BASIC CIRCUITRY
which are commonly used:
 X-ray machine employ many circuits for
operation
 Three of these circuits form the basis of all
operation:
1. The primary or low voltage circuit
2. The secondary circuit
3. The filament or heating circuit
 However, all of the electricity used in
operating the x-ray equipment is obtained
from a single source, the supply line
PRIMARY CIRCUIT
 The primary circuit supplies:
1. The transformer
2. The primary side of the high voltage
transformer
3. The timing circuit
4. And many other low-voltage circuits
necessary for the operation of the x-
ray equipment
 When the primary switch on the x-ray
machine control panel is closed (on), the
following are activated by the primary
current varying from 10 to 100 amperes:
 Line voltage regulator and meter
 Autotransformer
 Pre reading voltmeter
 Milliampere selector, and
 Filament transformer
Line voltage regulator
 Is a part of the primary side of the
auto transformer and regulates the
incoming voltage
Line voltage meter
 Is in parallel with the supply line and
shows the voltage delivered to the
autotransformer
Circuit breaker
 The circuit breaker functions to
ensure against overload of the
delicate equipment of the x-ray
machine, since it may be set to break
at any desired load; it is quite easily
reset
Timers (Exposure)
 Are incorporated into the x-ray
machine to initiate and to terminate
the exposure
 There are three types of timers
synchronous, impulse, and
electronics
 A synchronous timer is operated by
a synchronous motor. The usual
range of exposure time for this type
is 1/20 (0.5) seconds to 20 seconds
 Synchronous timers cannot be used
for serial exposures because they
must be reset after each exposure
 An impulse is operated by impulses
of current passing through the
timing circuit; there are 60 current
impulses each second in half – wave
rectified equipment and 120 current
impulses each in full – wave rectified
equipment
 The impulse timer is quite accurate
because the exposure is initiated
and terminated at or very close to
the zero points of the alternating
current cycle
 Electronic timer are the most
sophisticated, and most accurate of
the x-ray exposure timers
 The electronic timer is operated by
means of a series of electronic tubes
and relays and is useful over a range
of exposures. The minimum
exposure time is 1/30 second to 14
seconds is a common maximum
exposure time
 Because electronic timers can be
used for rapid serial exposures they
are particularly useful for
angiointerventional procedure
 Most exposure timers are electronic
and are controlled by a
microprocessor
 The mAs timer is a special king of
electronic timer which monitors the
product of mA and exposure time
and is terminates exposure when
the desired mAs value is attained
 The mAs timer is usually designed to
provide the highest safe tube
current for the shortest exposure for
any mAs selected
 Because the mAs timer must
monitor the actual tube current, it is
located on the secondary side of the
high-voltage transformer
  Automatic exposure control (AEC) is
a device that measures the quantity
of radiation that reaches the image
receptor. It automatically
terminates the exposure when the
image receptor has received the
required radiation intensity
 If the timer accuracy is in question, a
spinning top should be used to check
the actual length of exposure with
that of the selected time
 The factors to be used for spinning
Exposure switch
top radiographs are 60 to 65 kVp, 50
or 100 mA, 0.1 second and a 30 or 40
inch SID. No less than five exposure
should be averaged for final
evaluation
 Since there are 120 current impulses
Milliammeter
in full – wave rectified current, there
should be 12 exposure dots on the
radiograph in 0.1 second; with 60
impulses in half – wave rectified
current, there should be 6 exposure
dots on the radiograph in 0.1 second
Milliampere Selector
 Often called the technique selector,
is in series with a choke oil or
rheostat, and the oil immersed
filament transformer
 The filament transformer supplies
the filament of the x-ray tube with
sufficient amperage to heat the
filament, which does not exceed 5
amperes at no more than 15 volts
 Choke oil is an electrical reactor
which is connected to the
milliampere selector that increases
or decreases the milliamperage and
accurately controls the tube current
 Rheostat is an electrical device by
means of which variable amounts of
FILAMENT CIRCUIT
resistance may be either placed in or
removed from the circuit and is
considerably less satisfactory in
comparison to the choke oil
SECONDARY CIRCUIT
 The secondary circuit begins and ends at
the secondary side of the high-voltage
transformer and conducts the high
voltage used in the production of xrays
 The high-voltage in induced in the
secondary side of the high-voltage
transformer by mutual induction from
the primary voltage in the primary side
of this same transformer
 Since the secondary voltage is
alternating, this power supply must be
rectified prior to entering the x-ray tube,
because the production of x-rays in the
cathode tube requires that the high-
voltage be unidirectional, that is, flowing
from the cathode to the anode of the x-
ray tube
 Located in the primary circuit,
automatically controls the secondary
voltage and current, since they are
obtained by mutual induction
 Measures the tube current averages, not
the peak values, and registers only
during exposure, that is during the
period of time the cathode electrons
flow to the anode
 In some equipment using tube currents
in excess of 300 mA, a milliampere-
second meter is in series with the
milliammeter. This meter registers the
total milliampere-seconds used in any
one exposure
 A red signal warming light flashes on
when the exposure is made, to call
attention to the number of milliampere-
second employed, so that if the selection
is great enough to overload the x-ray
tube, the operator can terminate the
exposure
 The milliampere-second meter also
provides a more accurate registration of
the true value of the milliamperage
during very short exposures
 The primary circuit supplies current to
the filament circuit which is frequently
called the heating circuit
 The filament transformer induces the
heating current, which flow through the
cathode of the x-ray tube
 The heating current functions to
produce sufficient heat in the cathode
filaments to enable the secondary
current through thermionic emission, to
flow from cathode to anode
TRANSFORMER
 A transformer is an electric device which
work on the principle of electromagnetic
induction that either steps up
(increases) or steps down (decreases)
the incoming voltage and current
 Magnetic lines of forces exist around any
wire along which an electric current is
flowing. If a second wire is placed
parallel with and near to a wire
conducting an alternating current, an
alternating current will be caused to
flow along the second wire. The
alternations will be of equal duration but
opposite in direction to the inducing
current. This is the principle of mutual
induction
 A transformer will only operate in
alternating current and will induce no
current when supplied by direct current
 A transformer is an electromagnet with
core bent around that forms a
continuous loop
 There are no end surfaces from which
ferromagnetic field lines can escape.
Thus, the magnetic field tends to be
confined to the loop of magnetic core
material
 Contained within the core, the changing
magnetic field induces a voltage on the
secondary winding, the magnitude of
which is amplified by the number of
turns of wire
 For Ns<Np, a “step-down” transformer
decreases the secondary voltage, and
for Ns=Np, an “isolation” transformer
produces a secondary voltage equal to
the primary voltage
Step-up Transformer
 Has fewer windings in the primary coil
than the secondary coil
 Generates a greater electric potential in
the secondary coil than the primary coil
 Generates greater electric current in the
primary coil that the secondary coil
 Also known as high-voltage transformer,
one of the component of an x-ray high-
voltage generator that supplies energy
to the electron
 Increases the incoming voltage from
secondary coil of the autotransformer
up to thousands of voltage (kV)
 It is immersed in oil in the transformer
assembly for maximum insulation
Step-down Transformer
 Has fewer windings in the secondary coil
than primary coil
 Generates a lesser electric potential in
the secondary coil than the primary coil
 Generates a lesser electric current in the
primary coil that the secondary coil
Closed-core Transformer
 Built about a square core of
ferromagnetic material
 The ferromagnetic core is built up of
laminated layers of iron which helps to
reduce energy losses (eddy currents),
resulting in greater transformer
efficiency
Shell-type Transformer
 This type of transformer confines even
more of the magnetic field lines of the
primary winding because the secondary
winding is wrapped around it and there
are essentially two closed-cores
 This type is more efficient than closed-
core transformer
Autotransformer
 The autotransformer works on the
principle of self-induction. It consists of
an iron core with only one winding of
wire about it
 This single winding acts as both primary
and the secondary winding
 Provides a convenient location for the
kVp meter that indicates the voltage to
be applied across the x-ray tube
 An autotransformer generally smaller
and because the primary and the
secondary sides are connected to the
same wire, its use is generally restricted
to cases in which only small step-up or
step-down in voltage is required
 Supplies voltage to the primary side of
the x-ray tube filament circuit and high-
voltage transformer
 Additional p.39 Christensen’s provides
suitable voltage for subsidiary circuits of
the x-ray imaging system
 Laws of Transformer p.38 Christensen’s
Copper Losses
 Are caused by the resistance to current
flow that is characteristic of all
conductors
 Remedy: copper loss can be reduced by
using larger diameter conductive wire
Eddy Current Losses
 Are a result of small currents (eddy
current) built up in the core material as
a result of the continually changing
magnetic fields
 Remedy: eddy current losses are
reduced by laminating the core material;
any currents generated can travel only
small distance between laminations and
therefore, represent a smaller energy
loss
Hysteresis Losses
 Are a result of the continually changing
magnetic domains of the core material
(as a result of changing polarity of AC)
 Remedy: hysteresis loss can be reduced
by using core material of greater
permeability (e.g. silicon)
X-RAY MACHINE
 An x-ray machine must have s table upon
which the patient is positioned. For
some examinations the patient is
positioned against a vertical cassette
holder
 An x-ray machine must have a control
panel upon which the determination of
the kilovoltage, milliamperage, and time
are made
 An x-ray machine has a number of
transformer and other electrical items
usually immersed in an oil bath and
situated at some distance from both
table and control panel
 The most important part of the x-ray
machine is the x-ray tube from which the
x-rays are generated
X-ARY TUBE (DIODE TUBE)
 X-rays are produced by energy
conversions when a fast moving stream
of electrons is suddenly decelerated in
the target anode of an x-ray tube
 The x-ray tube is made of Pyrex glass
that encloses a vacuum containing two
electrodes
 The electrodes are designed so that
electrons produced at the cathode can
be accelerated by a high potential
difference toward the anode
 Electrons are placed by the heated
tungsten filament and accelerated
across the tube to hit the tungsten
target, where x-rays are produced
Glass Enclosure
 It is necessary to seal the two electrodes
of the x-ray tube in a vacuum
 The purpose of the vacuum in the
modern x-ray tube is to allow the
number and speed of the accelerated
electrons to be controlled
independently
 The shape and size of these x-ray tubes
are specifically designed to present
electric discharge between the
electrodes
 During operation of the x-ray tube, both
the glass and the connecting wires are
heated to high temperature
 Because of differences in their
expansion coefficient, most metals
expand more than glass when heated.
This difference in expansion would cause
the glass metal seal to break and would
destroy vacuum in the tube if special
considerations were not taken
 Because of this problem, special alloys,
having approximately the same
coefficient of linear expansion as Pyrex
glass, are generally used in x-ray tubes
 Highly refined oil completely fills the
space between the metal shield and the
glass tube to function as an electric
insulator, as a heat conductor, and as a
filter for soft and useless x-rays
 The presence of the oil makes the x-ray
tube essentially shock proof and acts as
an inherent filter that must be
equivalent to a minimum of 0.5 mm of
aluminum
CATHODE
Filament
 The filament is made of thoriated
tungsten wire, about 0.2mm in
diameter, that is coiled to form a vertical
spiral about 0.2cm in diameter and 1cm
or less in length
 Tungsten provides for higher thermionic
emission than other metals
 Thermionic emission is defined as the
emission of electrons resulting from the
absorption of thermal energy
 The electron cloud surrounding the
filament, produce by thermionic
emission, has been termed the “Edison
effect”
 The addition of 1% - 2% thorium to the
tungsten filament increases efficiency of
thermionic emission and prolongs tube
life
 A pure tungsten filament must be
heated to a temperature of at least
2200°C to emit a useful number of
electrons (thermions)
 The space charge is the electrons
emitted from the tungsten filament
forming a small cloud in the immediate
vicinity of the filament which tends to
prevent other electrons from being
emitted from the filament until they
have acquired sufficient thermal energy
to overcome the force caused by the
space charge
 The space charge effect is the tendency
of the space charge to limit the emission
of more electrons from the filament
 The unit of electric current is the
ampere, which may be defined as the
rate of flow when 1 Coulomb of
electricity flows through a conductor in
1 sec
 The coulomb is the equivalent of the
amount of electric charge by 6.25 x 1018
 Electron current across an x-ray tube is
in one direction only, always cathode to
anode
 The x-ray tube usually has two cathode
filaments, small and large filaments,
independent of each other
 Some dual-focus x-ray tubes have
separate switch to select focal spot size.
Usually the milliamperage (mA
technique) selector incorporates the
selection
 The small focal spot is used when better
spatial resolution is required. The large
focal spot is used when a large body
parts are imaged and when other
techniques that produce high heat are
required
 On many modern x-ray systems, the
small or large filament can be
automatically selected by the x-ray
generator depending on the technique
factors (kV and mAs)
 Vaporization of the filament when it is
heated acts to shorten the life of an x-ray
tube, because the filament will break if it
becomes too thin
 Tungsten that is vaporized from the
filament is deposited as an extremely
thin coating in the inner surface of the
glass wall of the x-ray tube which
produces a color that becomes deeper
as the tube ages
 Aging tube requires a bronze-colored
“sun burn” which tends to filter the x-ray
beam, gradually changing the quality of
the beam, and increases the possibility
of electrical discharge between the glass
and the electrodes at higher peak kilo
voltage values, which may result in
puncture of the tube
Focusing Cup
 The focusing cup concentrates the
electrons emitted from the filament
onto a small area (focal spot) of the
anode target
 The focusing cup is negatively charged
so that is electrostatically confines the
electron beam to a small area of the
anode
 The focusing cup is usually made of
nickel
 In a grid controlled x-ray tube, the
focusing cup is the grid (exposure)
switch
 Grid controlled x-ray tubes are designed
to be turned on and off very rapidly
 Grid controlled x-ray tubes are used in
portable capacitor discharge imaging
system, digital subtraction angiography,
digital radiography and cineradiography,
which requires multiple exposure for
precise exposure time
ANODE
 The anode is a metal target electrode
that is maintained at a large positive
potential difference relative to the
cathode
 The production of x-rays, generates a
large amount of heat in the anode
 There are two types of anode x-ray tubes
anode, stationary or fixed and rotating
Stationary or Fixed Anode
 Consist of a small plate of tungsten, 2 or
3 mm thick that is embedded in a large
mass of copper
 The anode angle is typically ranged from
7 - 20°, with 12-15° angles being the
most common
 Tungsten is chosen as the target
material for several reasons:
 High atomic number: makes it
more efficient for x-ray
production
 High melting point: able to
withstand the high temperature
 Good heat absorption: able to
dissipate heat away from the
target area
 Copper serves a dual role: it
mechanically support the tungsten
insert and efficiently conducts heat from
the tungsten target
 Copper is a better conductor of heat
than tungsten, so the massive copper
acts to increase the total thermal
capacity of the anode and to speed its
rate of cooling
 The actual focal size is considerably
larger than the area actually bombarded
by the stream of electrons
 A single x-ray exposure may raise the
temperature of the bombarded area of
the tungsten target by 1000°C or more
 If the tungsten target where not
sufficiently large to allow for some
cooling around the edges of the focal
spot, the heat produce would melt the
copper in the immediate vicinity of the
target
Special Design for Rotating Anode
 If the bonding between the tungsten and
the copper where not satisfactorily
produced, the tungsten target would
tend to peel away from the copper
anode
Rotating Anode
 Rotating anode is used for most
diagnostic x-ray applications, mainly
because of greater heat loading and
higher intensity x-ray output
 The anode is beveled disc mounted on a
rotor assembly supported by the bearing
in the x-ray tube insert
 The beveled edge of the tungsten disc is
used to take advantage of the line focus
principle which allows large focal spot to
be bombarded by electrons for greater
heat loading and providing small
effective focal area to produce good
radiographic detail
 The diameter of the tungsten disc
determines the total length of the target
tract and obviously affects the maximum
permissible loading of the anode. Typical
disc diameter measure 7.5, 10.0, 12.5
cm
 The rotor consist of copper bars
arranged around a cylindrical iron core
 A donut shaped stator device comprised
of electromagnet, surrounds the rotor
and is mounted outside the x-ray tube
inserts
 The periodic reversal of electron
movement in a conductor, passes
through the stator windings, produces a
magnetic field which induces electrical
current in the rotor’s copper bar that
causes it to spin
 Rotation speed are 3000-3600 (low
speed) or 9000-10000 (high speed)
revolution per minute (rpm)
 A safety circuit is incorporated into the
x-ray circuit that prevents an x-ray
exposure from being made until the
rotor has reached its full speed; this is
the cause for the short delay (0.5-1s)
when the x-ray tube exposure button is
pushed
 Most rotating anode are cooled by
infrared radiation emission, transferring
heat to the x-ray tube insert and to the
surrounding oil bath and tube housing
 Case: because the anode is contained
within the vacuum of the tube, rotation
of the anode posed to be a problem
 Solution: the power to effect rotation is
provided by a magnetic field produce by
 Case: the length of the molybdenum
stator coils that surround the neck of the
stem is another important
x-ray tube outside the envelope
consideration. As a length of the stem is
increased the inertia of the tungsten disc
increases; this increases the load of the
 Case: the life of the tube was quite short
bearings of the anode assembly
because of the lack of durable bearings
 Solution: this problem is reduced in
on which the anode assembly could
metal tubes by the use of bearing at
rotate. Because of the friction produced
each end of the anode axel
it was necessary to lubricate the
bearings but commonly available
lubricants could not be used. Lubricants
 Case: the life of a rotating anode x-ray
such as oil will vaporized when heated
tube may be limited by roughening and
and destroy the vacuum in the tube; dry
pitting of the surface of the anode
lubricants such as graphite would wear
exposed to the electron
off such as powder and destroy the
vacuum  Solution: it has been found that an alloy
of about 90% of tungsten and 10% of
 Solution: these problems were solved
rhenium produces an anode that is more
with the used of metallic lubricants, such
resistant to surface roughening and has
as silver which are suitable for use in a
a higher thermal capacity than an anode
high vacuum. In a modern rotating
of pure tungsten. Some limited discs use
anode tubes bearings were has become
carbon (graphite) instead of
negligible factor in overall tube life
molybdenum to further decrease disc
inertia

 Case: heat dissipation in a rotating Grid-Biased / Grid-Controlled X-ray Tube

anode tube presents an additional
 A grid-biased tube has a focusing cup
problem
that is electrically isolated from the
 Solution: heat generated is a solid
cathode filament and maintained at a
tungsten disc is dissipated by radiating
more negative voltage
through the vacuum to the wall of the
 A grid-controlled x-ray tube contains its
tube, and then into the surrounding oil
“switch” which allows the x-ray tube to
and tube housing
be turned on and off rapidly as required
by the sine angiography
 A third electrode is used in a grid-
 Case: in the stationary anode, heat is
controlled tube to control the flow of
dissipated by absorption and
electrons from the filament to the
conductivity of the massive copper. In
target, which is the focusing cup that
rotating anode tube absorption of heat
surrounds the filament
by the anode assembly in undesirable
 A voltage of about 100V negative is
because heat absorbed by the bearings
applied with respect to the filament
of the anode assembly would cause
voltage to further reduce the spread of
them to expand and bind
electrons and produce a smaller focal
 Solution: because of this problem the
spot width
stem, which connects the tungsten
target to the remainder of the anode X-ray Tube Rating Charts
assembly, is made of molybdenum that
has a high melting point (2600°C) and is  The radiographic tube-rating chart is
a poor heat conductor. Thus, the designed to indicate maximum “safe”
molybdenum stem provides a partial exposure values for any one exposure
heat barrier between the tungsten disc  Proper use of the tube-rating chart tends
and the bearings of the anode assembly to prevents overloading of the x-ray
 tube, overloading usually necessitates
an expensive replacement
 Energy producing heat quantities
greater than that tolerated by the
tungsten target material can melt the
tungsten at the focal spot
 The maximum temperature to which
tungsten can be safely raised is generally
considered to be 3000°C
 Above this level, considerable
evaporation of the tungsten target
occurs
 The total heat produced is a product of
voltage and current and exposure time,
which is expressed the heat units
 Heat unit (HU) is a traditional unit that
provides a simple ways of expressing the
energy deposition on and dissipation
from the anode of a single-phase power
supply x-ray tube
 A HU is a unit of energy and a watt-
second or joule is a unit of energy so we
may compare the HU with the joule
Self-Rectification
 The amount of heat that can be
accepted by an x-ray tube without
excessive damage is in part determined
by:
 Type of rectification and type of
power supply
 The surface area of tungsten
bombarded by electrons
 The length of the exposure
 It is considered tube rating, three
characteristics are encountered
 The ability of the tube to
withstand a single exposure
 The ability of the tube to
function despite multiple rapid
exposures
 The ability of the tube to
withstand multiple exposures
during several hours of heavy
use
 The manufacturer of x-ray tube used in
any diagnostic installation always supply
tube rating charts for the specific
circumstances under which the tubes
will be used
 A tube-thermal characteristic chart is
developed at the factory from values of
Disadvantage of Self Rectification
maximum anode heat storage capacity
and heat dissipation of the anode
 The ability of an x-ray tube to withstand
heat loading over a period of several
hours depends on the anode heat-
storage characteristics
 Note that anode cooling is much more
rapid when the anode has accumulated
large amount of heat. This is a practical
application of the physical laws stating,
that heat loss by radiation is
proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature
 One of the most important uses of the
anode heat-storage chart is to
determine the length of the time of tube
must be allowed to cool before the
additional exposures can be made
 In today’s modern technology the field
of radiology exhibit rapid changes,
among which is the change from single-
phase to three-phase to high-frequency
generators. This change helps to achieve
desired –ray quantity and quality with
minimal tube loading thus, prolonging
the x-ray tube life
 Rectification may be achieved by use of
x-ray tube alone in which is called self-
rectification
 Principle: when the cathode is negative
with respect to the anode, electrons
flow at high speed from the cathode to
the node and x-rays are produced.
During the next half of the electrical
cycle, the target of the x-ray tube is
negative and the filament positive, so
electrons, if they are available, would
flow away from the target towards the
filament. This would be highly
undesirable because such electrons
would not produce useful x-rays, and
such electrons would further heat the
filament and reduce its lifetime by
blocking current flow in the inverse half
of the electrical cycle, the x-ray tube
changes an alternating current to direct
current
 Because only the upper half of each
electrical cycle is used to produce x-rays,
the waveform is called half wave
rectification
 Prolonged time of exposure since only
half of the available electrical cycle
neutralized to produce x-rays
  Shortened filament life as repeated of Full-wave Rectification
prolonged exposures heat the anode, it
 In a full-wave rectified circuit, the
may become hot enough to emit
negative half-cycle corresponding to the
electrons and to produce a current
inverse voltage is reversed so that the
during the inverse half-cycle, that would
anode is always positive
bombard the filament and eventually
 Note that there are no gaps in the
destroy it
output wave form. All of the output
P-N Junction wave form is rectified into usable output
 The main advantage of the full-wave
 When a P-type semiconductor is joined
rectification is that the exposure time for
to an N-type semiconductor a solid-state
any given technique is cut in half
rectifier is formed
 The pulsed x-ray output of a full-wave
 A P-N junction in a semiconductor
rectified machine generates 120 times
permits a large current flow when the
each second
potential direction is from the N-type
side to the P-type side, and the very Three Phase Generator
small current or no current at all will flow
when the potential direction is reversed.  Three phase generators produces an
In P-N junction, the electrons in the N- almost constant potential difference
type semiconductor are free to move across the x-ray tube
toward the P-type semiconductor to fill  This nearly constant potential gives
the hole created by the impurity three-phase generators a major
advantage of over a single-phase
Semiconductor generators that produce a pulsating
desired current potential
 One of the semiconductor is an N-type in
 Three-phase generators produce x-rays
which there is an excess of electrons
efficiently throughout the exposure ,
(negative charges)
and the average x-ray energy is
 Other is P-type in which there is a
somewhat higher because no time is
deficiency of electrons (excess of proton
spent bombarding the x-ray tube target
or positively charged)
with low energy electrons
 If a crystal of silicon receives a trace of
 Another advantage of three-phase
aluminum, indium, and/or gallium
generator is much higher tube rating for
impurities which are called acceptor
extremely short exposures
because the crystal will lack one electron
 Three-phase 6-pulse, utilizes six
required to complete covalent bonding
rectifiers and produces six pulses per
thus producing hole (P-type
cycle (1/60 sec.) or 360 pulses per sec
semiconductor)
 Three-phase 12-pulse, produces twelve
Half-wave Rectification pulse per cycle (1/60 sec.) or 720 pulses
per sec
 In half-wave rectification, the wave form
is produce when two rectifiers
connected in series with the x-ray tube
 The electrons flow through the electrons
tube from cathode to anode, when the
voltage reverses during the inverse half
of the alternating cycle, the rectifiers
stop current flow thus reducing half-
wave rectification
 The only advantage of their rectifiers is
that they protect the x-ray tube from the
full potential of the inverse cycle