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Wager
1. Ecosystem concept and sustainability-
1. About sustainability as a management principle
Motivation: why should forest management be sustainable?
Islands of the Pacific have been colonized uniformly by people originating from Papua/Fiji.
That is, Easter’s collapse was not because its people were especially improvident but because
they faced one of the Pacific’s most fragile environments.
Relatively low, small and dry
Highest latitude
Makatea
Lowest tephra (rock fragments and particles ejected by a volcanic eruption)
Greatest isolation
Low islands
Island age
No makatea
a. Elevation was inversely associated with deforestation and forest replacement: high
islands supported more forest and more native trees than low islands.
b. At least four factors are probably involved: orographic rain is generated at high
elevations, descends in streams and thus makes the lowlands effectively wetter than
indicated by lowland rainfall; nutrients and soil eroded at high elevation are similarly
carried in streams to the lowlands; orographic rain captures atmospheric dust; and
agriculture (hence land clearance) decreases with elevation because of cool
temperatures (unfavourable for tropical crops), steep slopes and difficult access.
c. Area was inversely associated with deforestation and forest replacement: large islands
retained more forest and more native tree species than small islands. Multiple factors
probably contribute, including the fact that larger islands have greater habitat and tree
species diversity (hence higher likelihood of some species being spared from logging),
tracts of inaccessible land, and lower perimeter/ area ratios (hence fewer coastal
resources to support human population).
d. Rainfall is often the most important single determinant of plant growth rates. In addition,
low rainfall increases forest vulnerability to fire and hence to the formation of deforested
grassland and fernland.
e. Deforestation increased with latitude in all analyses, as expected from the decrease in
temperature and hence in plant growth rates with latitude.
In contrast, forest replacement decreased with latitude, undoubtedly because two of the
most important introduced trees (breadfruit and Tahitian chestnut) are tropical species
whose cultivation decreases with latitude.
f. Island or terrain age is relevant because soil nutrients become lost from volcanic surfaces
with time, especially by rain leaching.
In our statistical analyses deforestation increased with age, but the relation of forest
replacement to age was inconsistent.
g. Islands consist of a terrain called makatea. This uplifted reef formation of sharp, fissured
coral bears little soil and is painfully difficult to walk on. Not surprisingly, all seven islands
provide controlled natural experiments: makatea terrain retained forests, whereas non-
makatea terrain became deforested.
Low forest replacement associated with makatea, which is difficult to use for
arboriculture.
–'sustainable use' means the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a
rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future
generations;
To keep the forests in a working condition which allows people of the future to
treat and develop them to any direction they would like.
Depends on its ability to be adapted and this ability is linked to structural
features like biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, and vitality and
these components are all inherent in the ecosystem concept.
Important to know for exam: definition of ecosystem by different authors ( Lindeman, 1942,
Whittaker 1962, Odum, 1971) and which definition you prefer and why?
Lindeman (1942) proposed that "an ecosystem is any system composed of physical,
chemical and biological processes active within any space-time unit.
Whittaker (1962) suggested that "an ecosystem is a functional system that includes
an assemblage of interacting organisms (plants, animals and saprobes) and their
environment, which acts on them and on which they act."
(Odum, 1971) Any unit that includes all of the organisms (i.e., the community) in a
given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads
to a clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e.
exchange of materials between living and non-living parts within the system) is an
ecological system or ecosystem”.
Lindeman:
physical, chemical and biological processes.
Whittaker:
functional system with assemblage of interacting organisms and their
environment.
Odum:
systems approach" to the study of ecosystems, allowing them to study the flow of
energy and material through ecological systems.
requires one to focus on food habits and food relationships exclusively.
Trophic structure, biotic diversity, material cycles
To integrate or to segregate: what are the best approaches for the conservation of forest
biodiversity?
There are two different main approaches for forest biodiversity conservation on a
larger scale (landscape, regional, national scale).
The segregative approach
Separates large areas for nature reserves without any management from other areas
with intensive forest management for economic purposes.
The integrative approach
Tries to combine nature conservation and economic management by including the
provision of e.g. structural heterogeneity, species mixtures and DWD in a more
extensive, so-called 'close-to-nature' forestry.
Typically, those stands are mixed uneven-aged and harvesting operations are of
lower impact than clear cutting is, e.g. shelterwood or selection system. Enrichment
plantings are frequent, old and dead trees, snags and logs, cavity trees, gaps and
groups of valuable trees are mixed within stands.
Advantages of integration concepts are:
–all of the area has a value in terms of the anticipated purposes
–the concept does not rely on reserve areas and may thus be applied in many parts of
crowded countries.
–the entire area may be managed/protected for different services in the future more easily;
reversibility of management decisions is given with the consequence of high adaptability.
Disadvantages of integration concepts are:
–rules for management are difficult and educational level of the forest managers has to be
high, i.e. salaries are higher and this makes management more expensive.
–since high impact logging is not appl ied, e.g. strip-cutting, ecological niches for pioneer
species may be missing.
Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically
because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the
ecological community of its habitat. Species conservation can be subjective because it is
hard to determine the status of many species.
Umbrella species can be used to help select the locations of potential reserves, find the
minimum size of these conservation areas or reserves, and to determine the composition,
structure and processes of ecosystems.[
An indicator species is any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the
environment. For an example, a species may delineate an ecoregion or indicate an
environmental condition such as a disease outbreak, pollution, species competition or climate
change. Indicator species can be among the most sensitive species in a region, and sometimes
act as an early warning to monitoring biologists.
An allogenic succession can be brought about in a number of ways which can include:
Volcanic eruptions
Meteor or comet strike
Flooding
Drought
Earthquakes
Non-anthropogenic climate change[2]
The plants themselves (biotic components) modify their own environment and thus causing its
own replacement by new communities.
Germination
In full light, open area In semi-shade, below canopy. In shade, below canopy
of seeds
Fast growing during the Restrained growing during the Slow growing during the
Growth immature phase, Early immature phase, Intermediate immature phase, Late
behaviour culmination of the current culmination of the current culmination of the
annual increment annual increment current annual increment
Final tree
height < 20 m 20 – 30 m > 30 m
Wood density Low Variable Variable to high
Short-lived, high turnover Medium-lived, intermediate Long-lived, low turnover
Leaves rate, evergreen turnover rate, many deciduous rate, evergreen
Photosynthetic
rate High Intermediate Low
Susceptible, little chemical
Leaf predation defense Less susceptible, more Very less susceptible,
Branches Scare, few orders Intermediate, some orders Copious, many orders
Roots More superficial More variable to deep More variable to deep
Medium beginning of the
Early beginning of the maturity phase, Intermediate Late beginning of the
Development maturity phase, Short longevity (50 - 100 yr.) maturity phase, Long
behaviour longevity (< 50 yr.) longevity (> 100 yr.)
Syzium cumini , alnus
Examples: enpalenesis Shorea robusta
Summary:
B. Secondary forest:
1. Forest rehabilitation in early ecosystem development, forest stabilization
in intermediate ecosystem development and forest restoration in late
ecosystem development
2. manage as part of an agroforestry system for producing mixed/multi-
purpose trees
3. manage as a high-forest production system for wood or multiple-use
4. Accelerate natural processes of forest succession stages
5. Establishment and promoting growth of desired tree species
6. Assisting regeneration by enrichment planting
7. Weeding and tending of target tree species
8. Favouring plant species diversity for multiple use
9. High variability and scattered distribution of secondary forests require
both, stand diagnostic sampling and socioeconomic surveys
Summary:
I. Rehabilitation-stabilisation-restoration
II. As part of AF= multi purpose trees
III. As high forest production system= wood and multi uses.
IV. Enrichment planting
V. Weeding and tending
VI. Favour plant species diversity
In summary:
forest restoration, which is the principle management strategy for degraded
primary forests;
the management of secondary forests, applied where conditions are such that
active forest management leads to the desired output; and
the rehabilitation of degraded forest land, applied where the site is so heavily
degraded that the spontaneous regeneration of tree and shrub species is severely
limited.
c. Shelter wood method: Pure or mixed, uneven-aged, two canopied stands with the
overhead shelter of the old stand and the establishment of the young stand on
ground conducted by a special cutting system.
Positive
Shelter provides protection to sensitive seedlings (light, drought)
Soil is more effectively protected
Less risk of erosion on steep slopes
Vigorous trees produce added increment
Less breeding material for injurious insects
Negative
More skill and time required than for clearcutting method
Work is less concentrated and felling is expensive
Damage occurs by felling and extraction of trees over young stand
Seedling establishment can take more time than planting
Rate of cutting and regeneration are more difficult to control
d. Selection method: Mixed, uneven-aged, multi canopied stands with special emphasis
on regeneration of VTSs, recruitment of PCTs of the different diameter classes and
development of FCTs.
Positive
Permanent forest cover protects the soil
Damage by wind and other abiotic factors is minimized
Permanent seed production for seed and seedling bank
Full use of site and stand conditions
No need for equal areas of each age class(PCT, FCT)
Liberation of positive phenotyps for valuable wood increment
Possibility to stabilize species diversity
Negative
Considerable silvicultural and harvesting skill is needed (TSI, LIL)
Stand damage is unavoidable
The system is only applicable to half-shade and shade bearers
3.2. Low forest (vegetative origin)
1. One-storied coppice system: Pure, even-aged, single-canopied stands regenerated
by clear cutting and coppicing.
Positive
2.1. What characterises drylands and what differs these from humid areas?
a. Water becomes a limiting site factor for the vegetation
relatively low rainfall between 0 and approx. 1300 mm/a (“RF”)
frequently unfavourable rainfall distribution
high rainfall density (drops/area): soil erosion/clay accumulation/soil
compaction/ low water infiltration/waterlogged/low oxygen exchange
-Overexploitation
-Illegal logging
b) Indirect causes:
the end
5. Payment for forest environmental services in Vietnam-tuan kapp
4.1. Definition:
These are incentives offered to farmers or landowners in exchange for managing
their land to provide some sort of ecological service.
The basic idea of PES, is to create incentives for individuals and communities to
protect environmental services by compensating them for any costs incurred in
managing and providing those services.
PES link managers of ecosystems or “sellers” to “buyers” who benefit from the
services of the ecosystem.
These include:
Watershed protection (Irrigation, drinking water, hydropower, flood and
sedimentation control)
Biodiversity Conservation
Recreational use and contribution to scenic beauty
Water quality maintenance
For example: A PES scheme can involve, for example, flood control services between up-
stream and down-stream users in a river catchment or a mechanism for land users rewarding
biodiversity conservation, water protection or carbon sequestration in soils or forests.
4.2. Challenges:
i. PES or like PES ? Only one mechanism.
In many developing countries, forest restoration at home has led to deforestation abroad.
However, our study found that strengthened forest-conservation policies and economic
expansion often increased the demand for imported timber and agricultural products, which
contributed to deforestation abroad."
5.3. Do you perceive emission trading as equitable? Or is it a cheap way for industrialized
countries to ‘buy their way out’ of their obligations?
Indigenous people rights.
5.4. How is forestry linked to emission trading and how did this involvement perform?
5.5. Forest transition theory:
According to this hypothesis, a country’s forest cover is first declining during the course
of time, and after reaching a turning point at a specific forest cover, increasing again.
The more serious issue is when historical deforestation systematically under-or
overestimates the rate of deforestation in a BAU scenario. The forest area (change) may
follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory (Mather 1992; Angelsen
2007): initially, the country is characterised by a high percentage of land under forest
cover and a low rate of deforestation. Then deforestation accelerates, slows down,
forest cover stabilises and eventually starts recovering. This pattern is illustrated in
Figure 6.2. Some countries at early
stages in this transition, such as Papua
New Guinea and the Democratic
Republic of Congo, can be expected to
have high forest area values and low,
but accelerating, deforestation rates. Others in the middle of the transition, such as
parts of Indonesia and Brazil, will have high rates, but these are expected to slow down
as forest is getting scarcer. Finally, countries late in the forest transition, such as China
and India (and a number of high-income countries), have increasing forest areas.
Figure illustrates the problem of setting baselines based on historical deforestation
only. An extrapolation of historical rates underestimates future BAU deforestation for
counties at the early stages in the transition, while it overestimates BAU deforestation
for countries at the later stages.
5.6. What are the elements of a REDD+ Baseline?
a. Historical national deforestation
b. National circumstances
c. Historical global deforestation
d. Carbon stock
The second element of baseline-setting suggested in the Bali Action Plan (and several
submissions) is to take ‘national circumstances’ into account. There is still a need to
identify which factors constitute legitimate national circumstances. One prominent
proposal in the debate is to include a development adjustment factor (DAF).
A practical application of this might be that countries with low levels of GDP per capita will
get more generous baselines, which may be justified by several arguments:
(i) the poorest countries are presumably at an earlier stage in FT, and therefore
deforestation (and degradation) is likely to accelerate rather than slow down in a
BAU scenario;
(ii) the capacity to implement REDD may be inversely related to GDP per capita, and
larger transfers are needed;
(iii) based on the UNFCCC principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’ the
REDD requirements should be lower for the poorest countries; and
(iv) REDD should contribute to a transfer of resources to the very poorest countries (co-
benefits).
E. Woodland savanna
1) Large part of N and S Africa, Central part of S. America, Large part of Indian
subcontinent
2) Vegetation adapted to a pronounced climatic rhythm, actively growing during the
rainy season, and dormant in the dry period.
3) Completely leaf shedding during dry period (deciduous tree species)
4) Sclerophyllous leaves with thick cuticle (evergreen tree species)
5) Living processes of tree species exogenously regulated
6) Tree species with stress-evading and stress controlling strategies
7) Most limiting factors are soil water supply, perennial grass competition and periodic
fires
Forest type:
Except at the extremes of moisture, temperature or nutrient conditions, a given site type will
carry different tree species or mixture of tree species. Commonly the dominant taxonomic
group is used for its indication, e.g., Dipterocarp forests in Southeast Asia or Legume forests
in South America.
6.2. Theoretical setting
6.3. Classification system
No generally accepted classification system:
Geographic-climatic: vegetation sequence approach
Physiognomic-structural
Floristic: plant community approach
Multi-factor: plant physiological approach
Preference: Climatic approach with representative physiognomic features
1) Semi Natural Mountain Forest: mostly blue pine forest and mixed coniferous forest
8.1.
Roth= pollinator/ pollination issues in trees
Animals are essential for maintaining ecosystems processes and thus ecosystem services.
(The organisation of animals in food webs causes ecosystem relevant processes)
A. Effects of herbivory
i. Promotion of (compensatory) growth, increased net primary production
Irradiation of formerly shaded leaves after herbivory minimizes photosynthetic
losses
Feeding on shaded leaves improves the balance between photosynthesis and
respiration
ii. Effects on the species composition
Of the vegetation by selective foraging a valuable tool for nature conservation to fight
against shrub encroachment in open and semi-open landscapes
Valuable tool for biological control of weeds.
iii. Effects on nutrient cycling
Fast cycling occurs when herbivores excrete readily decomposable organic matter
whose chemical elements can be quickly taken up by plants within a single growing
season.
Slow cycling occurs when selectively foraging herbivores avoid plants with chemical
or structural defences.
This can result in a community dominated by species that produce litter that is very
recalcitrant to decomposition (high C:N or C:P ratios).
v. Increased natural regeneration
B. Animals as pollinators
About 70% of tropical crops seem to have at least one variety for which production is
improved by animal pollination.
Endozoochory:
o The passage of seeds through the intestinal tract of animals ensures their
germination
o At least a third of tree species in west African forests depend on seeds passage
through elephant’s intestinal tract.
o Small ungulates promote germination of seeds by feeding on them
o Oak seeds in temperate forests by the jay (Garrulus glandarius)
D. Classification of soil fauna acc. to functional guild:tem
a) Ecosystem engineers:
o Effects on soil structure and the availability of resources for other organisms
o Macrofauna: Lumbricidae, Isoptera, Formicidae, Diplopoda
o Mesofauna: Enchytraeidae
b) Litter Transformers
o Effects on nutrient cycling, soil structure and the availability of resources for other
organisms
o Mesofauna: partly Collembola, Oribatida, Enchytraeidae
o Macrofauna: Lumbricidae, Isopoda, Isoptera, Diplopoda
c) Microbial feeders:
o Effects on nutrient cycling
o Microfauna: Nematoda
o Mesofauna: Collembola, Oribatida, Enchytraeidae
E. Species Diversity and Ecosystem Functioning:
The Hypothesis: (species redundancy, rivet, keystone, equally important)
1. Species redundancy hypothesis:
Species (within a functional guild) are at least partially substitutable.
Each new species causes only a small increase of ecosystem process efficiency
Redundancy hypothesis entails that the more species are present in an ecological
unit, the rate of ecosystem function also increases but up to some point, beyond
this point species become redundant and does not have any additional affect to the
ecosystem functions, thereby the loss of certain species has no primary effect to
the diversity of an ecosystem. There are no fixed relationship between diversity and
ecosystem yet the functions of an ecosystem are the results of interaction among
species.
Ecological Redundancy Hypothesis are sometimes refer to as functional
compensation wherein particular species are characterized to its efficiency in
providing services in the community when conditions are stressed in order to
maintain and sustain comprehensive stability in the ecosystem. An increase in
stressed improve the species susceptibility to the following disturbances, thereby
species enhances to the ecosystem resilience.
2. Equally important species hypothesis:
All species are of the same relevance concerning ecosystem processes.
Each new species increases the functionality of ecosystems
3. Rivet hypothesis
If certain biological areas lose several important species it can lead to a total collapse
of ecosystem functions.
For example, using pesticide to remove non-specific density independent mortality
of species would haphazardly remove many species that are more likely to have
unfavorable effects in agro-ecosystem than to targeted control tactics that only
removed few species.
5. Some definitions:
a. Keystone species:
Pivotal species in a community that maintain the structure of the community. If they
are lost a large part of the existing community is lost with them.
Example:
b. Umbrella species:
Are indicator species with large area requirements; these species can be used in
conservation to ring many other species under protection
Example:
o Red Deer as landscape managers in semi open pasture landscapes
c. Flagship species:
Are popular, charismatic species that serve as conservation symbols and rallying
points for the protection of areas.
Economic injury level: The smallest number of insects (amount of injury) that will cause yield
losses equal to the insect management costs. Or it is the damage caused by the insect equals
the cost of preventing that damage.
Economic threshold. The pest density at which management action should be taken to
prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level."
The ET is the practical rule used to determine when to take management action. In fact,
some refer to the ET as the action threshold. It is essentially a prediction of when a pest
population is going to reach the EIL. It is assumed that once the ET is reached, there is a high
probability that the pest population will reach the EIL if no management action is taken.
1. Non economic pest: whose general equilibrium position and the highest
populations are below the economic threshold.
2. Occasional pest: GA is below the ET but whose highest population
fluctuations exceed the ET but not to injury level.
3. Key Pest: whose GE position is above the economic thereshold and
economic injury level, usually requiring insecticide application to prevent
economic damage.
a. Reasons for the Relevance of Insects as Herbivores
i. Insects make up about 75% of all known species
ii. Long-term coevolution between insects and vascular plants
iii. Acquisition of wings and the ability of flight
iv. Small body size
v. Short life cycles and high birth rates
vi. Synchronization of life cycle with external environmental cycles
vii. Developmental stages with food reserves
WHY?
Questions
Wagner= tree species diversity, how to safe guard these diversity, tree species.
Oheimb= slides questions/ general selective logging on biodiversity/Compare
case studies