decreases
as the heat source center passed the middle of the specimen, as
shown in Figs. 8c–d.
4. Numerical model validation
Figure 9 shows a temperature comparison between the exper-
4.1. Temperature distribution imental measurements and numerical simulations at thermocou-
ple TC-3 in five different welding passes. The results show a
Figure 7 shows the comparisons of the weld bead profile good agreement between the numerical simulations and the
between numerical and the experimental results after the last experimental measurements.
welding pass. The weld bead penetration shows a good agreement The experimental measured maximum temperatures at thermo-
between the numerical simulation and the experimental measure- couples TC-1, TC-2 and TC-3, TC-4 are listed in Table 4. Because
ments. Figure 8 shows the temperature profile variation during the the thermocouples are arranged along the welding direction, the
welding process when the 3D heat source is traveling along the 2D model cannot simulate all the thermocouples in the actual
welding line. When the front part of the 3D heat source arrives at locations. Therefore, the maximum temperatures of the 2D model
the middle of the plate at 136 seconds, the size of the FZ increases, at the locations, TC-1/2 and TC-4/5 (see Fig. 4) that are equidis-
see Fig. 8a. The size of the FZ presents the maximum magnitude tant to the welding centerline with TC-1, TC-2 and TC-3, TC-5 at
Fig. 8 The FZ variation during 3D heat source traveling along the welding line: (a) at 136 seconds, (b) at 139 seconds, (c) at 145 seconds, and
(d) at 150 seconds
the center of the plate, are compared with the experimental mea- 4.2. Residual stress distribution
surements, as shown in Table 4, respectively. The maximum error
(17.5%) was occurred at TC-2 during the second welding pass. Figure 10 shows the development of the residual stress associ-
The temperature values of the numerical simulation and those of ated with the temperature at point A (15 mm from the welding
the experimental measurements show a good agreement. The line). When the temperature is increased in the first pass, the
numerical models are reasonably validated by the experimental adjacent regions of the FZ expand, and the upper surface com-
test in thermal analysis. presses, resulting in a simple uniaxial compressive stress in this
Pass TC-1 experiment TC-2 experiment TC-1/2 numerical Error maximum (%) TC-4 experiment TC-5 experiment TC-4/5 numerical Error maximum (%)
Fig. 11 Residual stress on the upper surface: (a) longitudinal stress and (b) transverse stress
the time step increments (the cooling time after the previous time step increments are employed in the numerical model for
welding pass). When the interpass temperature (100 C) is obtained, the parametric analysis. The preheat process is not considered in
the corresponding time step increments are adopted in the numer- this case study.
ical model. In the numerical model, the preheat temperature is Comparisons of longitudinal and transverse residual stresses
applied on the model as an initial predefined field in the thermal under several interpass temperatures along the transversal direction
analysis. Finally, the calculated temperature fields are used as the are shown in Fig. 14. The maximum magnitude of the residual
initial predefined field in the mechanical numerical model. stress decreases as the interpass temperature increases. However,
The distributions of the longitudinal and transverse residual the size of the high stress region increased with an increasing
stresses on the upper surface and through the thickness (marked interpass temperature. In the region where the distance from the
as Line-A, see Fig. 10a) direction under the various preheat tem- weld centerline is greater than 50 mm in this model, the interpass
peratures are illustrated in Figs. 12 and 13. It can be seen that the temperature has a negligible effect on the residual stress field.
preheat temperature has no influence on the residual stress distri- Figure 15 shows the residual stress distribution along the thick-
bution both in the weld zone and HAZ and in the regions located ness direction. It can be concluded that the longitudinal residual
far from the welding centerline. stresses decrease with increasing interpass temperature, particu-
The effects of interpass temperature on the residual stress are larly on the inside of the plate.
investigated at temperatures of 50 C, 100 C, and 200 C for
Interpass-50, Interpass-100, and Interpass-200, respectively. The 4.4. Effects of releasing temperature on residual stress
interpass temperature was controlled by adjusting the time step.
Increasing the time step, the interpass temperature will decrease. In the laboratory test, the restrained boundary conditions are
When the interpass temperature is obtained, the corresponding released when the temperature cools to the ambient temperature.
Fig. 13 Residual stress (along line-A) under different preheat temperatures: (a) longitudinal stress and (b) transverse stress
Fig. 15 Residual stress (along line-A) under different interpass temperatures: (a) longitudinal stress and (b) transverse stress
Fig. 16 Residual stress under different releasing temperatures: (a) longitudinal stress and (b) transverse stress
In this section, the effects of releasing temperature on the residual residual stresses are not sensitive to the preheat temperature. Sim-
stress distribution are investigated for different releasing tempera- ilar results can be found in T-joint welding with DH36 steel
ture. Specifically, five cases, T-25, T-60, T-110, T-250, and (Fu 2015) and welding simulation with S355J2 þ N steel (Heinze
T-400 are investigated. For instance, in the case of T-110, when et al. 2012). The preheat temperature effects on the residual stresses
the maximum temperature on the plate cools to 110 C, the using different steel grades should be carefully investigated for the
restrained boundary condition is removed. The final residual actual welding process.
stresses are recorded when the temperature cools to the ambient On the upper surface of the plate, the maximum magnitude of
temperature. The interpass temperatures are assumed to be the the residual stress decreases with increasing interpass tempera-
same for the laboratory test, as shown in Table 2. ture. Through the thickness, the residual stresses decrease with
Longitudinal and transverse residual stresses on the top surface increasing interpass temperature, particularly in the inner region
and across the thickness are plotted in Figs. 16 and 17. The of the plate.
effects of the releasing temperature on the residual stress can be The releasing temperature significantly affects the longitudinal
neglected when the releasing temperature is less than 110 C. residual stress. The longitudinal residual stresses increase with
Otherwise, the longitudinal stresses increase as the releasing tem- increasing releasing temperature. The residual stresses can be
peratures increase, both on the top surface and through the thick- reduced significantly when the releasing temperature is less than
ness (line-A). In regions located far from the weld centerline, the 110 C in this study. However, the effects of releasing temperature
releasing temperature has a negligible effect on the residual stress on the transverse residual stresses can be neglected.
field. The effects on the transverse residual stresses can be
neglected. It is concluded that the residual stresses can be reduced
significantly when the releasing temperature is less than 110 C Acknowledgments
in this study.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the National Petroleum
Agency (ANP), the Brazilian Research Council (CNPq), and
5. Conclusions the FINEP (PROFAB - grant number 01.10.810.00) for their
financial support. Special thanks to the technical team from the
A validated numerical model has been developed to investigate Subsea Technology Laboratory - COPPE, Federal University of
residual stresses in the multipass welding process. The following Rio de Janeiro. Guangming Fu acknowledges the financial sup-
conclusions can be inferred. port for his D.Sc. research from the China Scholarship Council.
A numerical simulation of the welding process, coupled with
the predicted geometric parameters of heat source, is performed in
a simplified 2D analysis to reduce computational time. The tem- References
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