Subject: Organization Behaviour

Q.1 What is perception ?Explain Why is it important ?

Answer –

Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and

interprets information inputs to create a meaningful picture the world.
Perception depends not only on the physical stimuli, but also on the stimuli’s
relation to the surrounding field and on conditions within the individual. The
key point is that perception can vary widely among individuals exposed to the
same reality. One person might perceive a fast-talking salesperson an
aggressive and insincere another, as intelligent and helpful. Each will respond
differently to the salesperson.
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both
the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these
stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties
and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception
not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act
within our environment.
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, taste smell and taste. It also
includes what is known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability
to detect changes in body positions and movements. It also involves the
cognitive processes required to process information, such as recognizing the
face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent.
The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process through
which we interpret and organize sensory information to produce our conscious
experience of objects and object relationship. Perception is the process of
receiving information and making sense of the world around us

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Factors Influencing Perception:
How do we explain that individuals may look at the same thing, yet perceive it
differently? A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort
perception. These factors can reside in the perceiver in the object or target
being perceived, or in the context of the situation in which the perception is
made.

Factors that influence perception:

1. Factors in the perceiver
Attitudes
Motives
Interests
Experience
Expectations

2. Factors in the situation

Time
Work setting
Social setting

3. Factors in the target

Novelty
Motion
Sounds
Size
Background
Proximity

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 Similarity

When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she

sees that interpretation is heavily influenced by the personal characteristics of
the individual perceiver. Personal characteristics that affect perception
included a person’s attitudes, personality motives interest, past experiences,
and expectations. For instance if you expect police officers to be authoritative,
young people to be lazy, or individuals holding office to be unscrupulous, you
may peeve them as such regardless of their cultural traits.

Characteristics of the target being observed affect what is perceived. Loud

people are more likely to be noticed in a group than quiet ones. So, too, are
extremely attractive or unattractive individuals. Because targets are not looked
at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background also influences
perception, as does our tendency to group close things and similar things
together. For instance, women people of colour or members of any other group
that has clearly distinguishable characteristics in terms of features or colour are
often perceived as alike in other, unrelated characteristics as well.

The context in which we see objects or events is also important. The time at
which an object or event is seen can influence attention, as can location, light,
heat, or any number of situational factors. For example, at a nightclub on
Saturday night, you may not notice a 22 year old female dressed to the nines.
Yet that same woman so attired for your Monday morning management class
would certainly catch your attention (and that of the rest of the class). Neither
the perceiver nor the target changed between Saturday night and Monday
morning, but the situation is different.

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Q.3 Describe the contemporary theories of motivation?

Answer –

Motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation.
The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals
at different times.
Motivation: “The process that account for an individual’s intensity, direction,
and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

Early Theories of Motivation 1950’s:

Hierarchy of needs theory
Theories X and Y
The two-factor theory.
They represent a foundation from which contemporary theories have grown.
Practicing managers still regularly use this theories and their terminology in
explaining employee motivation.

Contemporary theories of motivation

ERG Theory: Alderfer (1972) classifies needs into three categories –
1) The existence category that provides our basic material existence
requirements (akin to Maslow’s physiological and safety),
2) Relatedness category which provides relationship and social status (akin
to Social) and
3) Growth category which refers to personal development (akin to esteem
and self-actualization).

McClelland’s Theory of Needs: McClelland’s (1961) theory focuses on three

needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. This actually describes the

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predominance of disposition of various types of people. All people have all
these needs but the predominant need drives them. These are discussed
below:
 Need for achievement (nAch): Those predominant in this derive
satisfaction from reaching goals. To do that, they generally undertake
tasks of moderate difficulty rather than very easy or very difficult ones.
 Need for power (nPow): Those predominant in this derive satisfaction
from ability to control others and goal achievement is secondary.
 Need for affiliation (nAff): Those predominant in this derive satisfaction
from social and interpersonal activities. Those high in this tends to
compromise task orientation for personal relations and often tend to be
ineffective managers.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Some people do not get motivated by extrinsic

rewards.

Goal-Setting Theory: This theory proposes that challenging goals produce a

higher level of output than do the generalized goals. A goal serves as a
motivator, because, it causes people to compare their present capacity to
perform with that required to succeed at the goal. Hence, feedback is also
required.
This proposes the following:
 Goal commitment i.e., an individual is committed to the goal
 Adequate self-efficacy i.e. Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task
 Task characteristics i.e., tasks are simple, well-learned, and independent

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  National culture inadequate, performance will be negatively affected and
that an employee needs opportunity to perform and prove his/her
worth.

Nitin Nohria Model: He proposed in one of the latest articles that there are
four drives with which an individual grapples. These are:
 Drive to acquire: This drive makes us acquire things which are not strictly
needs. The drive comes because of comparison with others. Thus, even if
we have a good house, we need a better one.
 Drive to bond: All of us need families to fulfill this drive.
 Drive to comprehend: We want to make sense of the world around us,
understand the phenomenon, making meaningful contribution, and are
demoralized by monotonous work.
 Drive to defend: We have a drive to defend ourselves and hence though
we may have all the physical and emotional security, we will do all we
can to defend ourselves.

Motivational Language Theory: Sullivan JJ, (1988) explained that it is language

that motivates people. At least to some extent this is true. We motivate people
through talks, explanations and instructions. We have seen this happen and
this is perhaps the reason why some motivational speakers are so popular.

Equity Theory: Employees make comparison of their job inputs and outcomes
relative to those of given payment by: Motivation is influenced significantly by
others’ rewards as well as by one’s own rewards

Expectancy Theory: The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends

on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given

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outcome and on the attractiveness of that the outcome to the individual. The
theory focuses on three relationships: 1. Effort-performance. 2. Performance-
reward. 3. Rewards-personal goals.

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Q.5 Write an essay on organizational Structure?

Answer –

For an organization to be successful it needs a strong organizational structure.

How the organization is set up will directly impact the success or failure of said
company. They need to be structured and organized in a way that will best
meet their goals and needs. Even though the organizational structure is focus
on the company’s goal it also dictates how to report priorities and strategies of
upper management. By understanding a companies’ organizational structure it
can also reveal cross-functional relationships to coordinate work efforts and
optimal results.

An organizational structure consists of activities such as task allocation,

coordination and supervision, which are directed towards the achievement of
organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or
perspective through which individuals see their organization and its
environment.
Organizations are a variant of clustered entities. An organization can be
structured in many different ways, depending on their objectives. The structure
of an organization will determine the modes in which it operates and performs.
Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for

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different functions and processes to different entities such as
the branch, department, workgroup and individual.
Organizational structure affects organizational action in two big ways. First, it
provides the foundation on which standard operating procedures and routines
rest. Second, it determines which individuals get to participate in which
decision-making processes, and thus to what extent their views shape the
organization’s actions
Organizational structures developed from the ancient times of hunters and
collectors in tribal organizations through highly royal and clerical power
structures to industrial structures and today's post-industrial structures.

Types of Organizational structure:

1. Pre-bureaucratic structures
Pre-bureaucratic (entrepreneurial) structures lack standardization of tasks. This
structure is most common in smaller organizations and is best used to solve
simple tasks. The structure is totally centralized. The strategic leader makes all
key decisions and most communication is done by one on one conversations. It
is particularly useful for new (entrepreneurial) business as it enables the
founder to control growth and development.
They are usually based on traditional domination or charismatic domination in
the sense of Max Weber's tripartite classification of authority.

Bureaucratic structures
Weber (1948, p. 214) gives the analogy that “the fully developed bureaucratic
mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine
compare with the non-mechanical modes of production. Precision, speed,
unambiguity, strict subordination, reduction of friction and of material and

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personal costs- these are raised to the optimum point in the strictly
bureaucratic.
The Weberian characteristics of bureaucracy are:
 Clear defined roles and responsibilities
 A hierarchical structure
 Respect for merit.

Post-bureaucratic
The term of post bureaucratic is used in two senses in the organizational
literature: one generic and one much more specific. In the generic sense the
term post bureaucratic is often used to describe a range of ideas developed
since the 1980s that specifically contrast themselves with Weber's ideal
type bureaucracy. This may include total quality management, culture
management and matrix management, amongst others. None of these
however has left behind the core tenets of Bureaucracy.

Functional structure
Employees within the functional divisions of an organization tend to perform a
specialized set of tasks, for instance the engineering department would be
staffed only with software engineers. This leads to operational efficiencies
within that group. However it could also lead to a lack of communication
between the functional groups within an organization, making the organization
slow and inflexible.

Divisional structure
Also called a "product structure", the divisional structure groups each
organizational function into a division. Each division within a divisional
structure contains all the necessary resources and functions within it. Divisions

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can be categorized from different points of view. One might make distinctions
on a geographical basis (a US division and an EU division, for example) or on
product/service basis (different products for different customers: households
or companies). In another example, an automobile company with a divisional
structure might have one division for SUVs, another division for subcompact
cars, and another division for sedans.
Each division may have its own sales, engineering and marketing departments.

Matrix structure
The matrix structure groups employees by both function and product. This
structure can combine the best of both separate structures. A matrix
organization frequently uses teams of employees to accomplish work, in order
to take advantage of the strengths, as well as make up for the weaknesses, of
functional and decentralized forms. Matrix structure is amongst the purest of
organizational structures, a simple lattice emulating order and regularity
demonstrated in nature.
 Weak/Functional Matrix: A project manager with only limited authority is
assigned to oversee the cross- functional aspects of the project. The
functional managers maintain control over their resources and project
areas.
 Balanced/Functional Matrix: A project manager is assigned to oversee
the project. Power is shared equally between the project manager and
the functional managers. It brings the best aspects of functional and
projectized organizations. However, this is the most difficult system to
maintain as the sharing power is delicate proposition.

Strong/Project Matrix: A project manager is primarily responsible for the

project. Functional managers provide technical expertise and assign resources as
needed.

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Q.6 Why do people work? What are the motivational force behind people
to work?

Answer –

Every individual has both emotional and financial needs, and working helps to
take care of those needs. Every individual has various reasons because peoples
need differ. But one thing is certain we want to attain something from it. It
impacts our morale and quality of our lives. Following are some of the reasons
why we work

Livelihood- People work to provide themselves and their families with the basic
essentials or life--food, clothing and shelter. Once these basic essentials are
met, other needs and wants become important. Human relationships- People
basically like companionship. People seek companionship with persons who
have interests similar to their own. Working is a means of associating with
people who have similar interests. Being part of a group gives people a feeling
of belonging. Your work can provide companionship and associations with
other persons.
Personal Development- A persons work can provide and opportunity to learn
and grow intellectually and socially. It is a means of attaining new goals in life
by developing new skills and learning new things. Work allows people to reach
their fullest potential. Your work can grow and reach your potential.
Job Satisfaction-Since most or your adult waking life will be spent working, it is
important to choose and occupation that will bring job satisfaction. You, as well
as your family will be happier if the occupation you choose is satisfying.
Service- Service may be defined as the things which a person does which are
beneficial or useful to others. People like to make quality products, provide
useful services and in general, make a contribution to society. In addition,

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people like to feel that the work they do is important and of value to others.
Your work can be a service to others.
Security- People look for security in their occupations. We need to know that
when tomorrow comes, there will be work for us so that money may be
earned. People want stability in their lives in order to make realistic and
effective plans for the future. Your work can provide you with this security.
Success- All ambitious young people are interested in securing a beginning job
that offers an opportunity for advancement. Employers are interested in
employing persons who like a challenge and who want to be successful in life.
Your work can give you success.
Happiness-Last, but not least, is happiness with one's work. Thomas Edison, the
great inventor, was once encouraged by his wife to take a vacation. He
responded by stating that he "couldn't think of anything he would rather do
that work in his laboratory." Most people who choose their occupations wisely
thoroughly enjoy their work. This contributes to their overall happiness.

The 3 key factors that are the building blocks of the motivation.
Factor #1 – Security. Humans are driven, even Maslow agrees, to first fulfill
basic needs which include food, shelter and safety. In the context of the
workplace, security is identified by 2 sub-factors: “compensation” and “job
security.” If compensation needs are adequately met, then you can check this
box. If it is not fully met, it is a source of motivation for people. If you want
better performance, you may want to offer stronger incentives and bonus.
Next…job security. Regardless of the shape that the economy is in, we are all
motivated to work for a company that is thriving and not going under and
motivated by knowing that our performance is adequate enough that we have
job security. If your employees are getting paid enough and know they have job
security, then you’ve met 2 of their 6 needs.

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Factor #2 – Identity. Humans are social creatures and driven by the need to
“affiliate” with things they care about. Given that we spend most of our
lifetime working, we are motivated by working for a company, department or
team we feel proud to tell about friends and family about – a winning team.
“How cool is it that Joe works for Facebook or Twitter?” We want to have an
affiliation for the companies and teams we work with and the change they are
making in the world. The second sub-factor related to identity is “title.” Some
of us are motivated by that next promotion to get the title that we deserve and
to be recognized for that. It will become part of a new identity we strive to
embody.
Factor #3 – Stimulation. Humans desire to be challenged and stimulated. In the
workplace, we are looking for “new and exciting opportunities” that keep us
engaged and stretch us to grow. Specifically, we like to work on new and cool
projects/initiatives or to be put on task force that will change how we operate
internally. Who doesn’t want to be on the project that will change the way we
experience mobile apps? Chances are that some of your direct reports,
particularly the ones who are high performers need that level of stimulation in
order to stay engaged and continue their career with the company. The second
factor related to stimulation is “mastery in a new domain.” We all want to learn
new skills and gain mastery, and then move onto to learn something else. It not
only keeps our skills fresh, but keeps us relevant and more marketable in the
world of work. It is only when we have mastery over an area that we feel we
are performing at our best and can have a sense of autonomy and not a need
to rely on others.

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