SUBCOURSE EDITION

OD1747 A

REFRIGERATION AND
AIR CONDITIONING I
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING I
(Fundamentals)

Subcourse OD1747

Edition A

United States Army Combined Arms Support Command

Fort Lee, VA 23801-1809

10 Credit Hours

INTRODUCTION

This subcourse is the first of four subcourses devoted to basic instruction in refrigeration and air
conditioning.

This subcourse explains the fundamentals of electricity and their application in the refrigeration process.
It discusses circuits, motors, and troubleshooting. This is followed by a discussion of fundamentals and the
maintenance of the gasoline engine. The theory of refrigeration is also explained based on the characteristics of
refrigerants.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men and women are included.
 INTRODUCTION

WITHIN THE LAST 20 years refrigeration has become a vital part of American economy. Not only does
nearly every household have its own private machine for the manufacture of ice and cold, but the vast industry of
transporting, storing, and selling fresh foods would collapse overnight without the facilities to preserve fruits,
meats, and vegetables. Furthermore, many amazing therapies of medical science depend upon refrigeration.

All over the world the Army maintains bases equipped with the latest war materiel for keeping the peace or
for defending our country. The men who man these bases must have suitable working conditions, proper food,
and the best hospital treatment possible. In accomplishing these tasks, the Army makes use of every phase of
refrigeration. Consequently, it must have men who will make a career of installing and maintaining the many
refrigeration units it owns.

This course is offered to personnel who wish to improve their knowledge of the science of refrigeration. This
memorandum explains the fundamental reactions which make up the process of present-day refrigeration. It
should help the man who is interested in increasing his knowledge of refrigeration. Review exercises are at the
end of each chapter.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Grateful acknowledgement is made to Allied Chemical Corporation; E. I. du Pont

Nemours and Company, Inc., and the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers for permission to use illustrations
from their publications.

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 CONTENTS

Page

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgement........................................................................................................................................ ii

Chapter

1 Principles of Electricity .................................................................................................................................1

2 Fundamentals of Gasoline Engines .............................................................................................................41

3 Physics of Refrigeration ..............................................................................................................................48

4 Refrigerants .................................................................................................................................................58

Glossary.......................................................................................................................................................63

Appendix .....................................................................................................................................................66

Answer to Review Exercises .......................................................................................................................77

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 CHAPTER 1

Principles of Electricity

We all use electrical equipment, such a lights, radio,
television, electric stove and heaters, refrigerators, air
conditioners and many more. We use these items many
times a day and accept them as a matter of course. As
long as the electrical equipment operates properly, we
accept it with little concern about what actually takes
place. Each of these devices operates because electric
current flows through it.
2. To understand how electricity functions, you need
to know the theory of electricity. The word "electric" is
derived from the Greek word meaning "amber." The
ancient Greeks used the word describe the strange force
of attraction and repulsion that was exhibited by amber
after it had been rubbed with a cloth. By knowing what
electricity does, people have long ago developed theories
which now are proving productive.
3. After centuries of experimentation by the world’s
greatest scientists, laws by which electricity operates are
becoming more widely known and better understood.
Also, the world has arrived at a generally accepted theory
of the composition of matter. Therefore you must learn
about “matter” and certain magnetic effects exhibited by
matter.
1. Electrical Fundamentals
1-4. Electricity is often referred to as static electricity or
dynamic electricity. A generator is said to produce
dynamic electricity, and from this comes the word
“dynamo” as another name for a generator. This is a
machine which converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy. Generally speaking, we are able to control
dynamic electricity so that it is a useful force which we
can put to work. A battery is also a source of dynamic
electricity which we can control. The chemical action in
a battery produces electrical energy which has three
useful applications in an automobile. It drives the electric
motor which starts the engine. It supplies energy to the
spark plugs as heat for ignition, and the car lamps also use
electrical energy for light. The car's generator recharges
the battery and supplies the electric power when the
engine is running. Generators and batteries are the most
widely used sources of dynamic electricity. Now let's
discuss static electricity and its effects.
1-5. The effects of static electricity can be observed
in dry weather when you run a comb through your hair.
The crackling you hear is the result of small discharges of
electricity, and in a dark room you can see the tiny flashes
of light a mirror. Lightning in a summer storm is the
violent discharge of tremendous static charges.

1-1. Matter means all substance - solids, liquids, and

gases. Today, the accepted theory is that matter is
composed of three long-lived particles and many more
short-lived particle. We are concerned only with one of
the three long-lived particles - the electrons.
1-2. Electron Flow. Where there is a general
movement of electrons in one direction, an electric
current flows. The electrons together with protons
(positively charged particles) and neutrons (neutral
particles), make up atoms, of which all substances are
composed. The protons and neutrons are in the nucleus
(center of atom) and generally do not move about within a
substance. The remainder of the atom is composed of
electrons, which are in constant motion about the nucleus.
1-3. Electrons move at a high rate of speed in orbit
around the nucleus and carry a negative charge. The
electrons apparently do not bunch up as the protons do in
the nucleus. An atom may be compared to our planetary
system, with the sun as the nucleus and the earth and
other planets representing the electrons. This is illustrated
in figure 1, which shows the similarity between a
hydrogen atom and our earth-sun system. More complex
atoms have a larger nucleus and additional electrons. The
electrons are considered to be relatively loose and are
usually considered to be that which make up an electric
current or flow.
 Figure 1. Structure of atoms compared to earth and sun.
A charge accumulates over a period of time, and when it
becomes great enough to overcome the resistance of the
air, a bolt of lightning occurs. Static electricity is the
result of friction which dislodges enough electrons to
form a charge. When the charge becomes very great, the
accumulated energy is released in the form of electrical
energy accomplished by lightning and thunder.
1-6. The next discussion will cover the three most
common terms in electricity: “voltage,” “current,” and
“resistance.” These three words are probably the most
important in electrical fundamentals. If you understand
the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance,
you will have a good foundation on which to build your
knowledge of electricity. Therefore, it is important that
you learn the meaning of these terms. Since electricity
cannot be seen, we will present visual comparisons to
help you in understanding the relationships.
1-7. Voltage is one of the several terms which mean
the same thing. These terms are: “voltage,” “potential,”
“electromotive force (emf),” “potential difference,” and
“electrical pressure.” The last term, “electrical pressure,”
comes close to telling what voltage is. For example, the
voltage of a battery is like water pressure in a hose when
the nozzle is closed. This is called potential energy, not
performing work. When the nozzle is opened, the water
is forced out by the pressure, thus doing work. This may
be related to closing an electrical switch, such as turning
on your automobile lights. The potential energy of your
2
battery is then released, performing the work of lighting
the lights. The voltage is expended in the lights in the
form of heat and light. Remember that voltage is
electrical pressure.
1-8. The current flow is made possible by closing the
switch which lowers the resistance to the voltage. Since
this circuit has a relatively high resistance, the lamps
could be burned for several hours before the battery
would be discharged. The starter for the engine has a
very low resistance, so it will draw a large current from
the battery. It uses so much energy that the battery may
become completely discharged by operating the starter for
just a few minutes. This is reasonable because the starter
is doing more work (converting electrical energy into
mechanical energy) than are the car lights. With the
foregoing discussion in mind, let us now consider concise
definitions of our electrical terms.
Voltage is electrical pressure.
Current is the movement of electrons.
Resistance is the opposition to current flow.
1-9. Voltage is measured in volts. Current is
measured in amperes. Resistance is measured in ohms.
One volt is the electrical pressure required to cause 1
ampere of current to flow through a resistance of 1 ohm.
Scientists have made experiments which show that 6280
trillion electrons pass a given point each second when
there is 1 ampere of current in a circuit.
 1-10. Resistance to electric current is present in all
matter, but one material may have much more resistance
than another. Air, rubber, glass, and porcelain have so
much resistance that they are called insulators and are
used to confine electricity to its proper circuit. The
rubber covering on the wires to an electric lamp prevents
the wires from touching each other and causing a short
circuit. The rubber also protects a person who is using the
lamp so that he does not receive an electric shock. Air
acts as an insulator whenever a light switch is opened.
Air fills the gap between the open contacts of the switch,
and no current flows because of the high resistance.
However, even air may at as a conductor if the voltage is
Figure 2. Copper wire size and resistance.
3
high enough; otherwise, there could not be the electrical
discharge which appears in a lightning strobe.
1-11. Metals are good conductors of electricity but
some are better than others. Copper and silver are both
good conductors of electricity because of their relatively
low resistance. Aluminum is not as good, but is used for
long overhead spans because of its light weight. Iron is a
poor conductor, although it is used in combination with
aluminum for added strength. Alloys of nickel and
chromium are used in heater element to provide a specific
resistance which passes enough current to heat the wires
to a red glow. The alloy makes it possible to operate at
high temperatures without melting. Copper is
relatively cheap and a good conductor; it is the most
widely used for wiring circuits.
1-12. The resistance of a copper wire is determined
by three things: the cross-sectional area, the length, and
the temperature. In normal temperature ranges the change
in resistance is very small. The main factors of resistance
are the area or cross section of a wire and its length. A
wire with a larger diameter will have a greater cross-
sectional area than will a smaller wire, and consequently
less resistance. A long wire will have more resistance
than a short one. Figure 2 shows the relationship between
wire size and resistance. The first column gives the wire
by number. A No. 40 wire is about the diameter of a hair.
Sizes larger than No. 4/0 (spoken as four aught) are given
in thousands of circular mil (350 MCM is 350,000
circular mils). The column at the right gives the
resistance in ohms for 1000 feet of wire. One thousand
feet of No. 10 copper wire has a resistance of about 1
ohm. The safe current carrying capacity is given in three
columns which show the effects of insulation and conduit
on the heat radiation ability of the conductor.
1-13. Magnet Characteristics. Magnetism related
to electricity as heat is related to light. Whenever light is
produced, we have heat; and wherever electricity is
produced in the form of an electric current, we have
magnetism. However, heat can be made without visible
light and magnetism can be detected without an electric
current. The effects of magnetism make a good starting
place toward an understanding of electricity. Many of the
fundamental laws can be demonstrated by simple
experiments which you can perform for yourself.
1-14. A magnetic compass needle, a bar magnet, and
some iron filings are the main things required. The
compass needle will point toward the magnetic poles of
the earth unless iron or steel objects are close enough to
Figure 3. Attraction and repulsion between magnets.
4
Figure 4. Pattern of a magnetic field.
affect it. When the north pole of a bar magnet is brought
close to the north pole of the compass needle, they will
repel each other, as shown in figure 3; but there is a
strong attraction between a north pole and a south pole.
This illustrates the fundamental law of magnetism which
says that like poles repel while unlike poles attract.
Between two magnets there is a magnetic field made up
of lines of force.
1-15. This field around a magnet can be shown by
placing a sheet of glass or paper over a bar magnet. As
iron filings are sprinkled over the surface, they assume a
definite pattern, as shown n figure 4. The magnetic field
is strongest at the poles of the magnet, where the lines of
force are bunched closely together. Lines of force follow
a uniform distribution and never cross each other. A
magnetic field may be distorted by iron or influenced by
another magnetic field. A piece of soft iron will
concentrate the lines of force in a field. In the same
manner, two unlike poles brought near each other will
have their fields linked up in common with each other.
1-16. Lodestone is a natural magnet which has been
known for many centuries. From it the first compass
needles were fashioned. Artificial magnets are made by
exposing metal to a strong magnetic field. Hardened iron
will retain magnetism over a long period of time. Alloys
of aluminum and nickel make even stronger magnets.
1-17. The relationship between electricity and
magnetism can be demonstrated by a strong electric
current passing through a conductor. If iron filings are
sprinkled over a piece of cardboard, as shown in figure 5,
they will show a pattern of rings surrounding the
conductor. A sensitive compass held near the wire will
line up at right angles to the wire, showing that the lines
of force have a definite direction. The compass needle
will swing around 180° if the current in the conductor is
reversed. This requires direct current (dc) such as we get
from a battery. The current from a battery is said to have
only one direction, so it is called direct current. By
reversing the connections of a circuit to a battery, the
current in that circuit may be made to take the opposite
direction.
1-18. The magnetic field produced by a single
straight conductor is relatively weak. However, the field
can be concentrated by forming the conductor into a coil.
In this form a coil carrying an electric current shows a
magnetic pattern similar to that of a bar magnet. The coil
develops a north pole at one end and a south pole at the
other end. The polarity may be determined by the left-
hand rule which states, “If the coil is grasped with the left
hand with the fingers pointing in the direction of electron
flow (negative to positive), then the thumb will point
toward the north pole of the coil.” Electrons have a
negative charge so they are attracted by a positive charge.
Consequently, the electron movement in a circuit is from
negative to positive. The electron movement in the
conductor is indicated by two arrows figure 6.
1-19. Most coils are formed around an iron core
because the core intensifies the magnetic field. The coil
with its iron core is called a solenoid. Air offers
resistance to the lines of force, which is called reluctance.
Iron has less reluctance than air so that the lines of force
will choose a path through iron rather than air when there
is a choice. Forming the iron into the shape of a
horseshoe makes less distance between the poles of a
magnet, and the field is more concentrated. Soft iron is
used for the core in electromagnets, as it will lose its
magnetism when the current in the coil stops. The core is
Figure 5. Electric current produces magnetic field.
5
Figure 6. Magnetic field produced by a coil.
built up with thin sheets of soft iron which serve to insure
the loss of magnetism when the magnetizing force is
removed. An example of this is an electromagnet used
for picking up and moving scrap iron in a salvage yard.
The magnet is hung from a crane and may pick up a ten or
more of iron at one time. When the load is moved into
position to be dropped, the current to the coils is shut off.
The loss of magnetism in the core allows the load to fall.
The strength of the field of an electromagnet is
determined by the number of turns of wire in the coils and
the magnitude of the current.
1-20. Electron Movement and Effects. Electrons
flowing through conductors cause several effects. We
shall discuss some of these briefly.
1-21. Heat. Heat is generated as the electrons flow
through the conductor. The electric coffeemaker, electric
stove or heater, and such items are examples of this effect
that we see each day. Light is a side effect of the heat
generated.
1-22. Light. An incandescent lamp is made up of a
filament (conductor) inclosed in an evacuated envelope.
As current passes through the filament, it is heated to the
point of glowing. If no air is allowed into the envelope,
the filament will last a long time.
1-23. When electrons flow through an ionized gas at
the right pressure and value, the gas will glow. Also, if a
stream of electrons strikes certain compounds, the
compounds will glow. Your TV picture gives a picture
because of this effect.
1-24. Chemical. The chemical effect of electron
movement is important. If electrons are forced to move
through a solution of certain chemicals, one of the
elements in the solution will come out of the solution in
its natural state.
Figure 7. Basic electrical symbols.

6
Thus, if an electric current is sent through a solution of 1-32. Safety. Anyone working with electricity must
copper sulphate, pure copper is deposited on one of the always be on his guard because of the dangers involved
contacts immersed in the solution. A stream of electrons with electricity. Follow all rules. The basic rule is to
reaching a contact immersed in a solution can change the keep clear of lines or equipment when they are energized.
chemical makeup of the contact. Do not put yourself in such a position that your body may
1-25. Magnetism. Magnetic field, identical to those become part of the circuit. Rules cannot be written to
discussed previously are produced as a direct result of cover every situation; your own good judgment must
electron movements within a conductor. govern your actions. The man who always practices
1-26. Electromagnetic Fields. The magnetic fields safety will establish good working habits so that he will
produced by electric currents are called electromagnetic naturally do his work in a safe manner. The man who
fields and are composed of lines of force like all other neglects safety is a menace to himself and to those
magnetic fields. For example, in the field around a working around him. Carelessness or a devil-may-care
straight wire (conductor) carrying current the lines of attitude should not be tolerated; either will eventually lead
force are concentric circles. The force of the field is to the destruction of life or property.
strongest close to the wire, and it weakens rapidly the 1-33. Study the information in figure 7 so that you
greater the distance from the wire. can recognize and identify each item. These symbols will
1-27. To determine the direction of the magnetic be used in this chapter to make schematic diagrams of
field about a current-carrying wire, use the left-hand circuits. The purpose and application of these device will
thumb rule which states, “Hold your left hand as if be explained in the discussion of circuits.
grasping the wire in such a way that your thumb points in 1-34. An example of the use of symbols is shown in
the direction of the current (electron) flow. The fingers of figure 8. The upper part shows a picture of a toaster, a
your left hand will then point in the direction of the percolator, and a hot plate. Each of these has a resistance
magnetic field about the wire.” element which converts electricity into heat when the
1-28. The magnetic field associated with a loop of appliance is plugged into an outlet. The lower part of the
wire is much the same as the field of a bar magnet. The figure show how these items would be repre-
loop has poles similar to those of a bar magnet, with lines
of force emerging from the north pole and entering the
south pole. The left-hand rule applied to the loop of wire
will show you which is the north and which is the south
pole.
1-29. If equal currents pass through a coil of wire
consisting of 8 closely wound turns and through a single-
turn loop of the same diameter as the coil, the magnetic
fields will be almost identical in direction at every point.
However, the magnetic field strength of the 8-turn coil
will be approximately 8 times that of the single loop.
This is because the fields of the 8 turns are virtually
parallel to each other at every point and their effects are
cumulative at every point.
1-30. If you spread out the 8 turns into a helical coil
the magnetic field between the turns will be very weak.
This is because the fields of adjacent turns will be
opposite in direction and will tend to cancel each other.
Inside and outside the coil they will be strong, for they
will be cumulative. The net result will be a strong field of
fairly uniform intensity, represented by nearly straight
lines of force both inside and outside the coil.
1-31. Both of the coils, the one closely wound and
the other spread apart, will each have a north pole at one
end and a south pole at the other. The direction of the
field will depend upon the direction of the current flow.
Figure 8. Comparison between picture and symbol
representation.

7
 Figure 9. Inducing voltage by moving a conductor through a field.
sented in a schematic diagram. Each item is shown by the
same resistance symbol and must be identified with labels
to distinguish which is which. Notice how much simpler
the schematic diagram appears and yet it conveys the
same information from an electrical standpoint as the
more complex picture. You could easily draw the
diagram in less than a minute and it would tell another
technician the same story - that there were three
appliances connected to a suitable source.
2. Production of Electromotive Force
2-1. A generator is a machine which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. First, the
generator must have some source of mechanical energy.
The type of machinery used to supply this energy to the
generator is usually called the prime mover.
2-2. There are a number of methods used as prime
movers. Water power (hydroelectric) normally has low
operating costs, but high installation costs. Steam power
(steam turbine) has a low installation and operating cost
when used for plants of 15,000-kw capacity or more.
Diesel engines are used a great deal h plants where the
capacity required is from 2,000 w to 15,000 kw.
However, there are low-speed and high-speed diesel
engines. The high-speed diesel engine has a lower
installation cost than the low-speed type, but its life is not
as long. Gasoline engines should not be chosen to drive
generators in plants which require continuous power
because their fuel and maintenance costs are too high.
The gasoline engines are usually used for small portable
units.
8
2-3. The electrical power output from a generator
may be either direct current (dc) or alternating current
(ac), depending upon the construction. However, in
principle, the rotating coils and the magnetic field through
which they turn are the same for both types of generators.
The primary difference between ac and dc generators is
the method by which the current is taken from the
machine.
2-4. In a generator we have two set of coils and a
field: one set of coils is in motion and the other set of
coils acts as an electromagnet to set up a magnetic field.
Figure 9 shows how a conductor moving across a
magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. The
galvanometer connected to the conductor has the zero
position of the pointer in the center of the scale so that it
can read current in either direction. As the conductor is
moved upward through the field, the galvanometer needle
is deflected to the left. When the conductor is moved
downward, the galvanometer needle is deflected to the
right, showing that the direction of current in the
conductor is reversed.
2-5. Direct-Current Generator. A simplified
diagram of a dc generator is illustrated in figure 10. A loop
of wire represents the conductor that rotates in the magnetic
field. The ends the loop terminate in two copper half rings
which are insulated from each other. Fixed brushes make a
contact with the copper to conduct electricity to the external
circuit. The loop is rotated a clockwise direction. In
position A, the lines of force are not being cut by the
armature conductors but no voltage is produced. In
position , with the black half of the armature conductor
 toward the north pole and the black half-ring against the
negative brush, the armature conductor is cutting the
maximum lines of force. At this position maximum
voltage is induced into the armature conductors with the
current flow through the galvanometer as indicated in
figure 10. At position C, the armature conductor has
rotated 180° from position A and again no voltage is
produced. In position D, with the white half of the
armature conductor toward the north pole and with the
white half-ring against the negative brush, the armature
conductor again is cutting the maximum lines of force,
with maximum voltage being induced into the armature
conductors and with the current flow through the
galvanometer in the same direction as position B. Check
the black brush in the figure at positions B and D and you
will see that the sides of the armature conductor change
but the brushes are stationary; they deliver direct current
because either armature conductor in contact with the
black brush will have the same direction of motion across
the field.
2-6. A direct-current generator is quite different from
the working model shown in figure 10. Instead of
permanent magnet, strong electromagnets are used. The
strength of the field can be controlled by changing the
current in the field coil A variable resistance in the field
circuit makes it possible to control the voltage output of
the generator. Instead of a single loop, there are many
coils of wire in the rotor. The ends of each coil terminate
in opposite copper segment. These copper segments are
formed in a ring called the commutator. The rotor
assembly illustrated figure 11 is an armature for a dc
generator.
2-7. The ends of the armature shaft ride in bearings.
The three main parts of a generator are the stator, the
rotor, and the end bells. The main frame of the generator
holds the stator or field. This frame supports the end bells
which carry the bearings. One end bell contain the brush
rig which holds the brushes. The voltage generated is
controlled by a rheostat in the field circuit that changes
the strength of the electromagnets. A change in speed
would also change the voltage, but it is much simpler to
control by resistance.
2-8. Alternating-Current Generator. A
simplified diagram of an ac generator is shown figure
12. The difference between the dc generator and the ac
generator is in the method used to deliver the current to
the brushes. In the ac generator, sliprings are used
instead of a commutator. This means that the same
side of the loop delivers current to the same brush re-
Figure 10. Simplified diagram of a direct-current
generator.

9
 Figure 11. DC generator armature.
gardless of rotation; otherwise the operation is the same.
2-9. The illustration shows the loop turning in a
clockwise direction. At position A, the lines of force are
not being cut by the armature conductor so no voltage is
produced. At position 3, the armature conductor is
cutting the maximum lines of force, and the galvanometer
indicates the direction of current flow by the needle
pointing to the right. At position C, the galvanometer
again shows zero because the lines of force are not being
cut by the armature conductor. At position D, the
armature conductor are again cutting the maximum lines
of force, and the galvanometer again shows a current flow
but in the opposite direction. What happened? At
position B, the black side of the loop is moving down
through the field and the black slipring is negative,
sending current toward the meter. At position D, the
black side of the loop is moving up through the field.
Now the black slipring is positive. Current is directed
from the white slip ring to the meter and back. The
direction of current in the loop reversed itself and the
same is true in the external circuit to the meter. The loop
in the dc generator operated the same way but the
commutator acted as a mechanical device to direct the
current in only one direction to the external circuit.
2-10. The output frequency, or cycles, of an ac
generator is determined by it speed and the number of
poles. A two-pole machine must be driven at 3600 rpm to
produce 60 cycles per second. A four-pole machine
requires a speed of 1800 rpm for a frequency of 60 cycles.
The formula for frequency is
where f is the frequency, P is the number of poles, and S
is the speed rpm. The output voltage is controlled in the
same manner as described for a dc generator. A rheostat
in series with the field is used to change the strength of
the field magnet; the stronger the field, the greater the
voltage generated.
10
2-11. The simple ac generator discussed here would
produce single-phase current, as there is only one loop or
winding. A three-phase generator requires three sets of
windings and each winding produces one phase. The
windings are physically displaced from each other 120°
apart so that maximum voltage in one winding is
generated at a different time from that in the other
windings. At least three wires are needed to deliver three-
phase electrical power from the generator to equipment.
A single-phase voltage and current is developed between
any two of the wires. Phases may be designated by
number or as A, B, C, for identification. Figure 13 shows
the pattern of a three-phase current for one complete
cycle. A peak occurs every 60°, or 6 times for each cycle.
The same pattern of rise and fall should be used to
illustrate the cycle of three-phase voltage.
3. Direct Current Fundamentals
3-1. In order for current to flow, two things are
essential: there must be a source of electrical pressure
(voltage) and there must be a complete circuit. The
source of voltage may be a battery, a generator, or some
other device. The complete circuit requirement means
that there must be a complete path from the negative
terminal through the load and back to the positive
terminal of the source. The complete path should allow
the electrons to flow freely to the load, do their work in
the load, and then move freely back to the source.
3-2. However desirable this condition is, it cannot be
completely achieved since no material used as a
conductor (wire) allows the electrons to move with
complete freedom. There is always some resistance to the
electron flow. All conductors have some resistance; just
how much they have depends on the size and length of the con-
 Figure 13. One cycle of a three-phase current.

ductors as well as on the materials of which they are

made.
3-3. The source of voltage is any device which has
an excess of electrons in one place over the number of
electrons in another place. Connecting the two places by
means of an electrical circuit, including resistance,
permits the two places to try to equalize the number of
electrons. The movement of electrons that results from
this attempt is what is known as current.
3-4. Ohm’s Law and DC Circuit. Since Ohm's law
contains two separate thoughts, it may be expressed in the
following two statements: (1) Current in any electrical
circuit is directly proportional to the voltage, and (2)
current in any electrical circuit i inversely proportional to
the resistance. Ohm's law is more generally stated as
follows: The current in a circuit is equal to the voltage
divided by the resistance. Mathematically, it is expressed
as:

(1)

In this equation, I stands for the current in amperes, E for

the voltage in volts, and R for the resistance in ohms.
Thus, if the source of potential is a 6-volt battery and the
electrical device is a bulb having 3 ohms of resistance, the
current will be:

3-5. The equation for Ohm's law can be converted

mathematically to read as follows:
E=IXR (2)

By use of this equation, you can determine the voltage

Figure 12. Simplified diagram of an alternating-current
generator.
across a component of a circuit if you know the unit's
resistance and the current flow through it. Thus, if you
know that the current through a lamp is 2 amperes and the
resistance of the amp is 3 ohm, you know that the voltage
across it must be 3 X 2, or 6 volts.

11
 3-6. The equation for Ohm's law can be converted
mathematically in still another way to read:

(3)

Using equation 3, you can determine the resistance of any

circuit component if you know the voltage across it and
the current flowing through it. Suppose you know that
the voltage across a lamp is 6 volts and the current
through it is 2 amperes. You can find the lamp' resistance
by substituting in equation 3:
Figure 14. Series circuit.

Solution:

a. Using equation 5:
E = 8 + 12 + 4 = 24 volts

b. Using equation 4:
3-7. Using these three equations enables you to find It = 4 = 4 = 4 amperes
any one of the three quantities - voltage, current, or
resistance - if you know the other two. c. Using equation 3, the resistance of each unit is
3-8. Series Circuits. A series circuit is one in which computed as follows:
there is only one path through which the current can flow.
In figure 14 three resistances and a battery are connected
to form a series circuit. Since there is but one path for the
current all of the current passes through each resistance
and the current is the same throughout the entire circuit,
or
It = I1 = I2 = I3, etc. (4)

3-9. The total voltage drop in the series circuit is

equal to the sum of the voltages (voltage drops) across the
individual resistors, or d. Using equation 6:
Et = E1 + E2 + E3, etc. (5)
Rt = 2 + 3 + 1 = 6 ohms
3-10. The total resistance of the circuit is equal to the
sum of the resistances of the individual units, or Check:
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3, etc. (6) Using equation 3, the total resistance can also be
computed as follows:
3-11. If one of the devices in a series circuit burns
out, there is no longer a complete path for the current and,
therefore, the other devices the circuit will not operate.
3-12. Problem: In figure 14, three resistances are
connected in series across a 24-volt power source. The 3-13. Parallel Circuits. In a parallel circuit, two or
voltages and currents are measured and found to be as more electrical devices provide independent paths through
indicated in the illustration. Find: which the current may flow. The voltage across each
a. The total voltage drop. device so connected in parallel is the same, or
b. The total current. Et = E1 = E2 = E3, etc. (7)
c. The resistance of each unit.
d. The total resistance. 3-14. The total current in the circuit is equal to the
sum of the individual currents flowing through the
parallel-connected devices, or
It = I1 + I2 + I3, etc. (8)

12
 3-15. Thus, the total amount of current in a parallel c. Then, combing R(1 and 2) with R3 and using equation
circuit is greater than the current in any one individual 9 again, you have
branch or leg, and consequently the total resistance must
be less than the value of the smallest resistance in the
circuit. The greater the number of electrical devices or
resistors connected in parallel in a given circuit, the
greater will be the total current, and the smaller will be
the total resistance of the circuit.
3-16. Electrical devices are connected in parallel in
any installation in order to: (1) decrease the total
resistance of the circuit and (2) allow the units to operate
independently of each other. In a parallel circuit, if one
unit burns out it does not affect the operation of the other
units; one path is broken but the other circuits are still
complete. 3-21. The general equation for finding the total
3-17. There are several ways to calculate the total resistance in a parallel circuit is known as the reciprocal
resistance of a parallel circuit. We shall show the simpler method. It involves determining the reciprocal of the sum
way first, which is the product over the sum method, and of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. In other
then give you the more complex general rule. words, find a common denominator and divide the
3-18. To calculate the total resistance of the parallel resistances
circuit shown in figure 15, use the following equation and
solve for the equivalent resistance of only two paths at a
time.

(9)

3-19. When the load units that are connected in

parallel all have the same resistance value, the previous
equation may be simplified to read:

(9A)

3-20. Problem: In the illustration accompanying the

previous discussion, three load units are connected in
parallel. Using the resistance values indicated, find the
total resistance.

Solution:
a. Using equation 9, for the first two paths

b. Since 3 ohms is the equivalent resistance of the

first two paths you may substitute a 3-ohm resistor for Figure 15. Parallel circuit.
them, and adding the 6-ohm resistor of the third path
redraw the circuit as shown at the right in the illustration.

13
into the common denominator, then add and invert, and
divide this sum to find the total resistance.

(10) d. Since the total current must flow through the

3-22. Using equation 10, the total resistance can be
computed as follows:
series resistor, the current flow through it must be 4
amperes.
e. Since the total current flowing through the four
lamps is 4 amperes and since they all have the same value
of resistance, the current must divide evenly among the
lamps and is therefore found to be 1 ampere through each
lamp circuit.
3-25. Power. Besides the current, voltage, and
resistance of a circuit, the power must also be considered.
Power is defined as the rate of doing work, and it is
measured in a variety of units. An electric motor, for
example, is rated in terms of horsepower. One
horsepower is the rate of doing work when a 550-pound
weight is raised a distance of 1 foot in 1 second. Some
motors develop 5000 or more horsepower. Electrical

3-23. Series-Parallel Circuit. As shown in figure

16, in a series-parallel circuit some of the units are
connected in series with each other, while other units are
connected in parallel. To solve a series-parallel problem,
first convert it to a series circuit by substituting an
equivalent resistance for the parallel resistances; then
solve the series circuit problem as explained previously.
3-24. Problem: In the illustration of the series-
parallel circuit a resistor is connected in series with four
lamps which are connected in parallel with each other.
The voltage and resistances were measured and found to
be as indicated. Find the current through the various parts
of the circuit.
Solution:
a. The resistance of each lamp is 4 ohms. Therefore,
using equation 9A, the equivalent resistance of the four
lamps in parallel is

b. Substituting a 1-ohm resistor for the four lamps

and using equation 6, you find the total resistance of the
circuit as follows:

R4 = 5 + 1 = 6 ohm

c. Using equation 1, you compute the total current in

the circuit to be Figure 16. Series-parallel circuit.

14
 Figure 17. Sine wave of current and voltage.
power is generally expressed in terms of watts. A watt is
the power consumed in a circuit through which 1 ampere
flows under a pressure of 1 volt. One horsepower equals
746 watts.
3-26. Most electrical devices are rated according to
the voltage that should be applied to them and also
according to the amount of power they require. For
example one lamp might be rated as a 115-volt, 40-watt
lamp, while another might be rated as a 115-volt, 20-watt
lamp. This means that both lamps are to be operated on a
115-volt circuit, but that twice as much power is required
to operate the first lamp as the second.
3-27. You can compute the wattage of an electrical
unit - that is, the power it requires - by multiplying the
value of the current flowing through it by the value of the
voltage applied to it.
P=IXE (11)
Thus, a starter motor drawing 70 amperes at a potential of
24 volts is using 1680 watts of electrical power. To
convert electrical power (wattage) to horsepower, divide
the electrical power rating by 746. Thus, by dividing
1680 watts by 746-watts (the electrical equivalent of 1
horsepower) you will find that the starter motor will
develop approximately 2.25 horsepower.
4. Alternating-Current Fundamentals
4-1. In a dc circuit, current moves in one direction,
from the negative terminal of the source through the
circuit to the positive terminal. In ac circuits, the current
flows first in one direction and then in the opposite
direction, thus the name “alternating current.”
15
4-2. Alternating current has largely replaced direct
current for a number of reasons, namely: (1) ac voltages
can be increased or decreased very efficiently with
transformers, (2) ac devices are much simpler and
consequently are less prone to trouble than are dc devices,
(3) ac units are much lighter, and (4) they operate more
efficiently.
4-3. Most electrical appliances manufactured in the
United States have a small “data plate” which gives the
electrical information necessary for connecting the
appliances to the proper electrical circuits. This data plate
usually gives the voltage, frequency (cycles per second),
horsepower (size of motor) or watts (for heating units),
amperes, ac or dc, and the power factor. If you connect
electrical appliances per the information on the data plate,
they usually give a long life of uninterrupted service.
4-4. Phase of Current and Voltage. When current
and voltage pass through their zero value and reach their
maximum value at the same time, the current and voltage
are said to be in phase. If the current and voltage pass
through zero and reach their maximum values at different
times, the current and voltage are said to be out of phase.
In a purely inductive circuit the current reaches a
maximum value later than the voltage, lagging the voltage
by 90°, or one-fourth of a cycle. In a circuit containing
only capacitance, the current reaches its maximum ahead
of the voltage, and the current leads the voltage by 90°, or
one-fourth of a cycle.
4-5. Figure 17 shows graphically the in-phase
condition and the effect of inductance and capacitance on
this phase relationship. The current will never lead or lag
the voltage by exactly
90° because of the resistance of the conductor. The
number of degrees by which the current leads or lags the
voltage in a circuit depends on the relative amounts of
resistance, capacitance, and inductance in the circuit.
4-6. Inductance. When an alternating current flows
through a coil of wire, it sets up an expanding and
collapsing magnetic field about the coil. The expanding
and collapsing magnetic field induces a voltage within the
conductor proper which is opposite in direction to the
applied voltage.
4-7. This induced voltage opposes the applied
voltage, thus serving to lessen the effect of the applied
voltage. This results in the self-induced voltage tending Figure 18. Power relations in an ac circuit.
to keep a current moving when the applied voltage is
decreasing and to oppose a current when the applied up of pure resistance is the apparent power equal to the
voltage is increasing. This property of a coil which true power.
opposes any change in the value of the current flowing 4-13. When there is capacitance or inductance in the
through it is called inductance. circuit, the current and voltage are not exactly in phase
4-8. The inductance of a coil is measured in henrys, with each other, and the true power is less than the
and the symbol for inductance is L. In any coil the apparent power. The true power is obtained by a
inductance depends on several factors, principal of which wattmeter indication. The ratio of the true power to the
are the number of turns of wire in the coil, the cross- apparent power is called the power factor of the load and
sectional area of the coil, and the material in the center of is usually expressed as a percentage. In equation form the
the coil, or the core. A core of magnetic material greatly relationship is:
increases the inductance of the coil.
4-9. Remember, however, that even a straight wire
has inductance, small though it may be when compared to
that of a coil. All ac motors, relays, transformers, and the
like contribute inductance to a circuit. (12)
4-10. Capacitance. Another important property of
ac circuits, besides resistance and inductance, is 4-14. Problem: A 220-volt motor draws 50 amperes
capacitance. While inductance is represented in a circuit from the supply lines, but the wattmeter indicates that
by a coil and resistance by a resistor, capacitance is only 9350 watts are taken by the motor. What is the
represented by a capacitor. Any two conductors separated apparent power and what is the power factor of the
by a nonconductor constitute a capacitor. The capacitor is circuit?
used in an electrical circuit to momentarily store Solution:
electricity, smooth out pulsating dc, give more torque to a a. Apparent power = 220 X 50 = 11,000 volt-
motor by causing the current to lead the voltage (see fig. amperes.
17), reduce arcing of contact points, and hasten the b. Using equation 12,
collapse of the magnetic field of an ignition coil to
produce a hotter spark.
4-11. Power in AC Circuits. In a dc circuit, we
calculate power by using equation 11, where the volts
times the amperes equal the watts (power). Thus, if 1
ampere flows in a circuit at a potential of 200 volts, the
power is equal to 200 watts. The product of the voltage 5. Transformers
and the amperage is the true power of the circuit in this
case. 5-1. A transformer is an apparatus which transforms
4-12. electrical energy at one voltage into electrical energy at
In an ac circuit, however, the voltmeter indicates the another voltage. It consists of two coils which are not
effective voltage and an ammeter indicates the effective electrically connected (except auto transformers) but are
current. The product of these two indicate what is called arranged so that the magnetic flux surrounding one coil
apparent power. The relationship between true power, cuts through the other coil upon buildup or collapse of the
reactive power, and apparent power is shown graphically magnetic field. When there is an alternating current in
in figure l8. Only when the ac circuit is made one coil, the varying magnetic flux

16
 Figure 19. Voltage and current transformer.
creates an alternating voltage in the other winding by
mutual induction. A transformer will also operate on
pulsating dc but not on pure dc.
5-2. A transformer consists of three primary parts: an
iron core, which provides a circuit of low reluctance for
the magnetic flux; a primary winding, which receives the
electrical energy from the supply source; and a secondary
winding, which receives electrical energy by induction
from the primary and delivers it to the secondary circuit.
5-3. The primary and secondary coils are usually
wound, one upon the other, on a closed core obtain
maximum inductive effect between them. The turns of
insulated wire and layers of the coil are well insulated
from each other by layers of impregnated paper or mica.
The iron core is laminated to minimize magnetic current
losses (eddy losses) and is usually made of specially
prepared silicon steels since these steels have a low
hysteresis loss. (Hysteresis loss is the portion of the
magnetic energy converted to heat and lost to the system
so far as useful work is concerned. It occurs with
changing magnetic polarity.)
17
5-4. There are two classes of transformer - voltage
transformers for stepping up or stepping down voltages,
and current transformers which are generally used in
instrument circuits. In voltage transformers the primary
coils are connected in parallel across the supply voltage,
as seen in figure 19. In current transformers the primary
windings are connected in series in the primary circuit.
5-5. Of the two types, the voltage transformer is the
more common. There are also power-distributing
transformers for use with high voltages and heavy loads.
Transformers are usually rated in kilovolt-amperes.
5-6. Principles of Operation. When an alternating
voltage is connected across the primary terminals of a
transformer, an alternating current will flow and self-
induce in the primary coil a voltage which is opposite and
nearly equal to the connected voltage. The difference
between these two voltages will allow just enough current
to flow in the primary coil to magnetize its iron core.
This is called the exciting (magnetizing) current.
 Figure 20. Single-phase generator and load.

5-7. The magnetic field caused by the exciting

current cuts across the secondary coil and induces a
secondary voltage by mutual induction. If a load is
connected across the secondary coil of the transformer,
the load current flowing through the secondary coil will
produce a magnetic field which will tend to neutralize the
magnetic field produced by the primary current. This, in
turn, will reduce the self-induced (opposition) voltage in
the primary coil and allow more primary current to flow.
5-8. The primary current increases as the secondary
load current increases, and decreases as the secondary
load current decreases. When the secondary load is
removed, the primary current is again reduced to the small
exciting current sufficient only to magnetize the iron core Figure 21. Sine wave of voltage outputs of single- and
of the transformer. three-phase generators.
5-9. Connecting Transformers in an AC Circuit.
Before studying the various uses of transformers and the maximum voltage in it. This causes the maximum
different ways of connecting them, you should understand voltages generated in the three coils always to be one-
the difference between a single-phase circuit and a three- third of a cycle (1/180 second) apart.
phase circuit. 5-13. Three-phase motors and other three-phase
5-10. A single-phase circuit is a circuit in which the loads are connected with their coils or load elements
voltage is generated by an alternator, as shown in figure arranged so that three transmission lines are required for
20. This single-phase voltage may be taken from a delivery of power. (See fig. 22.) Transformers that are
single-phase alternator or from one phase of a three-phase used for stepping the voltage up or down in a three-phase
alternator, as explained later. circuit are electrically connected so that power is
5-11. A three-phase circuit is a circuit in which three delivered to the primary and taken from the secondary by
voltages are generated by an alternator with three coils so the standard three-wire system.
spaced within the alternator that the three voltages
generated are equal but reach their maximum values at
different times, as shown figure 21. In each phase of a
60-cycle, three-phase generator, a cycle is generated
every 1/60 second.
5-12. In its rotation, the magnetic pole passes one
coil and generates a maximum voltage; one-third of a
cycle (1/180 second) later, this same pole passes another
coil and generates a maximum voltage in it; and one-third
of a cycle later, it passes still another coil and generates a
Figure 22. Three-phase generator with three conductors.

18
 Figure 23. Step-down transformer, two-wire system.
5-14. However, single-phase transformers may be
connected across any two phases of a three-phase circuit,
as shown figure 23. When single-phase loads are
connected to three-phase circuits, the loads are distributed
equally among the three phases in order to balance the
loads on the three generator coils.
5-15. Another use of the transformer is the single-
phase transformer with several taps in the secondary.
With this type of transformer, we can lower the voltage
and also have several working voltages, as shown in
figure 24. A center-tapped transformer powering a motor
requiring 220 volts, along with for lights requiring 110
volts is shown in figure 25. The motor is connected
across the entire transformer output, and the lights are
connected from the center tap to one end of the
transformer. With this connection we are using only half
of the secondary output.
5-16. This type of transformer connection is used
quite extensively because of the combinations of voltages
that may be taken from one transformer. Various voltages
may be picked off the secondary winding of the
transformer by inserting taps (during manufacture) at
various points along the secondary winding. The various
amounts of voltage are obtained by connecting to any two
taps or to one tap and either end, as shown a previous
illustration.
Figure 24. Multivoltage transformer secondary.
19
5-17. Transformers for three-phase circuit can be
connected in any one of several combinations of the wye
(y) and delta (Δ) connections. The connection used
depends on the requirements for the transformer.
5-18. Wye connection. When the wye connection is
used in three-phase transformers, a fourth or neutral wire
may be used, as show in figure 26. The neutral wire
serves to connect single-phase equipment to the
transformer. Voltages (120 v) between any one of the
three-phase lines and the neutral wire can be used for
power for devices such as lights or single-phase motors.
Single- and three-phase equipment can be operated
simultaneously, as show in figure 27.
5-19. In combination, all four wires can furnish
power at 208 volts, single and three-phase, for operating
single- and three-phase equipment such as motors or
rectifiers with the center tap used as equipment ground.
When only three-phase equipment is used, the ground
wire may be omitted. This leaves a three-phase, three-
wire system.
5-20. Delta connection. Figure 28 shows the
primary and secondary with a delta connection. Between
any two phases the voltage is 240 volts. This type of
connection using the three wires - A, B, and C - can
furnish 240-volt, three-phase power for the operation of
three-phase equipment.
5-21. Wye and delta connections. The type of
connection used for the primary coils may or may not be
the same as the type of connection used
 Figure 25. Step-down transformer, three-wire system.
for the secondary coils. For example, the primary may be
a delta connection and the secondary a wye connection.
This is called a delta-wye (Δ-y) connected transformer.
Other combinations are delta-delta, wye-delta, and wye-
wye.
5-22. Current Transformers. Current transformers
are used in ac power supply systems.
5-23. The current transformer is a ring type
transformer using a current-carrying power lead as a
primary (either the power lead or the ground lead of the
ac generator). The current in the primary induces a
current in the secondary by magnetic induction.
5-24. The sides of all current transformer are marked
“H1” and “H2” on the unit base. The transformers must
be installed with the “H1” side toward the generator in the
circuit in order to have proper polarity. The secondary of
Figure 28. Wye-to-wye connection.
20
the transformer should never be left open while the
system is being operated; to do so could cause
dangerously high voltages and could overheat the
transformer. Therefore the transformer output
connections should always be connected with a jumper
when the transformer is not being used but is left in the
system.
6. Electrical Meters
6-1. In the installation, inspection, maintenance, and
operation of electrical air-conditioning equipment, you
will often have to measure voltage, current, and
resistance. A number of instruments have been developed
for this purpose.
Figure 2. Four-wire, three-phase wye system.
 Figure 28. Delta-to-delta connection.
We will discuss these meters and their uses.
6-2. Galvanometer. In electrical systems the
moving-coil galvanometer (D'Arsonval type) is used quite
extensively. This movement is used in such instruments
as voltmeters, ammeters, thermocouple thermometers, and
electrical tachometer.
6-3. Voltmeter. A voltmeter is an instrument used
to measure the difference in electrical potential, or the
voltage, between two point. (See fig. 29.) Notice in
figure 29 the rotary switch which may be connected to
various size resistors. These are in series with the
movable coil to limit the amount of current flow through
Figure 29. Voltmeter.
21
Figure 30. Ammeter with an external shunt.
the meter circuit. If an unmarked voltage is to be
measured, set the rotary switch to the highest resistance
and work down until the meter reads in a somewhat mid-
position of full scale.
6-4. Ammeter. An ammeter is an instrument that
measures the amount of current flowing in a circuit. You
may have a need for an ammeter with a range from a
milliampere to 500 amperes. These meters may have an
external shunt, as shown in figure 30, or they may be
internally shunted. Question: What is a shunt for?
Answer: Very fine wire is used in the coil. This wire can
carry very little current without overheating - only a small
fraction of an ampere. A low-resistance shunt is
connected in parallel with the meter so that most of the
current bypasses the meter; only a very small portion of
the total current flows through the coil. For example:
When a 300-ampere ammeter and a 300-ampere shunt are
connected into a circuit carrying 300 amperes, only 0.01
ampere flows through the meter to give full-scale
deflection; the remaining 299.99 amperes flow through
the shunt.
6-5. By applying the basic rule for parallel circuits,
you can easily compute the value of a shunt resistor
needed to extend the range of an ammeter.
6-6. Ohmmeter. An ohmmeter is an instrument
used to measure resistance in ohms. Combination
voltohmmeters and other multipurpose meters are used
more than simple ohmmeters. The principle of operation
of an ohmmeter is

Figure 31. Ohmmeter.
basically the same, regardless of whether the meter is a
separate instrument or is part of a multipurpose
instrument.
6-7. An ohmmeter contains a very sensitive
galvanometer. The scale on the dial is calibrated in ohms.
Maximum current flows through the circuit when there is
a minimum amount of resistance between the ohmmeter
terminals. For this reason, zero is at the right-hand end of
the scale. The ohmmeter does not have an evenly,
graduated scale; frequently the right half of the scale will
read to about 5000 ohms, while the left half will read
100,000 ohms or more. The left-hand end of the scale is
sometimes marked “INF,” which means there is infinite
resistance between the terminals.
6-8. Some ohmmeters have three or even four posts
to which the leads may be attached. (See fig. 31.) These
posts may be marked in different ways on different
meters, but for purposes of explanation let us consider a
meter on which the posts are marked “C,” “RX1,”
“RX10,” and “RX100.” If the leads are connected to C
and RX1, the resistance being measured is indicated
directly on the scale. If the terminals are connected to C
and RX10, the reading on the scale must be multiplied by
10 to give the actual resistance. If the terminals are
connected to C and RX100, the reading on the scale must
be multiplied by 100. Short the two leads together
22
and zero the meter with the zero adjustment. This must
be done any time the lead is moved from one jack to
another.
CAUTION: Make sure the circuit to be measured is
dead before using the ohmmeter.
6-9. Rectifier Meter. Alternating-current voltages
are often measured by rectifier type meters. A rectifier
meter is actually a dc meter with a rectifier added to
change the ac to dc. Without a rectifier, of course, a dc
meter would give no indication when applied to an ac
circuit. Generally, a copper-oxide rectifier connected as a
bridge provides the rectification. This is shown in figure
32. Values of ac voltages indicated on the rectifier meter
are effective values.
6-10. Wattmeters. Power in an ac circuit is not
always found by multiplying voltage by amperage as in a
dc circuit. Such a power computation can be made for ac
circuit only when the voltage and current are in phase,
that is, when there is a purely resistive load. In practice
this condition seldom exists, since in almost all ac circuits
the load is reactive because of the presence of inductance
and capacitance. The wattmeter, however, measures the
true power consumed in a circuit by all electrical devices
regardless of the type of load.
6-11. Wattmeters may be used to measure power
consumed in either single-phase or three-phase circuits in
which the load is balanced. The single-phase wattmeter
has a high-resistance moving voltage coil for many turns
of fine wire and stationary coils, called current coils, of
low resistance with a few turns of heavy wire. Connect
the current coils in the line in series with the load, and the
voltage coil across the line.
6-12. A single-phase wattmeter may be connected to
measure the power by a three-phase circuit. To do this,
connect the current coil in one load line and the voltage
coil between the line and ground. This will give the
power in one phase. Multiply this by 3 to get the total
power.
6-13. Three-phase wattmeters consist of two or more
single-phase movement with all the moving elements
mounted on one shaft. Separate single-phase wattmeters
can be used to measure power in three-phase circuits by
connecting two wattmeter in any two of the three phases.
In this case, add the two wattmeter readings if the power
factor of the load (motor) is greater than 50 percent (the
power actor can be found on the nameplate or in the
technical order). If the power factor is below 50 percent,
the power input to the load (motor) is the difference
between the two readings.
6-14. You can determine whether to add or subtract
the readings by the following: If both of the scale pointers
deflect toward the top of the scale, add the readings; if
one tends to indicate a negative value, reverse either the
voltage or
 Figure 32. Rectifier meter circuit.
current connections and subtract the reading of one
wattmeter from the reading of the other.
6-15. Using Electrical Meters. Only two of the
meters discussed in this chapter, the voltmeter and the
ohmmeter, are used to locate troubles in an electrical
circuit. How the meters are used for this purpose will be
explained in detail. However, before attempting to use
any of the meters which have been discussed, you should
fix firmly in your mind certain precautions concerning
their use.
6-16. General precautions.
(1) Never connect a voltmeter to a circuit having a
voltage that exceeds the voltmeter scale. If the voltage is
unknown, start with a high scale and work down until you
get the correct one.
(2) Never connect an ammeter into a circuit
carrying more current than the maximum reading on the
scale of the meter.
(3) Always connect an ammeter in series with the
units in the circuit.
(4) Never connect an ammeter across the terminals
23
of a battery or generator, or any other place where you
provide a path through the meter from a source of voltage
direct to ground. To do so would cause the meter to burn
out immediately.
(5) Always check the rating of a meter before you
use it.
(6) Never use an ohmmeter to check an electrical
circuit until the source of voltage has been disconnected
from all parts of the circuit to be checked. Using the
ohmmeter in a live circuit would damage the meter.
(7) Always connect the voltage coil of a wattmeter
to the supply side of the current coil.
6-17. Voltmeter. The most common trouble found in
electrical circuits that are inoperative is an open circuit.
This means simply that there is not a complete path for
the current to flow through as it should. The “open,” or
the place where the circuit is open, can be located with
either a voltmeter or an ohmmeter. If electrical power is
available, use the voltmeter.
6-18. An open in a circuit may be located anywhere
in the circuit. It my be in the switch,
Figure 33. Continuity testing with a voltmeter.

24
fuse, wiring, or in the unit itself. If the fuse is burned out, the power from the circuit to permit use of the ohmmeter.
or open, you should inspect all of the circuit to determine Now, with one lead connected to negative or ground,
what caused the fuse to blow. check at various points with the other lead. If you start at
6-19. A trouble known as a short might have caused the point where the circuit is grounded, the meter will
the fuse to blow. A short is direct contact between the hot read zero ohms.
and negative or ground portion of the circuit. Since there 6-29. After you pass the first resistance the meter
is practically no resistance in this new or short circuit, the will read that resistance. When you get the first reading
current flow increases immediately until it exceeds the of infinite resistance, this will indicate that the open is
capacity of the fuse and blows the fuse. between that point and the point where you got the last
6-20. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel normal reading.
with the unit being tested - that is, across the unit - or to
the points between which the difference of potential is to
be measured.
6-21. If you should accidentally connect the
voltmeter in series with the circuit, it wouldn't hurt the
mete because the high resistance in the meter would limit
the current flow. However, the units in the circuit would
not operate because of the low current
6-22. Locating an open with a voltmeter is simply a
matter of checking to see how far voltage is present in the
circuit. Voltage will be present the circuit right up to the
point where the circuit is open.
6-23. When you have to check a circuit to find an
open, you can start at any point in the circuit. It is logical,
of course, to check the fuse first and the unit second. As
explained earlier, this will enable you to tell whether the
trouble is an open or a short.
6-24. If the fuse and the unit are both good, you may
have to check each end of each length of wire in the
circuit to find the open. Use the wiring diagram of the
circuit as a guide. The important things are to know what
voltage reading you should have at each point in the
circuit and to recognize an abnormal reading when you
get one. Figure 33 shows the voltage readings obtained at
different points in a circuit with an open fuse, an open
lamp filament, and one with an open ground wire.
6-25. Ohmmeter. Before you use an ohmmeter to
check a circuit, be sure there is no electrical power in the
circuit. It was explained earlier in this chapter that using
an ohmmeter in a live circuit could damage the meter.
6-26. If you use a multirange ohmmeter to check
resistance, choose a scale on the ohmmeter which you
think will contain the resistance of the element you are
going to measure. In general, select a scale in which the
reading will fall in the mid-scale range. Short the leads
together and set the meter, with the zero adjustment, to
read zero ohms. If for any reason you change scales,
readjust the meter to zero ohms.
6-27. Connect the leads across the circuit. Infinite
resistance indicates an open circuit. A reading other than
infinite resistance indicates continuity.
6-28. Let's simulate locating the troubles with the
ohmmeter. First we must be sure we have disconnected Figure 34. Single-phase motor with capacitor starting
winding.

25
 6-30. When you check continuity in a parallel
circuit, isolate the unit you are checking so the ohmmeter
will not show the resistance of parallel paths.
7. Motors
7-1. In this section we will discuss some of the
electrical motors that you may encounter in your job. We
will discuss ac single and polyphase induction motors,
ac/dc universal motors, and synchronous motors.
7-2. Principles of Operation. The speed of rotation
of an ac motor depends upon the number of poles and the
frequency of the electrical source of power:
Figure 35. Production of a rotating magnetic field.
26
7-3. Since an electrical system operates at 60 cycles,
an electric motor at this frequency operates about 2 1/2
times the speed of the old 25-cycle motor with the same
number of poles. Because of this high speed of rotation,
60-cycle ac motors are suitable for operating larger
refrigeration systems.
7-4. Alternating-current motors are rated in
horsepower output, operating voltage, full-load current,
speed, number of phases, frequency, and whether they
operate continuously or intermittently.
7-5. Single-Phase Induction Motors. All single-
phase induction motors have a starting winding (see fig.
34) since they cannot be started with only the single-
phase winding on the stator. After the motor has started,
this winding may be left in the circuit or be disconnected
by a centrifugal switch.
7-6. Both single-phase and three-phase motors
operate on the principle of a rotating magnetic field. As a
simple example of the principle
 Figure 36. Squirrel-cage induction-motor rotor.
of the rotating field, imagine a horseshoe magnet held
over a compass needle. The needle will take a position
parallel to the magnetic flux passing between the two
poles of the magnet. If the magnet is rotated, the compass
needle will follow.
7-7. A rotating magnetic field can be produced by a
two- or three-phase current flowing through two or more
groups of coils wound on inwardly projecting poles of an
iron yoke. The coils on each group of poles are wound
alternately in opposite directions to produce opposite
polarity, and each group is connected to a separate phase
of voltage.
7-8. You can understand this action with the aid of
figure 35, which shows a four-pole stator field energized
by two windings connected to two separate phase voltage.
Winding No. 1 of the motor is 90° out of phase with
winding No. 2, which causes the current in winding No. 1
to lead the current in winding No. 2 by 90°, or by 1/240
second, assuming the frequency of the ac power supply is
60 cycles per second. Winding No. 1 can be referred to as
phase 1, and winding No. 2 as phase 2.
7-9. The direction of the magnetic field is indicated
by a magnetic needle (considered as a north pole for
clarity). The needle will always move to a position where
it will line up with the magnetic flux passing from pole to
pole. Notice the phase relationship of the two voltages
which are applied to the two phase windings of the field.
Phase 1 supplies current to the coils on poles A and A',
and phase 2 supplies current to the coils on poles B and
27
B'. The two currents are 90° out of phase, with phase 1
leading.
7-10. At position B, the current in phase 1 at a
maximum and the poles of A and A' are fully magnetized.
The poles of coils B and B' are not magnetized, since the
current in phase 2 is zero. Therefore the magnetic needle
points in the direction shown. At position C, the current
coils A and A', phase 1, has decreased to the same value
to which the current in coils B and B', phase 2, has
increased. Since the four poles are now equally
magnetized, the strength of the field is concentrated
midway between the poles, and the magnetic needle take
the position shown.
7-11. At position D, the current of phase 1 is zero
through coils A and A', and there is no magnetism in these
coils. There is maximum current through coils B and B',
the magnetic field strength of B and B' is maximum, and
the magnetic needle takes the crosswise position. This
action is repeated during successive cycles of the flow of
the alternating currents, and the magnetic needle
continues to revolve in the same direction within the field
frame as long as the two phase currents are supplied to the
two sets of coils.
7-12. In an induction motor with two poles for each
phase winding, the north pole would glide from one pole
to the other in 1/120 second and make a complete
revolution in 1/60 second, which would be at the rate of
3600 rpm. If the compass needle is replaced by an iron
rotor wound with copper bar conductors (usually
 When the current in the winding and the main field flux
reaches a maximum, the rate of change is zero, so no
electromotive force is induced in the shaded winding. A
little later the shaded winding current, which lags the
induced electromotive force, reaches zero, and there is no
opposing flux. Therefore the main field flux passes
through the shaded portion of the field pole. This results
in a weak rotating magnetic field with sufficient torque to
start small motors. Because of the low starting torque,
shaded-pole motors are furnished in ratings up to
approximately 1/25 horsepower and are used with small
fans, timing relays, small motion picture projectors, and
Figure 37. Shaded pole motor stator windings. various control devices. Shaded-pole motors are designed
for a specific direction of rotation that cannot be changed
called a squirrel-cage rotor because the conductors after the motor is assembled.
resemble a squirrel cage, as shown in figure 36, a 7-15. Split-phase motor. Split-phase motors contain
secondary voltage is induced in the conductors by mutual two windings, the main winding and the starting winding.
induction much in the manner that the secondary voltage The main winding is wound on the stator and the starting
is developed in a transformer. winding is wound on top of the main winding in such a
7-13. Current flowing in the conductors produces a
magnetic field which reacts on the rotating magnetic field
and causes a rotation of the iron core similar to the
rotation of the magnetic needle. The direction of rotation
may be reversed by reversing the connections of one
phase.
7-14. Shaded-pole motor. The stator windings of a
shaded-pole motor differ from other single-phase motors
by definitely projecting field poles (fig. 37). A low-
resistance, short-circuited winding or copper band is
placed across one tip of each pole, from which the name
“shaded-pole” is derived. As the current increases in the
stator winding, the flux increases. A portion of this flux
cuts and induces a current in the shaded winding. This
current sets up a flux which opposes the flux inducing the
current; therefore, most of the flux passes through the Figure 39. Schematic of a single-phase, split-phase
unshaded portion of the pole, as shown in figure 38. motor.

manner that the centers of the poles of the two windings

are displaced by 90°. The windings are connected in
parallel (fig. 39) to the same supply voltage; therefore, the
same voltage is applied to both winding. The starting
winding is usually wound with fewer turns of small size
wire and has iron on only two sides. It, therefore, has less
inductance than the main winding, which has a low
resistance and is surrounded by iron on all sides except
one. When the same voltage is applied to both windings,
the current in the main winding lags the voltage more than
the current in the starting winding. This produces a
rotating field which starts the motor. As the motor
approaches full speed, a centrifugal mechanism mounted
on the rotor opens a centrifugal switch (fig. 39) and
Figure 38. Flux path in a shaded-pole motor. disconnects the starting winding from the line. If the
centrifugal mechanism should fail to open the switch, the
motor will run hot because of the high resistance of the
starting winding and will burn
28

Figure 40. Schematic of a single-phase permanent-split
capacitor motor.
out the starting winding if allowed to run any length of
time. This is the most frequent cause for failure of split-
phase motors. The split-phase motors are usually
furnished in ratings from 1/60 to 1/3 horsepower and are
desirable for use in machine tools, office equipment,
pumps, fans, blowers, oil burners, kitchen appliances, and
laundry equipment. Split-phase motors may or may not
have a built-in thermal overload relay for the protection of
the motor during an overload. The relay is usually of the
automatic type, opening when the current in the windings
is above normal and automatically resetting when the
current is restored to normal. To reverse the split-phase
motor, reverse the loads of either the starting winding or
the running winding.
7-16. Capacitor-start motor. The capacitor-start
Figure 41. Schematic of a single-phase dual voltage capacitor run motor.
29
motor is so called because a capacitor instead of
resistance is used to split the phase. The capacitor,
usually mounted on top of the motor, is connected in
series with the starting winding to provide the necessary
shift in time phase of the current flowing through it. This
capacitor is usually intermittently rated and must be
disconnected for normal operation, which disconnection
is usually done by a centrifugal mechanism mounted on
the rotor. When the motor is stopped, the switch closes
and is in the correct position when the motor is started
again. The capacitor-type motor has a higher starting
torque at less current than the split-phase motor and also
provides a greater thermal capacity. Capacitor-start
motors are usually furnished in ratings from 1/6 to 1
horsepower and are used on compressors, pumps, fans,
and machine tools.
7-17. Permanent-split capacitor motor. The
permanent-split capacitor motor is similar to the
capacitor-start motor, except that the permanent capacitor
(fig. 40) is connected in series with the starting winding
permanently and is not removed from the circuit during
operation by a centrifugal switch. This eliminates the
need for a centrifugal switch and switch mechanism. The
capacitor is continuously rated and is selected to give best
operation at full speed while sacrificing starting torque.
Permanent-split-capacitor motors develop 40 to 60
percent starting torque and are used on easily started loads
such fans and blowers.
7-18. Capacitor-run motor. The capacitor-run motor
has two capacitors connected in parallel (fig. 41). One, a
running capacitor, is a continuously rated capacitor and
remains in the
Figure 42. Three-phase induction motor.

30
circuit while the motor is running. The other, a starting
capacitor, is intermittently rated and is used in the circuit
during starting. The starting capacitor is removed by a
centrifugal mechanism and switch as the motor
approaches full speed. Therefore the capacitor-run motor
is a combination of the capacitor-start and the permanent-
split capacitor motors. This motor has a high starting
torque as well as good running characteristics and is
generally furnished in ratings of 1/2 horsepower and
larger. Capacitor motors may be reversed by changing
the leads to the starting winding at the motor terminals.
7-19. Three-Phase AC Induction Motors. The
three-phase ac induction motor is also called a squirrel-
cage motor. The rotating magnetic field of the three-
phase motor operates the same as a two-phase motor. The
difference between a two-phase and a three-phase motor
in the windings. The two-phase windings are placed 90°
apart where the three-phase windings are placed 120°
apart. This means that the currents that produce the
magnetic field reach a maximum 1/180 second apart in a
60-cycle circuit.
7-20. Notice figure 42, which shows the connection
of a wye-connected stator in a three-phase induction
motor. The rotor of the motor is represented by the
compass needle, which points in the direction of the
magnetic field and revolves as the magnetic field
revolves. The individual current waves are shown along
the phase wires as they would actually be during
operation. Notice the current in phase A reaches a
maximum at position 1 and at that instant the currents in
phases B and C are both negative.
7-21. At position 2, 1/180 second later, the current is
at a maximum in phase B and is negative in phases A and
C. At position 3, which is 1/180 second later than
Figure 43. Schematic of a three-phase slipring induction motor.
31
position 2, the current is at positive maximum in phase C
and is negative in phases A and B. In the diagrams the
magnetic field caused by the maximum positive current is
shown in heavy dark lines. The other poles are indicated
with dotted lines. The rotor, like the single-phase motor,
follows the rotating magnetic field of the stator winding.
7-22. The speed of the induction motor is always less
than the speed of the rotating field of the stator. If the
rotor were to turn at the same speed as the rotating field,
the rotor conductors would not be cut by any magnetic
field and no voltage would be induced in them. No
current would flow; thus there would be no magnetic field
in the rotor and, hence, no torque.
7-23. A three-phase induction motor exerts a torque
when at rest and therefore starts itself when the proper
voltage is applied to the stator field coil. To reverse the
direction of rotation of a three-phase motor, reverse the
leads of any two phases.
7-24. The three-phase spring (wound rotor)
induction motor is wound with a three-phase drum
winding. The windings are connected wye (y) or delta
(wye connection is shown in fig. 43), and the three leads
are brought out and connected to three electrical contact
rings (sliprings) which are secured to the shaft. Brushes
riding on the rings are connected to an external resistance
through which the rotor circuit is completed. Motors
containing wound rotors have a high starting torque with
low starting current us adjustable speed.
7-25. Synchronous Motors. Synchronous motors
are divided into two classes according to their size and
application. The larger horsepower motors use three-
phase power and have separately excited salient pole
rotors. The smaller motors are usually furnished as
fractional-horse-
 size synchronous motors are constructed as reluctance
motors or hysteresis motors, which are described in
following paragraphs.
7.26. Reluctance motor. The stator of a reluctance
motor is similar in construction to that of the single-phase
induction motor and may be of the shaded-pole, split-
phase, or capacitor type. The squirrel-cage rotors have
grooves cut to allow the addition of salient poles. The
number of salient poles mounted on the rotor corresponds
to the number of rotating stator poles. The motor starts as
an induction motor, but, upon reaching a speed near
synchronism, it pulls into step because of the salient poles
and operates at exactly synchronous speed. The
reluctance motor, unlike the larger size synchronous
motor (which has on the rotor a field winding supplied
with direct-current excitation and which operates at unity
or at a leading power factor with high efficiency),
operates at a lagging power factor and has a rather low
efficiency. Therefore, the reluctance motor is used only
where exact synchronous speed is required, such as in
electric clocks, time switches, relays, and meters.
7-27. Hysteresis motor. The construction of the
hysteresis motor is similar to that of the reluctance motor
except for the rotor. The rotor does not have a squirrel-
cage winding. Instead the rotor core is usually made of a
ring of metal having permeability, such as chrome or
cobalt steel. The highly magnetic core material retains its
magnetism over a period of time and this enables the rotor
to reach its synchronous speed. Hysteresis motors
develop a constant torque from zero synchronous speed
and are used in a clock’s timing devices; they will operate
unattended for long periods of time.
7-28 Universal Motors. Universal motors are
designed for operation from either direct current or single-
phase alternating current and are all of the series-wound
type; that is, the field windings are connected in series
with the armature windings. Universal motors are divided
into two types: the straight series-wound universal motor
and the compensated series-wound universal motor.
Figure 44. Schematic wiring diagrams of universal
7-29. Straight series-wound universal motor. The
motors.
straight series-wound universal motor has the field
windings connected in series for opposite polarity, the
power motors and obtain their rotor-excitation current
same as the field winding of any direct-current motor, and
through induction. Although an induction motor is
then in series with the armature (fig. 44A). This type
considered as a constant-speed motor, it is subject to
motor uses salient-type pole pieces (fig. 45) for mounting
approximately 10 percent variation in speed under various
the field windings and is usually furnished in sizes up to
load conditions, since the operating torque depends upon
1/3 horsepower but can be furnished in larger sizes for
the percentage of slip between the rotating magnetic poles
special applications. The motor full speed is rated from
and the magnetic flux of the rotor. The speed of a
1800 rpm on the larger sizes to 5000 rpm on the smaller
synchronous motor is controlled by the frequency of the
sizes and no-load speeds ranging from 12,000 to 18,000
alternating-current power source and is, therefore,
rpm. Since these motors run at dangerously high speeds
maintained with a high degree of accuracy. The smaller
at no-load, they are usually built into the

32

Figure 45. Salient pole laminated steel core of a universal
motor.
equipment being driven. This type motor is used in
portable machines and portable equipment in general.
7-30. Compensated series-wound universal motor.
The compensated series-wound, distributed-field,
universal motor contains a main winding and a
compensating winding connected in series with the
armature (fig. 44B). The core of this type motor is similar
to the construction of the core of a split-phase alternating-
current motor (fig. 46). The main winding is usually
placed in the slots first and the compensating winding is
placed over it, 90 electrical degrees away.
compensating winding reduces the reactance voltage
present in the armature when alternating current is used.
It has a better commutation and power factor than does
the straight series-wound universal motor, and usually
comes in higher horsepower ratings. Compensated series-
wound universal motors are used with portable tools,
office machines, vacuum-cleaning equipment, and
portable equipment in general.
CAUTION: Do not use flammable or toxic solvents
for cleaning, as they may cause injury to personnel or
damage to property.
8-2. The inside of the motor can be cleaned with a
blower or with compressed air. Care should be exercised
when using compressed air so the insulation is not
damaged by the blast of air.
8-3. Motor Lubrication. You must be sure the
motor has been properly lubricated. Lubrication should
be done according to the applicable publication for the
motor.
8-4. You should also make periodic checks for
grease or oil leakage and for overlubrication. After
lubricating a motor, be sure to wipe away any excess oil
or grease.
8-5. Wiring. The wiring leads to the motor must be
kept clean and secure and checked for wear. If the wiring
becomes frayed, it must be replaced.
8-6. Mounting. Motors must be kept secure to
perform efficiently. A loose mounting can cause a belt to
slip and wear or can cause vibrations which tend to
harden any copper component (wiring and tubing).
9. Circuit Protective and Control Devices
9-1. Electricity, when properly controlled, is of vital
importance to the operation of refrigeration equipment.
When it is not properly controlled, however, it can
become dangerous and destructive. It can destroy
components or the complete unit; it can injure personnel
and even cause their death.
9-2. It is of the greatest importance, then, that we
take all precautions necessary to protect
The

8. Motor Maintenance

8-1. Cleanliness is essential if we are to have

trouble-free motor operation. Dirt, moisture, and
excessive oil tend to restrict air circulation, deteriorate the
insulation, and accelerate wear and friction. To increase
the life of the motor, you should wipe all excessive dirt,
oil, and grease from the surface of the motor. Use a cloth
moistened with a recommended cleaning solvent.
Figure 46. Compensated series-wound universal motor.

33
the electrical circuits and units and that we keep this force 9-10. The toggle switch (as shown in fig. 47 along
under proper control at all times. In this section we shall with the knife switch which is used to simplify the
discuss some of the devices that have been developed to operation of a toggle switch) is used more than any other
protect and control electrical circuits. kind of switch, but there are others, such as pushbutton,
9-3. Protective Devices. When a piece of microswitch, rotary selector, and even relays and
equipment is built, the greatest care is taken to insure that magnetic motor starts, which can be classified as switches
each separate electrical circuit is fully insulated from all since they operate, start, and stop current flow in a circuit.
others so the current in a circuit will follow its intended 9-11. Magnetic motor starters. A magnetic motor
individual path. Once the equipment is put into service, starter is wired to satisfy a particular application; and
however, there are many things that can happen to alter there are numerous applications, so we will not attempt to
the original circuitry. Some of these changes can cause cover all of them. Figure 48 shows a pump, air
serious troubles if they are not detected and corrected in conditioner, and fan operating through motor starters.
time. Look at figure 48 and notice the two single-pole single
9-4. Perhaps the most serious trouble we can find in throw (SPST) switches, thermostat, holding coils, motor
a circuit is a direct short. You have learned that the term protectors, and step-down transformer. Also notice that
is used to describe a situation in which some point in the three-phase equipment must have protective devices in at
circuit, where full system voltage is present, comes in least two wires, but single-phase equipment may be
direct contact with the ground or negative side of the protected by one protective device.
circuit. This establishes for current flow a path that
contains no resistance other than that in the wire carrying
the current, and these wires have very little resistance.
9-5. You will recall that, according to Ohm's law, if
the resistance in a circuit is extremely small, the current
will be extremely great. When a direct short occurs, then
there will be an extremely heavy current flowing through
the wires.
9-6. To protect electrical systems from damage and
failure caused by excessive current, several kinds of
protective devices are installed in the systems. Fuses,
circuit breakers, and thermal protectors are used for this
purpose.
9-7. Circuit protective devices, as the name implies,
all have a common purpose: to protect the unit and the
wires in the circuit. Some are designed primarily to
protect the wiring. These open the circuit in such a way
as to stop the current flow when the current become
greater than the wires can safely carry. Other devices
protect a unit in the circuit by stopping current flow to it
when the unit becomes excessively warm.
9-8. Control Devices. The components in an
electrical circuit are not all intended to operate
continuously or automatically. Most of them are meant to
operate at certain times, under certain conditions, to
perform very definite functions. There must be some
means of controlling their operation. Either a switch or a
relay, or both, may be included in the circuit for this
purpose.
9-9. Switches. Switches are used to control the
current flow in most electrical circuits. A switch is used
to start, to stop, or to change the direction of the current
flow in the circuit. The switch in each circuit must be
able to carry the normal current of the circuit and must be
insulated heavily enough for the voltage of the circuit. Figure 47. Various knife and toggle switches.

34
 Figure 48. Use of magnetic motor starters.
9-12. In figure 48, the air conditioner will not
operate unless the fan and pump holding coils are
energized, and the thermostat switch is closed. Notice
that the control circuit for the air conditioner is wired in
series through the auxiliary contacts of the fan and pump
motor starters. Also, notice that a low voltage may be
used to control a higher voltage with the use of a step-
down transformer.
9-13. If switches Nos. 1 and 2 are closed, the pump
and fan will operate but the air conditioner will not until
the thermostat completes the circuit for its holding coil. If
an overload develops in the pump or fan, the heaters open
the respective control circuit, which in turn breaks the
control circuit for the air conditioner.
9-14. Maintenance and Troubleshooting. Most of
the troubles in motor starters will be in the load contacts,
holding coil, or heaters. A voltmeter can be used to check
35
the load contacts, if the voltmeter leads are connected in
parallel to each set of contacts and the holding coil is
energized. The voltmeter should read zero. If it does not,
then the contacts need to be cleaned or replaced. With
power off, the heaters and the holding coil may be
checked with the ohmmeter. Heaters should be sized
correctly to give protection to the motor; if undersized
they would cause nuisance tripping in normal current
flow.
9-15. In this chapter you have studied the
fundamentals of electricity, circuits, Ohm's law,
transformers, magnetism, electrical meters, circuit
protective and control devices, and motors that are used to
drive refrigeration equipment. Let's continue with another
type of drive for refrigeration equipment, the gasoline
engine.
 REVIEW EXERCISES

These review exercises are intended to assist you in studying the material in this memorandum. The figures following each
question correspond to the paragraph numbers that contain information pertaining to the exercise. In order to obtain the most
benefit from the review exercises you should try to work them before you look at the answers in the back of the
memorandum. Do not send in your solutions to the review exercises.

CHAPTER 1

Objective: To show knowledge of the fundamentals of electricity, circuits, motors, circuit protectors, troubleshooting, and
safety.

1. What type of electricity does a generator produce? (1-4)

2. Define voltage, current, and resistance. (1-6, 10)

3. Why are alloys of nickel and chromium used in heater elements? (1-11)

4. The resistance of copper wire is determined by three things. What are they? (1-12)

36
5. What type metal is used to make a permanent magnet? (1-16)

6. What determines the output frequency of an ac generator? (2-10)

7. Given an electrical potential of 110 volts and a resistance of 55 ohms, find the amperage draw. (3-4)

8. Given a resistance of 12 ohms and a 20-amp current draw, find the electrical potential. (3-5)

9. Given a 5-amp current draw and an electrical potential of 110 volts, find the resistance in ohms. (3-6)

10. If a dc motor draws 1 ampere of current when connected to 746 volts, what is the horsepower of the motor? (3-25, 27)

11. What is the electrical symbol for inductance? (4-8)

37
12. What effect does a capacitor have on an ac motor circuit? (4-10; Fig. 17)

13. When will the apparent power be equal to the true power in an ac circuit? (4-12)

14. Will a transformer operate on any dc circuit? (5-1)

15. Name the three primary parts of a transformer. (5-2)

16. List the four types of transformer connections. (5-21)

17. What is the purpose of the various size resistors connected in series with the voltmeter movable coil? (6-3)

18. Why is a shunt connected in parallel with the ammeter meter circuit? (6-4)

19. When will maximum current flow through the ohmmeter circuit? (6-7)

38
20. Before using a dc meter on an ac circuit, what must be added to the circuit? (6-9)

21. What the purpose of the wattmeter? (6-10)

22. How would a voltmeter be connected to check or a blown fuse? (6-20)

23. What must be done to the circuit before making a continuity check in a parallel circuit? (6-30)

24. What determines the speed of rotation of an ac motor? (7-2)

25. How many windings must a single-phase induction motor have? (7-5)

26. What would happen to the split-phase motor if the start winding failed to disengage? (7-15)

27. Which of the single-phase motors has the best running characteristics and highest starting torque? (7-18)

39
28. How is a three-phase motor started? (7-23)

29. Why does a reluctance motor operate at exactly synchronous speed? (7-26)

30. What type motor may be used on either ac or dc? (7-28)

31. How often should a motor be lubricated? (8-3)

32. What are circuit protective devices used for? (9-7)

33. On three-phase equipment how many protective devices must be in the circuit? (9-11)

34. In figure 66 the air conditioner will not operate if the fan is not on. Why? (9-12)

35. Where will most of the troubles be located in a magnetic motor starter? (9-14)

40

Fundamentals of Gasoline Engines
Occasionally you may be called upon to service
engine-powered refrigeration units. You will find these
engine-powered units on refrigerated vans, mobile field
units, and some trailers used for electronic system
maintenance.
2. Since you will be operating and servicing these
units, you must possess a working knowledge of gasoline
engine. Let's begin with a discussion of the four stroke
cycle engine.
10. Principles of Operation
10-1. For a four stroke cycle internal-combustion
engine to operate and deliver power, the following series
of events must occur in the order illustrated in figure 49.
A mixture of fuel and air must enter the cylinder and be
compressed. The mixture must be ignited by some
means, causing it to burn and expand. The expanding
gases then force the piston down. The piston then must
move upward, expelling the burned gases from the
cylinder. This series of five events must take place time
and time again in exactly the same sequence if the engine
is to deliver power. To improve the efficiency of the
engine, various valves are timed to open or close at a
piston position slightly before or slightly after a dead-
center position.
10-2. The two stroke cycle engine is a one that
completes its cycle of operation in only two strokes,
instead of four as in the four stroke cycle. Mechanically
the two stroke cycle engine is slightly different. Some
have the intake and exhaust ports placed in the cylinder
wall, while others may use a combination of intake ports
and mechanically operated exhaust valves in the
combustion chamber. When ports are used and the piston
moves down on its power stroke, it first uncovers the
exhaust port to allow burned gases to escape and then
uncovers the intake port to allow a new air-fuel mixture to
enter the combustion chamber. On the upward stroke, the
piston covers both ports and at the same time compresses
the new mixture in preparation for ignition and another
per stroke.
41
CHAPTER 2
10-3. Theoretically the two stroke cycle engine
should produce twice as much power as a four stroke
cycle engine of the same size. This is not true, because
fuel is wasted and power is lost when some of the
incoming fuel mixture mixes with the exhaust gases and
is exhausted out of the engine. In this manner the
volumetric efficiency of the engine is reduced
considerably. Volumetric efficiency is the ability of an
engine to take in enough air to insure complete
combustion. However, a two stroke cycle produces more
power output per unit weight than a four stroke cycle
engine.
10-4. So far all we've discussed is the operation of
gasoline engines. Now we will over the servicing of
gasoline engines. We will start with the lubrication
system.
11. Maintenance of Lubrication System
11-1. The lubricating system of an engine includes a
number of different units. In this system the oil is picked
up from the oil pan reservoir by the pump. The pump is
usually driven by the camshaft. An oil strainer is placed
in series with the pump to remove foreign substances,
such as metal particles, dirt, etc, from the oil. The oil is
forced through metal tube and galleries in the engine
block to various parts of the engine. It is then either
splashed or forced on the moving parts of the engine after
which the oil returns to the oil pan reservoir, thus
completing the cycle.
11-2. In order for the lubrication system to function
properly, the operator must observe and record the oil
pressure at predetermined intervals, maintain the proper
oil level in the crankcase of the engine, and change the oil
and oil filter element, as specified by the technical manual
applicable to the specific engine.
11-3. Oil Pressure Gage. The oil pressure gage
indicates the resistance of the oil being circulated through
the engine. The resistance is generally
 Figure 49. Four stroke five event cycle principle.
measured in pounds per square inch. A pressure gage
does not show how much oil there is in the crankcase. It
merely shows that oil is being pumped sufficiently to
create an indicated pressure. If the oil pressure gage does
not show any oil pressure, the engine must be stopped,
since it is an indication that the oil is not circulating and
lubricating the moving parts. The engine will be severely
damaged if it is allowed to operate without oil pressure
for a short length of time.
11-4. Oil Level Gage. The oil level gage rod is
usually of the bayonet type, similar to that used on
automobiles, and is used to check the oil level in the
crankcase. The gage rod is usually stamped at “add oil”
and “full” levels. Oil level on the bayonet gage rod
should be taken only when the engine is not operating and
the engine oil is at normal operating temperature. Always
keep the oil above the “add” mark.
11-5. Oil Filter. The primary function of the oil
filter is to filter out contaminating substances as the oil
passes through the filtering element. Two types of oil
filters are used: one is the sealed element type and the
other is the replaceable element type.
11-6. Most oil filters are designed with a bypass
valve which permits free circulation of the lubricating oil
f the filter element becomes clogged. Normally a filter
element should be changed when the lubricating oil in the
engine is changed. This change should be performed at
such intervals as recommended by the applicable
publications.
42
11-7. Use care when replacing the filter - to avoid
damaging the oil lines or the oil line fittings. Our next
discussion will be the maintenance of the fuel system.
12. Maintenance of Fuel System
12-1. A gasoline engine fuel system consist
essentially of a storage tank for the fuel, a fuel filter to
clean the fuel, a fuel pump to transfer the fuel from the
tank to the carburetor, and a carburetor to mix the fuel
with the air.
12-2. Fuel Filter. Fuel filters may be of various
designs and located at any point between the fuel tank and
the carburetor. In figure 50 the fuel enters the bowl and
pass up through the filter screen before it flows out
through the outlet. Water, or any solid caught by the
screen, settles to the bottom of the bowl. The bowl can be
removed and cleaned.
12-3. Fuel Pump. The fuel pump pumps gasoline
from the fuel tank, through the fuel filter, to the carburetor
float chamber, at approximately 3 psi.
12-4. Carburetor. The basic function of the
carburetor is to meter the air and fuel in varying
percentages according to the engine requirements. The
most desired mixture has an air-fuel ratio of 15 to 1-15
parts of air to 1 part of fuel by weight. A 15 to 1 ratio is
referred to as a normal or medium mixture. A mixture
con-
 carburetor shown in figure 51 is one used with a small air-
cooled engine which operates a 25-cubic foot refrigerator.
This carburetor has three adjustments: the main needle
valve, the idle adjusting screw, and the throttle adjusting
screw. The main needle valve meters gasoline to the
engine at operating speeds, the idle adjusting screw
meters gasoline to the engine at idle speed, while the
throttle adjusting screw adjusts the idling speed of the
engine. Most carburetors have only the latter two
adjustments. In these carburetors the gasoline is metered
to the engine automatically.
12-6. Air Cleaner. The carburetor air cleaner must
be kept clean to prolong engine life. Two types of air
cleaners are used. They are the wet and dry types. At
certain intervals, as recommended by the applicable
publication, the wet filter is disassembled, washed in
nonflammable cleaning solvent, reassembled, and refilled
or sprayed with oil. Dry type cleaners are replaced at

Figure 50. Fuel filter.

taining less air is known as a rich mixture. Maximum

horsepower is obtained at a ratio of 12 or 13 to 1;
maximum economy, however, is obtained with a 15 to 1
ratio. The carburetor must automatically vary the
proportion of air and fuel to meet the changing conditions
under which the engine operates.
12-5. To procure maximum horsepower and
maximum economy from an engine, it is sometimes
necessary to make certain carburetor adjustment. The

Figure 52. Ignition system.

prescribed interval. They must never be oiled; however,

in emergencies they may be cleaned with compressed air.
12-7. We've mentioned previously that the fuel-air
mixture must be ignited by an electric spark from a spark
plug; let's discuss the system that causes this function.

13. Maintenance of Ignition System

13-1. The complete function of the ignition system is

shown in figure 52, but let's discuss each one separately.
13-2. Spark Plugs. Spark plugs should be removed,
cleaned, and inspected at intervals prescribed by the
manual for the particular engine. This operation is
Figure 51. Carburetor. important because dirty spark

43
 are composed of lead and the electrolyte is a solution of
acid.
13-10. A battery must be tested periodically to
determine its state of charge. To test the specific gravity
of the electrolyte of each cell, remove the filler caps,
being careful to prevent dirt or foreign matter from falling
into the cells.
13-11. Use a hydrometer to test the specific gravity
of each cell. If the specific gravity is less than 1.175,
increase the generator charging rate, or recharge the
battery.
13-12. If the unit is being operated in a tropical or
hot climate and the specific gravity is over 1.225, the
charging rate should be reduced. If the unit is operating
in a temperate climate, the charging rate should not be
reduced unless the specific gravity is over 1.290. When
operating the unit in a frigid or cold climate, always keep
the battery fully charged.
Figure 53. Adjusting spark plug gap. 13-13. The battery electrolyte level should be
inspected daily. When available, distilled water should be
plugs and plugs that have insufficient or too large a gap used to refill a storage battery. If the water level is low,
between the electrodes will cause hard starting and refill each cell so that the level is about one-half of an
irregular firing of the engine. inch above the top of the plates. It is important that the
13-3. Using a thickness gage, as shown in figure 53, electrolyte level be properly maintained at all times. It is
adjust the gap between the electrodes to the specified also very important that the specific gravity be
amount recommended by the manual for the particular
engine. The electrodes are spaced properly when the
correct thickness gage can be lightly drawn between
them.
13.4. The coil (transformer) is used to step up the
voltage to approximately 18,000 volts dc. To do this the
primary of the coil is connected to a set of points. These
points open and close to create pulsating dc that can be
stepped up. The secondary side of the coil which also
produces pulsating dc is connected to the rotor in the
distributor and from there to each spark in turn.
13-5. The condenser (capacitor) is in the circuit to
help collapse the magnetic field and reduce arcing at the
points.
13-6. Distributor. The distributor with its
components is shown in figure 54. The distributor points
should be inspected periodically. To inspect the condition
of the point, stop the engine and remove the distributor
cap and rotor. Then examine the distributor breaker
points for pits or evidence of overheating. If the points
are badly pitted or burned, they should be replaced.
13-7. After the points are replaced, adjust the
clearance when fully open as prescribed by the
publication for the specific engine. Also, replace the rotor
and cap.
13-8. Storage Battery. The storage battery is a very
vital part of the electrical and ignition system and must be
properly maintained for dependable automatic operation.
13-9. The most common type of storage battery is Figure 54. Distributor.
the lead and acid type. It is so called because the plates

44
maintained at sufficient strength to prevent freezing in
extremely cold locations.
13-14. If the electrolyte level is too low to obtain a
reading with the hydrometer, refill the battery with
distilled water and allow the unit to operate for an hour or
more before taking a hydrometer reading; otherwise an
accurate, specific gravity test cannot be obtained.
13-15. Wash the battery terminals, cable clamps, and
cables with a solution of water and soda. See that the
vents in the filler caps are open. To keep the terminals
and battery cable clamps from corroding, coat them with
grease. Do not drop a battery, and don't pound on the
terminal. At intervals, remove the battery from its cradle,
clean the cradle, and coat it with rust preventive
compound.
13-16. Now that we have oil in the engine, fuel in
the tank, and voltage to the spark plug, we can start the
engine. Wait, we've forgotten another important system -
the cooling system. We must have a system that will keep
the engine at a normal temperature. We had better
discuss this topic a little further.
14. Maintenance of Cooling System
14-1. All internal combustion engines are equipped
with some type of cooling system to dissipate the great
amount of heat they generate during operation. About
one-third of the heat generated by combustion must be
dissipated by the cooling system. Cooling systems are
classified into two categories - liquid cooling and air
cooling.
14-2. Liquid Cooling. A simple liquid-cooling
system consists of a radiator, a circulating pump, a fan, a
thermostat, and a system of water jackets and water
passages within the engine.
14-3. If the engine temperature runs abnormally
high, clean the exterior of the radiator by blowing
compressed air through the fins to dislodge any foreign
material and dead insects. If the temperature still runs
high, heating may be due to an accumulation of sludge in
the radiator. It is then best to drain and flush the radiator
and engine block with dear water. Refill the radiator with
soft water if it is available. If treated water is not
available, then use clear tap water, but drain and flush the
system more often.
14-4. For operation below freezing or if the engine
should be standing idle at temperatures below freezing
without being drained, ethylene glycol or a similar
antifreeze should be added in sufficient quantity to
prevent freezing at the lowest anticipated temperature.
14-5. Air Cooling. Air-cooled engines are designed
in such a manner that the engine cylinder and head are
45
cooled by forced circulation of air provided by vanes on
the flywheel. The blower case inclosing the flywheel and
the baffles around the cylinder control the flow of air.
Keep the system clean to prevent overheating of the
engine and to assure uniform air velocity for proper
cooling. When the flywheel vanes, cylinder, and cylinder
fins become coated with dust and dirt, the engine blower
case must be removed to clean the units. Using a stiff
bristle brush or a scraper, remove all traces of dirt from
the flywheel vanes and the cylinder and cylinder head fin.
When maintaining cylinder fins it is important that fins
not become bent or otherwise damaged, as this will result
in hot spots within the cylinder.
14-6. Well, we've got the engine running normally;
now we'll connect it to the compressor and get some work
done.
15. Maintenance of Drive Mechanism
15-1. All drive belts should be examined regularly
for wear, breaks, and adjustments. A worn belt becomes
bright and smooth and tends to ride the bottom of the
pulley or to slip when under a load. Continuous rubbing
of the side of a belt wears down the edges and decreases
the efficiency of its drive. Excessive friction from the
contact with abrasive dust causes internal breakdown of a
rubber belt. The presence of stray lubrication near a
rubber belt should be checked. Oil and grease soften and
deteriorate rubber. However, some flexible V-belts are
made of a special composition which is not affected by
grease or oil.
15-2. A belt which runs loose may snap in two. Low
belt tension causes reduced and unsteady output. Unusual
tautness brings on rapid wear of the belt, motor bearing,
and compressor bearings.
15-3. If a belt shows indications of wear and cracks,
it should be replaced. Always replace belts in matched
sets if at al possible. To check the tension of the drive
belt, which operates small compressor units, deflect the
belt at a point halfway between the engine pulley and the
compressor pulley. The deflection at this point, with a
10-pound pressure, should be between 1/2 inch and 3/4
inch. Adjust the belt as required or replace with a new
one of the correct size. During the inspection and
maintenance of V-type belts it must be remembered that
the driving force is on the sides of the pulley and not on
the bottom of the pulley groove.
15-4. The -four stroke cycle engine is most common
to the career field. The operation of the engine depends
upon proper maintenance. Each subsystem - fuel,
electrical, and cooling - must work in harmony for peak
performance. We've
discussed the maintenance to be performed on each
system. The most important service that can be given an
engine is proper lubrication. A large percentage of
powerplant breakdowns are a direct cause of insufficient
lubrication. Lubricate each powerplant according to the
recommendations prescribed by the applicable
46
publications. The frequency of maintenance is outlined in
publications furnished by the manufacturers of the
engines or by the TO when available.
15-5. Since we have covered the prime movers for
refrigeration equipment, let’s study the physics of
refrigeration so the prime movers can be put to use.
 CHAPTER 2

Practice Exercises

Objective: To show knowledge of the fundamentals and maintenance of the gasoline engine.

1. List the series of five events a four stroke cycle engine must go through to delivery power. (10-1)

2. When should the engine oil be checked? (11-4)

3. To obtain maximum economy what should the air-fuel ratio be? (12-4)

4. What type of electrical power is delivered to the ignition coil? (13-4)

5. What is the purpose of the condenser in the engine ignition circuit? (13-5)

6. What is the most common storage battery composed of? (13-9)

7. When should ethylene glycol be used? (14-4)

8. What is the best way to check a drive belt for correct tension? (15-3)

47
CHAPTER 3
Physics of Refrigeration
When venturing into the field of refrigeration, the
first thing to learn is what goes on within the unit to
produce the “cold.” When we talk about something being
“cold” we simply mean that it has less heat in relation to
something else. Every substance will have some heat
until the substance reaches absolute zero.
2. Heat is not destroyed in producing the cold but is
simply removed from the place where it is unwanted.
Heat is also in a mechanical refrigeration system to help
remove the unwanted heat.
3. The particular phase of natural science with which
we are concerned involve the study of conditions under
which certain changes take place; for example, when a
solid melts or when a liquid boils.
16. Thermodynamics
16-1. Before we go into the study of
thermodynamics let's see what it means.
“Thermodynamics is the physics that deals with the
mechanical action or relations of heat processes and
phenomena.” One of the laws of thermodynamics is a
formula which states that 778 foot pounds of work is
equivalent to the heat energy of one Btu. Anther law is a
statement that heat will only transfer from a higher
temperature to a lower temperature.
16-2. Heat. All substances have heat; however,
some will have more heat than others. Heat is the
movement of the molecules within the substances. The
more they move the hotter the substance becomes. To
completely stop this movement the substance must be
reduced in temperature to absolute zero.
16-3. Cold. We use this term to show that an object
has less heat than something else. Cold is not produced
but is merely a result of removing heat, which removal
slows down the molecular movement. Many substances
change their state from a solid to a liquid, a gas or vice
versa, with the addition or subtraction of heat. Other
substances change their state by sublimation; in other
48
words, they change from a solid directly into a gas. There
are different types of heat and different methods of
transferring this heat; but first let's look at some types of
heat.
16-4. Sensible Heat. Sensible heat is the amount of
heat that can be added to or subtracted from a substance
without changing its state. Sensible heat can be measured
by a thermometer and detected by the body senses when
present in appreciable amounts.
16-5. Latent Heat. Latent heat is hidden heat
present in a substance. When ice at 32° F. melts into
water at 32° F., a change of state takes place. During this
change, a certain amount of heat is required to melt the
ice to water at 32° F. This heat which causes the change
of state is known as the latent heat of fusion. Now if the
water at normal atmospheric pressure is heated until it
reaches 212°, it will not rise above the temperature until it
is all changed into steam (vapor). The heat that changes a
substance from a liquid to a vapor is known as the latent
heat of vaporization.
16-6. The graph shown in figure 55 indicates that the
amount of heat required to change 1 pound of water from
a solid to a liquid is 144 Btus. To change 1 pound of
water from a liquid to a gaseous state requires a total of
970 Btus.
16-7. Specific Heat. The fact that it takes 1 Btu to
raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1° does not
mean that this is true for all substances. Some substances
require more heat while others call for less heat to raise
their temperature equal amounts. Water is used for
comparison, and the amount of heat required as compared
to water is the specific heat of a substance. A few
specific heat values are given for different substances in
figure 56.
16-8. Heat Transfer. Heat can be transferred from
a hot object to a cooler object until both are equal in
temperature. Heat can be transferred by any one of three
different methods - conduction, convection, and radiation
- or by a combination of these same methods.

Figure 55. The three states of water and the heat required
to make change state atmospheric pressure.
16-9. Conduction. When heat is transmitted from
one part of a substance to another part of the same
substance or from one substance to another in direct
contact the process is termed “conduction.” To verify
these two statements by experiment, use a metal rod, as
illustrated in figure 57, placing one end over a flame. As
the heat is absorbed, the molecules become active, and in
a short time the cooler portion of the metal rod becomes
warm. Metals are good conductors of heat; but other
materials, such as glass or cork, aren't. Materials which
offer resistance to the flow of heat are known as insulators
or poor conducts.
16-10. Convection. Convection will be clear to you
if you will follow the flow of air as it is transmitted
through a heating system. When air is heated, it expands
and becomes lighter because of the change in density.
Cooler heavier air flows in under the warm air and forces
it upward. Then, as the warm air becomes cooler it
Figure 56. Specific heat values.
49
Figure 57. Heat transfer by conduction.
contracts, becomes more dense (heavier), and falls back to
its source, where it is heated again. Thus, a circulation of
air is set up which continues as long as heat is provided.
Figure 58 shows how heat is transferred by connection.
16-11. Radiation. Heat may be transmitted from one
place to another without the use of any material carrier.
The best example of this method of transfer of heat is
found in the radiation of energy from the sun to the earth.
We know that the atmosphere of the earth is negligible at
a comparatively short height above the earth and that the
rest of the more than 90 million miles up to the place
where the sun’s atmosphere begins is filled with little or
nothing. Therefore we know that both light and heat
energy from the sun must come through space. Such a
method of transfer is called radiation.
16-12. Radiation is the process of emitting radiant
energy in the form of rays or particles, as shown in figure
59. In this case, a person's hand feels warm, even though
it is a considerable distance from the source of heat. The
rays or particles pass through the air and heat the hand
more than the air between.
16-13. The transmission of heat by these three
mediums can be controlled according to the required
needs. Conduction is aided-by providing
Figure 58. Heat transfer by convection.
 Figure 59. Heat transfer by radiation.
large conducting surfaces and good heat-conducting
materials, such as iron, silver, or copper. Convection my
be assisted by speeding up the flow of air, as in a forced-
air circulation system. The flow of heat can also be
controlled by dampers and thermostats according to one's
desire. Dark colors usually absorb heat while light colors
reflect heat. For this reason, a certain surface finish may
radiate heat more efficiently than another. This is an aid
to heating by radiation.
16-14. Temperature. The relative hotness of a body
is termed “temperature.” This is not the quantity of heat
in the body substance, but merely its degree of warmth.
An ordinary thermometer is used for the measurement of
temperature.
16-15. Two types of scales that are in general use for
temperature measurement are the centigrade and the
Fahrenheit. Figure 60 compare the two sales. Looking at
the centigrade scale, you can see that 0° is the freezing
point and 100° the boiling point of water. There are 100
divisions on the centigrade scale compared to 180
division on the Fahrenheit scale. Water freezes at the 32°
point and boils at the 212° point on the Fahrenheit scale.
Figure 60. Comparison of Fahrenheit and Centigrade
scales.
50
Figure 61. Density, volume, and weight.
16-16. It becomes necessary at times to convert from
Fahrenheit to centigrade or from centigrade to Fahrenheit
temperatures. A simple formula for converting these
temperatures has been used by all members of the
refrigeration trade. When converting Fahrenheit
temperatures to centigrade, subtract 32° from the
Fahrenheit temperature and multiply the remainder by
.556 (5/9). To change centigrade temperatures to
Fahrenheit, multiply the centigrade temperature by 1.8
(9/5) and add 32°. This formula should be memorized for
use not only in the study of refrigeration but also in the
study of air conditioning.
16-17. Density. The density of a substance is the
ratio of its mass or weight to its volume. The upper
portion of figure 61 shows that volume may be given
either in liquid measure as gallons or in cubic measure as
cubic inches. One gallon
Figure 62. Determining specific gravity.
of water has a weight of 8.337 pounds at a temperature of
62° F.
16-18. The relative weight of liquids and solids is
determined by specific gravity. Pure water is used as a
standard reference with a value of 1. The specific gravity
of cast iron may be figured by the method illustrated in
figure 62. The weight of water which is displaced by a
15-pound bar of cast iron is 2.1 pounds. Divide 2.1 into
15 to get the specific gravity, which is about 7.1 for cast
iron. The specific gravity of a liquid may be measured
with a hydrometer such as is used with a storage battery.
The float in a hydrometer is calibrated so that the scale
gives a direct reading of the specific gravity of the liquid
being tested. Figure 64. Illustration of horsepower.
16-19. The density of a gas is expressed by specific
volume. The specific volume is the volume of 1 pound of pressure on the sides and bottom of its container. A good
the given gas under standard conditions (temperature of illustration of gas pressure is the pressure exerted by the
substance used to inflate an ordinary balloon. The gas
68° F. and pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury). Next we
shall consider what is meant by pressure and some of the pressure inflates the balloon, supporting all points of its
surface. Figure 63 illustrates the different types of
effects of it.
pressures explained in this paragraph. When you learn
16-20. Pressure. Before a refrigeration can operate
normally, a pressure difference must exist between about the refrigeration cycle, you will find that
mechanical power is used to increase pressure.
different units of the system. Consequently, pressure and
16-22. Work and Power. An understanding of
its laws are important. Pressure is the force per unit of
area expressed in pounds per square inch or pounds per energy relations is essential to a complete knowledge of
refrigeration. Energy is “the capacity to do work,” and
square foot. The pressure of air on one's body at sea level
whenever energy is spent there will be some work done.
is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch, or 2117
pounds per square foot. Since there are 144 square inches Work is “the force in pounds multiplied by the distance
through which it acts.” The unit of work is called the
in 1 square foot, 14.7 is multiplied by 144 to find the
foot-pound. One foot-pound is the amount of work done
pressure per square foot:
in raising 1 pound vertically a distance of 1 foot.
16-23. Example. What amount of work is done in
lifting 2000 pounds a distance of 10 feet?

16-21. A material exerts pressure on its supporting Force X distance = work

surface. For example, a desk (solid) exerts pressure on 2000 X 10 = 20,000 foot-pounds
the floor through its legs. If the legs were removed, the
desk would fall. A liquid, such as water in a pail, exerts Power is the time rate of doing work. Mechanical power
is termed “horsepower.” One horsepower

Figure 63. Types of pressure.

Figure 65. Unit of heat content.

51
does work at the rate of 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.
16-24. Referring to figure 64, you will see that if the
2000 pounds were lifted 10 feet in 2 minutes, the power
required would be:
Figure 66. High and low side of system.
52
16-25. Energy. In addition to mechanical power, we
are concerned with electrical and heat energy. You will
find in refrigeration that changes in heat energy are the
basis of cooling. Electrical and mechanical energy are
combined in most systems to produce changes in heat
energy. The relationship between these three types of
energy is expressed in terms of the following equivalents:
778 foot-pounds = 1 Btu
1 horsepower = 2,545.6 Btus/hr
1 horsepower = 746 watts
 16-26. Scientists have a theory that heat comes from
the vibration of the molecules in a substance. The rate of
vibration determines the temperature, while the total
energy involved in the movement of all the molecules of a
substance determines the heat. Heat is measured in
thermal units. The British thermal unit (Btu) is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of water 1° F.
16-27. Looking at the example (see fig. 65), you can
see by the rise in temperature how 1 Btu was added to the
water, causing a change in its heat content. Note that the
state of the water does not change even though it has a
higher temperature. Heat may be added without a change
of state until the boiling point of the water is reached.
16-28. Critical Temperature. We can liquefy any
gas by lowering its temperature or by increasing the
pressure. However, there are temperatures at which gases
cannot be liquefied regardless of the applied pressure.
These are called the critical temperatures.
16-29. Critical Pressure. The critical pressure of a
liquid is the pressure at or above which the liquid will
remain a liquid regardless of the applied heat.
16-30. Enthalpy. Enthalpy is the total heat
(energy) in 1 pound of a substance. The enthalpy for
water is accepted at 32° F., where the accepted enthalpy
Figure 67. Compression system.
53
for refrigerants is at -40° F. Example: To find the
enthalpy of 1 pound of 70° F. water, subtract 32° F. from
70° F. Total heat at 70° F. = 38 Btu.
16-31. Entropy. Entropy is a mathematical constant
that is used by engineers for calculations of the energy in
a system. Again, 32° F. and -40° F. are the accepted
bases used in these calculations. Most of the refrigerant
performance charts will show the constant entropy lines.
17. The Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle
17-1. Before studying the various changes which
take place in the refrigeration cycle, it is necessary to see
just how latent heat and pressure changes have become
the foundation of modern refrigeration.
17-2. Uses of Latent Heat. When ice melts, its
degree of temperature remains constant; however, it
absorbs a large amount of heat in the process of changing
from ice to water.
17-3. In the evaporator of the modern refrigerator,
the refrigerant changes from a liquid to a gas. To make
this change of state, heat must be absorbed by the
refrigerant. This heat can only come from the space to be
cooled. We can say that the cooling action within the
cabinet takes place in the evaporator.
Figure 68. Absorption system.

54
 17-4. The condenser is another area within the
refrigeration cycle where latent heat of vaporization is
used. The heat absorbed in the evaporator must be given
up in the condenser. The condenser is surrounded by
either air or water; and as the hot gas comes into contact
with either of these mediums, it gives up its heat and
condenses into a liquid.
17-5. You can see now that latent heat of
vaporization plays an important role within the cycle, but
let's not forget another important ingredient-pressure
differences.
17-6. Utilization of Pressure Difference. In
refrigeration, it is necessary to produce cold. This is
made possible when differences of pressure are present.
The high and low sides of a system and places where
pressure varies during a cycle can be seen in figures 66
and 67. The reduction of pressure within the cycle takes
place at the expansion valve. The refrigerant (of the R-12
type) boils at -21.7° F. under atmospheric pressure. If the
pressure is reduced to 11.999 psia, the boiling point is
lowered to -30° F. The cabinet temperature is maintained
above this temperature; therefore, the heat of the cabinet
will be readily absorbed by the refrigerant. Now you
should have an understanding of how pressure differences
are used in obtaining the refrigeration effect.
17-7. Now that we've covered latent heat and
pressure differences, we are ready to apply these to the
refrigeration cycle.
17-8. The refrigeration cycle is common to all
machines made for towering of temperature in our
everyday living. The type of system used, however,
depends upon the locality where the refrigeration is
needed.
17-9. Compression System. Figure 67 illustrates
the simplified refrigeration system. By applying the
theory of latent heat and pressure differences, you can see
what takes place in producing low temperatures. This
illustration may be applied to any refrigerator regardless
of size or shape.
17-10. Every system involves a cycle of one kind or
another. We will trace through the entire cycle step by
step.
17-11. As the piston moves down, low-pressure gas
is emitted through the valve to fill up the cylinder. As the
piston starts up, compression takes place because the gas
is forced into a smaller space. As the gas is compressed,
heat of compression is added. At the topmost position of
the piston, the gas is forced through the exhaust valve into
the condenser The gas is at its highest pressure. The
condenser is a series of tubes surrounded by a cooling
55
medium (air or a water). As the gas is forced through the
tubes, the heat of compression plus the latent heat of
vaporization from the evaporator is dissipated into the
surrounding cooling medium.
17-12. The removal of heat causes the gas to
condense to a high-pressure liquid. This liquid flows into
a receiver, which is merely a storage space for the
refrigerant. The liquid leaves the receiver and moves up
the liquid line to the expansion valve, where the pressure
of the liquid is reduced. As a result, it absorbs heat
through the walls of the evaporator, lowering the
temperature of the compartment to be cooled. As the
liquid boils, which is caused by the heat picked up from
the cooling compartment, it changes into a low-pressure
gas. This low-pressure gas now enters the suction line
leading to the compressor. The cycle is now complete.
17-13. Absorption System. The absorption system
differs from a compression system in that heat energy is
used instead of mechanical energy to make a change in
the conditions necessary to complete a cycle of
refrigeration. Gas, kerosene, or an electrical heating
element is used as the source of heat supply.
17-14. To better explain the operation of the
absorption system, we have put figure 68 in block form.
Also we have added a float in the condenser. Let's start
the cycle by creating a vacuum in the absorber and
evaporator, and starting these pumps. Water will boil at
40° F.-45° F. with a vacuum of 29.53 inches of mercury
(Hg). As the refrigerant (water) is sprayed on the 55° F.
chilled water coil, the refrigerant boils and absorbs the
heat from the chilled water. The refrigerant vapor is then
absorbed by the lithium bromide, and becomes weaker.
To have continuous operations, the lithium bromide must
be made stronger and the refrigerant must return to the
evaporator. To do this the generator pump is started and a
steam valve is opened. The generator pump forces the
weak solution through the heat exchanger (where the
weak solution is preheated and the strong solution from
the generator is cooled), then into the generator. Steam is
used to make the refrigerant (water) go into a vapor again
where it condenses into pure water in the condenser. As
the refrigerant level rises in the condenser the float opens
to return the refrigerant into the evaporator for continuous
operation.
17-15. We have discussed the physics of
refrigeration and the cycle of the mechanical and
absorption refrigeration systems. Now let's discuss the
medium used in these systems to transfer the heat from
where it is unwanted to a place where it is
unobjectionable.
 CHAPTER 3

Practice Exercises

Objective: To show knowledge of the physics of refrigeration and to apply the theory to the subtraction of heat.

1. At what temperature will all molecular movement stop? (16-2)

2. When a solid changes directly from a solid to a gas, what is it called? (16-3)

3. How is cold produced? (16-3)

4. Describe the term “sensible heat.” (16-4)

5. Describe the term “latent heat.” (16-5)

6. What is the specific heat of water? (16-7)

56
7. Convert -40° centigrade to Fahrenheit. (16-16)

8. How is the relative weight of liquids and solids determined? (16-18)

9. What is the pressure per square foot at sea level? (16-20)

10. What amount of work is done in lifting 33,000 pounds a distance of 2 feet in 1 minute? What the required horsepower?
(16-23, 24)

11. What is 1 Btu equal to in foot-pounds? (16-25)

12. How many Btus are required to raise the temperature of 50 pounds of water 2°? (16-26)

13. What is the temperature called at which a liquid cannot be liquefied regardless of the applied pressure? (16-28)

57
CHAPTER 4
Refrigerants
Heat cannot be transferred from the inside of the
refrigerator to the outside without some sort of medium or
heat-carrying device. This medium is called refrigerant.
2. Just what is refrigerant? Well, the dictionary
defines it as follows, “A substance, such as ice, liquid air,
ammonia, or carbon dioxide, used in refrigeration.” We
could define refrigerant as the medium (fluid or gas) used
to transfer heat from the evaporator to the condenser.
3. The requirements for a refrigerant are almost self-
explanatory. It is obvious that an automatic mechanism
should be safe; that is, free from the danger of poisonous,
flammable, or explosive gases. Refrigerants must be
noncorrosive in order that the more common metal can be
used in the construction of the machine part. It must also
be such that its presence can be easily detected and traced
to its source in the event of leaks. It is also desirable to
keep pressures within the refrigeration cycle as close to
atmospheric pressure as possible, for any great differences
in pressures tend to cause leaks, overwork the
compressor, and lower the overall efficiency of the
system. Another desirable characteristic of a refrigerant
is stability. If a refrigerant is to have this, then it must
remain chemically unchanged while constantly going
from a low temperature to a high temperature and back to
a low temperature. It must not set up a chemical reaction
with the lubricants used in the system. It must not
chemically deteriorate if it comes in contact with air or
moisture within the system.
4. There are various types of refrigerants used today.
The choice depends upon the application. Each
manufacturer attaches to his unit a nameplate which gives
the type and amount of charge in the system. Changing to
a different refrigerant should not even be considered,
since most units are deigned for use with one specific
refrigerant. Each refrigerant has a different pressure-
temperature relationship. This relationship will be the
topic of our next discussion.
58
18. Effect of Temperature and Pressure
18-1. As you learned earlier, we can liquefy any gas
by lowering its temperature. At some temperatures the
gas can be liquefied by increasing the pressure. However,
there are temperatures at which gases cannot be liquefied
regardless of the applied pressure. These are called
critical temperatures.
18-2. For example, we can change steam to water by
lowering its temperature below 212° F. or raising the
pressure; but at 689° F. no amount of pressure will effect
the change. Anyone living at a high altitude has noticed
that boiled food must be cooked for a longer period of
time or under pressure. Boiling temperatures of points are
lower at lower atmospheric pressures and higher at higher
atmospheric pressures. The critical pressure of a gas
(water vapor) is the minimum pressure required to liquefy
(condense) it at its critical temperature.
18-3. The critical pressure of a refrigerant must be
above any condensing pressure that might be encountered
during a cycle of operation; otherwise the high-pressure
gas would not condense and the refrigeration machine
would cease functioning. If the ordinary condensing
pressures are up near the critical pressure, the amount of
power required to compress the refrigerant is excessive;
therefore the critical pressure of a refrigerant must be well
above the normal condensing pressure.
18-4. If the critical temperature of a refrigerant is not
higher than the condensing temperature, the hot gas
coming from the compressor will not condense regardless
of pressure. If the temperature differential is small, power
consumption is excessive.
18-5. If the hot gas coming from the compressor
doesn't cool, the refrigeration cycle is not complete. The
heat transferred to the refrigerant in the evaporator cannot
be dissipated at the condenser. What heat was transferred
in the evaporator? The heat from the food and inclosed
area.
This caused the refrigerant to evaporate. Let's explain this with an ammonia vapor. Still another means of detecting
heat and vaporization process thoroughly. an ammonia leak is the phenolphtalein paper method. A
18-6. Latent Heat of Vaporization. With the mild concentration of ammonia causes the paper to turn
exception of the comparatively small amount of heat pink; heavier concentrations turn the paper scarlet. (Table
absorbed by vapor superheated in the evaporator and in 1)
that part of the suction line within the refrigerator space, 8-12. Refrigerant (R-12). Refrigerant-12 is colorless
all of the heat-absorbing or refrigerating capacity that a and odorless both as a liquid and as a gas. If a heavy
refrigerant has comes from its latent heat of vaporization. concentration of this gas is present, a very slight odor is
In other words it depends on how much heat the evident, but the vapor will not irritate the skin, eyes, nose,
refrigerant requires per pound to be changed from a liquid or throat. R-12 boils at -21.7° under atmospheric
to a gas. Everything else being equal, the refrigerant pressure. The presence of moisture in R-12 does not
having the highest latent heat of vaporization is the most cause corrosion; only a mild discoloration of brass,
desirable. copper and steel results. It is noncombustible and also
18-7. Boiling Point and Condensing Temperature. mixes readily with oil. To detect R-12 and other halogen
Each refrigerant is made up of a combination of chemical refrigerant leaks the halide detector (as shown in fig. 69)
elements. The various components of each differ in may be used. Other methods may also be used.
reaching their boiling point or the temperature at which
they condense. The boiling point of a refrigerant is that
temperature and pressure at which it is changed from a
low-pressure liquid to a low-pressure gas. The heat
required comes from the area to be lowered in
temperature. The evaporator is the heat-absorbing section
of a system. As stated before, the refrigerant R-12 has a
boiling point of -21.7° F. at atmospheric pressure. This
boiling point is well below the lowest evaporating
temperature at which the system operates.
18-8. The critical temperature of a refrigerant is
usually considerably higher than the condensing
temperature and pressure required in an operational
system. The critical temperature of R-12 is 233° F., and
the critical pressure s 582 pounds pr square inch. The
pressure temperature table for R-12, found in the
appendix of this volume, will show the normal operating
pressure corresponding to a given temperature. (Table 2)
18-9. The cooling medium, such as air or water, is
cooler than the refrigerant as it enters the condenser. Heat
is absorbed by the cooling medium and dissipated into the
atmosphere which changes the state of the refrigerant
from a gas to a liquid.
18-10. Classification of Refrigerants. Today there
are a number of different refrigerants used by
manufacturers of refrigeration machines. The following
paragraphs are devoted to a discussion of a few different
refrigerants, their characteristics, and the methods used in
testing for leaks.
18-11. Ammonia (NH3). This refrigerant is used
most in certain applications in industry and also in the
absorption type refrigerator. Ammonia is colorless and
has a pungent odor. It boils at -28°F. atmospheric
pressure. When one volume of ammonia and two
volumes of air are mixed, there is danger of explosion.
Ammonia very toxic and requires heavy fittings. Units
using ammonia must be water cooled. To detect ammonia
leaks, the repairman uses a sulphur candle, the flame of
which gives off a white smoke when it comes in contact Figure 69. Halide leak detector.

59
 18-13. Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide gas is
harmless to breathe except, of course, in heavy
concentrations when all the oxygen is excluded. In such
cases, suffocation results. It has a slightly pungent odor
and an acid taste.
18-14. Because of its low efficiency as compared to
others, this refrigerant is seldom used in household
refrigerators. It is used principally in industrial systems
and on ships.
18-15. Other refrigerants. Other refrigerants used to
a great extent in the refrigeration industry try are
Refrigerant-11, Refrigerant-22, and Refrigerant-11. Less
commonly used refrigerants are Refrigerant-21,
Refrigerant-113, butane, ethane, propane, and methyl
formate. (Tables 3-5)
18-16. You must become familiar with the safety
precautions related to refrigerants, for as we've mentioned
previously, working safely benefits both the equipment
and you.
18-17. Transfer of Refrigerants. Refrigerants are
obtainable in amounts from railroad carload to a 1-pound
can. However, most of the refrigerant is in 145-pound
cylinders. These cylinders are too heavy for the
serviceman to move from place to place so the refrigerant
must be transferred into smaller containers. This is done
by obtaining a small cylinder designed for the particular
gas which is to be transferred. Connect a charging line,
weigh the empty cylinder and cool it if possible (set in ice
or other methods), invert the full cylinder, and open both
cylinder valves. Stop the transfer when the small cylinder
becomes 80-85 percent liquid full. CAUTION: Never fill
a cylinder over 85 percent liquid full and always wear
protective equipment when transferring refrigerant.
18-18. Let’s look at some of the “do's” and “don'ts”
while handling refrigerant cylinders.
(1) Never drop cylinders or permit them to strike
each other violently.
(2) Never use a lifting magnet or a sling when
handling cylinders. A crane may be used when a safe
cradle or platform provided to hold the cylinders.
(3) Cylinder valve caps should be kept on at all
times except when the cylinders are in use.
(4) Never fill a refrigerant cylinder completely full
of refrigerant. The safe limit is 85 percent full.
Overfilled cylinders are apt to burst from hydrostatic
pressure.
(5) Never mix gases in a cylinder.
(6) Cylinders are made to hold gas - don't use
them for a support or roller.
(7) Never tamper with the safety device on a
cylinder.
(8) Open cylinder valves slowly and use a
60
cylinder valve wrench. Never use a monkey or Stillson
wrench for this purpose.
(9) Never force misfitting connections; make sure
that the threads of regulators and unions are the same as
those on the cylinder outlet.
(10) Never attempt to repair or alter a cylinder or
valves.
(11) Never store cylinders near flammables.
(12) Always keep cylinders in a cool place away
from direct sun rays if possible and fully secured in place.
(13) Do not store full and empty refrigerant
cylinders together. They should be stored in different
sections of the shop to avoid confusion.
(14) Always insure that gas cylinders are secured
in place both when empty and filled.
18-19. As we stated before, you should always wear
protective equipment while charging or transferring
refrigerant. However, if something happens when you do
not have the protective equipment on and the refrigerant
comes in contact with your eyes or skin, you should know
the first aid that will help you. If the refrigerant comes in
contact with the eyes they can be bathed in a 2-percent
boric acid solution. For frostbite on the skin the area can
be bathed with cold water and massaged around the area
until circulation is restored. Do not disturb the frost
blisters.
18-20. A refrigerant is the carrier of heat in a system;
consequently, it is found in different parts of the system in
different states. How do we know which state the
refrigerant i in within the system? Very easy; we use the
refrigerant table. Using the table, we can check the
pressures within the system and convert the pressures to
temperatures. This can also tell us if the system is safe to
open. Remember, even though you know a little first aid,
it's better to be safe than sorry.
18-21. Tables have been compiled through
experiment and research for each of the most commonly
used refrigerants. These tables show the pressure,
density, volume, heat content, and latent heat
corresponding to certain temperatures. The charts are so
designed that when you have one condition given you can
determine the other relative factors. (Tables 1-6)
18-22. We have had a discussion on a few of the
most important refrigerants and their purpose as heat
carriers in a refrigeration system. A refrigerant is the
bloodstream of any refrigerator; it removes heat at a low
pressure as it evaporates, and gives up heat at a high
pressure as it condenses. The properties of a few of the
most common refrigerant gases are discussed and the
characteristics noted, as well as the safety precautions
which are essential and must be observed. You are the
one who will be handling refrigerant, so don't be careless,
for they can
cause personal injury. The sections covering safety benefit. Tables which will be used in every step of this
precautions, safe handling of gases, and first aid treatment course are contained in the appendix to this
list the “dos” and “don'ts” to be followed when dealing memorandum.
with refrigerants. Read and heed; these are for your own

61
 CHAPTER 4

Practice Exercise

Objective: To show knowledge of the characteristic of refrigerants and of safety practices in handling these refrigerants.

1. What is the critical temperature of water? (18-2)

2. Why must the critical pressure be above the condensing pressures? (18-3)

3. Which refrigerant would be the most desirable - one with the lowest or highest latent heat of vaporization? (18-6)

4. What kind of a refrigerant gives off a white smoke when a leak is detected while using a sulphur candle? (18-11)

5. What is the safe limit for filling a refrigerant cylinder? (18-17, 18)

6. If refrigerant comes in contact with the eyes, they may be bathed in what? (18-19)

62
 Glossary

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY - The amount of moisture that is in the air; it is measured in grains per cubic foot.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE - Gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure (see pressure conversion table).
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE - The temperature that is measured from absolute zero (-460° F., zero° R., and -273° C.,
zero° K.)
ACCUMULATOR - A tank that is used to keep liquid refrigerant from flowing to the compressor.
ACTIVATED ALUMINA - A chemical desiccant.
ACTIVATED CARBON - Processed carbon that is used for a filter.
ADIABATIC COOLING - Process of changing sensible heat for latent heat without removing heat (evaporative cooling).
ANEMOMETER - An instrument used to measure the rate of airflow.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - Pressure that is exerted upon the earth by the atmospheric gases.
AUTOTRANSFER - Common turns serve both the primary and secondary coils. Different taps are used to step up or step
down the voltage.
AZEOTROPIC REFRIGERANTS - These are mixtures of refrigerants that do not combine chemically but provide good
refrigerant characteristics.
BACK PRESSURE - Low side pressure or suction pressure.
BOYLE’S LAW - The volume of a given mass of gas varies as the pressure varies if the temperature remains the same.
BRITISH THERMAL UNIT - The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1° F.
CALORIE - The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1° C.
CASCADE SYSTEM - Refrigeration system where two or more systems are connected in series to produce ultra-low
temperatures.
CHARLES’ LAW - The volume of a gas varies directly with the temperature provided that the pressure remains constant.
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP) - The ratio of energy applied as compared to the energy used.
COMPOUND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM - A system with two or more compressors or cylinders in series.
CRITICAL PRESSURE - The pressure of the saturated vapor at the critical temperature.
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE - The temperature at which the liquid and vapor densities of a substance become equal.
CROSS CHARGED - Two different fluids used to create the desired pressure-temperature relationship.
CRYOGENIC FLUID - An ultra-low temperature gas or liquid.
CRYOGENICS - Refrigeration producing temperatures at or below -250° F.
CURRENT RELAY - A relay which makes or breaks a circuit depending on a change in current flow.
DALTON’S LAW - The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of each of the gases in the
mixture.

63
DENSITY - The mass of a substance per unit volume (consistency).
DEWPOINT - The temperature at which a saturated vapor will begin to condense.
DRY ICE - Solid carbon dioxide at approximately -109° F.; it is used in the shipment of produce.
EBULATOR - A sharp-edged material inserted in a flooded evaporator for better efficiency.
FLASH GAS - When changing from a high-pressure liquid to a low-pressure liquid some of the liquid flashes (evaporates)
off and cools the remaining liquid to the desired evaporation temperature.
FOOT-POUND - The amount of work done in lifting 1 pound 1 foot.
GRAIN - A unit of weight; 7000 grains equals 1 pound.
HEAD, STATIC - Pressure of a fluid measured in terms of height of the column of the fluid.
HEAT LOAD - The Btus that are removed in 24 hours.
HEAT OF COMPRESSION - The transformation of mechanical energy of pressure into energy of heat.
HYDROMETER - An instrument used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid.
HYGROMETER - An instrument used to measure the ratio of moisture in the air.
INDUCTION MOTOR - An ac motor that operates on the principles of a rotating magnetic field.
KATATHERMOMETER - An alcohol thermometer used to measure air velocities by means of cooling effect.
KELVIN SCALE (K) - A thermometer scale that is equal to centigrade but using zero as absolute zero instead of -273° C.
(absolute centigrade).
LATENT HEAT - Hidden heat; heat energy that a substance absorbs while changing state.
MANOMETER - A U-shaped tube filled with a liquid that is used to measure the pressure of gases and vapors.
MEGOHM - One million ohms.
MULLION HEATER - An electrical heating element used to keep the stationary part (mullion) of the structure between the
doors from sweating or frosting.
MULTIPLE EVAPORATION SYSTEM - A system with two or more evaporators connected in parallel.
MULTIPLE SYSTEM - A system with two or more evaporators connected to one condensing unit.
OIL SEPARATOR - A device used to remove oil from a gaseous refrigerant.
OZONE - A gaseous form of oxygen, usually generated by a silent electrical discharge in ordinary air.
PITOT TUBE - Part of an instrument used to measure air velocities.
POTENTIAL ELECTRICAL - The electrical force which tries to move or moves the electrons in a circuit.
POTENTIAL RELAY - A relay which is operated by voltage changes in an electromagnet.
POWER FACTOR - Correction coefficient for ac power.
PYROMETER - A device used to measure high temperatures.
RANKIN SCALE (R) - A thermometer scale that is equal to Fahrenheit but using zero as absolute zero instead of -460° F.
(absolute Fahrenheit).
RELATIVE HUMIDITY - The percent of moisture in the air as to what it can hold at that temperature and pressure.
SATURATION - When air is saturated it is holding the maximum amount of water vapor at that temperature and pressure.
(It may also be applied to other substances.)
SENSIBLE HEAT - Heat that can be measured and causes a change in temperature.
SOLAR HEAT - Heat energy waves of the sun.

64
SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Weight of a liquid compared to water.
SPECIFIC HEAT - The ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body or mass 1° to that required to
raise the temperature of an equal mass of water 1°.
SPECIFIC VOLUME - Volume per unit (one) mass of a substance.
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE - When air is at a condition of 14.7 psia and 68° F.
STANDARD CONDITIONS - 68° F., 29.92 inches Hg., and R. H. of 30 percent used in air-conditioning calculations.
STRATIFICATION OF AIR - When air lies in different temperature layers because of little or no air movement.
SUBLIMATION - When a substance changes from a solid directly into a gas without becoming a liquid.
SUBCOOLING - Cooling of a liquid below its condensing temperature.
SUPERHEAT - Adding heat to a vapor above its boiling temperature and at the same pressure.
THERM - 100,000 British thermal units.
THERMISTORS - An electrical resistor made of a material whose resistance varies with the temperature.
TRANSISTOR - An electrical device used to transfer an electrical signal across a resistor.
TRIPLE POINT - A condition of pressure and temperature where the liquid, vapor, and solid states can coexist.
VAPOR PRESSURE - The pressure exerted by a vapor upon its liquid or solid form.
VELOCIMETER - A direct reading air velocity meter, reading in feet per minute.
WEB BULB - A dry bulb thermometer with a wick attached to the bulb that is used in the measurement of relative humidity.

65
 APPENDIX

REFRIGERANTS

Properties of Liquid and Saturated Vapor

Tables 1 - 6

66
67
68
69
70
72
73
74
75
76
 Answers To Practice Exercises

CHAPTER 1

1. A generator produces dynamic electricity. (1-4)

2. Voltage is electrical pressure; current is the movement of electrons and resistance is the opposition to current flow. (1-6,
10)

3. These alloys make it possible to operate at high temperatures without melting. (1-11)

4. The cross-sectional area, the length, and the temperature. (1-12)

5. Hardened iron. (1-16)

6. Number of poles and speed of rotation. (2-10)

7. 2 amperes. (3-4)

8. 240 volt. (3-5)

9. 22 ohms. (3-6)

10. One horsepower. (3-25, 27)

11. The symbol for inductance is L. (4-8)

12. The capacitor gives the motor more torque by causing the current to lead the voltage. (4-10; Fig. 17)

13. Only when the circuit is made up of pure resistance. (4-12)

14. No, only on pulsating dc. (5-61)

15. Iron core, primary winding, and secondary winding. (5-2)

16. Wye-wye, delta-delta, and wye-delta. (5-21)

17. To limit the amount of current flow through the meter circuit. (6-3)

18. The shunt is connected in parallel with the ohmmeter circuit to bypass most of the current around the meter coil circuit.
(6-4)

19. Maximum current will flow through the ohmmeter circuit when there is minimum resistance to flow. (6-7)

20. A rectifier must be added to change ac to dc. (6-9)

21. To measure the true power in an ac circuit regardless of the type load. (6-10)

22. To check for a blown fuse the voltmeter is connected in parallel with the fuse. (6-20)

23. To check for continuity in a parallel circuit the unit being tested must be isolated from the rest of the circuit. (6-30)

77
24. The speed of an ac motor depends on the number of poles and the frequency of the applied electrical source. (7-2)

25. A single-phase induction motor must have two windings, a start and a run winding. (7-5)

26. The motor would run hot and burn out the start winding if allowed to run any length of time. (7-15)

27. A capacitor start, capacitor run. (7-18)

28. A three-phase motor exerts a torque when at rest, and therefore it starts itself when the correct voltage is applied to the
stator field coils. (7-23)

29. The reluctance motor operates at exactly synchronous speed because of the salient poles. (7-26)

30. Universal type motor may be used on ac or dc. (7-28)

31. A motor should be lubricated according to applicable publications. (8-3)

32. Circuit protective devices are used to protect the unit and wires in the circuit. (9-7)

33. Two. (9-11)

34. If the fan circuit is not closed, the air conditioner holding oil circuit will be opened at the auxiliary contacts in the fan
motor starter. (9-12)

35. Most troubles will be found in the load contacts, holding coil, or heaters. (9-14)

CHAPTER 2

1. Intake, compression, ignition, power, and exhaust. (10-1)

2. The engine oil should be checked when he engine is stopped and the oil is at normal operating temperature. (11-4).

3. An air-fuel ratio of 15 to 1 gives maximum economy. (12-4)

4. Pulsating dc. (13-4)

5. The purpose of the capacitor (condenser) in the engine ignition circuit is to help collapse the magnetic field and to reduce
arcing at the points. (13-5)

6. Lead and acid. (13-9)

7. Ethylene glycol should be used when the water-cooled engine will be exposed to freezing temperatures. (14-4)

8. With a 10-pound pressure at a point halfway between the compressor pulley and the drive pulley the belt should deflect
1/2 to 3/4 inch if the belt is correctly adjusted. (15-3)

CHAPTER 3

1. All molecular movement will cease at absolute zero. (16-2)

78
2. Sublimation. (16-3)

3. Cold is not produced but is merely a result of removing heat. (16-3)

4. Sensible heat is the amount of heat that can be added to or subtracted from a substance without changing its state. (16-4)

5. Latent heat is hidden heat and is the heat that is added to or subtracted from a substance when it changes its state. (16-5)

6. The specific heat of water is 1. (16-7)

7. -40° centigrade is equal to -40° Fahrenheit. (16-16)

8. The relative weight of liquids and solids is determined by specific gravity. (16-18)

9. 2117 pounds per square foot. (16-20)

10. 66,000 foot-pounds; 2 horsepower. (16-23, 24)

11. 778 foot-pounds = 1 Btu. (16-25)

12. 100 Btus. (16-26)

13. The critical temperature. (16-28)

CHAPTER 4

1. The critical temperature of water is 689° F. (18-2)

2. If the critical pressure is not above the condensing temperature the gas will not condense. (18-3)

3. The most desirable refrigerant would have a high latent heat of vaporization. (18-6)

4. Ammonia gives off a white smoke in the presence of a flaming sulphur candle. (18-11)

5. A refrigerant cylinder must never be filled more than 85 percent. (18-17, 18)

6. Boric acid solution may be used if liquid refrigerant comes in contact with the eyes. (18-19)

79
SUBCOURSE EDITION
OD 1748 A

REFRIGERATION AND AIR

CONDITIONING II (COMMERCIAL
REFRIGERATION)
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING II
(Commercial Refrigeration)

Subcourse OD 1748

Edition A

United States Army Combined Arms Support Command

Fort Lee, VA 23801-1809

14 Credit Hours

INTRODUCTION

This subcourse is the second of four subcourses devoted to basic instruction in refrigeration and air
conditioning.

This subcourse explains the components, operation, and repair of commercial refrigeration systems and
provides a detailed explanation of the various uses of compressors. In addition, there is detailed instruction on the
use and defrosting of storage cabinets, plant design, special systems, and vehicular refrigeration units.

There are three lessons.

1. Commercial Refrigeration Systems.

2. Commercial Refrigeration Systems (continued).

3. Cold Storage, Ice Plants, Special Applications, and Vehicle Units.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men and women are included.
 PREFACE

THE REFRIGERATION field includes a wide variety of refrigerators, and you must be able to implement the
maintenance program that keeps these refrigerators operational. The first chapter is devoted to small commercial
refrigeration units, mainly portable types, such as are used in homes, messhalls, and commissaries. We will
discuss the absorption type refrigerator as well as the more common compressor type used in most domestic
refrigerators and freezers. The components, their operation, and the troubleshooting procedures for both types are
discussed. Braxing, welding, and cutting methods are explained, and the last section gives repairs and services.

The subject is expanded in the second chapter to other commercial units, such as water coolers, ice cube
machines, and larger equipment like walk-in cabinets and display cases. Large cold storage plants and ice plants
merit treatment in a separate chapter. In Chapter 4 we will discuss systems designed for special application, such
as those using multiple evaporators and multiple compressors. This chapter also includes a section on ultralow-
temperature systems. As you will learn in the last chapter, there have been few changes in automotive air
conditioning, but there are some brand new methods for refrigerating food transport trucks.

By becoming familiar with the symptoms that lead to refrigerator breakdowns, you will be able, in many
instances, to prevent such breakdowns. Regardless of the type and size of any refrigerator, a specific cycle is
followed before the refrigerating effect takes place. Therefore, a thorough knowledge of this cycle and a clear
understanding of applicable troubleshooting procedures should make your job less difficult.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement is made to the following companies for the use of copyright material in this memorandum:
Alco Valve Company, St. Louis, MO; Controls Company of America, Milwaukee, Wisc.; McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, N.Y.; John E. Mitchell Company, Dallas, Texas; Mueller Brass Company, Port Huron,
Mich.; Nickerson and Collins Company, Chicago, Ill.; The Trane Company, LaCrosse, Wisc.

ii
 CONTENTS

Page

Preface........................................................................................................................................................ i

Chapter

1 Commercial Refrigeration Systems.................................................................................................... 1

2 Commercial Refrigeration Systems (Continued) ............................................................................... 30

3 Cold Storage and Ice Plants................................................................................................................ 56

4 Special Application Systems ............................................................................................................. 71

5 Vehicle Refrigeration Units................................................................................................................ 85

Answers to Review Exercises.............................................................................................................. 95

iii

Commercial Refrigeration Systems
THERE WAS A TIME when Grandma use
a block of ice to keep her food from spoiling. Later,
a mechanical unit replaced the block of ice In those
days a service call often meant airing out the kitchen
before work could be started because the place was
full of ammonia or sulfur dioxide fumes. You do
not have that problem today, for the modern
domestic refrigerator use a refrigerant which is
practically odorless and harmless.
2. The domestic units explained in this chapter
use one of two basic systems: the absorption
refrigeration system and the compression
refrigeration system. We will take up the
construction of domestic refrigerator boxes first,
since much of this information is common to the
absorption refrigerator and the freezer boxes which
follow. The discussion of components such as
latches. ice cube makers, and other features will
also include specific information relating to their
operation, service, or maintenance.
3. A section on compression system
components starts with a brief review of operating
principles followed by the components which put
these principles into action. The section concludes
with refrigerator performance which is based on
normal operation of the system.
4. Freezers are dealt with by supplying only
that information which is necessary. For example,
the construction and insulation of a freezer box is
essentially like a domestic refrigerator box, so there
would be no profit in repeating it.
5. Troubleshooting hermetic systems is divided
into electrical troubles and mechanical troubles. The
discussion is centered around those components
which are essential to the main system. Other
components which have been discussed previously
are accessories or special features and, as such, they
are treated separately because they will vary from
one unit to another.
6. A comprehensive discussion of safety
introduces the section on brazing, welding, and
cutting. Emphasis is placed on those fluxes and
alloys commonly used by a refrigeration repairman.
This is followed by the repairs which you are
normally expected to make on domestic refrigerators
and freezers. The necessary services for charging a
small hermetic system make the final discussion in
CHAPTER 1
this chapter. Since most of us are familiar with the
domestic refrigerator, it is the logical starting point
for your study.
1. Domestic Refrigerators
1-1. The recent trend has been to make larger
domestic refrigerators. Consequently, many homes
now use units as large as those found in small cafes
or restaurants. Such larger units are quite expensive,
but they have been accepted by the buying public
because of their proven reliability and greater
efficiency; 10 years of continuous service is not
uncommon.
1-2. Construction and Components. A
refrigerator is made of two steel shells. The outer
shell consists of steel plates welded to a steel frame,
which gives strength and rigidity. The inner shell is
formed from a single sheet of steel, which must
provide the mounting arrangement for the shelves
and support the evaporator. The space between the
two shells is filled with insulation, and the gap at the
edge is closed by the breaker strips. The door is
formed from a single sheet of steel and is given
rigidity by the liner. The door gasket is installed so
that it fits into the gap between the liner and the
shell. The body of the door is filled with insulation.
1-3. Insulation. When temperature differences
exist close to each other, they always try to equalize
each other. Insulating materials can retard the
transfer so that a cooled area will stay cold longer.
From your studies, you may remember that heat is
transferred by convection, conduction, and radiation.
Convection is the transfer of heat by air currents.
Cells of dead air space reduce convection by
restricting the movement of air. Conduction is the
transfer of heat by a medium acting as a bridge from
one temperature zone to another. Material such as
paper is a poor conductor. Radiation is the transfer
of heat in the same way that light is propagated.
Radiant heat can pass through a block of clear ice so
that the heat can be sensed on the other side.
Radiation
 1
from a surface is determined by the color and texture of
the material.
1-4. The greatest heat load in a refrigerator is the heat
transferred through the door and walls of the box. Better
insulation means less heat gain, greater efficiency, lower
operating costs, and an extended life for the compressor.
Among the basic insulating materials used, you will find
spun glass, rock wool, cork, plastics, and metals. These
materials are produced as sheets, fibers, cells, or a
combination of these. For example, if you will look at the
edge of a corrugated cardboard box you will see a
combination of sheet and cell constructions. Cells are
tubular in cardboard construction, but a honeycomb type
of cell will insulate better.
1-5. The manufacture of insulation has been so
improved in recent years that present-day boxes are built
with a relatively thinner wall. Some new types of
insulation will sufficiently reduce heat transfer with only
one-fourth to one-half inch of insulation. Among the
newer insulation materials are steel and aluminum. Thin
sheets of metal are made to form a multilayer sandwich
with dead air space between the sheets. However, with
such metal insulation, in order to prevent the
accumulation of moisture, as with other types of material,
it is important that adequate sealing be provided. Among
other new insulating materials are synthetic fibers or
plastics which can be molded into a form that will fit
between the outer and inner shells of a box. Such molded
insulation has the advantage of eliminating corner and
edge joints.
1-6. Any insulation must have an effective moisture
barrier provided to insure its long life. Obviously,
because some materials will lose their insulating value if
they get wet, they must be waterproofed. To these
materials, odorless tars are often applied to seal the
surface and keep the moisture out. Why are such tars
used? Because the taste of food would be ruined if
aromatic tars were used for sealing. Among the methods
of sealing are painting or dipping the insulation in a
waterproof compound to close the pores in the surface
against moisture. As a further protection against
moisture, special rubber gaskets are used to close all
spaces where wire or tubing passes through the insulation.
In fact, every precaution is taken at the time of
manufacture to keep moisture from getting into insulation.
Also when foam insulations are used, they are nonburning
if they are made to Federal Specification HH1-1-00530
(ASTM 1692). Note, too, that some synthetics are not
only resistant to rot but also have no nutritional value
which might support rodents, insects, or fungi. Finally,
while all synthetics are not equally elective, a few have
such a low K-factor that when used for the same purpose,
2
they are equivalent to twice the thickness of many natural
materials.
1-7. By now, as a refrigeration specialist, it should be
obvious that moisture can cause many troubles. In fact, in
an area where air circulation is restricted and temperature
is near 70°, conditions are right to both promote the
growth of bacteria and result in corrosion of the metal.
The effectiveness of modern sealing methods is shown by
the rare occurrence of this trouble with insulation. Still,
the complete replacement of insulation is necessary if
flooding has resulted in the seal breaking down. Such
seal breakdown occurs if a box is submerged under water
too long. You can ordinarily make minor repairs to torn
insulation with tape. When you do this, however, paint
the patch with a waterproof sealer such as hydrolene, an
odorless tar.
1-8. Breaker strips. The gap between the inner and
outer shells is closed by means of the breaker strips.
These are not required to make an airtight seal, because
they are found inside the area of the door gasket. Yet,
because the temperature in the box is colder than the
insulation space, any moisture will tend to be drawn from
the insulation. If you have ever removed or replaced a
breaker strip, you will know from experience that those
made from plastic are easily broken. Still, whether they
are made of metal or plastic, these strips require careful
handling, as kinking will permanently deform the strip
and result in a gap.
1-9. Stile or mullion heaters. These heaters are found
in back of the breaker strip on some boxes. They are low-
watt linear elements which operate continuously to
prevent frost creepage around the door. This is another
reason for using care when removing a breaker strip, since
it is possible to damage the wiring or the heater strip.
1-10. Door gaskets. These gaskets are made of rubber
or plastic and follow the general shape shown in figure 1.
Note the air pocket, which acts as an air cushion and helps
to insure an airtight seal between the door and the cabinet.
Most manufacturers today place the door-closing magnets
in the air pocket of the gasket. In this position, the
magnets not only hold the door closed but also insure the
gasket making a seal throughout its life without ever
needing adjustment. The strip magnet is installed in the
top, bottom, and .latch side of the door but not at the
hinge side, because if placed here, it would tend to close
the door. Older models had one or two large magnets
with steel plates which took the place of a door latch.
1-11. Door latches. In spite of widespread publicity,
44 children were reported as having lost their lives in
unused refrigerators between 1 January and 17 November
1964. Therefore, whenever a refrigerator of the old style
is to be stored, the

Figure 1. Door gasket.
latch should be removed and taped to the inside of the
box. In shipment, the door can be secured by tape or a
length of rope. If you remember these precautions, you
will never have to worry about having contributed to the
death of a child. In fact, in many states it is against the
law to abandon a refrigerator without removing the door
or the latch.
1-12. Adjustable door latches were used on
refrigerators for many years before the introduction of
permanent magnets as door closers. A door latch can be
adjusted to compensate for a worn or compressed door
gasket. To do so, release the locking screw and move the
lip closer to the cabinet. Use a thin piece of paper
between the gasket and the cabinet to check the seal.
With the door closed on the paper, the amount of drag on
the paper as you pull it indicates the amount of seal that
the gasket furnishes.
1-13. Location and Power Supply. A domestic type
refrigerator is often located without consideration of the
operation of the equipment. As you know, these units are
self-contained, with the condenser mounted under or in
back of the box. Thus, the unit cannot operate efficiently
if it is placed too close to an oven or to a space heater.
Note, too, that although the original location of a
refrigerator may have been quite satisfactory, subsequent
installation of heating unit may inadvertently find the
refrigerator in the hottest part of a room. Furthermore,
consideration as to the suitability of a location should also
take into account the distance from the power source. A
domestic box is provided with a cord and plug which can
be used in a convenience outlet. As there are usually
several outlets on one branch circuit, it is possible that a
branch circuit is being operated at close to capacity. A
refrigerator will be operating on marginal current under
these conditions. If it is connected to an outlet which is
last on the circuit, the voltage drop may be so great that
the unit will not give satisfactory performance.
3
1-14. At most overseas bases, where there are
government furnished quarters, refrigeration equipment is
designed for the voltage and frequency of the electricity
in the local area. However, you may find that some
refrigerators made for 60-cycle operation have been
transported over seas and are being used on 50-cycle
current. If the voltage is correct, the unit may give
satisfactory operation on the lower frequency. Voltage
and frequency are just two of the many new things you
should be aware of when you are on an overseas
assignment. Refrigerator made for overseas use with
unusual electric requirements have a notice posted inside
the box stating the specifications.
1-15. Combination Refrigerators. Since the freezer
section has increased in size, practically all boxes made in
the larger sizes today are combination refrigerators.
Continued improvement has led to such things as
automatic ice cube makers, forced-air circulation, frost-
free operation automatic defrosting, and even ultraviolet
lamps, which retard bacteria growth and reduce odor.
New developments have resulted in more usable cubic
feet in the box by reducing the size of the compressor and
the insulation space. Most new units use Freon 22,
because it is more efficient, requiring less horsepower for
equivalent output. As the demand for refrigerators has
increased, it has brought about the development of
special-purpose storage compartments for different foods.
1-16. Special compartments. Meat storage
compartments are kept at slightly above freezing. with
high humidity-as high as 90 percent. These conditions are
favorable for extended storage of unwrapped foods. High
humidity prevents desiccation, and the near freezing
temperature retards bacterial action.
1-17. High-humidity storage for leaf vegetables, such
as lettuce and celery, is provided by drawers located in
the bottom of the refrigerator section. Another special-
purpose compartment is the butter conditioner, which is
located in the door. Butter is maintained at a warmer
temperature here than elsewhere in the box so that it will
not be too hard for serving. Two methods are used to get
the proper temperature for this compartment. For one,
when an electrical heater is used, a rheostat is varied to
get the desired heat. The heater element is connected to
the electric supply whenever the compressor is running.
A flexible cord is used at the door hinge to bring the
circuit into the door. For the other, when a heater element
is not used. the butter conditioner depends on the heat
passing through the door at that place to keep the butter
from getting too hard. The insulation thickness at that
place in the door determines the rate of transfer of heat.
1-18. Automatic ice cube maker. An automatic ice
cube maker is a specialized item found
in the freezer compartment of some boxes. One popular the cabinet light so that the clock measures the length of
make uses a solenoid valve, an electric motor, an electric time that the door remains open. The advantage of these
heater, a feeler bulb, and two thermostats. A mechanical two systems is that they indirectly reflect the heat load on
valve (globe valve) in the water line is adjusted to reduce the unit. In still another system, one utilizing hot wire
the line pressure so that the correct amount of water will defrosting, a 24-hour clock, which is set to defrost at 0300
be metered into the ice cube tray. This valve will need hours, simultaneously opens the circuit to the compressor
adjustment if there is a change in supply water pressure. and turns on two heaters. Instant heat is supplied by one
One thermostat senses when the ice is made, and the other of the heaters, which is similar to that used on an electric
thermostat has a feeler bulb in the storage tray which range. The insulated heater wire is installed either
senses when the tray is full. Let us consider the automatic alongside the evaporator coil or in the center of the tubing
operation, starting with the completion of a batch of ice which makes the coil. The other heater is a low-wattage
cubes. Sensing that the water is frozen and that the cubes heater used to keep the drain free of ice accumulation. A
are ready to be used, the "cold" thermostat energizes the 70° thermostat, when satisfied, resets the clock
electric heater in the tray. The "hot" thermostat senses mechanism. The heaters are turned off, and the
when the tray is warm enough to release the cubes, at compressor circuit is made ready for operation.
which time this thermostat starts the electric motor. The 1-21. Defrosting must be scheduled whenever the frost
motor accomplishes the following operations as it goes accumulation has reached 1/8 inch thick. Otherwise, the
through one cycle: It resets the "cold" thermostat and layer of frost will act like an insulating blanket which
turns off the heater. Mechanical fingers sweep the cubes slows down the transfer of heat.
out and into the storage tray, and the solenoid valve opens 1-22. Hot gas defrosting, still another method, utilizes
the water line to refill the freezer tray. The solenoid valve an electrically operated solenoid valve controlled by a
remains open for an interval determined by the motor clock or some other timing device. Figure 2 shows the
operation which closes the solenoid valve at the end of the solenoid valve open. This position allows the hot gas
interval. The motor establishes its own holding circuit from the compressor to pass through the evaporator.
when it starts, and it opens this circuit when the cycle is When the defrosting period ends, the valve closes and the
completed. (NOTE: We are dealing here with a time compressor will return to normal operation. Accumulated
sequence in which some things happen together, while in melt
others there is an overlap of action involved.) Ice cubes
will not be ejected if the storage tray is full, because the
feeler bulb in the tray will interrupt the circuit of the
"cold" thermostat. As soon as enough cubes have been
removed, the heater will be turned on to release the cubes
in the tray and start another cycle.
1-19. Automatic defrosting. One of the earliest
schemes to defrost an evaporator was the manual
pushbutton which started the cycle. When defrosting was
completed, the compressor was automatically restored to
normal operation. By contrast, today there are defrost
systems which are completely automatic. We will discuss
the more common such systems. One such, a mechanical
system, uses a counter which registers each time the door
is opened. After a certain number of openings, the device
starts the defrost cycle. This system follows the idea that
each time the door is opened the coils will accumulate
some moisture, and after approximately 60 openings,
defrosting will be necessary.
1-20. An electric clock is used in three basic systems.
In one system, the clock may be wired in parallel with the
compressor so that it measures the total running time of
the compressor. The theory here is that after 6 hours of Figure 2. Hot gas defrost system.
compressor operation, the coils should need defrosting.
In another such system, a clock is wired in parallel with

4
water is caught in a drain trough and piped to a tray in the
compressor compartment for evaporation. You should
remember from your study of fundamental refrigeration
principles, that the capillary tube, shown in figure 2, is
universally used as the expansion device in a small
system. It has the advantage of no moving parts, and the
pressures are equalized after the compressor stops so that
there is less starting torque on the motor.
1-23. Special Features. Two special features which
are found in some boxes are ultraviolet lamps and
circulation fans. Ultraviolet lamps are wired into the
circuit for continuous operation. Their radiation kills
bacteria and counteracts some disagreeable odors.
Circulating fans are used to give positive ventilation and
to insure frost-free operation with proper control of
humidity. The ventilation channels, between the freezer
and the refrigerator, must not be blocked by storage
containers. The motor-driven fan is wired in parallel with
the compressor so that the fan circulates air during the
cooling period. A switch in the line to the fan opens the
fan circuit when the refrigerator door is open. The fan
switch may be incorporated with the door switch that
controls the cabinet light. Do not confuse this fan with
the one used for cooling a compressor and a condenser.
Food stored in a box with forced circulation must be
covered to prevent desiccation. Also, if much uncovered,
moist food is stored in such a box, it will cause excessive
moisture to accumulate in the freezer. This excessive
moisture will, in turn, cause frequent defrost cycling and
compressor operation, which may lead to complaints
about "defective equipment."
2. Absorption System Refrigerators
2-1. For many years, the absorption system has
proved satisfactory for domestic refrigerators. Large
capacity absorption systems are covered in Volume 4.
Boxes made for use in the United States are designed to
use either natural, liquid petroleum, or artificial gas heat.
(In Europe, boxes have been made which use electricity
for heating.) Absorption system refrigerators are made
with automatic defrosting and ice cube makers. The
defrost system is the electric hot wire type, with a timer
such as is found in conventional boxes. The automatic ice
cube maker is of the type which we have explained in
Section 1 under the same title. Identification plates are
located in the frozen food or the control compartment.
2-2. Each burner must be provided with the correct
size orifice for the gas supply to which the refrigerator is
connected. Gases are rated in B.t.u. per cu. ft., with LP
gas the highest at 1600 B.t.u. per cu. ft. If you will
compare two nozzles for size. You will see that the one
for use with LP will have the smaller orifice. The nozzle
5
with the larger orifice is used with natural gas. which has
less heat value.
2-3. The most popular domestic refrigerator of the
absorption type uses an ammonia-water cycle in an
atmosphere of hydrogen. The system is pressure tested at
800 p.s.i.g., but normal pressure in the system is 200
p.s.i.g. A fuse plug will release the pressure in the system
if temperature rises to above 175° F. This release of
pressure prevents any accidental explosion of the system.
2-4. Construction and Components. The
absorption refrigerator box is constructed and insulated in
much the same way as we have explained previously in
this chapter. The essential parts of an absorption system
are a generator, a vapor separator, a condenser, an
evaporator, and an absorber. Among the components are
some items which may sound unfamiliar. The generator
is that art of the system where a water-ammonia solution
is heated. The vapor separator is a special chamber where
the water is separated from the ammonia. The absorber is
so named because water at this place absorbs ammonia
vapors. A brief review of the principles involved is given
next.
2-5. Operation. The principle of operation of an
absorption system depends upon the strong affinity which
water has for ammonia. When the water-ammonia
solution is heated in the generator, a mixture of water and
ammonia vapors is given off. This vapor mixture rises to
the vapor separator, where much of the moisture is
extracted and returned to the generator by way of the
absorber. Ammonia vapors rise in an atmosphere of
hydrogen to the condenser, which is cooled by air
temperature, and the ammonia liquefies. Liquid ammonia
falls into the evaporator. The area in the evaporator has a
concentration of hydrogen, which encourages the
ammonia to vaporize and absorb heat. The evaporator is
located in the freezer compartment of the box. From the
evaporator, the ammonia vapor falls to the absorber,
where it joins the water (from the vapor separator)
returning to the generator, thereby completing the cycle.
The system is completely closed, and there are no
adjustments possible, except to the flame which supplies
heat to the generator. The flame operates continuously,
and any changes in heat load are met by changing the size
of the flame. This adjustment is made automatically by a
thermostatic control which regulates the gas supply to the
flame. The sensing element is located in the freezer
compartment. You will find several items between the
unit and the gas line in an installation of this type.
Starting from the gas line, these are a shutoff valve, a
filter, a pressure regulator, and a gas burner with an
automatic control. The gas burner valve is provided with
a safety feature which will
shut the gas off if the flame should be extinguished. In
the order in which the device is implemented, the safety
consists of a heater, a snap button, and a poppet valve.
The snap button is linked to the poppet valve. The snap
button is a curved piece of metal which reverses its curve
when it is heated. The heater is located in the flame and
conveys heat to the snap button. As long as the snap
button is hot enough, it will hold the poppet valve open.
If the flame fails, the snap button will reverse itself and
close the valve, shutting off the gas. To light the flame
again, you will have to heat the heater with a match and
press a pushbutton to rest the poppet. If the heater should
be accidentally dislodged from the flame during cleaning,
the flame would be extinguished. The simple remedy for
this condition is to move the heater back into the flame
path and relight the unit.
2-6. Maintenance. To maintain an absorption
refrigerator, you need only to keep it clean. Especially,
remove all soot from the flue and burner chamber, since it
acts as an insulator when it accumulates and thus prevents
the generator from getting enough heat to do its job
efficiently. Also, keep the flue clear of obstructions, since
the flue draft is designed to work with the burner for best
operation. In addition, keep dust accumulations off the
condenser so that it will be able to transfer heat. This is
important, since the condenser in an absorption system is
more sensitive than that in a conventional type
refrigerator. The only adjustment that you can make is to
the flame to insure that it is clean and that it gives a
minimum of carbon. A flame which is too yellow gives
low heat and will not give satisfactory service because the
flue will gather excessive soot and need cleaning too
often.
2-7. An important aspect of correct installation of an
absorption refrigerator is to be sure that it is placed level.
When checking with a level, be sure that you check the
unit rather than the box. Why? Because unless the unit is
level, the system cannot operate properly. On the other
hand when a unit is level, it will work correctly even if
the box is slightly out of plumb.
2-8. When a box is placed in service after having
been left idle for an extended period of time, it may not
function at a cool enough temperature to make ice cubes.
One suggested remedy for this condition is to remove the
unit from the box and turn it upside down for an hour.
Then install the unit and reconnect it to the gas line.
Thereafter, it should function properly when fired up. Of
course, you might find it simpler to disconnect the gas
line and turn the whole box upside down for an hour.
Otherwise, the main reasons for poor unit operation are an
incorrect flame and/or too much dirt clogging the heat
exchanger surfaces.
6
3. Compression System Refrigerator Components
3-1. The main parts of a domestic type refrigerator
are discussed in this section. These are compressors,
condensers, evaporators, and refrigerant controls. We
will cover the common types of each and their various
applications. The hermetic system is used with all
domestic boxes. We will also discuss refrigerator
performance as it relates to the components of
compression system refrigeration.
3-2. Reciprocating Compressors. The operating
principle of a compressor is closely related to the
refrigeration cycle. A brief review of the principles of
refrigeration is appropriate at this time. When a gas is
compressed, it gets hotter. When pressure on a gas is
lowered, it gets cooler. When a liquid becomes a gas, it
picks up heat. The gas passing through a compressor gets
hotter. It gives up this heat in the condenser, where it
becomes a liquid. It changes from liquid to gas in the
evaporator, where it picks up heat (cools the evaporator)
and carries this heat through the compressor back to the
condenser, where it is again cooled. The function of the
compressor is to make the required pressure changes on
the refrigerant so that it can do its work. High pressure is
on the condenser side (high side) and low pressure on the
suction side (low side).
3-3. The reciprocating compressor consists of a
cylinder and head, a piston and connecting rod, intake and
exhaust valves, servicing valves, fly-wheel, crankshaft
and crankshaft seal, and suction strainer. Clearances as
small as 0.0001 inch are possible between the moving
pans, because the compressor is operating in a closed
environment where the temperature range is relatively
narrow.
3-4. The piston may be driven in a number of ways.
In one, the crankshaft may be like the kind used in
automotive engines. Another type uses an eccentric
crankshaft which operates like a cam. Still another is the
scotch yoke mechanism which uses a pin mounted off
center to the crankshaft. A sliding member inside the
piston permits the rotation of the pin to be translated into
up-and-down motion. Variations such as these are
possible because gases are being pumped which do not
produce heavy bearing loads. The piston is made to come
as close as possible to the head without touching.
Clearance may be as little as 0.01 inch at top dead center.
3-5. Exhaust and intake valves are usually made of
thin disks of steel which seat against shoulders in the
valve plate. These valves are sometimes called flutter or
reed valves. Pressure in the cylinder closes the intake
valve and raises the exhaust valve on compression. On
the intake stroke, pressure in the suction line opens the
intake
valve, while back pressure from the high side closes the low range. The restrictor used in some refrigerators is a
exhaust valve. Valves are designed to operate at a weighted valve, and the method employed is called a
maximum lift of 0.10 inch. Beyond this point, the valve weighted valve system.
gets noisy. 3-11. A box which uses a weighted valve must be
3-6. Rotary Compressors. Fewer moving parts and installed level to insure proper operation. If the position
less vibration are advantages of the rotary, which is made of the valve is disturbed from the correct position, the box
in two styles. One style uses an eccentric shaft with blade will not perform properly. For example, certain boxes use
which is forced against the shaft by a spring. The blade a weighted valve which is designed to operate properly at
slides back and forth in a slot in the case between the an angle of 60° from the horizontal. If the valve is tilted
intake and exhaust. As the shaft turns, it traps a gas too much toward the vertical, the food compartment will
charge at the intake and sweeps it around to the exhaust. get warmer. On the other hand, too much tilt toward the
Oil makes the seal for the blade so that the gas will be horizontal will make the fresh food compartment colder.
compressed. The indication of this trouble is continuous operation of
3-7. In another style of rotary, vanes are mounted in the compressor and partial frosting of the food
slots on the shaft. The shape of the case around the vanes compartment evaporator coil. Either or both symptoms
is eccentric. Centrifugal force holds the vanes in may be present.
continuous contact with the eccentric wall. The inlet port 3-12. The second arrangement uses an evaporator coil
is located in the wall furthest from the shaft, at the spot in the freezer compartment in combination with a
where a gas charge is picked up between two vanes. As secondary closed loop coil. This secondary coil acts as
the shaft turns, the space between the shaft and the wall both a condenser and an evaporator. You can see in
becomes smaller, compressing the charge of gas. The figure 4 that part of the closed loop is in the freezer. This
exhaust port is set in the case where the shaft almost rubs part of the coil acts as a condenser, while the rest of the
against the case. The compressed charge of gas is forced loop in the refrigerator acts as an evaporator. One major
out the exhaust at this point.
3-8. The exhaust valve is a flapper type made of
spring steel. A muffler is placed in the high-pressure line
to suppress the popping noise which accompanies the
release of a gas charge. The suction line is provided with
a check valve to prevent gas from leaking back when the
compressor is stopped. The suction strainer prevents dirt
particles from entering the compressor.
3-9. Condensers. Among the kinds of condensers
which you should know are (1) the finned coil with forced
convection, (2) the finned coil with natural convection,
and (3) the plate condenser with natural convection. Coils
may be mounted in an upright, an inclined, or a horizontal
position. The first few turns of coil may be placed under
the pan which collects water from defrosting.
Evaporation of this water aids the condenser in dissipation
of heat. Between the condenser and the evaporator is a
capillary tube firmly soldered to the suction line in order
to operate as a heat exchanger.
3-10. Evaporator Arrangements. While one
condenser may serve a combination refrigerator, there are
three general arrangements for the evaporator to cool the
two areas. In one arrangement, the evaporator coil in the
freezer is extended into the refrigerator compartment. A
restrictor separates the two sections of the evaporator coil,
as shown in figure 3. The capillary tube is omitted for
simplicity. The refrigerant goes first to the cooling coil,
which is forced by the restrictor to operate at a higher
pressure and temperature. After passing the restrictor, the
refrigerant is at a lower pressure and absorbs sufficient Figure 3. Dual temperature system.
heat to drop the temperature in the freezer to the desired

7

Figure 4. Closed secondary system.
advantage of this is that the closed loop can be designed
to operate frost free.
3-13. A third arrangement uses one of several
combinations of the first two methods. These various
combinations are designed with the object of either
automatic defrosting or frost-free operation. Some of
these combinations rely on air circulation to get better
results. Slots between the two areas will allow convection
currents to circulate, or a fan may be used for forced air to
insure a more uniform temperature.
3-14. When only one coil forms the evaporator in the
freezer compartment, it is called "air spill over." The
method is called "refrigerant spill over" when two coils
are used in series. When a separate evaporator is used to
form a closed loop the method is known as a secondary
refrigerant system.
3-15. Regardless of which arrangement is used for the
evaporator, the system depends on a capillary tube with
its heat exchanger function for proper operation.
3-16. Capillary Tubes. A capillary tube is used to
control the refrigerant by placing a restriction in the liquid
line. It is sometimes called a choke tube, a more
descriptive name. The inside diameter and the length of
the tube are critical factors. The diameter of the tube
determines the restriction which it will have to control the
8
flow of refrigerant. The length of the capillary must be
long enough so that the liquid will have started to change
to a gas as it nears the end of the tube. A selected portion
of the tube is soldered to the suction line forming a heat
exchanger. The length of the heat exchanger is calculated
in the design so that the capillary will deliver liquid at the
proper temperature. If the solder connection is broken,
the heat exchanger will be lost, and the unit will not
perform properly.
3-17. Starting Relays. At one time, the thermostat
was used directly to control starting and stopping the
compressor motor. The feeler bulb in older units was
located in the freezer compartment. In some refrigerators,
the feeler bulb is above a small access panel in the top of
the freezer. Now, you will find that most refrigerators are
provided with a starting relay, which provides two
advantages: First, the relay can be located close to the
motor. Second, the relay can handle the motor current
more easily.
3-18. Changes in temperature in a refrigerator cause
operation of the thermostat, which controls operation of
the relay. The starting and stopping of the compressor
motor is under the control of the relay. The
characteristics of the motor (current and internal
resistance) will determine the size of the relay used with
it. Since these relays are sensitive to temperature
changes, they are located where they will be least subject
to changes. The three most common types are (1) the
current relay; (2) the voltage, or potential, relay; and (3)
the hot wire relay. We will discuss the operation of each
so that you will understand the troubles you might find.
3-19. Hot wire relays. One type of hot wire relay uses
two bimetal strips and two heater resistors. In figure 5,
there is a schematic diagram which shows the connections
for the relay and motor. The motor terminals are
identified by C for common, R for run, and S for the start
winding. When the motor control closes, electricity is
applied to both the running and the starting wind-
Figure 5. Hot wire relay.
 Figure 6. Current relay.
ings. The capacitor in the circuit of the starting winding
gives the motor more starting torque. The resistor, in
series with the bottom bimetal strip is designed to heat
enough of the starting current so that it will cause the
bimetal strip to bend up. This opens the circuit to the
capacitor and the starting winding. The bleeder resistor
across the capacitor keeps the relay contacts from being
burned. The upper bimetal strip is heated by the upper
resistor by the current going to the running winding. As
long as the current to the running winding is normal, there
will not be sufficient heat to make the upper bimetal strip
open. Thus, you can see that the strip in the "run" circuit
acts as an overload device. The current in the "run"
resistor also serves to keep the bimetal strip in the start
circuit from cooling so that its contacts remain open until
the motor stops. If, for any reason, the motor current
becomes excessive, the overload contacts will open and
stop the motor. However, a disadvantage of this overload
protection is that as soon as the device cools, the contacts
will close and the motor will start again. It will then
short-cycle until the circuit is opened. Failures such as
this are rare, however. A variation of the hot wire relay
uses a wire under tension to operate the contacts. In any
case, the hot wire relay has been proved reliable in
thousands of commercially made refrigerators.
3-20. Current relays. You will find that figure 6 is a
schematic diagram of a current relay. Many refrigerators
are equipped with this type of relay. For the sake of
variety, this schematic shows a diagram which is typical
9
of the control circuit for a water cooler. The only
essential difference between this and the circuit for a
refrigerator is the freezestat. Its purpose is to prevent the
chilled drinking water from being frozen. The freezestat
will stop the compressor motor (if the thermostat does
not) to prevent the formation of ice which could damage
the tank. The thermal overload protects the motor from
burning out by opening the circuit if the motor draws too
much current. Excessive heat from the resistors makes
the bimetal strip bend, which breaks the circuit.
3-21. Operation of the current relay occurs as soon as
the thermostat closes the circuit to the motor. The inrush
of current to the running winding is strong enough so that
the coil pulls the armature up and completes the starting
winding circuit. This happens in a fraction of a second,
putting the starting winding and its capacitor in the
circuit. As the motor approaches its operating speed, the
motor current drops because of counter electromotive
force (cemf). The coil in the relay is designed so that it
will release when the motor r.p.m. passes three-fourths of
its normal speed. The current in the relay coil is not
sufficient to hold the weight of the armature when the
motor is operating at its normal speed; therefore, the relay
contacts open. A bleeder resistor is connected in parallel
with the capacitor. Its purpose is to prevent a high-
voltage discharge from the capacitor, which would burn
the contacts in the relay as they open. An advantage of
using a current relay is that the contacts in the thermostat
are
only required to close on the inrush current to the running
winding. Furthermore. the contacts in the relay are only
required to carry the inrush current to the starting
winding.
3-22. Servicing (i.e. troubleshooting) a current relay
consists of checking the circuits for proper operation. As
there are no adjustments, a relay which does not operate
properly must be replaced. If the relay contacts are badly
burned, the bleeder resistor should be checked for correct
resistance. Some capacitors have the bleeder resistor
made as an integral part of the capacitor. If the resistor is
found defective, a new resistor of the correct wattage and
resistance can be connected across the capacitor to make a
repair.
3-23. Testing a current relay can he confusing. At
least one maker uses a metal washer as the armature.
When the coil is not energized, the washer lies (on the
bottom of the case. You can hear it rattle when the case is
tapped. If you did not know better, you might assume
that something had broken loose and that therefore it was
defective. Also, a relay of this make might be defective
even though you could hear no rattle as the armature
could be welded to the contacts. In addition, current
relays are sensitive to position; consequently, they must
Figure 7. Potential relay.
10
be mounted horizontal or level to insure proper operation
and normal life.
3-24. Potential relays. A voltage sensitive, or
potential, relay will have its coil connected in parallel
with the starting winding of the compressor motor. The
schematic diagram in figure 7 is typical of the wiring of a
motor provided with this type of relay. The defrost
switch and circuits associated with it have been discussed
already in the first section of this chapter. The contacts of
the thermostat must be heavy enough to carry the inrush
starting current to the compressor motor. An advantage
of the potential relay is that the relay contacts are
normally closed. Even so, the capacitor discharge across
the relay contacts when they open may cause them to burn
and be welded together. Thus, a bleeder resistor is
required across the capacitor to prevent any welding of
the contacts. The value of resistance for a bleeder is
usually 15,000 ohms, and it is rated at 2 watts.
3-25. Operation of the potential relay does not occur
until the motor passes three-fourths of its speed. The
relay coil is voltage sensitive and requires considerably
more than the line voltage to make it operate. When the
thermostat contacts close, the motor starts, because both
motor windings are energized. The contacts in the relay
are
normally closed. As the motor approaches its operating
speed, the current decreases. Induced volt age in the
starting winding now becomes greater than the applied
voltage. The reason for this lies in a transformer action
between the two windings in the motor. The voltage
sensitive coil in the relay is sufficiently energized to open
the contacts in the starting winding. The relay remains
energized by the voltage induced in the starting winding.
When the thermostat opens, the motor stops, and the relay
contacts return to the closed position.
3-26. Servicing a potential relay consists of checking
the coil and the contacts for continuity if troubles arc
suspected. Like other relays, the potential relay is
sensitive to position and must be mounted level to insure
proper operation and normal life. Since there are no
adjustments, a defective relay must be replaced. A badly
burned set of relay contacts would indicate that the
bleeder resistor should be tested and replaced if it is open.
3-27. Resistors. A bleeder resistor should have a
resistance between 15,000 and 30,000 ohms, depending
on the size of the motor and the capacitor. A 2-watt
rating is satisfactory for a refrigerator. The wattage rating
is stamped on the body as "2 W." A resistor which is color
coded will have bands of color painted on the body. Here
are four examples:
Decimal multiplier
Ohms First band Second band Third band
15,000 Brown (l) Green (5) Orange (000)
20,000 Red (2) Black (0) Orange (000)
25,000 Red (2) Green (5) Orange (000)
29,000 Red (2) White (9) Orange (000)
3-28. Refrigerator Performance. So that you can
evaluate the operation of a refrigerator, analyze troubles,
and take the most economical means of repair, you must
know its performance characteristics. Some of the factors
which you should consider are these: electrical
consumption, percentage of compressor running time,
relative temperatures and types of use, vibration or noise,
and continuous operation. Relative temperatures, of
course, include room temperature and room humidity
(mentioned below) and the temperature, respectively, of
the freezer section and the refrigerator section (not
discussed below). Continuous operation, although
discussed below, is caused by troubles not normally
considered in refrigerator performance.
3-29. Electrical consumption is figured in kilowatt-
hours per 24-hour period. You may obtain a recording
type meter from the electric shop on the base or from the
local utility company when an actual test is necessary.
You may compare the results with standard test curves
furnished by the maker of the box. A modern refrigerator
11
may use from 2 kilowatt-hours to 8 kilowatt-hours in a
24-hour period, depending on the size of the cabinet and
the difference between cabinet and room temperature.
3-30. The percentage of compressor running time is
affected by various variable conditions, but normal use in
a 75° F. room will require the compressor to operate one-
third of the time. Any large increase in running time
indicates there are abnormal conditions. For example,
setting the thermostat for a refrigerator temperature of 20°
F, when a temperature close to 38° is considered normal
will increase the compressor running time.
3-31. Relative temperatures and type of use are just
two of the variables which affect performance. Increased
room temperature and room humidity put a heavier load
on the compressor. A difference of 20° room temperature
may double the running time and electric power used.
Higher humidity will produce frost at a greater rate
causing a reduction in evaporator efficiency. Type of use
includes frequency and duration of door openings as well
as the foods stored in the refrigerator. Uncovered liquids
will cause an automatic defrost to cycle more frequently.
Unusual load would also result if the freezer is required to
make a great many ice cubes.
3-32. Vibration or noise is rare in the modern
refrigerator as the capillary tube system used by most
manufacturers requires no moving parts except for the
compressor and the motor. Vibration may result from a
defective mounting. For instance, one of the more
common causes is failure to release the holddown bolts
for the compressor, which were installed before shipment
of the cabinet. On the other hand, a unit will be noisy if it
is low on oil. Thus, if a leak has developed, requiring that
refrigerant must be replaced, then it is likely that oil has
also been lost and must be replaced. One clue to watch
for is this: A noisy capillary tube will usually indicate low
refrigerant, and this results in gas noises such as bubbling
or hissing. Of course, low refrigerant is also indicated by
a partially frosted cooling coil and continuous compressor
operation. In the latter event, low- and high-side
pressures will be lower than normal. You should also not
that a capillary tube which is clogged or pinched will
show a high vacuum on the low side and an abnormally
high head pressure.
3-33. Continuous operation can be caused by a
defective thermostat, one which does not cut the
compressor off. Any abnormal condition which causes
continuous operation may be obscured at the time you are
called because overheating may cause the motor overload
protection to operate. Thus, when you get to look at the
unit, you may find it short-cycling; that is, the overload
device will be shutting the unit off. When it cools
enough, the unit will start again. A fast check of
this can be made by feeling the temperature of the motor
and compressor with your hand. Many compressors now
have the overload protector inside the shell, where the
heat from the motor will prevent the unit from short-
cycling. One last item which is often overlooked is low
line voltage, which will make a motor run slow and
overheat. Where a television set is used in the same
building as the refrigerator, low line voltage is indicated if
the picture fails to fill the tube. This is one way of
verifying low voltage when a voltmeter is not available.
You must remember to consider all of the factors when
you evaluate the performance of a unit.
4. Freezers
4-1. Many homes today have domestic freezers for
the storage of large amounts of frozen foods. These
freezer cabinets are either of the upright style or of the
chest style and range in size from 15 to over 25 cubic feet.
In such freezers the capillary type system with a hermetic
unit is widely used. Also, in many cases, the compressor
employed is similar to those used for refrigerators.
Upright freezers are supplied with forced-air circulation
when they are made for frost-free operation. Automatic
defrosting is done by the hot gas or the hot wire method
used in combination refrigerators. Because of the
similarity of the two systems, troubleshooting a freezer
can be done by the same rules as for a refrigerator.
Troubleshooting a hermetic system follows this section.
The construction features of a freezer are often the same
as a refrigerator. Therefore, the information here is
concerned with those features which apply to freezers.
4-2. Operation and Care. The operating
temperature for domestic freezers is in the range of 0° F.
to 10° F. Each such freezer is equipped with a thermostat
so that it can be adjusted to satisfy the user's desires.
Most foods are already frozen when placed in storage, but
when nonfrozen foods are placed in the freezer, it would
be desirable for the user to move the control to a colder
position in order both (1) to insure faster freezing and (2)
to prevent the thawing of other foods. Food must be
stacked so as not to interfere with air circulation, as this
would cause warm spots to develop in the cabinet. Food
must also be wrapped in moisture proof and vaporproof
material to prevent desiccation.
4-3. A freezer cabinet in normal usage will require
defrosting about twice a year. Frost may be removed by
means of a scraper, such as a wooden paddle, or with a
stiff fiber brush. Use care not to damage the finish.
When you desire a complete defrosting, however, remove
all frozen foods and store them in dry ice to prevent
thawing. Then shut off the power and use warm water to
12
hasten melting of the ice. Of course, you should never try
to chip ice from coils, as such action might damage them
beyond repair. Also, wash the box with a solution of
baking soda or ammonia, and always dry the inside of the
box before putting it back in service.
4-4. Construction Features. To prevent frosting
around the door, a mullion heater of low wattage is
installed in back of the breaker strip. By this means, too,
sweating around the door is virtually eliminated, because
the heater is operating continuously. Fiberglas, rock
wool, and certain synthetics are used for insulation of
present day freezers. Consequently, where formerly a 3-
to 4-inch thickness of insulation was used in cabinets, you
may now find them built with walls less than 2 inches
thick. Yet, because of the colder chest temperature,
freezer insulation must be better protected against
moisture than that in a refrigerator. The most effective
method for accomplishing this has been found to be a
combination of venting and sealing. Venting is provided
to prevent a partial vacuum which would occur in a sealed
box as the temperature of the air is lowered. If the
insulation scaling is to be effective, however, it must have
greater resistance than the venting. Thus, the vent will
allow box pressure to equalize while the seal remains
intact.
4-5. Freezer Failure and Alarms. Within 24 hours
after a freezer fails, the foods it contains will start to thaw.
If this is discovered in time, dry ice can be used to prevent
the thawing while repairs are made to the unit.
Otherwise, meats and fresh frozen fruits must be used
quickly, as it is new satisfactory-or safe-to freeze them a
second time. To avoid this situation, alarm devices are
made which will signal a rise in temperature to 15° F. in
the cabinet. The alarm is given by both visual and audible
means. Two kinds of alarms are available. One is made
for operation on a 6-volt battery. The other is made for
operation on a 110-volt circuit. The latter should be
plugged into a branch circuit different from that used for
the freezer. The thermal element should be located in the
upper part of the cabinet, where it will reflect a rise in
temperature quickly. While such alarm devices are not
generally supplied for domestic units, they can be
installed in any freezer cabinet.
4-6. In the next section, we will deal with
troubleshooting hermetic systems. You will not find any
distinction between refrigerators and freezers, because
they both use the same kind of hermetic systems. The
main difference between refrigerators in general and
freezers is that only part of a refrigerator is held at near
zero temperature.
5. Troubleshooting Hermetic Systems
5-1. The sealed system preferred for freezers and
refrigerators is called a closed or hermetic system. The
shell which contains the motor and compressors is welded
shut, thus the name “sealed unit?” The motor leads pass
through a glass insulator, which is bonded to the metal to
insure a joint that will never leak. The one big advantage
of a hermetic compressor is that there are no seals where
leaks can develop. This eliminates at least one trouble
spot from the system used in domestic refrigerators and
freezers. But, as you know, there are still enough other
trouble spots to keep a serviceman busy.
5-2. The best troubleshooter puts his brain to work
before reaching for the toolbox. The first action on the
job should be to question the user. Ask him, for example,
these things:
• When did you first notice this trouble?
• How often does it happen?
• Does it happen at night as well as during the
day?
• Has the unit been making a strange noise?
• Is this condition intermittent or is it continuous?
• Does this happen on just certain days of the
week?
The answers to such leading questions should enable you
to determine whether the trouble is being caused by
misuse. By eliminating outside factors at the beginning,
you will know that you are dealing with a fault in the
equipment itself. After this, consider the possible
electrical troubles first, as they can usually be checked
easily and quickly.
5-3. Electrical Troubles. There is a logical sequence
which should be followed in making tests on the electrical
system. The first check seems so simple that it is often
overlooked. Remember, the unit cannot operate without
electrical power. A quick reference for common faults is
given in table 1, together with the possible causes and
their remedies. Such a trouble chart is most useful, since
it presents a great many facts in a small space. In
addition, you will sometimes find the solution to a
problem while studying a troubleshooting table, even
though the specific fault does not appear in the table.
Often, in fact, a common fault is passed by because it
seems too obvious. The serviceman may think that a
common fault is too easy and could not possibly be the
trouble he was hunting. Do not prejudge; instead, make
reasonable "guesses" from what you see and the trouble
chart, then test to find out the practical results. In the
following paragraphs, we have given you a detailed
explanation of the most likely troubles to be found in the
electrical system.
13
5-4. Power supply. Check the source of power for
voltage to the unit. How? With a voltmeter or a
multimeter! In the case of a refrigerator, open the door. If
the light does not come on, there are several possibilities:
(1) the power circuit is incomplete to the unit; (2) the
lamp is burned out; (3) the door switch is defective; (4)
the circuit to the unit may be good, but the wires to the
lamp and the door switch are broken somewhere in the
box. If the lamp lights, you will know that there is power
to the unit. However, check the voltage with an accurate
voltmeter when you suspect low voltage. Remember: The
line voltage may vary 10 to 15 volts with changes in the
load during the day. Most units will not show difficulty
unless the voltage drops below 105 volts.
5-5. Overload protection and controls. Make sure
that the extension cord is disconnected be, fore making a
continuity test on the protector. With an ohmmeter or a
test lamp, check for a continuous circuit through the
overload protector. If it tests open, you have found at
least one trouble which will prevent the compressor motor
from operating. Replace a defective overload protector
and check the unit for normal operation. Many
compressors have the overload protectors located inside
the shell. A distinctive label on the compressor is used to
indicate an internal mounting. Placing a protector inside
the shell has the effect of extending the cooling period
after an overload trips. Remember, when checking an
overload protector mounted inside, allow the compressor
sufficient time to cool so that the protector has a chance to
automatically reset itself. How long is "sufficient time"?
When you can rest your hand comfortably on the shell,
the compressor should have cooled enough for you to
make a valid test of the overload contacts.
5-6. Check, too, all control switches for proper
operation, since one open switch will prevent the unit
from operating. Such items as thermostats, defrost
controls, and freezestats are all designed to open and close
the primary circuit. Remember the function of the item
which you are checking, because an open circuit may not
mean that the device is defective. A thermostat should
show an open circuit if the feeler bulb is colder than its
operating point. A defrost control will be open if the
timer is in the defrost cycle. Some defrost systems have a
reset which is actuated by an increase in temperature
above a set point. A freezestat will show an open circuit
when it senses a temperature lower than its operating
point. You can check the operation of a device by raising
or lowering its temperature. A thermostat is checked by
placing the feeler bulb in a glass of ice and water. An
ohmmeter or test light is connected across the contacts so
that the time of opening and closing can be observed. A
thermometer is placed in a glass of water and its
temperature is
 Table 1
read at the time the contacts open. Remove the ice and
add warm water slowly till the contacts close. Again read
the temperature of the water. Replace the thermostat if it
does not conform with manufacturer’s specifications.
5-7. Motor circuit. A hermetic system can be
checked quickly with a motor-start analyzer. It will check
for continuity in motor windings, for shorted windings,
and for grounded windings. It can also be used to start a
motor and can reverse the direction of rotation. The
analyzer contains capacitors which can be used in the
14
motor circuit to increase its starting torque. Higher
starting torque or momentary reversing are two ways of
unlocking a compressor which for some internal reason
cannot be started normally. When an analyzer is not
available, plug the refrigerator cord into an outlet and test
for voltage at the terminal block where the cord
terminates. There should be voltage at the terminals if the
cord is good. If the motor runs, you should use a clamp
type ammeter to check for correct motor current. Next,
you must unplug the cord and make some continuity
checks with a test light or an ohmmeter.
Unless you are familiar with the electrical system, you
will need a wiring diagram for the unit which you are
testing.
5-8. Some compressors have an electric heater in the
crankcase to prevent condensing of the refrigerant during
off time. Liquid refrigerant can cause slugging and
damage the compressor. One manufacturer used a
capacitor with one of the motor windings to act as a
heater during compressor off time. Such a motor would
always be "live" even when not running. Be sure of the
type of motor used before you attempt to trace the motor
circuit. Determine the type of relay (hot wire, current, or
potential relay) which is installed in the unit After you
have checked the diagram and understand the circuit, you
will be ready to check out that specific motor.
5-9. For purposes of our explanation, refer to figure
7, which illustrates the circuit for a potential relay. We
will use the compressor motor circuit shown in figure 7 to
identify the motor's terminals in the following discussion.
Make a continuity check from C to S and between C and
R. A test lamp should light almost normal in each case if
the windings are good. An open circuit is indicated when
the lamp fails to light. Note that this test is valid only if
direct current is used to energize the circuit. If alternating
current is the only power available for the test lamp, the
common connection at C must be opened. Otherwise, the
closed contacts of the relay and the capacitor will make a
complete circuit. Opening C is not necessary when
checking with an ohmmeter, because it uses direct current
from self-contained batteries. The reason is that a
capacitor blocks direct current while it allows alternating
current to flow. See the paragraph for testing capacitors,
where the capacitor is explained more fully.
5-10. To test for a grounded motor winding, check
from terminal C to an unpainted part of the compressor-
motor shell. An ohmmeter must be used to measure the
resistance of the motor windings to test for a shorted coil.
Readings should compare closely to the specifications of
the manufacturer. A severely shorted coil would be
indicated by tripping of the branch circuit breaker or by
blowing of the fuse when the unit is plugged into the
voltage outlet. If tests indicate that the motor windings
are at fault, the hermetic unit must be replaced.
5-11. If the motor runs but overheats during operation,
a current draw test with a clamp type ammeter will give
an indication of conditions. Motor current should be
within 10 percent of nameplate rating on the unit. The
nameplate may give two amperage figures, such as FLA
3.5 and LRA 18.0 The FLA stands for "full load
amperage," while LRA stands for "locked rotor
amperage.” If the current exceeds the nameplate rating by
more than 10 percent, it is considered unsatisfactory, and
15
the hermetic unit must be replaced. A motor drawing its
LRA rating indicates that the rotor is not turning.
Conditions inside the sealed unit will also be indicated by
unusual vibration and noises. For tests of the refrigeration
system, see Mechanical Troubles, paragraph 5-17.
5-12. Testing capacitors. We will discuss two
methods for testing a capacitor. When the capacitor can
be disconnected from the circuit and the bleeder resistor, a
reasonable test is to charge and then discharge it with its
normal voltage (of over 120 v). Charge it by momentarily
applying voltage to its terminals. Then use a piece of
insulated wire to short circuit the terminals. A hot spark
indicates that the capacitor is able to hold a charge. Some
capacitors have a bleeder resistor of between 15,000 and
30,000 ohms which is in the form of an integral part that
cannot be disconnected. This type of capacitor may be
checked by connecting an ammeter and a 10-, 15-, or 20-
amp fuse in series with the capacitor. Apply 120 volts to
the capacitor just long enough to read the ammeter. If the
fuse blows, the capacitor is shorted and must be replaced.
Use a fuse large enough to carry the current and make
sure that the current will not be so great as to drive the
ammeter needle off the scale. For example, a 20-mfd
capacitor at 120 volts should draw less than 1 ampere,
while a 400-mfd capacitor at 120 volts will draw 18
amperes. When making a test, apply voltage to a
capacitor just long enough to read the ammeter. The
current measured should be within 20 percent of that
determined by the formula given where mfd is the rating
in microfarads and v is the normal applied voltage. The
number 2650 is a constant for 60-cycle current, while
3180 is the constant used when calculating a circuit using
50-cycle current.
A defective capacitor must be replaced by one of the
voltage and mfd rating or the equivalent as specified by
the manufacturer.
5-13. Testing relays. Before testing a relay, you must
know the type. "You may have a schematic diagram
which shows the hookup of the relay but does not identify
it by name. You should be so familiar with the common
types that you know their characteristics well enough to
identify them. A fan motor is used in some units for
forced-air circulation. The diagram in figure 6 shows an
example of a relay and a fan motor in
the same circuit. The fan motor must be disconnected
before testing the relay.
5-14. Referring to figure 5, you will see a type of hot
wire relay that has two bimetal strips, two resistors or
heaters, and two set of contacts. Both sets of contacts
should be dosed when the relay is not energized. The
start contact should open soon as the motor reaches
operating speed. You can verify opening of the start
contacts with a voltmeter which should read line voltage
across the start contacts. A zero reading will indicate that
the contacts are not opening.
5-15. The current relay shown in figure 6 can be
checked for continuity through the coil and for an open
circuit across the contacts when it is not energized. The
contacts close on starting but should remain open while
the motor is running. Use direct current, such as with an
ohmmeter, to test across the relay contacts, as a.c. can
feed around through the motor winding and the capacitor,
giving a false reading of continuity.
5-16. The potential relay, which is shown in figure 7,
must be isolated from the compressor motor before
testing. Open the R and S leads at the terminals on the
relay. Check the relay connects between R ad S for
continuity. The contacts are normally closed; thus, the
test should show a complete circuit. A test between S and
terminal L should also show a complete circuit through
the coil of the relay. If either test shows an open circuit,
the relay is defective and must be replaced.
5-17. Mechanical Troubles. The mechanical troubles
found in a refrigerator can be divided into two categories:
(1) those which are caused by defect in manufacture, and
(2) those which are the result of mishandling or accident.
A quick review of mechanical troubles is furnished in
table 2, where possible causes are listed with their related
faults. As the repair or replacement of components
involves the use of soldering and welding equipment, a
review of this subject is presented before we discus the
procedures to follow with specific items.
6. Braxing, Cutting, and Welding
6-1. Before you can join metals or make repairs you
must know how to use welding equipment properly.
Safety for yourself is stressed so that you can do this work
without danger to your self. First, the safety rules which
you should know will be presented. Then we will discuss
the equipment and explain procedures for brazing with
alloys, silver brazing, welding copper, and cutting metal.
6-2. Safety Rules. Study the following rules so that
you will understand them. Apply the rules in your work
so that you will set a good example for others to follow.
You will avoid accidents this way:
• Never drop a cylinder or allow it to fall.
• Never bump a cylinder or otherwise handle it
roughly.
16
• Never lay an acetylene cylinder on its side. In
addition to acetylene, the tank also contains
infusorial earth, which will get into the regulator
and valves if the tank is placed on its side. Also,
safety plugs in the bottom of the tank will pass
harmlessly into the floor if the cylinder is
standing up when they blow out.
• Never allow oil or grease to come into contact
with oxygen; specifically, never direct a jet of
oxygen at an oil-soaked surface. Spontaneous
combustion may result.
• Never lay an oxygen cylinder on its side. The
top of the cylinder carries the safety plug. If it
blows while the cylinder is on its side, the
exhaust pressure released will propel the cylinder
like a rocket.
• Never use oil, grease, or any lubricant on a torch.
• Never hang a torch or hoses on regulators or
cylinder valves.
• Never use matches for lighting a torch, as your
hand may be seriously burned as a result. Use a
friction igniter or a suitable pilot light.
• Never light the torch from hot metal when
working in a confined space. Accumulated
fumes can flare or explode.
• Never weld where hot sparks can set fire to
material or where sparks can fall on your legs or
on the hoses.
• Always wear goggles designed for the welding
work or brazing which you are doing.
• Never block yourself from the cylinders when
you are working; make sure that you can get to
them easily and quickly from your working
position.
• Never store cylinders in direct sunlight or near
heaters.
• A valve clogged with ice may be thawed with
warm water; however, never use a flame or
boiling water for this purpose.
• Never test for acetylene leaks with a flame
because of the danger of a flareback and a
cylinder fire. Use soapy water, instead.
• Always open valves slowly.
• Always keep the special wrench used to turn
acetylene on and off near the valve so that it can
be turned off quickly in an emergency.
• Never hammer or beat on a valve; furthermore,
do not attempt to adjust a valve or a gauge which
does not work.
• Replace protective caps on the cylinders
whenever gauges have been removed.
6-3. Oxygen and Acetylene Apparatus. In figure 8
you will find an illustration of oxygen and acetylene
cylinders and the accessories used with
 TABLE 2
a soldering and welding torch. The rules for properly
setting up this apparatus are as follows:
• Place the oxygen and acetylene cylinders on a
level floor and secure them so that they cannot
be
• accidentally knocked over. Then remove the
protecting caps.
• Crack each cylinder valve just enough to blow
out dirt or foreign matter. Close the valve as
soon as the throat is clear, then wipe off the
seats. (NOTE: Do not stand in front of a valve
when cracking it.)
• First, connect the acetylene regulator to the
acetylene cylinder; then, second, connect the
oxygen regulator to the oxygen cylinder. Use a
17
close-fitting wrench to tighten the connections
sufficiently to prevent leakage.
• Connect the red hose to the acetylene regulator.
As you do this, note the left-hand threads on the
acetylene hose connections. Next, connect the
green hose to the oxygen regulator. Screw the
connections tight enough to prevent leaking.
• Release the regulator screws to avoid damage to
the regulators and gauges and open the cylinder
valves slowly. Read the high-pressure gauge to
check the pressure of the contents in each
cylinder.
 Figure 8. Oxygen and acetylene apparatus.
• Blow out the oxygen hose. By turning in the
regulator screw; open each regulator (two
gauges) so as to blow out the hose; then release
the regulator screw. If it is necessary to blow out
the acetylene hose, you must do the work in a
place which is both well ventilated and free from
sparks or flame.
• Connect the red acetylene hose to the torch needle
valve stamped "AC" and the green oxygen hose
to the torch needle valve stamped "OX." Test all
hose connections for leaks at the torch and at the
regulator by turning in both regulator screws
with the torch needle valves closed. Release the
18
regulator screws after testing and drain both lines
by opening the torch needle valves.
• Slip the tip nut over the mixing head, screw the tip
into the mixing head, and assemble it in the torch
body. Then tighten the assembly by hand and
adjust the tip to the proper angle. Secure the
adjustment by tightening it with the tip-nut
wrench.
• Adjust acetylene working pressure by open-
 TABLE 3
ing the acetylene torch needle valve and turning the
regulator screw to the right for the required pressure
according to the size of the tip. Adjust oxygen working
pressure in the same manner, according to tables 3 and 4.
For tip sizes in the low-pressure or injector type of torch
use table 3. For tip sizes in the medium-pressure or
balanced-pressure type of torch, use table 4. (NOTE: In
table 4, each of the first three sizes requires 1 pound of
pressure, while the others take the same number of
pounds of pressure as the tip size. The size of the tip that
you choose is determined by both the thickness of the
metal or tubing and the area which must be heated.)
6-4. Shutting down the torch safely involves the
following 6-step procedure:
• First close the acetylene valve on the torch.
• Second, close the oxygen valve on the torch.
• Third, close the acetylene and oxygen cylinder
valves.
• Fourth, drain both the regulators and hoses.
Open the torch acetylene valve until gas flow
TABLE 4
19
stops; then close the valve. Drain the oxygen
regulator and hose in the same manner. Both the
high- and low-pressure gauges on the oxygen
and acetylene regulators should now read "zero."
• Fifth, release the tension on both regulator
screws by turning them to the left until they
rotate freely.
• Sixth, coil the hose and suspend it in a suitable
holder, being careful to avoid kinking the hose.
6-5. Use of Alloys for Braxing. The alloys used for
silver brazing all have a melting point above 1000° F.
This is, however, still below the melting point of the base
metals to be joined. When properly made, the joint will
be at least strong as the metals joined. You must swage
one end of tubing which is to be joined. The swaging
tools must be clean and free of oil. This will produce a
swaged end which does not require added cleaning. The
most important factor in
joining tubing is to have proper clearance between the
parts. An easy slip fit with tubing should approximate the
range .0015 to .005 inch, which is recommended. To
insure proper centering of the male pat, insert it so as to
evenly contact the shoulder of the swaged member. This
procedure will insure a uniform distribution of the alloy
with no voids and prevent the alloy from dripping into the
inside of the tubing, where it would cause an obstruction.
Position the angle of the joint in tubing so that solder or
flux will not drop inside. Rely on capillary action to pull
the solder throughout the joint.
6-6. The ends of tubing to be joined must be square
and uniformly round. The surfaces must be free of oil,
scale, grease, and dirt. If you find any oil or grease, you
can remove it with hot caustic soda. You can remove
scale with an acid pickle bath; however, you must then
remove all traces of acid after such treatment, since any
trace of acid left in the tubing will cause trouble in the
future. Avoid handling surfaces after they have been
cleaned.
6-7. The alloys listed in table 5 are all suitable for
working with copper, but Easy Flo3, Sil-Fos, and Phos-
Copper are considered best. Many manufacturers make
alloys for soldering. Sil-Fos is for use with nonferrous
metals only. Pros-
Copper will make good joints in copper without flux.
Easy-Fo3 is 50 percent silver alloy, with the addition of 3
percent nickel. The other Easy-Flo numbers give the
percentage of silver in the alloy. These alloys are
available from many manufacturers. In using silver
solder on fittings, you should be careful to observe
installation instructions to insure good joints. One
manufacturer specifies that alloys containing
phosphorous, such as Sil-Foe or Silvaloy 15, not be used
on fittings which are copper-plated steel. They
recommend instead, Silvaloy 45 or Easy-Flo.
6-8. It is important that you heat the work to the flow
point of the alloy before applying the alloy. Alloys with a
large spread between melting and low point are easier to
TABLE 5
20
work with, since the alloy with a large spread has a better
chance of making a joint before it sets.
6-9. Use asbestos paper or wet cloth to keep heat
from pans which might be affected by it. Some valves are
provided with neoprene seats, and these must be removed
if they are too close to where heat will be applied.
Otherwise, the heat will destroy the value of the seat, and
the valve will leak.
6-10. When you use flux in making a joint, you should
observe the following: Apply the flux evenly to the metal
surfaces which are to be protected from oxidation. If the
flux wets the surface easily, this indicates that it is clean.
If it balls up and spreads unevenly, the surface is oily and
requires cleaning. In addition, the behavior of the flux
can be used as a temperature gauge. One popular brand
used with brazing becomes white and puffy about 600° F.
A 800° F. it smoothes out with a milky color, while at
1100° F. it turns clear, and the bright metal surface should
show through the flux.
6-11. Silver Brazing. This method of joining metals
is properly called low-temperature brazing, but it is often
incorrectly referred to as silver soldering. It is necessary
to heat the metals only to the melting point of the silver
solder, 1175° F. A low-melting-point alloy, such as Easy-
Flo, is used with a suitable flux, such as that made by
Handy and Harmon. The melting point of the flux, 1125°
F., gives a good indication of when the metals to be
joined are near the correct heat. A carburizing or
reducing flame should be used to insure a good point
where brazing copper with silver solder. (See fig. 9.)
Phos-Copper may be used to join copper to copper
without using a flux. No flux is an advantage when
tubing or parts are joined in a system which should be
kept clean. Remember that a clean, dry refrigeration
system is one that keeps working year after year without
giving trouble. A slightly carburizing or reducing flame
is required when working with Phos-Copper.
6-12. Welding Copper. A welding rod should have
approximately the same composition as the
 about two sizes larger than that which you would choose
for steel of the same gauge. A large flame is required
because copper conducts heat away much faster than
steel. No flux is required to make the weld; therefore the
weld must be made fast before oxidation occurs.
6-14. Metal is heated for about 3 inches along the seam
to a full red heat. The weld should be started inside and
worked to the nearest edge. The torch should be held at
about a 60 angle to the base. Speed should be uniform
and the end of the filler rod should be kept in the molten
puddle. During the welding operation, the molten metal
is protected by the outer flame envelope. If the metal
ceases to flow freely, the filler rod must be raised and the
work must again be heated to a full red.
6-15. Cutting Torch. Metal is properly cut with a
cutting torch which is quite different from the welding
torch just discussed. However, it is joined to the hoses in
the same manner as the latter, and the same safety rules
apply. The main differences are found in the body of the
torch and in the tips. Thus, the cutting torch has a
compound head which directs a hollow flame of
oxyacetylene. Also, a trigger valve in the body controls
an added jet of oxygen. When the valve is pressed, this
jet of oxygen in the center of the flame makes the cut by
superheating the metal at the point of contact. A part of
the cut metal is burned in this operation. Stainless steel is
difficult to cut with a torch because it is resistant to
oxidation. However stainless steel may be cut by laying a
steel welding rod on the cut to be made. The heat
developed by oxidation of the rod is sufficient to melt a
Figure 9. Torch flame.
slot in stainless steel plate. Table 6 gives the pressures
and tip size to use with steel plates of various thickness.
base metal being handled. Employing such a rod, you
The oxygen pressure is set higher to supply the added
must use a slightly oxidizing flame when you are welding
oxygen necessary for cutting. Steel is heated to
copper. Remember, too, that copper will absorb carbon
incandescence before the cut is started. As soon as the
monoxide gases from a carburizing flame and in a porous
oxygen jet is applied, the cut will appear at the edge of the
weld (since silver solder is worked at a lower temperature,
plate. The cut should be made at a uniform pace as fast as
a carburizing flame is used).
the metal is removed. If the torch is moved too slow,
6-13. Welding rods, such as Airco 23 Deoxidized
there will be a waste
Copper or Oxweld 19 Cupro-Rods, should be suitable for
welding copper. The choice of tip for the torch should be

TABLE 6

21
of both fuel and metal. If the torch is moved too fast, the
cut will fail, because the metal is not hot enough.
6-16. Hydrocarbon Torch. Smaller torches which
use LP gas can be used for silver solder work, but they are
limited to smaller work. They do not produce as large a
flame, and the temperature of the flame is not as hot as
that of the oxyacetylene torch. Otherwise, the same rules
and techniques apply to both kinds of torches.
7. Repairs and Service
7-1. Very few refrigerators have service valves or
fittings. You can remedy this by installing an accessory
service valve or line tap, clamping it to a line where it
becomes a permanent part. A gasket makes a seal
between the valve and the line, while the valve stem is
provided with a piercing tool which breaks into the line.
However because these gaskets leak in time and the
valves are expensive, most shops will maintain a valve kit
and a set of adapters. Having such a kit, you can use the
adapters to install valves and gauges in a system when it
becomes necessary for you to make pressure tests. These
adapters, valves, and gauges do not become a permanent
par of the system, and you can remove them after
completing the tests. You may also install a gauge
manifold in the system to make tests. The use of a gauge
manifold is illustrated in Chapter 2, figure 23, where we
have described cleaning of the system with a circulator.
7-2. The repair of refrigerators and freezer cabinets is
generally limited to service and minor repair work.
However, because you may be required to make more
extensive repairs, the explanations are made as complete
as time and space allows. The material covers leak
detecting and repairing, pressure testing, replacing of a
capillary tube, a condenser, a compressor and an
evaporator, the cleaning of a system, the removal of
moisture from a system and the charging of a small
hermetic system.
7-3. Detecting Leaks. When a hermetic system has
lost some of its charge, you can be sure that there is a leak
which must be found and repaired. We will discuss here
only the two detectors which are most commonly
employed: the halide and the electronic leak detectors.
But first, several fundamentals should be clarified. Some
detectors are so sensitive that they can prove unreliable in
air contaminated with a low concentration of halogens. In
such a situation, the system should be charged with
nitrogen or carbon dioxide at 60 to 80 p.s.i.g. and
checked with a soap solution. If a pressure test of the
system is also required, follow the recommendations of
the American Society of Refrigeration Engineers as given
in the American Code and explained in paragraph 7-12.
22
7-4. Halide leak detector. The halide leak detector
(see volume 1) uses bottled gas to heat the reactor plate.
A sampling tube is used to pull air and the refrigerant
vapor (in case of a leak) into the flame. To test for leaks,
light the torch and let the reactor plate turn cherry red,
then hold the open end of the rubber tube near the joint to
be tested. A leak is indicated when the flame color
changes from blue to blue-green or bright green.
7-5. Electronic leak detector. Several companies
produce electronic detectors which will detect a Freon
leak as small as 1/2-ounce per year. The general rules of
operation for this equipment are as follows:
• Be sure to use the detector with the correct
voltage or the correct batteries. Follow
instructions for the detector you are using.
• Allow the unit sufficient time to warm up before
testing.
• Do not exceed the normal duty cycle if the tester
is limited to intermittent duty.
• Keep a record of the hours of operation. The
element has a limited number of hours of life in
some instruments.
• Make correct adjustments for background
contamination. Even after proper adjustment,
contaminated air may cause erratic operation of
the instrument.
• Do not place the detector probe in heavy
concentrations of refrigerant, as it overloads the
instrument.
WARNING: Be sure to observe the warning that
some instruments carry stating that their use is prohibited
in a combustible or explosive atmosphere.
• Always turn the detector off as soon as you have
finished testing.
7-6. Repairing Leaks. Unless someone has punched
an ice pick through a line, the only place a leak should
occur is at a joint. Before a joint can be soldered, the
pressure must be released from the system. Prepare the
system as for charging by connecting a "T" and stub into
the suction line. Purge the system to atmospheric
pressure. Sweat the joint just as if you were making a
new joint, but do not overheat it. Use asbestos paper to
protect adjacent surfaces from the flame. Wrap the tubing
with wet cloth where you wish to keep the heat from
spreading. After you sweat the joint, partially charge the
system and again test for a leak. If the joint holds, charge
the system
to its normal capacity and triple pinch the stub to seal it.
7-7. Small pinhole leaks in tubing on the low side of
a refrigerator may be repaired in several ways. For
example, either cold solder plastics or special resin glues
made for refrigeration work may be used to make a patch.
At least one resin glue on the market has the same thermal
characteristics as aluminum. A glue like this will expand
and contract with the metal and will not crack. However,
when making a patch with glue, be careful not to force the
material through the hole in such a way as to cause an
obstruction in the tubing. Also, the surface must be kept
free of any traces of oil so that the glue will bond properly
and completely seal the hole.
7-8. Larger holes in aluminum tubing can be repaired
by soldering with 95-5 solder, which can be worked at a
lower temperature than that which is required for brazing.
Here, the right flux to use is just as important as the right
solder, because flux also has a critical temperature. Some
men may be able to use higher temperature alloys to
solder aluminum tubing; but as the work gets hotter, the
danger of melting out a chunk of material becomes
greater.
7-9. Repairs to tubing on the high-pressure side are
made with appropriate solder and flux. The higher
pressure in the high side-30 pounds or more-makes it
advisable to repair with hot solder rather than attempt a
cold glue patch. Remember that the methods we have
discussed here apply to systems using R-12, which
include domestic refrigerators and freezers. If, for
example, you should try to cold patch a leak in a system
using R-22, your results would probably be
unsatisfactory. Furthermore, the higher operating
pressure of R-22-about 250 p.s.i.g. requires more strength
than can be obtained by cold patch methods available at
the present time.
7-10. Flare connections and fittings. Flare
connections may be provided with seal. These cannot be
removed without tearing them. When opening such a
flare connection, cut away the seal with a knife, being
careful not to nick or scratch the flare. A new seal is
installed when the flare is reconnected. Always slip the
flare nut over the tubing before making a flare. If the nut
is too loose, look closely at it size; you may have picked a
nut which is a size too large.
7-11. Flaring. In making a flare, by placing a drop of
refrigerant oil on the flaring cone, you can produce a
smoother flare. Also, apply refrigerant oil to the nut and
the flare surfaces before assembling them. The oil will
allow the flare connection to be drawn up tight without
overstraining the nut. It will also lubricate the threads so
that there will be no doubt in your mind as to when the
nut is snug.
23
TABLE 7
7-12. Pressure Testing and Leak Testing with
Nitrogen or Carbon Dioxide. There may be times when
refrigerants are not readily available or in short supply.
To save refrigerant, you can make pressure checks of a
system using dry nitrogen or CO2. If the pressure test is
satisfactory, you can conduct a leak test in two ways.
One method calls for charging the system with a small
amount of refrigerant and raising the pressure in the
system by means of nitrogen. A halide leak detector is
then used to check for leaks. The other method calls for
charging the system to the desired pressure, then testing it
for leaks, using a solution of soap and water. With both
methods the system must be evacuated to bleed off all
nitrogen or CO2 after tests are satisfactory and before
charging with refrigerant.
7-13. Replacing Capillary Tubes. A broken or
plugged capillary tube requires a replacement which is
exactly the same as the original in its length and inside
diameter. Approximately the same length of the
replacement should be soldered to the suction line to
make a heat exchanger. The variations in diameters of
some capillary tubes are shown in table 7.
7-14. Many refrigerators have a capillary size of .114-
inch OD and .049-inch ID when used with R-12. Of
course, the outside diameter of each can readily be
checked with a micrometer, while the inside diameter can
be checked with a wire. Notice that both the gauge and
diameter of wire is compared with capillary tube
diameters in table 7. Do not try to force a wire into a
capillary to check the inside diameter. Also, make certain
that the wire has not been burred on the end as a result of
being crushed by cutters. You can check the diameter of
a wire with a wire gauge or a micrometer. In any case,
the correct size wire should slip easily into the capillary.
7-15. When exact replacements are not available, you
may install an adjustable capillary tube in the system. In
such an event, the capillary tube should be cut to equal the
length of the one which it replaces. A heat exchanger of
the same length is made by soldering the capillary to the
suction line. Note that the ends of the capillary should be
cut with a tube cutter to get a uniform end. Also,
swage appropriate ends of the tubing so that the capillary
can be soldered into the system. (NOTE: Keep ends
taped or plugged with rubber caps to keep moisture out
while the system is open.) If fittings are available, the
tubing may be quickly joined. However, because such
fittings are expensive, most shops will use a torch and
solder the connections.
7-16. After installation, test the unit for leaks, evacuate
it, dry it, charge it with refrigerant, and test it. Set the
capillary adjustment so that the evaporator frosts evenly.
Then make a final check for proper adjustment by seeing
that the lines to and from the evaporator are not frosted.
7-17. Replacing the Condenser, Compressor, and
Evaporator. Normal service for the condenser,
compressor, and evaporator is to clean them with a stiff
bristle fiber brush or with compressed air. The
replacement of these would involve the detailed
procedures just described. Open the system and cap the
ends with tape or rubber plugs to keep air and moisture
out. Then prepare the ends to be soldered and assemble
the system. After that, charge the system and test it for
leaks. Next, dry and evacuate the system. Then charge
the system with refrigerant and make an operational
check.
7-18. System Cleaning. After a hermetic motor has
burned out, the system will be contaminated with burned
pieces of metal and insulation. The dark color and
pungent odor of an oil sample will give mute evidence of
such a motor burnout. When it happens, remove the
compressor and thoroughly clean the system before
putting it back into service. As most smaller units in this
condition should have the entire system replaced, the
discussion of cleaning is related in Chapter 2, where it is
most appropriately related to larger systems.
7-19. Removing Moisture. Since a comprehensive
explanation of procedures for removing moisture from
both large and small systems is more appropriate to the
equipment discussed in Chapter 2 of this volume, it is
given there instead of here. The procedures described
there for systems under 5-ton capacity apply equally well
to domestic refrigerators and freezer cabinets.
7-20. Charging a Small Hermetic. Charging a small
hermetic system with refrigerant is a simple procedure
which generally requires three steps: (1) dry the system,
(2) install a suction line stub and a high-pressure line stub,
and (3) add the refrigerant. As you know, a few other
jobs related to charging must also be done at the same
time. Thus, if the system has a leak, the system must be
repaired and then tested. The amount of oil lost can be
estimated by the size of the oil spot, which will not
evaporate. Since most of the oil will remain in the
compressor, the presence of a large amount of oil will
24
indicate a leak in that area. Similarly, if the system has
been opened and you suspect that an appreciable amount
of moisture has entered it, evacuate the system. First
charge the system with a small amount of refrigerant and
then evacuate it to 50 microns (about 29 inches of
vacuum) for from 5 to 30 minutes. Remember, too, that
when a system has lost a part of its charge, you should
assume that some moisture has been drawn into the
system. To counteract this problem, your first step is to
install a new drier-strainer.
7-21. Replacing the drier-strainer. The drier-strainer
is located between the condenser and the capillary tube.
To replace it, cut the old drier-strainer out of the system
and install a new drier-strainer in its place. The new drier
will be able to hold the small amount of moisture which
might have entered the system.
7-22. Installing stubs or process tubes. A system
which has no provision for charging and purging must
have stubs installed. To do this, prepare a “T” with about
a 1-foot stub connected to the foot of the "T." Provide the
stub with an appropriate fitting and cap the fitting until
you are ready to use it. The stub and "T" can be heated to
insure that they are dry. Cut the suction line at a
convenient location and install the “T” and stub
permanently in the line. Also, cut the high-pressure line
at a convenient place and install a "T" and stub there too.
Note that some servicemen claim that this is not necessary
if the system is still under pressure. In any event, if the
stub is connected at the highest part of the condenser, it
will work best for purging air from the system.
7-23. Adding refrigerant. When adding refrigerant,
first install a valve and a gauge in the high-side stub.
Then connect a charging line to the low-side stub. Do not
tighten the stub connection until you have purged the
charging line by cracking the refrigerant cylinder valve
long enough to blow out trapped air. Do this by cracking
the valve in the high-side stub and slowly opening the
valve in the charging line. Next, star the compressor and
shut the purging valve when refrigerant appears there. Be
sure to observe any frosting of the evaporator and shut the
charging valve when the coil has become frosted
completely.
7-24. Continue to observe operation of the unit. High
head pressure in excess of 160 p.s.i.g. indicates that there
is still air in the system which requires purging.
Remember that the pressure will vary with the ambient
temperature. Air in the system will also be indicated by a
lack of uniform warmth of the condenser coil. A check
with your hand will reveal spots which are cooler near the
top of the coil, where air pockets are displacing warm
liquid. From 15 minutes to half an hour may be required
to properly charge the system. At
the end of this period of observation, check the low side 5. What must be used with insulation make it
of the evaporator coil. If the frost line extends too far effective in a refrigerator? (1-6)
beyond the evaporator coil on the suction side, the system
has been overcharged and some refrigerant should be bled
from the system by cracking the valve on the high side. If
frost shows on the tubing at the inlet (high side), too far 6. What are some of the big advantages of new
from the evaporator coil, increase the size of the heat synthetic insulation? (1-6)
exchanger. Solder another 2 inches of the capillary to the
suction line. This correction would apply when a new
capillary tube has been installed.
7-25. When the performance is satisfactory, close all 7. Why do breaker strips require careful handling?
of the valves and triple pinch the stubs to seal them. (1-8,9)
Gauge lines and fittings can then be removed. Remember
the necessary steps to prepare a system for service when
moisture is present in it. First, partially charge and purge
the system of air. Second, pump down to 29 inches of 8. A stored or abandoned refrigerator should be
mercury to remove the moisture. Third, install a new treated in what way?(1-11)
drier-strainer. Fourth and fifth, charge the system with
refrigerant and start the compressor. In the charging step,
no purging of air will be necessary if the system has been
evacuated. Obviously, pulling a vacuum on the system 9. How is the door gasket checked for a seal? (1-
removes air as well as moisture. 12)

Review Exercises
The following exercises are study aids. Write your
answer in pencil in the space provided after each 10. What factors should you consider in the location
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on of a refrigerator (1-13)
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
11. How can you distinguish a refrigerator made for
1. What are the main construction features of a use overseas? (1-14)
modern domestic box? (1-2)

12. An automatic ice maker in a refrigerator may be

2. Insulation must be able to reduce what three provided with two thermostats. What is the
forms of heat transfer? (1-3) function of each? (1-18)

3. What puts the greatest heat load in a refrigerator? 13. Why is a second electric heater used in the drain
(1-4) with an automatic defrost system? (1-20)

4. What has been the result of using improved

insulating materials in a refrigerator? (1-5)

25
14. Explain a simple automatic defrost system which 23. Why can a compressor operate so well with such
uses only one valve for defrosting with hot gas. fine clearances? (3-3)
(1-22)

24. How close may a compressor's piston approach

15. What are the methods of heating used in an the head? (3-4)
absorption system refrigerator? (2-1)

25. At what point may compressor valves get noisy?

16. With regard to exercise 15, what is the main (3-5)
distinction with on fuel? (2-2)

26. What advantages do rotary compressors have

17. Give the principle of operation of the absorption over the piston type? (3-6)
system refrigerator. (2-5)

27. What is one way of helping to cool the condenser

18. Since the flame burns continuously, how does without having to use a fan? (3-9)
the absorption refrigerator meet changes in heat
load? (2-5)

28. A restrictor placed between two sections of an

evaporator serves what purpose? (3-10)
19. After cleaning, what might prevent the burner
from operating, and how can this problem be
solved successfully? (2-5)
29. A weighted valve requires what special
consideration? (3-11)

20. Describe the maintenance for a refrigerator with

an absorption system. (2-6)
30. What are the critical factors in the makeup of a
capillary tube? (3-16)

21. How can installation result in poor or faulty

operation of an absorption refrigerator? (2-7)
31. Where is a bleeder resistor used and how does it
protect a relay? (3-19)

22. When a refrigerator with an absorption system is

placed in service after an idle period of 6
months, it may refuse to cool. How might this 32. What functions are performed by a hot wire
be corrected? (2-8) relay? (3-19)

26
33. How does a current relay operate? (3-21) 43. What is indicated when a test shows a motor
drawing its LRA rating? (5-11)

34. Where would you first check for the cause of

badly burned relay contacts? (3-24) 44. Give two methods for checking a capacitor. (5-
12)

35. What does a noisy capillary tube indicate? (3-32)

45. Describe the main characteristics of a current
relay. (5-15, also 3-21)

36. How could low voltage cause excessive

electrical consumption? (3-33)
46. Describe the main characteristics of a potential
relay. (5-16, also 3-24)

37. What are the proper methods of manually

defrosting a freezer? (4-3)
47. What are some of the causes of vibration in a
refrigerator? (5-17, Table 2)

38. What would you suspect if you found heavy frost

had frozen a freezer door shut? (4-4)
48. Why must an acetylene cylinder be secured in an
upright position? (6-2)

39. When troubleshooting, what common fault is

often made by a serviceman? (5-3)
49. Why must an oxygen cylinder be used in an
upright position? (6-2)

40. State the advantage of locating an overload

protector inside the compressor's shell. (5-5)
50. Which is the correct test for an acetylene leak?
(6-2)

41. What is the difference in operation between a

thermostat and a freezestat? (5-6)
51. Why must oil and grease be kept away from
oxygen? (6-2)

42. Why is it better to use direct current for checking

a motor circuit? (5-9)
52. How can you always identify the acetylene valve
in a torch? (6-3)

27
53. Why must regulator screws be released before 62. What are the disadvantages of using a line tap?
the cylinder valves are opened? (6-3) (7-1)

54. In soldering tubing, what is considered the most 63. How could a leak detector be too sensitive? (7-3,
important factor in making a leakproof 5)
connection? (6-5)

64. Why should a heavy concentration of halogen be

55. How hot should the work be heated before you avoided when you are using an electronic leak
apply the alloy when you are brazing cooper detector? (7-5)
tubing? (6-8)

65. Where may cold solder or glues be used

56. What precautions must be observed when you successfully for repairs? (7-7)
are brazing certain valves to tubing? (6-9)

66. What precautions must be observed when you

57. When you are brazing using a flux, what clue are patching a hole in tubing? (7-7)
tells you how hot the joint is? (6-10)

67. Why is it important to use the right flux with the

58. In view of the last question, how is it that when right solder? (7-8)
you are brazing copper with silver solder, you
should use a carburizing flame? (6-11)

68. Cold solder or special glues are limited to which

systems? (7-9)
59. Why must you use a slightly oxidizing flame
when you are welding copper? (6-12)

69. In what two ways can a system be leak tested

with dry nitrogen? (7-12)
60. Why does the welding of copper require a larger
flame than that required for welding steel? (6-13)

70. What are the most important factors in a

replacement capillary tube? (7-13)
61. How is a cutting torch used to cut stainless steel?
(6-15)

71. How can you measure the inside diameter of a

capillary tube? (7-14)

28
72. What is the purpose of using tape or caps, and 76. When frost extends out on the suction line
when are they needed? (7-15, 17) beyond the evaporator coil, what condition is
indicated? (7-24)

73. After installation of a major part, what are the

proper steps toward placing a system back in 77. After replacing a capillary tube, you find that the
service? (7-16) frost line extends too far on the inlet line or high
side of the evaporator. What action will correct
this condition? (7-24)

74. If you find a very large oil spot, where would

you expect to find a leak? (7-20)
78. Why must a refrigerator serviceman be able to
make joints like an expert-quickly and correctly?
(7-1-24)
75. What would happen if you forgot to purge the
charging line? (7-23)

29
CHAPTER 2
Commercial Refrigeration Systems (Continued)
GRANDPA MAY HAVE had problems with his old
ice box, but the problems of his neighborhood grocer
trying to keep meats and vegetables fresh were much
greater. His corner druggist also had trouble keeping the
ice cream hard and had to keep a cold drink chilled with
ice. By way of contrast, today's grocer has large storage
cabinets which are automatically cooled, and the present-
day druggist has refrigerated cases which keep ice cream
hard and cold drinks really cold. In addition, many stores
now have water coolers for the comfort of their
customers.
2. Continuing the discussion which we began in
Chapter 1, we will now explain different applications of
compressors for water and beverage coolers, for ice
making machines (such as ice cube makers and flake ice
machines), and for soda fountains. Other applications
which we will discuss are those involving storage cabinets
(such as reach-in, walk-in, and display cabinets) and the
defrosting for such cabinets. (Of course, these larger
systems may use a hermetic unit, such as we have
discussed in Chapter 1 in reference to refrigerators and
freezers. ) You will find the open type compressor
discussed in Section 13, under the heading "System
Components." Similarly, you will find system cleaning
explained (under the same name) in Section 17. The
troubleshooting and repair sections are a continuation
from the preceding chapter.
8. Water Coolers
8-1. Package units for cool drinking water are used in
offices, shops, and messhalls. They are rated in gallons of
water cooled per hour, with capacities ranging from 3 to
20 gallons per hour. The control of each is adjusted to
supply water at a temperature of 50° F. These range from
the bottle type through the bubbler type to the remote unit
multiple type. All, of course, develop troubles which
require servicing or repairing.
8-2. Bottle Type. The bottle type water cooler is
installed where drinking water connections are not readily
available. A freezestat is employed in the control circuit
80
with the thermostat to insure against ice damage to the
tank. The thermostat is set so that a thin coat of ice will
form on the coils before the compressor is stopped. The
freezestat opens the control circuit before ice formation
damages the tank if the thermostat should fail to stop the
compressor. The schematic diagram shown in figure 6,
Chapter 1, is typical of the control circuit using a current
relay for a unit type water cooler. The major components
in such a water cooler are the same as in a simple
refrigerator.
8-3. Bubbler Type. The bubbler type water cooler
has a tap water inlet connecting to the water service line
and a drain outlet connecting to the waste system. The
unit may be designed to take advantage of cold waste
water in a bubbler fountain by using a precooler.
Typically, the warm water coming into the unit first
passes through a coil which wraps around the drain sump.
Then the water passes into an accumulator tank, where the
evaporator coil is located. The design is calculated to
cool the unit enough to produce a small amount of ice in
the tank. This procedure thereby assures a reserve
carryover during compressor off time.
8-4. Remote Unit Multiple Type. You will find the
remote unit multiple type water cooler in a large modem
hospital or office building. A compressor unit of the
required size will be located at some remote place in the
building. It may be a hermetic unit, but if the heat load is
great enough, an open type compressor may be installed.
From the heat exchanger at the remote location, insulated
pipes carry the cold water to bubbler fountains and other
outlets throughout the building A large installation may
require a 10-ton unit to insure an adequate supply of cold
water in hot weather.
8-5. Troubleshooting. Troubleshooting procedures
are the same as those described for the hermetic unit in a
refrigerator, with these additions. You may be called to
service a unit which has a faulty valve or a plugged drain.
One of the troubles with a valve is a slip in the linkage of
the foot pedal which requires readjustment and lock-
ing. Another trouble is salt formation in the valve.
Disassembly and cleaning of the seat and washer will
solve the latter problem in most cases. However, you
must replace the washer if it is grooved or warped. Also,
a plugged drain requires disassembly and cleaning,
whereas a leaking water tank or line may be repaired with
a plastic or synthetic glue, provided it is not toxic and not
poisonous.

9. Beverage Coolers
9-1. There are some persons who would have you
believe that beverage coolers are a "big deal." However,
there is nothing mysterious about them. Their purpose is
to cool bottled beverages in the range of 27° to 40° F.,
depending on the freezing point of the liquid. The
cooling system is designed to meet the following factors:
• Anticipated heat load.
• Freeing point of beverage.
• Desired temperature of beverage.
9-2. If a box is loaded with a different beverage from
that for which it was designed, it may be necessary to
change the "cold setting" to prevent freezing the product.
The position of the feeler bulb and the thermostat setting
determine what range of temperature a box will hold.
9-3. A self-contained unit of the horizontal type will
use a hermetic system layout similar to that of a freezer
chest, whereas a vertical unit will have a layout like that
of a refrigerator. A heavy duty hermetic unit will be
provided with an oil pump and an oil cooler. The
condenser shown in figure 10 illustrates a heavy duty type Figure 10. Condenser coil with oil cooler
which includes a coil for the oil cooler. The oil cooler
coil will normally be hotter than the condenser. The all have the same purpose, but they employ different types
larger display type beverage cooler has a remote of evaporators.
compressor and condenser located in a compressor room 10-2. Components. Whatever the type, the parts
or in an outside shed. The one major difference between ordinarily found in most icemaking machines are a
a horizontal and an upright case lies in the style and hermetic compressor; a condenser cooled by air, water, or
layout of the evaporator. The horizontal case will have a a combination of both; and a receiver-drier-strainer. The
wall type evaporator, while the upright case will use a refrigerant control can be a capillary tube, a constant-
plate type with forced air. Repairs and service for a pressure expansion valve, or a thermostatic expansion
hermetic system are the same as those which you studied valve. Of these, a system using a thermostatic expansion
for a refrigerator. Remote compressors of the open type valve will require a receiver. Where evaporator heat is
are explained in Section 13. used to loosen the ice, you will find a hot gas solenoid
valve. The water-handling system will be continuous
10. Ice Making Machines flow or intermittent. Also, the control of the ice forming
10-1. Several types of machines are manufactured for and harvest cycle will be on a continuous basis in the
making ice cubes or flakes. For example, one type of rotating cylinder type, with the starting and stopping of
automatic ice cube maker has already been explained in the unit being the main control function. An automatic
our discussion of domestic refrigerators. Ice cube makers tray type will follow a cycle which is timed in the manner
are classed according to the evaporator as of the tray type, which we have already described for an automatic ice
the tube type, the cell type, or the plate type. In cube maker in a refrigerator.
comparison, machines for making ice flakes are classed as 10-3. Ice Cube Evaporators. The biggest difference
of the plate type, the rotating cylinder type, and the found among ice making machines lies in the evaporator
flexible membrane type. These latter machines used. Because the tray type evaporator has already been
described, it should give you no difficulty. Since the
main difference among

31
such machines lies in the method of ejecting the cubes
from the tray, we will not discuss it here; tube type
evaporators will be taken up first instead.
10-4. Tube types evaporators. This arrangement has
the evaporator form a bank of tubes. Water flows down
the inside of the tube and is frozen. As more ice is
formed, the hole in the center becomes smaller and
restricts the flow of water until finally the excess water
triggers the harvest cycle. A hot gas solenoid valve
operates to allow the evaporator to release the ice. In one
machine the long rods are cut into suitable lengths. In
another machine, the evaporator tubes are chilled in
sections so that rods of the desired length are formed
between the warm spots. Still another method uses
accumulated water pressure to eject the ice rod with
enough force to break it.
10-5. Cell type evaporator. There are two major
variations of the cell type evaporator. In one the cell
operates under water, and when the ice is released it floats
to the surface where it is forced from the tank by a current
of water. In the other type, inverted cells are used which
have water sprayed against them. The ice forming period
is set by a timer, which then frees the ice by hot gas.
10-6. Plate type evaporators. Among the variations of
the flat plate type, there is one main distinction: the plate
may be either horizontal or vertical. For instance, in one
type of machine, the horizontal plate produces a slab of
ice, which is then moved on to a hot wire grid which is
heated electrically. Here the slab melts into individual
cubes, which then fall through into a storage bin.
10-7. Another type of such a machine uses a grid
which is moved into position against a vertical plate.
After the cube is formed, the grid is moved against a
knockout plate which ejects the cubes. In one design, two
vertical plates have matching cold spots which face each
other. A unique feature of this model is a variable control
over the length of the period for forming ice. Within a
short period, the ice produced will be like a lens. If the
period is long enough, the two opposite lenses will build
a bridge to each other and produce a piece of ice which
looks like a Yo-Yo.
10-8. Blowdown. Units are provided with a siphon
the water pan to blow down the water system each time
the unit stops. A complete flush removes the accumulated
salts. The water left behind from each freezing cycle
concentrates the salts in the water. Where the water is
very hard, a manual blowdown may be necessary to move
the salt and insure proper formation of ice.
10-9. Flake Ice Machines. These units use some
evaporators which are similar to those of the cube makers,
but the harvesting method employed is different.
10-10. Plate type evaporator. In this type of evaporator
a thin sheet of ice is formed on the plate. When the
32
desired thickness is reached, hot gas is directed to the
plate to loosen the ice, which then passes through a
crusher or grinder. Another arrangement freezes the slab
in a spring-metal grid. After it is free of the plate, the
flexible grid is drawn over a sharp bend, causing the ice to
fracture into small pieces. A variation of this last method
uses a flexible belt or membrane which passes over a
plate or a refrigerated roller. The belt breaks up its cargo
by passing around a sharp bend.
10-11. Cylinder type evaporator. Again, in this type,
there are many variations, but the essential items are the
refrigerated cylinder and a cutter-scraper for harvesting.
Water may be flowed or sprayed on the cylinder
continuously. Harvesting occurs when the ice becomes
thick enough to contact the cutters. The machine will
continue to make ice until a level is reached in the storage
bin, where the ice contacts a feeler which, in turn, will
stop the machine. The operation of the feeler is the same
as that in the storage bin of an automatic cube maker.
The position of the feeler determines the amount of ice
which will be stored in the bin before the machine is
stopped.
10-12. Troubles in Ice Makers. With so many
different types of icemaking machines being used, you
will find that it is necessary to have the right service
manual for the equipment on hand when you are dealing
with mechanical trouble or needed adjustments. You will
find, too, that after mechanical problems, the water supply
is probably the next greatest source of trouble. Sediment,
scale, and salt formation are problems which vary widely
from one locality to another. In fact, under severe
conditions, water treatment may be the only means of
keeping an automatic ice maker in satisfactory operation.
On the other hand, in some localities, the domestic water
supply contains so much salt that crystals lodge in the seat
of a faucet, causing it to drip. Thus, such faucets in
everyday use require that incrustation be removed from
the stem and gasket every 2 or 3 months.
11. Soda Fountains
11-1. A recent addition to your responsibilities is the
maintenance of soda fountains. A complete fountain has
an ice cream compartment, cold bottle storage, syrup
cooler, and a beverage cooler. Among other things, we
will discuss a dry type eat exchanger coil aid a carbonator
system. A typical soda fountain is shown in figure 11,
with one compressor attached to a multiple evaporator.
The syrups and the drinking water are kept at 45° to 50°
F, while the ice cream compartment is held between 0°
and 10° F. The heat exchanger, at the left in figure 11,
serves to cool the liquid
 Figure 11. A typical soda fountain.
refrigerant so it can absorb more latent heat as it changes
to a gas. As you know, a lower refrigerant temperature
also reduces the tendency of the liquid to ash to a gas as it
passes the control valve. Flashing at the valve reduces the
valve's capacity and also reduces the efficiency of the
system.
11-2. Dry Type Coil. The beverage cooler, shown at
the right in figure 11, is a dry type heat exchanger. It
consists of an aluminum casting which contains at least
two sets of coils. Additional coils are provided when
more than one beverage is to be cooled. One coil is an
evaporator, and the other coil (or coils) carries the liquid
to be cooled. A heat exchanger of this type must be large
enough to meet the cooling demands of the system. At
the same time, it must provide sufficient transfer of heat
so that it does not increase the pressure drop in the low
side too much. To prevent this condition, a suction
pressure regulating valve may be placed in the suction
line from the heat exchanger. A component which is
often part of a soda fountain is the carbonator which
makes soda water.
11-3. Carbonator System. The carbonator which is
included in some soda fountains is not as complicated as
some people suppose. With the information which
follows, you should be able to maintain a carbonator in
33
satisfactory operation. It has four essential parts: a CO2
tank, a mixing tank, a water pump, and an electrical
control to operate the water pump. The CO2 tank is used
to charge the mixing tank with gas at 80 p.s.i.g. The
correct pressure is adjusted by means of a pressure
regulating valve. The water pump is used to deliver a
high-velocity jet into the mixing tank. The turbulence is
so great that the water readily absorbs several times its
own volume of CO2. The water from the pump should be
chilled before it enters the mixing tank, since cold water
absorbs CO2 much more readily than warm tap water.
The mixing tank is also refrigerated to ensure delivery of
cold soda at the valve, because warm soda water loses its
charge very quickly. Carbonated water is drawn from the
bottom of the tank below a baffle, which keeps turbulence
from this area.
11-4. The pump motor is started and stopped by a
magnetic contactor which is controlled by a float or by an
electrode circuit in the tank. Operation of an electrode
circuit is illustrated in figure 12. However, the CO2 tank
and charging connections are not shown. The transformer
serves to isolate the control circuit from the house
electrical service. Of course, the tank ground and the
trans-
 Figure 12. Carbonator pump motor control.
former secondary ground need not be connected to each
other if both connections are made to a cold water pipe.
The figure shows the position of the switch contacts with
the pump running and the tank being filled with water.
When the water level reaches the upper electrode, a
circuit is completed for the holding coil by way of the
water and the ground path. This energizes the holding
coil, which pulls the armature down and opens the circuit
to the pump motor. At the same time, another pair of
contacts close a circuit to keep the holding coil energized
by way of the bottom electrode. The pump motor will
start again when water drops below the lower electrode,
because then the holding coil will no longer be energized
and the spring will pull the armature up, closing the
circuit to the pump motor.
12. Storage Cabinets
12-1 The types of cabinets which you will find used at
military installations are reach-in, walk-
TABLE 8
34
in, and display cabinets. The temperature range for
storage of different foods is shown in table 8. From the
information in this table, you can see that a display
cabinet designed for fresh meats would not have the
cooling capacity for frozen foods. Thus, while two
cabinets may appear to be similar, they may be quite
different in design and performance. Defrosting problems
related to these cabinets are also discussed later in this
section.
12-2. Reach-In Cabinets. This type of cabinet is
familiar to many of us as the self-service refrigerator used
for dairy products at the neighborhood grocery store. In
appearance it looks like an oversize refrigerator with glass
doors. If it uses wooden shelves, they must be made of
spruce or maple, as these woods have no appreciable
odor. The larger sizes of such cabinets may have as much
as 100 cubic feet capacity. Either self-contained or
remote condensing units are available. Evaporators are
forced air or natural convection, depending on the
purpose of the cabinet A modern reach-in cabinet for a
messhall has forced-air circulation and automatic
defrosting. The defrost cycle is designed so that the unit
will give frost-free operation. However, manual
defrosting is necessary when the equipment is subjected
to such adverse conditions as operation in a highly humid
atmosphere. Remember, too, that reach-in cabinets used
for low-temperature service will accumulate frost at a
much higher rate than those operated at temperatures
above freeing.
12-3. Walk-In Cabinets. These are used to provide
temporary cold storage of food in messhalls and
commissaries. A large consolidated
messhall has three walk-ins operated at temperatures
appropriate to the food held in them. Older models use
hot water defrost in which the unit is turned off and water
is flushed over the evaporator coils until the frost is
washed off. Since evaporators are of the forced-air type,
the unit must be shut off before defrosting to prevent
water being blown all over the cabinet. Late model
cabinets have automatic defrosting controlled by an
electric clock; they use the hot gas method. The
compressors for these cabinets are mounted in a shed
outside in mild climates. However, a compressor room is
preferred in cold climates to insure operation of all
compressors.
12-4. For many years wooden cabinets with cork-fill
insulation were standard for walk-ins. In contrast, new
construction methods now use metal panels with
porcelain or enamel finish for the cabinet. This change
has led to more sanitary conditions and easier
maintenance. This is especially true since some synthetic
insulating materials are as good as cork. In fact, if
production costs drop low enough, these synthetics may
replace cork. Unlike organic materials, synthetics are
vermin-proof and are not readily susceptible to fungus
when moisture gets past the seal. The application of
modern insulation is explained in detail in Chapter 3,
Cold Storage and Ice Plants.
12-5. Display Cabinets. These are known as open or
closed and single- or double-duty cabinets. In the double-
duty case, both the display section and the base section
are refrigerated. The type of food to be stored will
determine operating temperature of the case and the
design of the evaporator. The evaporator may be of either
the plate type or a finned tube with forced-air circulation.
Sections may be joined together to make a cabinet of any
desired length. A cabinet made of several sections will
usually have a multiple evaporator system, such as we
will discuss in Chapter 4.
12-6. Display cabinets are constructed of steel panels
with baked enamel and porcelain finishes. Corkboard,
glass wool, or synthetics may be used for insulation. In
some type of construction, certain parts may rely on
formed insulation for some of the strength and rigidity of
the cabinet. The insulation may be blanket type, batts,
panel, or formed member. Electric heater strips are
provided around doors or access openings to prevent frost
which could freeze a door shut.
12-7. Open type display cabinets are successful
because of the development of the air curtain which keeps
heat gain at a minimum. Careful design of the forced-air
system has led to an ideal combination of fans and ducts
to produce a curtain of cold air. Anything which
interferes or disrupts the flow of air would result in
excessive operation of the compressor. Thus, the open
type display case must be in an air-conditioned space for
35
satisfactory operation. Otherwise, the unit will
accumulate frost at an abnormal rate so that manual
defrosting is required. This latter is necessary because the
frost layer disrupts the air current when the frost gets too
thick and must be removed by manual means, such as
flooding with hot water. However, the defrosting
methods which we discuss next will function properly if
the cabinet is used in an area which is air conditioned.
12-8. Defrosting Methods. The methods for
defrosting storage cabinets are (1) compressor off time,
(2) hot gas, (3) hot wire, (4) hot water, and (5) secondary
solution. If you are stationed at an older base where
equipment has been purchased over a long period of
years, you may find all of these defrost methods being
used.
12-9. Compressor off time. The compressor off-time
method is limited to cabinets operating at temperatures
above 28°. Ambient temperature is relied on to bring the
evaporator coil temperature up to where the frost will
melt.
12-10. Off-time defrost may be controlled (1) by suction
pressure, (2) by time clock, or (3) by a combination, with
a time clock used to start the cycle. The first, suction
pressure control, has two disadvantages which affect
operation of the unit. For one thing, under an increased
heat load, ice forming on the evaporator will cause the
unit to stop for a defrost period. Another drawback is
found in cold weather, when low outdoor temperature can
make the compressor cooler than the evaporator. Under
this condition the suction pressure can remain below the
cut-in point and the unit will remain idle. This last
condition would occur in a normally mild climate when a
cold wave has sent temperatures to below freezing level.
The second control method, time clock control defrost, is
independent of temperature variations when it has both
the start and terminate function. However, when timer
start is combined with suction pressure termination., you
can expect to find the difficulty we have just described.
12-11. Hot gas defrosting. When this method is used
for large display cabinets, it requires some modification
from the simple system that we have explained for a
domestic refrigerator. One disadvantage (among many)
of this system is that in cold weather the compressor may
not deliver enough heat for the rapid defrosting which is
expected from a modem unit. Consequently, a number of
variations of the simple system are used to overcome the
disadvantages as follows: (1) Meter the hot gas to the
evaporator so as to prevent formation of liquid which
could get back to the compressor. (Just a small amount of
liquid entering the compressor will cause pistons to
hammer.) (2) Use a liquid receiver and meter the liquid
into the suction line. (3) Add sufficient heat to insure that
the refrigerant will be a gas
when it returns to the compressor. (4) Use a four-way
valve in the system to completely reverse it so that the
evaporator functions as a condenser and the condenser
serves as an evaporator during the defrost cycle. The
obvious disadvantage to avoid here is that hot gas can
defrost the coils so rapidly that the drain lines may require
heating to prevent melted water from freezing in the
drains and plugging them.
12-12. Hot wire defrosting. This method has the big
advantage of being unaffected by changes in ambient
temperature. The heater wire may be laid in contact with
the evaporator, or it may be hung in the form of a grid
between the evaporator and the fan when forced-air
circulation is used. A fan switch is a necessary part of the
automatic defrost system where the forced-air may drive
melted water out of the drains. The hot wire defrost cycle
is so short that the drains require heating to prevent
freezeup. Improved electrical heating elements account
for the speed, because heating is almost instantaneous
through the whole evaporator.
12-13. Hot water spray. Defrosting with hot water uses
a water bath or spray aimed directly on to the evaporator.
This system requires that the compressor and air
circulation fan be shut off before the water is turned on.
The cycle must be long enough to insure drainage of
water from the evaporator before the unit is restarted.
12-14. Secondary solution. This method of defrosting
uses a refrigerant which is heated and passed through a
secondary coil in the evaporator. You should recognize
that this system is similar to hot wire defrosting in that it
will not be affected by changes in ambient temperature. It
appears that at the present time the secondary solution
method has generally been replaced by the hot wire
system.
12-15. High-temperature control. Safety controls are
an important part of automatic defrosting systems applied
to large commercial cabinets. You will find that a high-
temperature control is used to terminate the defrost cycle,
thereby preventing the cabinet temperature from going
too high and thus endangering the food in storage. This is
an added safety feature which will take over if the defrost
cycle should be interrupted and fail to complete itself.
12-16. High-pressure control. A system which uses hot
gas defrosting may have a pressure cutout switch to keep
the unit from operating at too high a pressure. The defrost
valve will have an auxiliary outlet connected by capillary
tubing to the pressure control. When the defrost valve is
open, it supplies pressure to a bellows in the pressure
control.. The pressure control is set to open at 180
pounds and close at 155 when it is used on a system
charged with R-12. The contacts in the pressure control
36
will open the compressor motor circuit if pressure exceeds
its setting.
13. System Components
13-1. In the last section we discussed cabinets which
are often made in large sizes. A walk-in cabinet for milk
products handled at a big commissary store may require
enough capacity to cool a room 20 by 40 feet. The
refrigerant flow in such a system is shown in figure 13.
The valves and accessories of the system are discussed in
this section.
13-2. Open Type Compressors. So far, we have
discussed the hermetic compressor, which, normally, you
will not be able to repair. The welded case of a hermetic
unit is beyond the capability of the repair shop. However,
a semi-hermetic unit has a bolted case which can be
disassembled to make repairs to the compressor. The one
big difference is that a semi-hermetic does not require the
shaft seal which an open type compressor must have. If
you have not had the opportunity of working with a larger
system, you will probably benefit greatly from a review of
the major components. The following discussion is
related to the items illustrated in figure 13, which shows a
low diagram of a refrigeration system.
13-3. Separator. The oil separator is a simple trap
designed to remove the oil from the hot refrigerant gas
and return the oil to the compressor. A float is used to
open a valve which allows the accumulated oil to return to
the sump.
13-4. Service Valves. The suction service and the
discharge service valves are provided with fittings so that
they may be connected to gauges and to charging lines.
The valves also serve to isolate the compressor from the
system if it is necessary to replace the compressor unit.
13-5. Condensers. Several types of condensers may
be found with large installations. The choice is dictated
by the cooling load of the unit and the weather factors of
the locality.
13-6. Air-cooled condensers. This condenser is the
most simple type and gives the least amount of trouble.
For heavy duty, the condenser is enclosed in a shroud, and
a fan forces air across the coils to cool them.
13-7. Water-cooled condenser. Water-cooled
condensers are of the shell-and-tube type or the tube-
within-a-tube type. In the first type, water circulates
through the tubing while the shell serves as both
condenser and receiver. In contrast, the double-tube type
circulates the refrigerant through the outer tube to take
advantage of the air cooling the refrigerant. When a
compressor is also water cooled, the exhaust water from
the condenser is circulated on through the cylinder heads.
Where water is at a premium, a spray pond or cooling
 Figure 13. Flow schematic of refrigeration system.
tower is used to cool the water so that it can be used over
again.
13-8. Receivers. The receiver in a system must be
large enough so that it can hold all of the refrigerant in the
system. The receiver is the tank where the refrigerant is
stored after a system is pumped down. The receiver
outlet valve is a quill type, with its inlet tube (quill)
reaching to the bottom of the receiver. It is referred to as
a king valve, because this is the valve which is closed
while a system is being pumped down. The receiver inlet
valve is closed after pumping down is completed.
13-9. Drier-Strainer. The drier-strainer is a cartridge
type with direction flow indication on the case. Direction
flow must be observed as it is arranged so that the strainer
will hold particles of drier which might be dislodged.
Also, the unit is properly baffled for liquid flow in the
direction indicated.
37
13-10. Sight Glass. The sight glass enables you to see
the flow of refrigerant in the system. Bubbles will appear
when the charge gets low; they indicate that the system is
losing refrigerant.
13-11. Refrigerant Controls. The principles of
refrigerant control are the same for valves as for capillary
tubes. However, valves provide a variable control over a
wider range of load. Modern valves are designed so as to
modulate refrigerant flow to meet variations in load. The
valve must not starve the evaporator; this is not good
economy. Likewise, the valve must not cause flooding,
since this can damage the compressor. As you study
these valves, see if you can find examples of the types
mentioned here which are present in the equipment used
at your installation. NOTE: Although figure 13 illustrates
an automatic expansion
valve, such as is covered first below, other types of valves
are also discussed including thermostatic expansion
valves, high-side float valves, and low-side float valves.
13-12. Automatic expansion valves. The first valves to
be developed as automatic were known as the constant-
pressure type. The automatic expansion valve has a
spring on each side of a diaphragm. Evaporator pressure
under the diaphragm acts with the closing spring to close
the valve when the pressure rises. This kind of valve has
been used in systems with ammonia. It does not
modulate, so it is not used as a refrigerant control where
the load change is great. One quite common application
of the automatic expansion valve is in drinking water
coolers, because their heat load is fairly constant in a
narrow temperature range. The automatic constant-
pressure expansion valve has also been used successfully
as a pilot valve for larger valves. One such application is
for the control of a suction pressure regulator. As a pilot,
the automatic expansion valve may even be used to
operate a suction service stop valve to prevent freezing.
An equalizer line is used to compensate for the pressure
drop across the valve.
13-13. Thermostatic expansion valves. Valves of this
type use a bulb and capillary tube to transmit pressure to a
spring-loaded bellows or diaphragm. Such valves are
identified by (1) the size of connections, (2) the length of
the capillary, (3) the internal or external equalizer
connection, (4) the capacity, and (5) the type of
refrigerant charge. The type of charge is indicated by the
color used on a valve according to the following list:
Refrigerant Color
12 yellow
22 green
500 orange
502 orchid
40 red
717 white
The capacity is the nominal capacity of the valve in tons
of refrigeration. There are three kinds of refrigerant
charge used in thermostatic expansion valves: liquid
charge, gas charge, and cross charge.
a. Liquid charge. This valve has the remote bulb
and capillary charged with the same refrigerant (R-12 for
example) as that which is used in the system with which
the valve is to be used. The liquid charge is sufficient so
that some liquid will be left in the bulb under all
conditions. The advantage of such a charge is that it will
control the refrigerant even when the valve or diaphragm
is colder than the bulb. Among the disadvantages of such
a charge are possible flooding and hunting. Its main
application is found in low-temperature systems of large
capacity.
38
b. Gas charge. This valve has the bulb and
capillary charged with the same refrigerant as that present
in the system with which it is to be used However, the
amount of the charge employed is smaller than that found
in the liquid charge; thus at a predetermined point, all of
the liquid will become vapor. This point is the maximum
operating pressure of the valve. The disadvantage of such
a charge is that the control will be lost if the diaphragm
and case are colder than the bulb, since refrigerant will
then condense in the valve. For this reason the
application is only suitable to a system which operates at
temperatures above freezing and where the evaporator
pressure drop insures that bulb temperatures will be
colder.
c. Cross charge. The cross charge expansion valve
uses a liquid charge in the bulb and capillary which is
different from the refrigerant found in the system with
which it is used. The pressure-temperature curve of the
charge is such that it will cross the pressure-temperature
curve of the refrigerant used in the system. By careful
selection of the refrigerant used for the cross charge, the
manufacturer can make a valve which will perform best in
any desired range or for any set of conditions. Some of
the advantages of such a charge are these: (1) the valve
closes quickly when the compressor stops; (2) the valve
exercises control at high suction temperature, preventing
floodback; and (3) the valve is more sensitive to pressure
changes rather than bulb temperature changes, which
reduce hunting.
13-14. High-side float valves. This control is normally
used with a single evaporator, but it can control several
evaporators if they are connected in series and if each is
provided with an individual bypass. The high-pressure
float valve, used with a flooded evaporator, has two
advantages: First, all of the refrigerant is liquid when it
enters the evaporator, so there is no cooling lost from
expansion taking place in the delivery line. Second, all of
the refrigerant passing through the valve is liquid, so the
capacity of the valve is not subjected to changes from
flashing. The evaporator may be a bunker type with
forced-air circulation or a shell-and-tube type for brine
water chilling. A surge drum is installed at the evaporator
to prevent flooding of the compressor during changes in
load. The amount of refrigerant charge is critical, for if
the system is charged beyond its capacity, flooding will
damage the compressor. The evaporator is provided with
an oil drain and return line to the compressor.
13-15. Low-side float valves. Such valves are each
connected into the low-pressure side of the system, but
the function of this valve is almost the same as that of the
high-side float valve. The difference is that a part of the
evaporator space is taken up by the tank and float control.
Adjust-
ment of the low-side float is critical. If the refrigerant
level is too low, oil may accumulate in the float chamber,
leaving the compressor with insufficient oil to lubricate it.
Another effect of the layer of oil on top of the refrigerant
is that it may cause the refrigerant to refuse to boil until a
much lower temperature-pressure point is reached.
Ebullators are used as catalysts to insure boiling of the
refrigerant at its normal point.
13-16. Compressor Pressure Switch. In figure 13 you
will find that item 12 is a switch with capillary lines to the
high side and low side of the compressor. In such a
situation, a combination switch can be used in many
ways. One application would be as a high-pressure and
low-pressure safety switch. Another application would be
as a high-pressure safety switch and low-pressure motor
control. Specific functions are, of course, determined by
the system involved and the purpose intended.
14. Troubleshooting and Repairs
14-1. When a service call is received, it usually means
trouble. If you were the boss and had a choice, who
would you send? Would you choose the most experienced
man, the one best able to do the job quickly? But what
about the man with little experience? He needs the
opportunity to learn. The solution is to, perhaps, send the
inexperienced man along as a helper. As you do this, you
can make sure that the challenging jobs will go to the
better qualified, while the simpler jobs will go to the less
qualified. After all, whether you are in military or civilian
life, it is usually the best qualified man who gets the most
pay and the most interesting assignments, isn't it? In this
section we will discuss many problems you would
encounter in troubleshooting the larger systems which use
an open type compressor. Then, in Sections 15, 16, 17,
and 18, we will take up several aspects of servicing, each
of which is important enough in itself to be studied
separately rather than as subparts of servicing. But first,
let us consider the basic rules of electrical safety which
you must know in order to avoid getting into trouble.
14-2. Electrical Safety. In spite of repeated warnings
many servicemen forget the safety rules and become
involved with a live circuit. Then they learn the hard
way-perhaps even fatally-that memorizing the safety rules
is not enough; these rules must be practiced-consistently,
automatically! Briefly they are:
• Do not wear rings or metal watchbands at work.
• Treat all circuits as live circuits unless you know
they are dead.
• Be sure switches are of and tagged before
working on a circuit.
• Do not wear shoes with metal clips or hobnails.
39
• No horseplay. Distractions cause accidents.
• When testing or working on a live circuit, use the
buddy system. A loner may lose his life.
Remember, the man who practices safety will develop
habit patterns which will protect him. Then -having such
habits-such a man can devote more of his attention to the
particular problem he is trying to solve.
14-3. Electrical Troubles. Let us discuss normal
operation first. For a brief review of electricity, consider
what a circuit does: Something happens when a circuit is
completed. Something happens when a circuit is opened.
Keep these two things in mind when you are looking for a
trouble, and the solution will be easier to find. Actually,
you are looking for the answers to a series of unspoken
questions. Yet, their answers will become more obvious
if you will state the questions to yourself. For example,
"Why doesn't the compressor motor start?" Answer! "An
open circuit!" "Where?" This is what you are really
seeking. "Where is the open circuit?" Here are your six
possible answers:
• At the circuit breaker or fuse box.
• At the motor starter.
• At the control switch.
• At one of the safety or lockout switches.
• At an open connection or a loose terminal (which
may be one and the same thing).
• At a broken wire.
14-4. Electrical Repairs. Several specific remedies
are available, depending on where a fault is located. To
name a few: (1) At a circuit breaker, pressing the "Reset"
button will restore the circuit if it has opened because of
overload. (2) A blown fuse calls for a replacement of the
same size. (3) A loose terminal can be tightened. (4) A
broken wire can be spliced, soldered, and then insulated
with electricians' tape.
14-5. When several safety controls are used in one
circuit, they are connected in series with each other. The
operation of any one of the safety control devices opens
the circuit. When more than one control switch is used to
complete the circuit to a motor from different locations
the control switches must be connected in parallel. Thus,
you must know the purpose and function of a control
before you start to troubleshoot it.
14-6. Three-phase motors are preferred in units larger
than 5 horsepower. Tests on a three-phase motor are
quite different from a single-phase. When a three-phase
motor will not start, one or more phases are open. (See
mechanical troubles for a locked rotor.) To test, you must
first check all three phases for voltage on the source
side (top) of the switch. Using a voltage tester, check
with the test prods from A to B, B to C and C to A. To
check a three-phase switch or starter, you must have it
closed to a live circuit. Then cross-check by going from
A phase (input or top connection) to B phase (output or
bottom connection). If this test shows no voltage, B
phase is open at the switch. Cross-check the other two
phases in the same manner.
CAUTION: Do not attempt the above test if the motor
hums but does not start. It is possible to damage the
motor while making the test. The trouble is not in the
motor if it starts when belt tension is released.
14-7. If the switch and the control circuit tests show
that they are operating correctly, the fault may be either in
the terminal block of the motor or in one of the motor
windings. Serious trouble in the motor will be indicated
by evidence of overheating, such as charred insulation or
the smell of burned insulation. Such damage would call
for the services of the electric shop, which may be able to
supply you with a replacement motor of the right
horsepower and direction of rotation.
14-8. Mechanical Troubles. Mechanical troubles also
concern you. For example, when there is evidence that a
trouble is in the compressor, here are two mechanical
causes which are most common: (1) A locked rotor may
be caused by a frozen bearing or it can be the result of
high head pressure. (2) A frozen bearing occurs in the
compressor from lack of oil more often than from a faulty
oil pump. Of course, a mechanical failure in the
compressor is possible, but this will seldom cause a
locked rotor. The usual symptoms are an inability to cool
sufficiently and noisy operation of the compressor.
14-9. Abnormal pressures. When the cause of a
trouble is not obvious and the compressor will operate,
gauge readings are necessary to help spot the cause.
Abnormally high head pressure indicates a restriction in
the high side. The cause may be (1) air in the system, (2)
moisture in the system, (3) dirt or sludge. (4) a kink or a
pinched line, and-last but often unsuspected-(5) a partly
closed valve.
14-10. An abnormally low head pressure on the high
side would not be a positive indication of compressor
failure because it would also depend partly on the state of
charge in the system and what the suction pressure gauge
measures. Low charge is checked by looking for bubbles
in the sight glass, which should show a solid flow of
liquid under normal conditions.
14-11. Refrigerant controls. The refrigerant control is
the source of many troubles. Indications of a restriction at
the control are low suction pressure and an inability of the
evaporator to pull the temperature down. The compressor
may run continuously or it may cycle on safety controls.
40
Whenever the refrigerated area is too warm, the
thermostat will be calling for compressor operation all the
time. The thermostat may be checked by turning its
setting toward warmer to see that it will operate properly.
The cause of trouble at a thermostat can be loss of charge,
a pinched capillary tube, or improper adjustment. The
first two troubles would require a replacement. An ice
bath and thermometer are necessary to make the correct
adjustment of a thermostat.
14-12. Troubles at a refrigerant control valve are
restrictions or improper adjustment. Ice at the valve seat
or needle reduces the capacity of the valve and causes
abnormal readings of pressure gauges. Dirt or metal
particles in the strainer can clog it to produce the same
effect. A flare fitting which is not frostproof or one in
which the seal has failed can cause hidden trouble. Ice
will accumulate under the nut slowly, crushing the tubing.
Thus, a careful inspection is necessary to reveal the
defective fitting. It is for this reason that solder joints are
preferred in below-freezing areas. Check for ice by
warming the suspected trouble spot.
14-13. Adjustment of controls. Before attempting the
readjustment of an expansion valve, you should make
sure that one of the following is not a cause of your
trouble:
• A worn needle and seat.
• A leaking bellows.
• Ice forming on the bellows.
When a valve will not close completely, the condition
indicated might be a worn needle and seat, which can be
replaced with new parts. A leaking bellows generally
requires that the valve be replaced. Ice forming on the
bellows may be prevented by coating them with vaseline,
but this will not work in zero cold areas. A better solution
is to keep moisture out of the housing by sealing it. After
a valve has been repaired, it can be tested with an
expansion valve test assembly. This consists of a
refrigerant tank and service valve, two gauges for high-
and low-pressure readings, and a cooling chamber with
crushed ice. A source of dry air at 100-pound pressure
can be used in place of refrigerant. For low-temperature
work, dry ice may be used for the cooling chamber and a
low-reading thermometer to check the temperature. A
test assembly setup is shown in figure 14. The connection
for the gauge on the outlet side of the valve is left loose
enough for escape of pressure to simulate refrigerant low.
As the valve adjustment is changed, the closing and
opening pressures are noted on the gauges. A valve that
will not adjust to its required specifications must be
replaced.
Figure 14. Expansion valve test assembly.

41
 14-14. If replacements are made to a float valve, there is
one consideration which must be observed. Operating
levels of the float must be the same as they were
originally to insure proper operation. Any change in the
operating levels will change the operation of the system.
14-15. Condenser and Evaporator Service and Repair.
Dry type condensers and evaporators are cleaned with a
stiff fiber brush or compressed air. The direction of air
should be opposite to the normal flow. The frequency of
cleaning recommended is based on a time interval for
average conditions. The interval will be shorter when
conditions require more frequent cleaning. Bent fins must
be straightened to maintain adequate airflow. An outdoor
mounted condenser can have a large part of its air
passages closed by hail driven against the fins by the
wind. Pinhole leaks in tubing can be repaired by brazing.
Use flux sparingly as excess flux may pass through the
hole into the tubing.
14-16. Pressure Testing. After extensive repairs or
replacement of major components in a system, you may
be called on to check the system with high pressure.
Pressure testing of a system may be done with nitrogen or
carbon dioxide to determine the strength of tubing and
joints. Specified test pressures as recommended by
ASRE in the American Code should be followed. Be Figure 15. Spring caliper.
careful to apply the test pressure by building up pressure
slowly. Avoid sudden shock loads to the system. Take system in these circumstances. The moral? Always purge
reasonable precautions to protect yourself and other equipment of refrigerant in the manner specified and you
personnel with suitable barricades so that no one will be will be on the safe side.
injured if a line should rupture.
15. Preparing To Open the System 16. Open Type Compressor Overhaul
15-1. Before you can open a system, you must take the 16-1. Among the causes of compressor failures, valve
necessary steps to save the refrigerant in the system and trouble and a lack of oil are probably the most common.
prevent air from entering. The usual procedure is to We will not discuss valve trouble at this time. As for a
pump down. First, close the receiver outlet valve and lack of oil, it can result in trouble with all of the moving
operate the compressor until the suction pressure gauge parts in a compressor which require lubrication. This
reads 3-5 PSIG and levels off at this pressure. This section deals first with the use of a micrometer to check
indicates that pumping down is complete. At this point, dimensions and then with the special knowledge you
the receiver inlet valve is closed and the compressor is should have to enable you to overhaul a compressor. Of
stopped. Of course, it may be necessary to allow some course, the manufacturer's service book is indispensable,
refrigerant back into the system, because the system since it contains the overhaul instructions for the
should not be opened without a positive pressure. Such a compressor. In it you will find those rules with which
procedure will keep air out and leave you less work to do you should approach every job. Any exceptions to the
when the time comes for you to put the system back into rules will be found in the specific instructions for each
operation. piece of equipment. Now, let us begin by explaining
15-2. When equipment, such as a strainer, is provided special measuring tools.
with valves and a bypass line, it is not necessary for you 16-2. Measuring Tools. Among the measuring tools
to pump down the system. One precaution is necessary as which you must use are several types of micrometers and
it may be possible to trap liquid refrigerant in the calipers. Let us consider first those tools which are least
equipment when it is isolated from the system. To avoid accurate, then move on to a discussion of the more
this, you must be careful that you do not unload a accurate measuring tools.
dangerously high pressure accidentally, when you open 16-3. Spring type caliper. Look at figure 15, which is
the an illustration of spring type calipers. The accuracy of
this type is limited to how close you can read the
measurements on a scale; it is also

42
 Figure 17. Outside micrometer.

shaft is parallel with the anvil face. Use the rachet stop to
drive the spindle in against the shaft. But note that the
rachet stop is a drive which will slip. However, it always
applies the same driving force to the spindle so that
results will be uniform. Figure 18 shows three examples
of making a correct reading on a 1-inch micrometer.
Each number on the barrel marks one-tenth of an inch
(0.1 inch). Between adjacent lines on the barrel, there are
twenty-five hundredths of an inch, 0.25, marked off by 25
divisions around the thimble. Each complete revolution
of the thimble moves the spindle twenty-five thousandths
Figure 16. Caliper rule. of and inch, 0.025. This is the distance marked off
between two adjacent lines on the barrel. Four of these
dependent on the amount of feel (or pressure) which you divisions, from the zero mark on the barrel will bring up
place on the ends of the caliper when you are checking a the number “1” on the barrel. This indicates 0.1 inch, or
piece of work. one-tenth of an inch. The bottom example in figure 18
16-4. Caliper rule. As shown in figure 16, the caliper shows a micrometer set to measure 0.224 inch. The 0.2 is
rule has one fixed jaw and one movable jaw which slides read from the barrel, and the 0.024 is read from the
on the rule. The sliding arm is marked with two lines thimble. In the middle example, the correct reading is
labeled “OUT” and “IN”. For measuring an outside 0.226 inch, even though the next line on the barrel does
diameter, the scale is read where the OUT line matches it not show under the thimble. The position of the zero on
at 51/64 inch, as shown in the bottom half of the the thimble indicates that it has more than completed one
illustration. To measure an inside diameter, the width of additional revolution. The top example shows the barrel
the jaw must be taken into account. To measure the ID of exposed beyond the 0.30
a cylinder as shown in figure 16, read the scale where the
IN line matches it at 42/64 inch. The smallest ID that a
caliper rule can measure is the width of the jaws.
16-5. Micrometers. Four types of micrometers are
used in making precision measurements of machine parts.
These are the outside micrometer, the inside micrometer,
the depth micrometer, and the dial micrometer. The
accuracy of these tools is no better than the skill of the
user. They must be used correctly to give precise
measurements.
a. Outside micrometer. An outside micrometer is
used to measure the diameter of a shaft or the thickness of
a sheet. The outside micrometer, shown in figure 17, is
used to measure diameters of less than 1 inch, which is
the limit of movement of the barrel. Common sizes of the
micrometer are 1 inch, 2 inches, and 3 inches. The rachet
stop in the base of the handle is used to drive the spindle
when you are taking a measurement. The first step is to Figure 18. Reading a micrometer.
have the micrometer set wider than the shaft to be
measured. Next, the shaft should be held firmly against
the anvil (fixed face) so that the

43
 Figure 19. Reading a vernier scale.

line, indicated by the position of the thimble. The zero

has already passed the revolution line on the barrel. A
micrometer with a vernier scale can measure to ten
thousandths of an inch. Figure 19 gives an enlarged
picture of the scale of a micrometer set to measure 0.2862
inch. The vernier scale is etched in the barrel, the lines
being parallel with its length. The vernier reading is
made by locating the line on the thimble which matches
the vernier line on the barrel. In this case it is the 16th
thimble line which matches the vernier line 2, which gives
the reading of 0.0002, or two ten-thousandths.
b. Inside micrometer. To make accurate meas-

Figure 21. Depth micrometer with extensions.

urements with an inside micrometer, you must give

careful attention to several details. Figure 20 shows the
extension rods and their use with an inside micrometer.
An extension rod must be absolutely clean before it is
mated to the micrometer. Any particles of dirt which
prevent the extension from bottoming would cause
inaccurate readings. Its length can be checked with an
outside micrometer of sufficient size. The micrometer
must be held parallel with the diameter line of the
cylinder being gauged. The "feel" or drag of the tool
should be only slight and is checked by holding one end
firm against the cylinder wall while the other end is
moved straight up and down. Out-of-round and runout is
checked by taking sample readings at several points of a
cylinder for comparison. The barrel and the thimble are
marked and read in the same manner as an outside
micrometer.
Figure 20. Inside micrometer with extensions. c. Depth micrometer. The use of a depth
micrometer and its extension rods are shown in figure 21.
The same rules apply to the assembly of this tool as those
given for the inside micrometer. The extension rod must
be clean, and it
44

Figure 22. Dial micrometer.
must mate exactly to give accurate measurements. You
must hold both shoulders of the gauge flush against the
edge of the opening while making a measurement. The
spindle is driven by the rachet stop so that its travel will
be arrested as soon as the rod touches bottom.
d. Dial micrometer. A dial micrometer is a
precision tool in which measurements are read directly on
a dial. The dial micrometer, shown in figure 22, is
provided with a handle so that it can be easily handled to
check a cylinder wall. The steel spring at one end of the
micrometer provides a two-point contact with the wall to
insure better accuracy. Runout is easily checked, as the
tool gives a continuous reading while it travels down the
cylinder. The dial micrometer is mounted in a fixed
holder when it is used to check a shaft to see whether or
not it is true.
16-6. Compressor Disassembly. After you pump
down a system you must frontseat the compressor suction
and discharge valves. You can then remove the
compressor from the system. However, there is one note
of caution which you should observe. Before a
compressor is removed from the system, the crankcase
should be vented and the oil drained. The drain plug
should be loosened slowly, and pressure should be bled
from the crankcase before the plug is taken completely
out. The oil should be inspected and a note made as to its
color and condition. You will find signs of wear
indicated by the presence of fine particles of metal or a
substance like grit in the oil or in the bottom of the
crankcase. If the oil appears good and if there are no
signs of grit in the crankcase, you could safely assume
45
that the bearings were in good condition. A compressor
teardown is not necessary if trouble is caused by a
defective oil pump. With the oil pump system, however,
there are two items which might also cause a trouble.
These are the oil pressure regulating valve and the oil
pressure safety switch. Failure of the regulator or switch
can cause much needless work if tests are not made
properly. Parts which cannot be adjusted to factory
specifications should be replaced.
16-7. What is it that we are trying to emphasize in our
last paragraph? Just this! The condition of the oil is a
reliable and accurate gage of internal conditions in the
compressor. Even if a mistake were made in the
interpretation of conditions, that is no reason to make a
major overhaul out of a simple replacement. An
exception to this would be where a compressor was
approaching the end of the time interval when a major
inspection would be required. As a supervisor, you will
be expected to make wise decisions in matters of this
kind. One important item which may be overlooked is the
cause of a failure. Repairing or replacing a part is not
enough unless you know the cause of a failure and take
measures to correct it.
16-8. Oil Seals. A seal is used where the crankshaft
passes through the crankcase. This seal must be able to
hold the pressure in the system whether the shaft is
moving or at rest. One type of seal uses a bellows made
from a thin metal tube. One end of the tube has a flange
which is secured to the crankcase, while the other end has
a metal and graphite ring which is forced against a
shoulder on the crankshaft by a spring. In this mounting,
the tube is stationary. A variation on this type has the
tube and bellows mounted on the shaft, and the seal is
pressed against a shoulder on the crankcase. The main
disadvantages of this type of seal are that it requires that
the shoulder which the seal presses against must be
hardened and that a scratch across the shoulder can cause
the seal to leak. New developments in synthetics have led
to the use of materials which provide a seal without
needing a specially hardened surface.
16-9. One new type of seal is the rotating seal head,
which is precision built and assembled at the factory. It
has a neoprene bellows, a lapped carbon seal washer, a
retainer shell, a driving band, and a flange retainer. The
seal washer mates with a stationary seat on the cover
plate. The seat is also precision lapped. The driving band
presses the bellows against the shaft to insure its turning
with the shaft. The bellows is made so that it will ride
along the shaft, permitting end play of the shaft while
maintaining contact of the seal with the seat.
 16-10. On some compressors, a seal nut must be
removed from the shaft first before the cover plate or seal
guard is removed. Check the threads carefully before
attempting to remove the nut. A nut with a left-hand
thread must be turned clockwise to loosen it. When the
seal has been removed, check all of the seal faces for
scratches and signs of wear which could prevent a new
seal from doing its job. Remove all packing compound
and rust preventive from the new seal with approved
cleaning solvent. Failure to clean the seal thoroughly will
introduce foreign grease into the system, which can cause
trouble. After cleaning and drying the new parts, mating
surfaces must be coated with refrigerant oil before
assembly.
16-11. After installing a new seal, proper operation may
be checked as follows: Frontseat the suction service valve
and run the compressor until the vacuum levels off. Then
frontseat the compressor discharge valve and watch for an
increase in discharge pressure. A rise in discharge
pressure indicates that air is being drawn into the system.
16-12. Valves and Plates. You will find that suction
and discharge valves in a large compressor are mounted
in a valve plate. You can replace these as a complete
assembly for each cylinder when necessary. Replacement
is necessary whenever the limits specified by the
manufacturer are exceeded. Check the depth of the seat
for both suction and discharge valves to see that the
amount of wear is within limits. Check the valve disks to
see that they are not worn too thin. A depth micrometer
will serve to check the depth of a seat from the face. An
outside micrometer is used to measure the thickness of
disks for evidence of wear beyond recommended limits.
16-13. If a spring steel valve is replaced, the new valve
must seat properly. Some replacement valves will be
found with a slight burr on one side. This burr side must
be placed up or away from the seat. Otherwise, the valve
will not seal properly, and the seat will be scored. The
burr should be removed if it is heavy enough to break up
and cause metal chips in the system. A slight feather edge
should not produce chips but does indicate the side which
should be up when it is installed. Valve seats that are of
the raised type may be lapped with fine compound if the
seat is worn. Care must be used that the lapping tool is
flat. The tool must not be allowed to rock during the
lapping as the seal surface would be lost. All compound
must be removed after the lapping operation is completed,
as a small amount of the compound will quickly ruin
every bearing in a compressor. Unless well-qualified
personnel are available to perform precision lapping, it
would be advisable for you to make valve and valve plate
replacements and save work, such as lapping, for experts.
Always use new gaskets with valve plates and cylinder
46
heads. Remember that new cylinder head gaskets must
have the same thickness when installed as the old gaskets,
or the compression ratio will be changed. A gasket that is
too thin will cause the compressor to be noisy, while one
that is too thick will reduce compressor efficiency.
16-14. Connecting Rods, Pistons, and Cylinders.
These parts should be checked for wear against the table
of specifications for the compressor. Wear limits vary
from as little as 0.001 inch for wrist pins and bushings to
as much as 0.003 inch for cylinder sleeves. Label the
caps and rods so that they can be reinstalled in the same
positions from which they were removed. Some
compressors are provided with removable cylinder
sleeves. If the connecting rod will not pass through the
sleeve, then the rod, piston, and sleeve must be removed
together. You must be careful that the piston does not
come through the top of the sleeve during removal, as the
rings will give you trouble. Check bearing surfaces for
correct measurements and for scratches or other signs of
damage. Lubricate pans with refrigerator oil before
reassembling them. Bearing caps should not be filed
unless this action is specifically directed by the
manufacturer.
16-15. Ring gap is checked by inserting the ring about
3/8 inch from the top of the cylinder. Compression rings
have a taper toward the top of the ring. If installed upside
down, the compressor will be noisy in operation,
indicating that oil is being pumped. The top of the ring
(marked "TOP") must face up so that it will be toward the
cylinder head when it is installed. Oil rings which have
no taper may be installed with either side up. Check the
ring gap with a feeler gauge after the ring is inserted into
the cylinder about 3/8 inch below the top. Ring gaps must
be staggered around the piston. Side clearance between
the piston and ring should be about 0.001 inch, and the
ring must be free to move. When the new rings are
installed, be sure to break the glaze on the old cylinder
wall so that the rings will wear in properly.
16-16. Crankshaft. A crankshaft whose bearing
surfaces are worn but otherwise are in good condition
may be used if undersize bearing inserts are available.
Remember that worn bearings for the connecting rods
may mean worn parts at other places also. So be sure that
you take all factors into account before attempting a
repair that may not prove satisfactory all around.
16-17. Oil Pump and Accessories. Oil pumps are gear
type positive displacement to insure delivery of oil at the
pressures required for refrigeration compressors. For
example, a system designed for oil pressure of 45 to 55
p.s.i. above suction pressure should have an oil pressure
gauge reading between 85 and 95 if the suction pressure is
40 p.s.i. An oil regulating valve of the spring-loaded type
insures correct oil pressure automatically. Some of these
valves are adjustable, while others are factory set. When
pressure cannot be adjusted high enough, it may be an
indication of badly worn bearings.
16-18. An oil safety switch operates on differential
pressure, which is the difference between pump discharge
and crankcase pressure. If oil pressure drops too low, the
compressor motor is shut off. Low oil pressure can result
from low oil, pump failure, worn bearings, and crankcase
dilution by refrigerant. Diluted oil may be caused by
worn rings.
16-19. After repairs are made to a compressor, the
system may require cleaning before it can be put back in
operation. While the following section is written for a
hermetic motor burnout, the cleaning procedures can be
applied to any system, large or small, which requires
cleaning. The process also applies to a new system which
has just been assembled or installed and which requires
cleaning before it can be considered ready for operation.
17. System Cleaning
17-1. This section is in part reprinted from April 1961,
and June 1962, Refrigeration Service and Contracting. A
new system requires cleaning before operation to insure
removal of any foreign material left in the system. Also a
system requires cleaning after burnout of a hermetic
motor. In either case the method you use for cleaning a
system will be determined by prevailing conditions and
by the equipment you have available. With a new system
the first step is to install a filter-drier in the suction line to
prevent damage to the compressor. The filter-drier is
changed as often as necessary. Such a change is called
for whenever suction pressure drops, as the drop indicates
a clogged filter. The following methods are generally
considered to do a satisfactory job of cleaning.
17-2. Cleanup Procedure for Small Capacity. After
you have established that a burnout has occurred, follow
the cleanup methods recommended by the equipment
manufacturer. If the manufacturer's service manuals are
not available, you may follow the procedures outlined in
this section. The procedures that we will discuss in the
following paragraphs apply to most hermetic
compressors. On larger systems a single filter-drier,
connected in the suction line, may cause pressure drops.
If this occurs, you must use parallel driers.
CAUTION: Acid burns can result from touching the
sludge in a burned out compressor. You must wear
rubber gloves when handling any contaminated pan.
17-3. To clean a system with a liquid line filter-drier
and less than 10 pounds of refrigerant charge, you must
follow these procedures:
47
• Evacuate the system from the high side
(discharge shutoff valve).
• Flush the system completely with new
refrigerant.
• Install the new hermetic compressor-motor.
• Install a filter-drier in the liquid line, using a size
larger than specified.
• Charge the system with new refrigerant.
• Start the system according to the manufacturer's
instructions or local SOP's.
• Check the oil and filter-drier on followup calls to
establish the need for replacement.
• On the first followup call, install a moisture and
liquid indicator (liquid eye) in the liquid line, after the
filter-drier and before the expansion valve. This will
indicate when moisture content is within acceptable
limits.
17-4. Cleanup Procedure for Large Capacity. The
procedure to follow if the system contains more than 10
pounds of refrigerant is:
• Bleed some refrigerant from the high side. If the
refrigerant has a burned or acid odor, it must be evacuated
to the atmosphere. If there is not a strong odor, you can
evacuate the refrigerant into a clean, dry drum.
• If the system did not have a drier in the liquid
line, you must clean the expansion valve strainer and the
internal expansion valve parts.
• If the system has a drier in the liquid line,
remove and discard it.
• Install the new compressor.
• Install a filter-drier in the suction line.
• Install an oversized filter-drier in the liquid line.
• Evacuate the entire system with a vacuum pump
capable of pulling. 0.2 inches of Hg.
• Break the vacuum with refrigerant.
• Re-evacuate and charge the system with the
original type of refrigerant. Charging should be
accomplished through the low side of the system.
• Change the liquid line filter-drier and remove the
filter-drier from the suction line after 48 hours.
• The filter-drier in the suction line can be changed
sooner if the pressure drop affects system capacity, but it
is considered good practice to leave it in the system for at
least 6 hours.
• Install a moisture and liquid indicator in the
liquid line and check the oil color and odor. It must be
changed if it appears dirty or smells burned.
• In 2 weeks, recheck the oil and change it if
necessary. The moisture indicator will show whether or
not the drier needs replacement.
17-5. Flushing the System. One of the accepted
methods of cleaning the system after a hermetic motor
burnout is flushing. Dry air, nitrogen, or

Figure 23. Circulator setup.
carbon dioxide gases are often used for this purpose if
them is no sludge in the system. However, most
manufacturers recommend the use of refrigerant (the
same as that used for system charge) the flushing agent.
Purging with gases (air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.)
does little good, because the sludge adheres tightly to the
internal surfaces of the system. The solvent action of the
refrigerant is essential for adequate system cleanup.
Refrigerant 11 has been found to be the best solvent. It
remains in liquid form at normal room temperature,
because its boiling point is 74° F. at atmospheric
pressure. Its cost is low, and it is readily available from
local wholesalers.
17-6. Circulation of the solvent (R-11) can be
accomplished with the setup shown in figure 23. To flush
the system, you would open valves B and C and close
valve A and D. Backwashing is accomplished by opening
valves A and D and closing B and C. The flow of solvent
through the strainer and filter-drier is always in the same
direction, as shown in figure 23. The pump is of the
diaphragm type. All of these components are usually
available so that you could build your own circulator and
mount it on a dolly or two-wheeled cart for mobility.
17-7. Procedure for Cleaning a System with a
Circulator. We have discussed procedures for system
cleanup. The procedure that we will discuss now is
considered much more efficient, but to use it, a circulator
is needed. The setup for such a circulator has been
48
illustrated in figure 23. The procedure for cleaning a
system with a circulator follows:
• Make sure that the compressor motor is burned
out; then remove the electrical leads from the motor
terminals.
• Remove the refrigerant and oil as a liquid, but do
not purge off in the gaseous state. Since, at this time, the
acid content may be high, be careful to avoid contact of it
with your skin or eyes.
• Remove the filter-drier and expansion device.
• Install bypass where components were removed,
except at the suction and discharge lines to the
compressor.
• Attach the circulator to the system.
• Circulate the solvent for at least 4 hours.
• Change filter-drier in the circulator as frequently
as it is necessary to insure removal of moisture.
• Shut off the circulator and blow the system out
with R-12 or R-22. Get the system as dry as possible.
• Install the new compressor, filter-drier, and
expansion device.
• Partially charge the system and make a leak test
with a halide torch.
• Evacuate the system three times. Break vacuum
with refrigerant each time.
• Charge the system with new oil and refrigerant
after the third evacuation is complete.
• Check the system after 48 hours of operation.
Change the oil if dirty, and replace the filter-drier.
• Check the system again in 40 to 60 days. Again,
change the oil if necessary and replace the filter-drier.
18. Removing Moisture from the System
18-1. The amount of moisture in a refrigeration system
must be kept at a minimum to provide satisfactory
operation. The main sources of moisture are low-side
leaks, contaminated oil or refrigerant, and leakage in a
water-cooled condensing unit. Moisture may enter the
system whenever it is open, such as during installation or
when you are making repairs.
18-2. Moisture Troubles. You will find that moisture
in the system will cause one or more of the following
undesirable effects:
• Freezing at the expansion device.
• Corrosion of metals (this forms sludge).
• Copper plating.
• Chemical damage to the motor insulation or to
other system components.
• A restricted or plugged filter.
We will discuss two methods of dehydration, one
 Figure 24. Cutaway of a filter-drier.
using driers with desiccants and the other using vacuum
pumps.
18-3. Driers. The drier unit contains desiccant,
screens, and filters. Figure 24 shows the internal
construction of a nonrefillable drier. The distribution
baffle prevents a solid stream of refrigerant from passing
through the desiccant block. It also eliminates turbulence
and insures a smooth flow of refrigerant through the drier.
The spun glass filter is held in place by the anti-bypass
ring. The ring forces a of the refrigerant to flow through
the desiccant block and then through the porous bronze
filter. The filter casing carries model identification and
positive directional flow arrows or inlet and outlet
markings. The model number indicates the size of the
filter. The total charge in a system is the basis for the size
drier selected. If the total charge is unknown, you can
assume that it is 8 pounds per ton for R-12 and 6 pounds
per ton for R-22 and R-502. NOTE: The following
general rule may be used to estimate the system charge in
relation to the horse-power rating of the condensing unit:
R-12 = 8 lbs/hp
R-502 = 6 lbs/hp
R-22 = 6 lbs/hp
The directional indication must be observed during
installation. If it has been connected in backwards, it will
cause a restriction. Why? Because particles of desiccant
will get into the system, since the screen will be on the
wrong side.
49
18-4. Desiccants. A desiccant is a compound capable
of absorbing the moisture in the refrigerant-oil mixture.
We will discuss three commonly used desiccants:
activated alumina, silica gel, and calcium sulfate. You
must be familiar with the correct use of these desiccants.
All three are rated as highly acceptable, but the use of the
wrong desiccant in a system can cause trouble and
breakdowns.
18-5. Activated alumina. Alumina removes moisture
by absorption. It is used on systems containing sulfur
dioxide (SO2), methylene chloride, methyl chloride, R-11,
and R-12. It can be used in the suction or liquid line for
all these refrigerants except sulfur dioxide. However, on
an SO2 system, you can install it in the suction line only.
Activated alumina is available in granular, ball, tablet,
and solid core form.
18-6. Silica gel. Silica gel is a glasslike silicon dioxide
gel which removes moisture by absorption. It also
removes acids and does not dust. It is available in
granular, bead, and solid core form and is used on most
refrigerating systems, since it is compatible with most
refrigerants.
18-7. Calcium sulfate. The anhydrous form of calcium
sulfate is also used to remove moisture from a system.
Although it forms dust somewhat more than activated
alumina, it can still be left in the system permanently. It
is available in granular,

Figure 25. Temperature pressure relationship.
(reprinted from April 1964 Refrigeration
Service and Contracting).
stick, and special block form. Calcium sulfate cannot be
used with SO2 refrigerant.
18-8. The reactivation temperature for these desiccants
are:
• Activated alumina 350°-600° F.
• Silica gel 350°-600° F.
• Calcium sulfate 450°-480° F.
18-9. Installation of Driers. Before installation, a
drier should have both ends open and be baked in an oven
at 300° F. for 24 hours. The drier should be capped after
baking to prevent accumulation of moisture. Caps are
removed just before the drier is placed in the system.
Even a drier which has been sealed by the manufacturer
should be dried before installation if there is any reason to
suspect that moisture may have passed the seals.
18-10. Dehydrating with a Vacuum Pump. This
material is in part reprinted from April 1964 Refrigeration
Service and Contracting. To start our discussion, let us
think of pressure as the column of mercury it will support.
50
Think of atmospheric pressure as equal to 29.92 inches of
mercury instead of 14.7 p.s.i.g. at sea level. This will
permit us to use the pressure-temperature relationship
shown in figure 25 when we determine the vacuum which
must be attained to boil water at various ambient
temperatures.
18-11. Referring to figure 25, a vacuum pump capable
of eliminating all but 1 inch of Hg is able to remove
moisture at an ambient temperature of 80° F. or more.
While a pump pulling within 1 inch of Hg, can eliminate
moisture, it must also be capable of holding this vacuum
throughout the dehydration process. Before we consider
the variables that affect a vacuum pump's performance,
we should first review some general classifications of
pumps relative to their ability to remove moisture by the
boding process.
18-12. The piston type compressor might pull a vacuum
of 28.2 inches of Hg, which is actually 1.7 inches of Hg on
a manometer. Quite a number of these pumps have been
used for vacuum work, but they are impractical in
removing water by the boiling method. Under normal
ambient temperature, moisture contaminates the
crankcase oil.
18-13. A rotary type compressor can pull a vacuum of
29.63 inches of Hg,. This pressure will cause the water to
boil at an ambient temperature of approximately 45° F.
For these reasons, the rotary compressor is practical for
use as a vacuum pump.
18-14. The compound two-stage high vacuum pump is
capable of pulling down to about 50 microns for
prolonged periods of time. Because such pumps are two-
stage pumps, they can be equipped with a gas ballast or
vented exhaust. The gas ballast or vented exhaust feature
is a valving arrangement which permits relatively dry air
from the atmosphere to enter the second stage of the
pump. This air mixes with the air being passed from the
first to second stage and helps to prevent the moisture
from condensing into a liquid and mixing with the
vacuum-pump oil.
18-15. Frequent vacuum-pump oil changes should be
anticipated and recognized as the single most important
factor in preventive maintenance. Even a pump equipped
with a vented exhaust cannot handle large amounts of
moisture without having some of it condense into the oil.
If the water is allowed to remain in the pump, the
moisture will attack the metal pans and result in a loss of
efficiency or capacity. The oil should be changed after
each major evacuation or dehydration process.
18-16. When, you are determining the size of the pump
(c.f.m. capacity) to meet your needs, you must remember
that the length and diameter of the line being dehydrated
dictates the size pump to be used. The 75-c.f.m. capacity
pump will handle most applications, since the system is
normally dehydrated through a 1/4-inch line.
 Review Exercises 8. Why is frequent blowdown necessary in ice
making machine? (10-8)
The following exercises are study aids. Write your
answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your 9. In addition to mechanical troubles, what is the
answers for grading. biggest source of trouble with ice making
machines? (10-12)
1. Why would a bottle type water cooler have a
freezestat in the control circuit when the
thermostat is t so that ice will form? (8-2)

10. Why is a heat exchanger necessary in the liquid

line of the soda fountain shown figure 11? (11-1)

2. What is the purpose of a precooler in a bubbler

fountain? (8-3)

11. A dry type coil like the beverage cooler in figure

11 must be correctly sized for what reason? (11-
2)
3. Of several methods you may use when patching
a leak in a water tank or line, in which method
must precautions be observed for good health?
(8-5)
12. What is the function of the water pump in a soda
fountain carbonator? (11-3)

4. Describe the adjustment you would make to a

beverage cabinet used to cool four different
kinds of bottled beverages. (9-2) 13. If you find the water pump for a carbonator is
running continuously, where would you check
first to try to locate the trouble? (11-4)

5. When checking a condenser for warm spots, how

might a warm coil be misleading to you? (9-3)
14. What simple test can be made to prove that a
break in the ground circuit has caused the
carbonator pump motor to run continuously?
(11-4)
6. What is the big difference that distinguishes
types of ice making machines? Give some
examples. (10-1)
15. What might cause constant complaints of having
bad taste or flavor from a storage cabinet which
has been properly refrigerated? (12-2)

7. What are three types of evaporators you may

find in an ice cube machine? (10-4-6)

51
16. On older models not provided with automatic 25. The service valves in a system serve what
defrosting. what must be done before water is purpose? (13-4)
used for evaporator defrosting? (12-3)

26. Give the advantage or characteristic of two

17. What is meant by a “double duty” display types of water-cooled condensers. (13-7)
cabinet (12-5)

27. Why must a receiver be sized to the system? (13-

18. In addition to special illumination, what other 8)
feature may be found around the door of a
display cabinet? (12-6)

28. What is peculiar about a receiver outlet valve?

(13-8)
19. Why must there be a continuous flow of cold air
in the display section of a refrigerated open
display case? (12-7)
29. How might reversed flow affect a drier-strainer?
(13-9)

20. Give the five methods you have studied for

storage cabinet defrosting. (12-8)
30. What are the three features considered essential
in an expansion valve? (13-11)

21. What is the limitation on compressor off-time

defrosting? (12-9)
31. Give the reasons why a water cooler can use an
automatic constant pressure expansion valve.
(13-12)
22. Describe the reverse cycle used for cabinet
defrosting. (12-11)

32. What is the purpose of an equalizer line with an

expansion valve? (13-12)
23. What is one purpose of using a high-temperature
control in a low-temperature cabinet? (12-15)

33. Give the descriptive items you would use to

identify a thermostatic expansion valve. (13-13)
24. What is the purpose of the capillary tube
connected to a defrost valve? (12-16)

34. What are the three kinds of charge used in the

bulb and capillary of a thermostatic expansion
valve? (13-13)

52
35. Explain the meaning of a cross charge. (13-13)
36. Give the arguments for and against the liquid
charged bulb. (13-13)
37. Give the pros and cons for a gas-charged bulb.
(13-13)
38. What are the advantages of a high-side float
valve? (13-14)
39. What effect is produced by a layer of oil on top
of the refrigerant? (13-15)
40. Before making tests on a "live" circuit, why
should you remove rings ad not wear a metal
watchband? (14-2)
41. When you find a circuit breaker tripped, what
else should you do besides resetting the breaker?
(14-4)
42. A compressor motor will not start and an
ammeter test reads full LRA. For what purpose
would you release belt tension? (14-5, 6; also 5-
11)
43. Why is it poor practice to try repeatedly to start a
motor which does not turn over? (14-6, 8)
44. List the causes of abnormally high head pressure.
(14-9)
53
45. You find a compressor unit continuously running
yet unable to cool sufficiently. What checks
would you make to locate the cause of the
trouble? (14-10, 11)
46. How would a compressor act if the thermostat
controlling it had lost the charge from its
capillary? (14-11)
47. How would you make a quick check for ice
blocking a refrigerant control? (14-12)
48. What is the indication of a worn needle and seat
in an expansion valve? (14-13)
49. When adjustments or repairs are being made to a
float valve, what consideration must you
observe? (14-14)
50. Where a drier-strainer is provided with valves
and a refrigerant bypass, what precautions must
you observe before you remove the item from
the system? (15-2)
51. What is the purpose of a rachet stop in an outside
micrometer? (16-5)
52. In figure 18, the top illustration shows an arrow
at the right on the thimble. If the thimble is
turned 12 divisions in the direction of the arrow,
what will be the reading of the micrometer? (16-
15)
53. How can you check to see that an extension rod
with an inside micrometer is properly seated to
give correct readings? (16-5)
54. What is the best tool to use to check a crankshaft 63. Unless cylinder sleeves are replaced, what must
to see whether or not it is true? (16-5) also be done when a new set of rings is installed?
(16-15)

55. Give five causes for loss of oil pressure in a 64. What other factors must be taken into account
compressor. (16-6, 18) when bearing inserts are replaced? (16-16)

56. When installing a new oil seal, what precautions 65. When is system cleaning required? (16-19)
should you observe? (16-8-10)

66. After a hermetic motor burnout, why must you

57. How is a compressor operated to check a new use precautions when cleaning the system? (17-
seal for a leak? (16-11) 2, 7)

58. What are two important checks which you 67. In system cleaning, where is evacuation
should make when you are inspecting equipment connected and why? (17-3)
compressor valves? (16-12)

68. Why is a new filter-drier installed after a system

59. Replacement valves made of spring steel should is cleaned? (17-3)
be inspected before installation. How should
you perform this inspection? (16-13)

69. What is the purpose of using refrigerant to break

the vacuum when cleaning a system? (17-4, 7)
60. What is the difference between most oil rings
and compression rings used in a refrigeration
compressor? (16-15)
70. What is the limitation on the use of activated
alumina drier? (18-5)

61. How would you obtain indications that a set of

compression rings has been installed upside
down? (16-15) 71. Which system is not compatible with anhydrous
calcium sulfate as a drier? (18-7)

62. How would you check the ring gap of the rings
used in a refrigeration compressor? (16-15) 72. What are the general procedures recommended
before a drier is installed? (18-9)

54
73. What vacuum is necessary to boil water at a 74. Why are frequent oil changes recommended for
room temperature of 80° F.? (18-11) the oil in a vacuum pump? (18-15)

55
CHAPTER 3
Cold Storage and Ice Plants
DO YOU SUPPOSE that this chapter should be
introduced with the importance of preserving food?
Perhaps. But for a change, let us consider your job if you
are assigned to work at a cold storage warehouse or an ice
plant. You can make the job dull and boring or very
interesting. In the operation of a plant there will usually
be some time each day when you will have nothing to do
but observe the equipment. The wise man will use this
time to study the equipment. He will learn how it is laid
out and where the various parts are located. While you
are taking readings, you should make a mental note of
changes which you observe and try to determine the
causes of the changes. In this way you will both pass the
time quickly and become more familiar with your
equipment's proper operation. Remember, too, the man
who is alert to operating conditions will recognize the
symptoms of impending trouble and can thus often
prevent a major breakdown. The larger plants are
attended by operators on shift duty 24 hours a day.
2. This chapter is divided into two major headings.
The first covers the design, insulation, layout, and
operation and maintenance of large cold storage plants.
The second covers the layout, operating principles,
components, and the ammonia system operation and
maintenance. We will undertake the discussion of a large
cold storage plant first.
19. Large Cold Storage Plants
19-1. Have you ever observed the different types of
cold storage in a commissary store? You will find similar
areas in a large cold storage plant. Let us consider the
effect of these areas on the design of a plant.
19-2. Plant Design. In the layout of a refrigerated
warehouse, consideration is given to the operating
temperatures by using the center of the building for the
coldest operations. Warmer rooms are located around the
center and act as a buffer for the colder areas. The
temperatures of the rooms which follow are presented as
examples of one warehouse.
56
19-3. Rail rooms. A refrigerated warehouse is usually
laid out in the shape of a rectangle. The two longest sides
of the building are occupied by rail rooms. Meat hooks
suspended from an over head rail provide the means for
moving heavy loads. The rail room is normally
maintained at about 35° F. Inside doors provide access to
the processing room and meat cooler room, which are also
part of the overhead rail system.
19-4. Processing room. This room is held at 45° F.,
and because of its warmer temperature, it is located at one
end of the building. This is where the butcher cuts a
carcass into smaller parts before storage or distribution.
Such processing rooms are dangerous areas. During
normal operations the floors become extremely slippery;
therefore, you must be careful in order not to fall
whenever your work requires that you pass through these
rooms.
19-5. Meat cooler. A temperature of 30° F. should be
maintained in the meat cooler for holding fresh meat prior
to distribution. A meat holding and issue room at 30° F.
provides additional storage area for the same purpose.
19-6. Milk, butter, and egg room. This area is
normally held at 35° F. and is one of the colder areas.
19-7. Fruit and vegetable room. An average
temperature of 40° F. is recommended for general
storage, so this room is also eligible for location by an
outside wall.
19-8. Potato room. You may already know that
potatoes in storage give off heat and carbon dioxide.
Consequently, the potato room should have a high ceiling
and must have positive ventilation to insure the safety of
personnel. Otherwise, the carbon dioxide will form a
dense layer at the floor if the fans are turned off. An
unsuspecting person would not realize his danger in an
atmosphere so heavy with carbon dioxide until he felt
himself fainting. Then it would be too late for him, as
asphyxiation follows quickly. Furthermore, potatoes
should not be piled more than 6 feet high to insure
removal of heat. If the pile is too high, the heat will not
be removed fast enough, and they
will spoil rapidly. Outside air ducts are used to bring
fresh air into the room by means of fans. The fresh air is
directed across the evaporator coils for cooling. To insure
the safety of personnel, operating instructions for this
room must be strictly observed. Operating temperatures
from 35° to 45° F. may be used, depending on the type of
potatoes in storage. Early crop potatoes keep best 50° F.
but must be considered for short-term storage of less than
3 months. Late-crop potatoes will age best and keep from
5 to 8 months if the storage room is kept between 35° and
40°. In very cold weather, heaters are turned on to keep
the products from being frozen.
19-9. Freezer room. Occupying the center of the
warehouse are the freezer rooms. A below-zero room is
used both for freeing products and for long-term storage.
Products already frozen may be kept in a 10° F. room,
where storage is for a short period, such as a week. If the
insulation is installed properly in the cold rooms, your job
will be easier, because the refrigeration equipment will
not be overloaded. The total heat load of the warehouse
will be lighter than if the rooms were poorly insulated.
19-10. Vapor Barriers and Insulation. Information
on insulation is in part reprinted from January 1964
Refrigeration Service and Contracting. There was a time
when a cold storage warehouse was insulated with
sawdust. But now, new materials and methods of
installation produce improved construction. You must be
familiar with these improvements so that you can properly
maintain equipment in rooms with modern insulation.
There are four basic fundamentals to be considered in
construction of a modern cold storage room. These are:
• Design the structure so the room and the building
can move independently of each other.
• Apply a continuous vapor barrier on the warm
side of the insulation, using a plastic film or laminate with
the lowest permeability.
• Select insulation which has a permeability rating
considerably higher than the vapor barrier but has a low
permeability to air.
• Select a finish with a permeability rating
considerably highest than the insulation.
19-11. The vapor barrier should consist of a plastic film
or laminate with the lowest "permeability value"
available. The value in permeability equals the number of
grains of moisture that will pass through 1 square foot of
the material in 1 hour under a vapor pressure differential
of 1 inch of mercury. It has been found that a building
using plastic film as a vapor barrier is more efficient
thermally and less costly as compared with a building
using the common adhesive or hot asphalt treated
insulation. A structure constructed according to the four
57
fundamentals will allow the insulated room to move
independently of the building structure. This means that
when proper techniques are followed for the installation
of the vapor barrier, the vapor seal at the wall-ceiling
juncture remains intact, and no leakage occurs at the joint.
Modem construction allows the outer shell of the building
to breathe with changes in ambient temperature while the
cold storage room is held stationary in a narrow
temperature range. If the original vapor barrier adhesive
was inadequate or ruptured, a moisture vapor and air leak
would occur and cause deterioration of the insulation.
19-12. With a new construction which follows the four
basic fundamentals, the vapor barrier is installed prior to
the insulation. This vapor barrier is not cemented to the
walls of the building structure or the insulation but is
supported independently of them. This is very important,
since it allows building and cold room movement to have
no effect upon the integrity of the vapor barrier. In effect,
the insulation is enveloped in a vapor barrier on the warm
side. This vapor barrier can be inspected after installation
prior to the application of the insulation. Do not overlook
the importance of being able to inspect the vapor barrier
to insure adequate protection from vapor and airflow.
Any damage can be repaired a this time, and overlaps can
be carefully inspected to se whether specifications have
been followed.
19-13. Insulating materials. Materials which have been
used successfully include 6 to 8 mil polyethylene film in
wide sheets, laminates of aluminum foil with polyester
film, and creped paper. The width is sufficient to greatly
reduce the number of laps and joints. Laps and joints
require sealing with vapor barrier pressure sensitive tape.
Some contractors use rolls of foil laminates because of its
case of application. The insulation is installed dry
without adhesives. A vapor permeable finish is applied to
hold it in place. The finish protects it from damage and
provides a sanitary washable surface. In some cases the
finish is fire resistant. With proper materials, any small
amount of vapor which does pass through the vapor
barrier can flow through the insulation without changing
its state. It remains as a vapor to be condensed on the
cooling coil. The moisture does no condense within the
insulation to impair its thermal efficiency, and the cooling
load due to heat gain trough the insulation remains
relatively constant at or near its original U-factor.
19-14. Sealing fasteners. The fastener locations on the
framing should be premarked and a strip of caulking
ribbon placed behind each location. This will seal the
hole in the vapor barrier caused by the fastener. After the
framing for the ceiling is installed, the vapor barrier sheet
is spot
stapled to the inside of the framing. Seal the ceiling vapor
barrier to the wall barriers with vapor barrier pressure-
sensitive tape. The ceiling framing is securely fastened to
the top of all wall framing members so that movement of
the building will not affect the wall-ceiling juncture. The
framing for the self-supporting walls should also rest on a
plate securely fastened through the floor vapor barrier into
the subslab.
19-15. After the necessary bracing is in place, the vapor
barrier is installed on the self-supporting walls. It is
installed on the outer side of the framing and sealed to the
overlap of the ceiling vapor barrier. The first layer of
insulation is force-fitted between the wall studs and nailed
to the underside of the ceiling. The second layer is
installed horizontally on the walls and perpendicular to
the ceiling framing under the suspended ceiling. This
layer is held in place with plastic skewers or nails.
19-16. Lay polyethylene vapor barrier over the subslab
and tape all joints and seal with tape to the ends of the
wall vapor barrier. You will then be ready to lay in the
insulation. The joints must be tight. Then lay a vapor
permeable sheet, such as 15-pound roofing felt, over the
floor insulation and up over the wall insulation, above the
height of the concrete curb that will be poured later. Also
pour the concrete wearing slab and install a curb of the
proper height. After this, cut off the 15-pound felt even
with the top of the curb. The felts acts as a slip sheet. It
allows the floor and curb to move independently of the
walls. It also prevents excess water in the concrete from
wetting the floor insulation.
19-17. At this point, the job is ready for installation of
the permanent fasteners and the stabilizers. Fasten 4-
inch-wide galvanized metal lath over each framing
member. Apply a portland cement finish in two coats
over the walls and ceilings. The finish should be cured
with water spraying in accordance with recommendations
for wiring. This treatment reduces shrinkage and gives
maximum strength to the finish.
19-18. Plant Layout. In order to understand the layout
of a cold storage plant, you should be able to read
blueprints. Standard drawings are often used with
additions and note added so that the diagram may be
applied to a specific installation. You should recognize
that this is the case with the illustrations used in this
section. At the time when a facility is built, an accurate
drawing is made of the equipment. These drawings are
referred to as "as-built drawings." Changes or
modification should be entered in the drawings; thus the
drawings should be kept up to date by appropriate entries
of modifications or additions to the plant.
19-19. Machine room. If you have ever seen the
machine room in a cold storage plant, you were probably
58
impressed by the array of tubing. Some of it you
recognized without a doubt, while other parts of the
tubing seemed strange to you. Look at figure 26 and you
will see a diagram of the layout of tubing and equipment
in a machine room. Appropriate labels are provided so
that you can identify each item. Notice how a pitch is
specified for horizontal lines to prevent pockets of liquid
from being trapped in the lines. A few words of
explanation may help you to read such a diagram.
19-20. Look at the upper right part of figure 26 and find
a line which is labeled "LL to HT System coolers." The
abbreviation means liquid line to high-temperature-
system coolers. At the upper left you will find a line
marked "S.L. 4," which means "4-inch suction line."
Beside the legend "Sight glasses" you will see a number
"1" in a small triangle. This 1 refers to an item which was
added after construction has been completed. When items
are added, such as symbols with special meaning., a
notation should be made under "added notes" or
"revisions" on the blueprint. Appropriate forms, such as
status and operational records, component replacement,
and historical records, must be maintained for plant
equipment as directed by inspection TO's.
19-21. Under the label "Liquid Receiver" is a note
telling you to "See detail." Several details may be shown
on the same blueprint. A detail of a typical receiver is
shown in figure 27. Note the two driers, which makes it
possible to replace one without shutting down the system.
You can see many things in the detail which could not be
included in figure 26 because of lack of space.
19-22. Cold rooms and evaporators. The various cold
rooms are provided with evaporators of appropriate size.
In figure 28 you will find a detail of typical connections
to an evaporator. Each large cold room may have one or
more evaporators, and valves must be located so that an
evaporator can be isolated while the rest of system
remains operating. Let us now consider the operation and
maintenance of a cold storage plant.
19-23. Operation and Maintenance. For purposes of
this discussion, we will start with the motor controls and
compressors and follow the flow of refrigerant. Thus, we
can explain the operation of the plant in a logical
sequence.
19-24. Compressors, controls, and accessories. From
our previous discussion of a machine room, you will
remember the four compressors shown in figure 26. Two
15-hp compressors supplied the high-temperature
evaporators, while two 20-hp units furnished the low-
temperature evaporators. In either side, the loss of one
compressor will not halt operations completely. When
possible, compressors of the same size are installed so
that the
Figure 26. Machine room diagram.

59
 Figure 27. Detail of liquid receiver.
system can be standardized and spare parts will be
interchangeable. The inventory of spare parts will thus be
smaller because there will not be a need for duplication.
a. Pressure control. Generally, motors larger than 5
hp are three phase and require a starter. The motor starter
is controlled with a pressure motor control tapped into the
low-side suction line. The cutout pressure is set for 10° F.
below the coil temperature, while the cut-in pressure
should be set for the desired coil temperature. The spread
between the two settings determines the frequency of
compressor operation. Operation in very cold weather
may produce conditions which will prevent some systems
from operating automatically because of abnormal
pressure. The receiver outlet valve (king valve) may be
throttled so as to force the pressure to increase. As
pressure builds up to a near normal level, the valve should
be opened more. Be sure, however, to restore valves to
normal operating positions after the condition is
Figure 28. Detail of evaporator connections.
60
corrected. Remember, a pressure control's function is to
close and open a set of contacts in the circuit to the
operating coil of the starter for the motor.
b. Magnetic starter. The motor control is
essentially a three-phase magnetic switch which is closed
when its coil is energized. The coil serves to close the
switch and to hold it closed. The switch is closed against
spring pressure, which throws the contacts open as soon
as the circuit to the coil is interrupted. Two overload
protection provide protection against shorts in all three
phases. Protectors are located in A and C phases, which
should be the two outside wires. Remember, when testing
a switch for supply voltage, the upper terminals are
connected to the feeders. Check the upper terminals from
A to B, B to C, and A to C for voltage on all three phases.
If one phase is dead, the trouble is in the feeder or supply.
The lower three terminals are connected to the motor.
When a small fourth contact is part of a switch,
it provides a holding circuit to the closing coil. The
wiring diagram inside the cover of the switch box will
give the wiring diagram for that particular switch.
Maintenance consists in replacement of overload
protectors which have failed or a magnetic coil which has
an open circuit. In both cases an exact replacement or a
substitute as specified by the manufacturer must be used.
If the switch contacts are severely burned, the entire
switch may require replacement. Excessive heat may
damage other parts, such as the springs, which would
cause more trouble in the future if the switch was partly
rebuilt.
c. Time-delay relay. You will remember that in the
illustration of a machine room, each system was supplied
by two compressors. If both these motors were started at
the same time, there would be twice the load on the
electrical system. For example, a three-phase, 220-volt,
15-hp motor will draw about 100 amperes starting
current. If both motors started together, the combined
load of 200 amperes would cause a voltage drop, resulting
in slower starting. This would extend the starting period,
and the motor windings would be subjected to
unnecessary overheating. Such a situation is avoided by
using a time-delay relay with one motor so that it is not
started until the other motor reaches operating speed. A
time interval of from 3 to 8 seconds is sufficient. The
time-delay relay consist of a solenoid coil and plunger
with a set of contacts which close the circuit to one of the
motor starters. The plunger operates in a dashpot filled
with oil. Maintenance requires that the relay be kept
clean. If oil needs replacing, be sure to use oil that is
approved for use in a dashpot. Dash-pot oil keeps the
same viscosity over a wide range of temperature. The
time interval can be changed by turning the adjustment
screw. An ordinary light switch maybe wired in parallel
with the time-delay relay if the relay fails. The second
compressor can then be started manually after the first
compressor starts. Operation can thus be continued until
the relay can be replaced.
d. Motors and drives. Three-phase motors have the
high starting toque required by large compressors. Once a
motor is installed properly, all it needs is cleaning and
oiling. Motor bearings should be checked daily for
normal temperatures. They should not be so hot that you
cannot hold your hand comfortably on the bearing shell.
Always open the motor switch before checking the belt
driver end. Lubrication of motor bearings it done on a
regular schedule as directed. Proper installation means
that the motor must be lined up so that its pulley drum is
parallel with, and in the same plane as, the pulley on the
compressor shaft. An initial test of the direction of
rotation of the motor should be made before the
terminal’s connections are made permanent and insulated
61
with tape. If at the test, the motor rotates incorrectly, its
direction is reversed by interchanging two of the motor
leads with the supply leads. By transposing two of the
phases, a three-phase motor will have its rotation
reversed.
You may have to remove a motor at some time for
repairs. Before disconnecting the wires, be sure that you
attach labels to all of the supply leads and the motor leads.
Then, when you are ready to reconnect the motor, wire it
the same as before.
A large compressor is driven by multiple V-belts,
which should be provided with a safety enclosure. Belt
guards are for your protection and must always be in
place during normal operation. Loose or damaged guards
must be repaired or replaced. Always open the
compressor switch so that the motor cannot start while
you are working around or in the immediate area of the
belts. If the oil is spilled on V-belts, they must be cleaned
immediately. Again, open the compressor switch so that
the unit cannot start while you are working on it. If the
oil soaks into the belts before they can be cleaned, plan on
replacing the set soon, because oil causes the material to
deteriorate rapidly.
Multiple drives of four or five belts are common.
When one belt becomes too loose or worn, it may be
removed and operation continued temporarily. You
should expect some drop in output from the compressor
because of belt slippage. It is impractical to replace one
belt at a time, because V-belts are supplied in matched
set. However, you will always find some variation in
individual length. This variation becomes apparent when
you try to adjust the tension on a newly installed set.
When you need to replace a set of belts, be sure to follow
all relevant safety rules. First, open the electrical supply
switch to the motor. Then hang a caution or danger tag
on the switch handle if there is any possibility that
someone might close the switch while you were working
on the motor. Next, release the holding bolts and the
locknut on the jackscrew. Also, back off the jackscrew to
release tension on the belts, remove the old set and install
a matched set of belts on the pulleys. After this, take up
the jackscrew until belt deflection indicates correct
tension; then, set the locknut on the jackscrew and tighten
the holding bolts.
You will find some variation in belt tension
recommendations, but these are determined by operating
conditions. For instance one beltmaker recommends a
belt deflection of from 1/2 to ¾ inch for each foot
between the pulley shafts. In contrast, another
recommendation calls for a deflection of 1/64 inch per
inch of span between pulley shafts. Experience is
probably your best gauge as to the correct tension. In
operation, too little
tension is indicated when most of the belts show a
pronounced flutter. As an example, the right tension on a
matched set of belts may be most nearly correct when one
belt shows a small flutter while the rest are steady during
operation. The object of adjustment is to get a minimum
amount of vibration without getting the belts too tight.
Belts which are too tight will wear out quickly. On the
other hand, belts which are too loose will slip and result in
lost efficiency and reduced output. In any case, most V-
belts are made of material which will not glaze. Belt
dressing should never be used on V-belts unless it is
recommended by the manufacturer. When adjustment
will not correct belt slippage, it would at best be a
temporary measure to apply a dressing, and you should
plan to replace the set.
e. Gauges and records. The gauge for high
pressure and low pressure are located on a single panel so
that the operating conditions can be observed quickly.
Alarms and indicator lights are also mounted on the same
panel. Oil pressure gauges may be on the panel but are
generally mounted on the compressor. Readings are
taken at regular intervals to check for normal operation.
You, as a supervisor, may require readings made
continuously to monitor the system during unusual
conditions, such as when the system is first placed in
operation after major repairs. The period of close
observation may be long or short, depending on what
changes have been made ad how long it will take the
system to settle down into a normal pattern of operation.
Abnormal pressure changes are indications which
must be interpreted correctly. A gradual change in
pressure may be from a change in ambient temperature,
from loading or unloading work in the cold rooms, or
from a trouble developing. A rapid change in pressure is
usually an indication of trouble. The possibility of this
latter, rapid change points up the advantage of making
frequent readings and recording them. If the gauges have
not been checked in several hours and a big change has
been noted in pressure, the operator may have no way of
knowing whether the change is sudden or gradual. For
example, when the ambient temperature drops low during
a cold winter's night, you an expect below-normal gauge
readings.
If you are fortunate enough to pull an assignment at a
plant equipped with automatic temperature and pressure
recorders, you will be able to read a continuous record of
plant operation. An automatic recorder has one or more
pens which trace a line in ink on appropriately marked
graph paper. The pens are delicately balanced and driven
electrically by a bridge circuit. Be careful, however,
when changing charts or putting ink in the pen reservoir,
since rough treatment will damage the pen’s mounting
62
and cause an error in the recording. You may still be
required to make one or more readings of the gauges each
shift. Your records serve as a double check on system
operation. The best part about a graph chart is that the
frequency and duration of each cycle of operation can be
seen clearly at a glance. The chart is a useful tool for the
supervisor because, by comparing charts, he can detect
day-to-day changes.
f. Oil receivers. The oil receivers provide a means
of temporary storage of the oil returned from the oil
separators. Sight glasses provide a means of checking the
oil level in the receiver. Oscillation of the oil level
indicates that the oil separators are performing their
function of returning oil to the receiver. The oil level will
drop each time that the float valve opens to return oil to
the compressors. In case of low oil level, do not add oil
to the system until you have determined that oil has been
lost. Why? Because the low level can be an indication
that oil is accumulating in one of evaporators.
19-25. Condensers and water towers. Two types of
condensers are favored for large systems. These are the
evaporative and the tube-and-shell types of condensers.
a. Evaporative condenser. You will find the first
type illustrated in figure 29. The upper section of the unit
contains the blowers, which pull air through the coils.
The center section contains an array of spray headers,
which spray water over the condenser coils. The
combination of air and water acts to produce a water
temperature considerably lower than the air because of
evaporation. Efficiency of the condenser falls off as
humidity goes up. The water pump circulates water from
the sump up to the spray headers. Makeup water is added
to the sump by means of a valve and float control located
in the sump near the pump intake. Bleed-off water is
tapped from the far side of the sump ad discharged to the
sewer. Bleed-off and makeup connections are not shown
in figure 29. Bleed-off water must drain at a rate
sufficient to insure that salts do not accumulate in the
unit. The condenser operation would be seriously
lowered by even a small salt deposit. If salts start to
appear, it is advisable to increase the amount of makeup
water by opening the bleed-off valve wider. When scale
appears on the condenser coils, they must be cleaned with
a stiff bristle brush. Bristles must be hard enough to
remove the scale but not so hard as to damage the tubing.
Water which has an acid pH will not cause scale, but too
much acid will cause corrosion.
Operation in cold weather may require the pump to be
turned off. In extreme cold the fans may have to be
stopped and the water drained to prevent freezing.
Capacity control of a condenser is necessary to
 Figure 29. Layout of an evaporative condenser.
insure efficiency of the system. There are four ways to
control the capacity of the condenser. One method
controls the water pump by a pressure-operated switch.
When head pressure drops below a predetermined point,
the pump is stopped and the unit acts as an air-cooled
condenser. Another method is to use a pressure-operated
switch to turn off the blowers when pressure drops to a
predetermined point. Still another method is to use a two-
coil condenser, with a solenoid valve to cut one coil off
when a pressure switch operates at its low-pressure
setting. A fourth method uses modulating dampers on the
air inlet. The dampers are designed to close when the
compressor is idle. This last method has advantages for
cold weather operation as the dampers may be operated so
that freezing of the water is not a problem.
b. Tube-and-shell condenser. Another type of
condenser is the tube-and-shell, which circulates water
through the tube. The condenser shell may also serve as a
receiver for the system. The condenser water is circulated
through a cooling tower, where evaporation drops the
temperature of the water. The spray headers in a cooling
tower are similar to those shown in figure 29. A water
bypass line around the tower is the usual method of
capacity control. This also serves for cold weather
operation, but in extreme cold the system may have to be
drained to prevent freezing and breaking of pipes.
Makeup water is added to the system automatically by
means of a float control in the sump. Bleed-off water
may be used as a method of scale control. Algae control
and water treatment are discussed in Volume 4. Capacity
control may also be attained by means of a water-
63
regulating valve located n the condenser inlet water pipe.
The valve is controlled by compressor discharge pressure
so that head pressure remains relatively constant within a
predetermined range. The water regulating valve is a
modulating type which controls the volume of water
through the condenser. Where water is cheap and
plentiful, it may be discharged overboard after passing
through the condenser instead of recirculating it through a
cooling tower. Both evaporative condensers and cooling
towers accumulate sludge which must be flushed. The
unit must be taken out of service, the sump drained, and
the mud removed. Twice a year cleaning should be
sufficient, except where dust conditions are very severe.
19-26. Liquid refrigerant receivers. The liquid receiver
must be large enough to hold all of the refrigerant in the
system. Any time the system is to be opened, it must first
be pumped down. This is done by closing the receiver
discharge (king) valve and operating the compressor until
the suction pressure levels off at 3-5 PSIG indicating that
the system has been pumped down. The receiver inlet
valve is then closed, and all the refrigerant is stored in the
receiver. Repairing of leaks, testing and major repairs has
been explained in the preceding chapter.
19-27. Expansion valves. Expansion valves should be
checked during each walk-through inspection. Look for
unusual signs of frosting or extension of the frost line on
the tubing. Frost on the high side of the valve indicates a
restriction in the liquid line. Check fans for operation.
Note also any unusual noises, such as hissing, which
would indicate a low refrigerant change. When a
expansion valve begins to get plugged, a from ice which
is formed by moisture in the system, one of the
observable signs will be an unaccountable rise in the
temperature of the room. When this happens, you must
do more than just clean out the valve. In addition, the
system drier should be changed and the system carefully
checked to find where the moisture is getting in. The leak
must be on the suction side at a joint, unless the tubing
has been punctured.
19-28. Evaporators. The evaporator used in a cold
room is a coil and fin type with a fan or blower for
cooling. Hot gas defrosting is the most practical method
for zero operation, but some older units may still require
manual defrosting with water. These methods are the
same as those you studied in the last chapter.
19-29. Evaporators and blowers should be inspected for
security of their mountings. Any unusual noises should
be investigated and traced to their source. Unusual odors
in a cold room may be caused by a hot motor or a bearing
which needs lubrication. Conditions which you cannot
correct should be reported so that proper action can be
taken.
19-30. A large evaporator in a zero cold room may
become sluggish in operation over a period of time.
These conditions are caused by a gradual accumulation of
oil in the coils. A hot gas defrost system will usually
prevent the oil from condensing in the evaporator.
However, this discussion of oil condensing in the
evaporator brings up one of the big advantages of
defrosting with hot gas. Should oil accumulate in one of
the evaporators, the first indication would be a drop in oil
level at the oil receiver with no external signs of the loss.
By operating the hot gas system for an additional period
of time, the oil can be picked up by the refrigerant gas and
moved out of the evaporator. The success of this
operation will be reflected by a rise in the level at the oil
receiver.
20. Ice Plants
20-1. Both portable and permanent type of ice plants
are used by the military. You may find the portable plant
in sizes ranging from 1-ton to 15-ton units using standard
halocarbon refrigerants. The operation of a system using
such a refrigerant has already been explained. While this
section will deal with a permanent type plant using an
ammonia system, ice making is done by the same
procedure regardless of which refrigerant is used for
freezing the water. Building design will generally call for
insulation similar to that used for cold storage. The
discussion which follows is centered around an ice plant
using an ammonia system.
20-2. Plant Design and Layout. A permanent ice
plant requires special construction of a building, as
64
illustrated in figure 30. You will see that part of the floor
has been omitted from the drawing. Below the floor is a
large tank which is filled with a brine (salt) solution. The
evaporator is a flooded type with the coil weaving back
and forth between rows of ice can set in the brine tank.
The floor above the tank has removable slabs. Look at
the left in figure 30; you can see where one of the slabs
has been removed so that the ice can filler can be used to
fill a fresh can with water. Just to the right, you can see
where the hoist has been used to lift a can with a frozen
block of ice out of the brine tank. In the foreground, a
can dump is illustrated. Warm water may be sprayed over
the can to loosen the ice.
20-3. In figure 30 you can see an illustration of a
compressor with a shell and tube condensing unit. A
cooling tower would be necessary unless fresh water is
very plentiful. At the opposite corner of the room, you
will see the agitator motor. This motor circulates the
brine to increase the rate of transfer of heat between the
evaporator coil and the ice cans. To the right of the
agitator is the accumulator. This is a large vertical tank
which extends down into the brine tank. It serves to
provide liquid ammonia to the bottom header of the
evaporator. The ice storage room is not illustrated here;
but in some plants, the overflow from the main evaporator
is used to cool the ice storage room.
20-4. Operating Principles and Application. Let us
start at the compressor for a brief review of the operating
cycle. Coming from the compressor is a hot gas under
high pressure. The gas is cooled and becomes a liquid in
the condenser. At the float valve, the liquid passes into a
reduced pressure area-the evaporator-where it boils and
absorbs heat as it changes to a gas. From the
accumulator, the suction line returns low-pressure vapor
to the compressor. The refrigeration cycle is illustrated in
figure 31, where we have also shown the cooling water
path through the tubing of the condenser and the
compressor heads. The temperature of the brine is
maintained at 15° F. This will free a 300-pound block of
ice in 45 to 48 hours. At warmer brine temperature, the
freezing period becomes too long to be economical. At
temperatures colder than 15° F., the ice is too brittle and
fractures easily.
20-5. There are three factors to make a good block of
ice: (1) A brine at 15° F. has the lowest practical
temperature which will make good ice. (2) The ice water
should be agitated continuously while the main part of the
block is being frozen. This is done by means of a small
rubber hose which puts a jet of low-pressure air into the
water. The pressure is adjusted so that the hose pulses
back and forth. This insures a good grade of clear ice.
(3) The core water should be sucked out and re-
 Figure 30. Layout of an ice plant.
placed by fresh water when the block is about two-thirds
complete. The core water will have salts and other
impurities concentrated in it, and the ice will have a
disagreeable taste unless the core water is discarded.
Also, the fresh water in the core will freeze faster than the
water it replaces, so it is also a measure of economy. Let
us consider next certain new components which are
peculiar to an ice plant.
20-6. Components. The usual accessories, such as
strainers, are just as vital in an ammonia system as in any
other similar system. Of more specific concern to you
here are such new components as ice cans, can fillers,
agitators, core suckers, ice can hoists, dip tanks, and can
dumps. These are discussed, in the order named, below.
20-7. Ice cans. The ice cans used at an ice plant are all
of the same size in order to standardize operation and
handling. Cans are made in different sizes, with the
smallest one capable of making a 50-pound block of ice.
The largest cans are made to produce a block of ice
weighing 300 pounds. The lifting arrangement at the top
of the can must be standardized so that one hoist
attachment will fit all of the cans.
20-8. Can fillers. A permanent type can filler uses a
tank of sufficient capacity and a float valve to shut off the
water automatically at the right level. The tank is
65
mounted on a raised platform higher than the top of the
ice can. When a can is placed under the tank, a dump
valve is tipped and the ice can is filled with the right
amount of water. The water supply to the tank is shut off
while the dump valve is tripped. When the dump valve is
shut off, the tank is automatically refilled. A portable
type of can filler is shown in figure 32. You must be sure
that the float ball and trip level operate properly to shut
off the water when the ice can is full.
20-9. Agitators. The brine agitator consists of an
electric motor, a shaft, and an impeller. This motor runs
continuously to insure transfer of heat from the cans to the
evaporator. Another agitator consists of a small air pump
and the necessary hose to reach the ice cans. Air is used
to agitate the water during the early stages of ice
formation to insure a good grade of ice.
20-10. Core suckers. A core sucker is a pipe long
enough to reach the bottom of the ice can. A hose
connects it with an injector or suction pump. The sucker
is used to remove the core water, which contains a
concentration of salt and other impurities, after most of
the ice block has formed. The core water is discharged to
the sewer system, and fresh water is added to fill the core
so that freezing of the block can be completed. This
 Figure 31. Refrigerant cycle and cooling water path.
operation insures purity of the ice and freedom from
objectionable taste and smell.
20-11. Ice can hoists. The can hoist is used to load and
unload ice cans from the brine tank. A small plant may
use a portable band winch of the type you saw in figure
30. A large volume plant usually has a rail-mounted
overhead hoist which can be moved to any position over
the brine tank.
20-12. Dip tanks. A large tank of water may be used to
free the finished block from the can. The can is lowered
into the tank, where it remains long enough to melt the
surface of the block. Tap water temperature may be
warm enough so that it is not necessary to add any more
heat to the dip tank.
20-13. Can dumps. After the block is free, the can is
removed from the dip tank and placed on a dump rack.
The rack tips the can at an angle to allow the ice to slide
out. When a dip tank is not available, the ice can may be
positioned on the dump and warm water sprayed over the
can to loosen the ice.
20-14. Ammonia System Operation and
Maintenance. The operation of an ammonia system
requires temperatures and pressures different from those
for halogens refrigerants. Also new to you is the makeup
of the brine solution used in an ice plant.
66
20-15. Brine solution. If you have operated a car in a
cold climate, you know that an antifreeze solution insures
that a liquid will remain liquid at below freezing
temperatures. Although glycol or alcohol can be used as
an antifreeze additive, the most common additive is salt,
which gives the name "brine" to the solution. A salt
solution may be checked for its freezing point with a
hydrometer if the temperature of the solution is taken into
account. Four brine solutions and their specific gravity
are given in table 9. The specific gravity is given for a
solution temperature of 60° F. A sodium chloride
solution reaches its eutectic point at -6° F. Beyond this
point, the addition of more salt will cause the solution to
thicken.
20-16. A brine solution made with 2 1/2 pounds of
calcium chloride to 1 gallon of water will not freeze at 0°
F. Two pounds of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride)
per gallon of water will freeze at slightly below 0° E A
40-percent solution of alcohol is good at 0° F., while an
ethylene glycol solution requires about 45 percent glycol
to inure that it will remain a liquid at 0° F. You will note
that any of the above solutions would be adequate, as a
brine temperature of 15° F., can usually be maintained
with an evaporator temperature of 5° F
 TABLE 9
20-17. Ammonia temperatures and pressures. Let us
first deal with normal operating conditions which you
would expect in warm weather. With a suction gauge
pressure of 20 p.s.i.g., you should have an evaporator coil
temperature of about 5° F. A normal head pressure of 185
p.s.i.g. should carry a vapor temperature of 238° F. Since
temperatures approach 250° F., water jackets are used to
cool the compressor head. At this head pressure,
ammonia will condense at 96° F. In colder weather, head
pressure may drop to 155 p.s.i.g., with the temperature of
the vapor dropping to 212° F. At a gauge pressure of 155
p.s.i.g., ammonia condenses at 86° F. It is necessary to
raise the operating pressure on the system. You may use
a manual valve in the liquid line to throttle the system.
As pressure builds up, be sure to open the valve and
restore it to its normal operating position.
20-18. Condenser cleaning. Even with proper
treatment, the tubes in a shell and tube condenser may
accumulate scale. A temperature rise of 5° above normal
in condenser output is an indication of scale formation.
We will discuss next the most effective method for
removing scale. The necessary equipment for cleaning is
shown in figure 33. The drum or barrel should have a
capacity of 50 gallons. It may be wood, stone, porcelain,
or metal. Galvanized metal must not be used, as it will
react too fast with the acid used for cleaning. The fine
mesh screen (bronze or copper) in the barrel serves to
prevent scale from entering the pump. Look at the
position of the pump in the suction line and note how
scale from the condenser will be held in the drum. The
circulator pump must be made of acid-resistant parts. The
vent pipe provides a way of voiding hydrogen gas from
the system. This gas is evolved as part of the chemical
reaction between the acid and the scale. Galvanized pipe
or fittings must not be used in the setup.
67
20-19. Goggles, rubber gloves, and aprons must be
worn while you are mixing acid or handling the solution.
Furthermore, bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) should be
immediately available to counteract any spills or
neutralize accidental skin burns. (NOTE. Always add
acid to water when mixing, particularly sulfuric acid. It
gives off a large amount of heat, which the water can
absorb and dissipate. Avoid inhaling acid fumes as they
can easily damage mucous tissues.) An inhibited acid
solution is prepared by using commercial grade
hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) with a specific gravity
of 1.190. The solution may be prepared in the barrel used
with the cleaning setup. Each 10 gallons of water
requires that 3 2/5 ounces of inhibitor powder be
dissolved in it. Add acid to this solution at the rate of 11
quarts of acid for each 10 gallons of water. Commercial
grade sulfuric acid may be used if muriatic is not
available, but the solution will not do as satisfactory a job
of cleaning the tubing.
20-20. The inhibited acid should be circulated through
the tubes for about 12 hours to remove scale deposits of
average thickness. Cleaning time will be slower if the
solution is cold, whereas cleaning will be faster with a hot
solution. The strength of the solution may be checked by
applying a few drops to some baking soda. The rate of
bubbling or gassing indicates how much strength remains
in the solution. When the solution becomes very weak,
there is little point in continuing to circulate it through the
condenser. Be sure to flush out the condenser tubing
immediately after cleaning. Flush the condenser tubes
with fresh water until the discharge water becomes clear.
The effectiveness of the cleaning may be indicated by the
amount of scale deposited in the barrel. The final
measure, of course, is the return of the condenser to
normal temperature range during operation.
 Figure 33. Equipment setup for scale removal.

Review Exercises

The following exercises are study aids. Write your

answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
1. Where are the coldest rooms located in a
refrigerated warehouse? (19-2)

2. Outside of the machine room you will find

certain areas which may be dangerous. Explain
the dangers in these areas. (19-4, 5, 8)

3. What will probably happen if potatoes are piled

too high in storage? (19-8)

4. Modern methods of construction have introduced

what two new basic fundamentals to a cold
storage building? (19-10)

Figure 32. Portable can filter.

5. With modem construction of a refrigerated
warehouse, to what should the vapor barrier be
attached? (19-14, 15)

68
 6. How should you use the blueprint of a cold 15. Your personal safety is at stake when you work
storage plant? Give several uses and on V-belt. What precautions must you observe
applications. (19-18-21) to keep from injury? (19-24)

16. How should you treat V-belts which get splashed

7. What are details on a blueprint? (19-21, 22) with oil? (19-24)

8. A cold storage plant has what operating 17. How would you adjust the tension when one V-
advantages when four or more compressors are belt of a set shows a more pronounced flutter
installed? (19-24) than that of the others? (19-24)

18. How would you interpret a gradual drop in head

9. What factor is used to determine the setting of a pressure as compared with a sudden drop? (19-
suction side pressure control which starts and 24)
stops the compressor motors? (19-24)

19. What is the purpose of a recording chart? (19-24)

10. (True)(False) Evaporator coil temperature is a

more reliable indicator of system operation than 20. In an evaporative condenser what is the purpose
suction pressure. Why? (19-24) of bleed-off water? (19-25)

21. How can bleed-off water affect the volume of

11. What are two ways of building up head pressure makeup water? (19-25)
during cold weather operation? (19-24, 25)

22. What is probably the best method of capacity

12. Describe the proper way to check a three-phase control of an evaporative condenser during cold
magnetic switch for voltage. (19-24) weather operation? (19-25)

23. What are the main disadvantages of a cooling

13. Where is dashput oil used? (19-24) tower? (19-25)

14. What test should you make of a motor when you 24. What are the checks which should be made on a
install it? (19-24) walk-through inspection of the freezer rooms in a
cold storage plant? (19-27-29)

69
25. What is a big advantage of a hot gas defrost 29. Why is it necessary to use a core sucker? (20-5,
system for a large evaporator in a zero cold 10)
room? (19-30)

30. How is it that the brine solution is operated at

26. Why is an agitator necessary in the brine tank of 15° F. but it is made up so as not to freeze at 0°
an ice plant? (20-3) F.? (20-15, 16)

27. Why is the head of an ammonia compressor 31. How is inhibited acid prepared for cleaning scale
cooled with a water jacket? (20-3, 17) from the tubes of a condenser? (20-19)

28. What are three important factors in making a 32. Why is baking soda necessary when you are
good grade of ice? (20-5) cleaning scale with inhibited acid solution? (20-
19, 20)

70

Special Application Systems
SOMETIMES we try to make things more
complicated than they are. You can avoid confining
yourself if you keep in mind that a basic system is
modified to make it work for a special application. Yet,
not one of the system’s basic principles is changed. This
chapter deals with multiple evaporators and multiple
compressors and concludes with systems for producing
ultralow temperatures. Technical information on these
systems is reproduced from Commercial and Industrial
Refrigeration, by C. Wesley Nelson, copyright 1952,
McGraw-Hill Book Company; used by permission. You
are already familiar with the name of items which will be
discussed, but differences result from the conditions under
which this equipment operates. Let us consider first the
problems of a system using several evaporators.
21. Multiple Evaporator Systems
21-1. A multiple system is one in which several
evaporators are operated from one compressor. A
variation is the operation of two or more compressors
with one evaporator. Multiple units are installed in
restaurants, soda fountains, bars, and in other places
where more than one refrigeration fixture is used.
Capacity control is obtained by using two or more
compressors for one evaporator. An example is an ice
plant when the compressors are started or stopped
according to the load demand.
21-2. Classification of Multiple Evaporator
Systems. Fundamentally there are only two
classifications of multiple-unit systems. The first is the
one in which all the evaporators operate at the same
temperature. This is the simplest, although not the most
common. The second is the one in which the
temperatures in the different refrigerators are not the
same. In order to control the temperature in a
multitemperature installation, various combinations of
valves and controls must be used. The correct selection
and installation of these valves and controls have a
decided bearing on the success of the installation.
71
CHAPTER 4
21-3. Cord Valves for Multiple Units. When two or
more evaporators are operated from the same compressor
and the temperature of the warmer refrigerator is not more
than 5° F. higher than the colder, no special valves are
necessary. When the temperature difference is greater
than 5° F., some sort of valve or control for the warmer
refrigerator is essential. A thorough knowledge of the
operation and application of the types of available control
valves is necessary before a satisfactory multiple system
can be laid out.
21-4. Suction-pressure regulating valve. This valve,
also called an evaporator-regulating valve, is placed in the
suction line of the warmer evaporator, and controls its
pressure (and consequently its saturation temperature) so
that it will remain substantially constant and not go below
the predetermined setting of the valve. Thus, when two or
more evaporators are operated with one compressor, the
desired temperature in the warmer evaporators can be
maintained by the proper setting of the valve. The
locations of the valves in a system are shown in figure 39.
(See paragraph 21-19.)
21-5. Bellows type. A bellows type evaporator-
regulating valve has the inlet connection from the
evaporator and the outlet connection to the compressor.
The evaporator pressure acting under the bellows and the
force of a small spring under the valve are both opposed
by a spring. When the forces are equal, the valve is in
equilibrium and maintains a definite opening. A
reduction in evaporator pressure will cause an
unbalancing of forces, and the valve will throttle. The
resulting decrease in the flow of vapor will prevent the
pressure from going too low. The condensing unit
continues to operate on the other evaporators at reduced
suction pressure. This valve has a fitting where the
evaporator pressure may be taken. A gauge adapter valve
must be used. The cap is removed and the adapter is
screwed onto the fitting with the key engaging the needle
valve. The gauge is connected to the
 Figure 34. Method of bypassing evaporator-regulating valve.

adapter and, when the valve is opened, the pressure may the coils being evacuated, the valve is turned into
be read. This fitting is also used in pumping down the midposition. The valves men-
evaporator. The regulating valve must be bypassed when
pumping down, because it would close on reduction of
suction pressure. To bypass the valve, a line is run from
the adapter to the compressor’s suction-valve gauge port.
If the distance is too great, a connection should be
provided on the compressor side of the valve, as shown in
figure 34.
21-6. Diaphragm type. Another type of evaporator-
regulating valve is illustrated in figure 35. This valve has
a diaphragm instead of a bellows. One of the features of
this valve is the collar with pressure graduations under the
adjusting knob. By turning the knob until the bottom
lines up with the graduations, you can make the correct
setting without reading the pressure or without waiting for
the refrigerator to arrive at the desired temperature. The
operation of this valve is similar to the one previously
described in that the valve remains open when the warmer
evaporator pressure is high and then throttles as the
compressor lowers the pressure. This valve has a gauge
port for checking pressure and for bypassing. To get a
reading, you attach the gauge to the port, remove the cap,
and open the gauge shutoff valve. The valve range is
from 40 p.s.i. to 0 in. Hg vacuum, and it can be used on
Freon units up to 1/2 ton and up to 3/4 ton on methyl
chloride and SO2 units.
21-7. Two-temperature type with manual closing. Still
another type of two-temperature valve is the one shown in
figure 36. You adjust this valve by the adjusting nut; the
handwheel is used only for closing the valve without
affecting the setting. You use the auxiliary valve when (Courtesy Controls Company of America)
attaching a gauge. You may also use it to bypass the Figure 35. Diaphragm type evaporator-regulating valve.
main valve when you want to pump out the coil. During
normal operation, the auxiliary valve is closed, and when

72
 is used where close, nonelectrical control of single
evaporators is desired. Such applications are sweetwater
baths, water coolers, beverage coolers, and soda
fountains. In multiple installations, you place the valves
in the suction line from the warmer evaporator, with the
thermal bulb in the refrigerated space or liquid. This
valve gives closer temperature control than does the
pressure type. The valve illustrated in the figure is of the
snap-action type, but the thermostatic type is also
available in a valve which has throttling action. Before
the refrigerator has reached the desired temperature, the
valve is wide open and the coil is subject to refrigeration
from the condensing unit. When the desired temperature
is reached, the valve snaps shut and the coil is isolated
from the rest of the system. If the refrigerator
temperature is above freezing, the coil will defrost while
the valve is closed. You must install this valve in a
horizontal part of the suction line, and place a strainer
ahead of it. The bulb should be located where it will
reflect the average conditions, and in water baths it should
be placed in the liquid but not too close to the coils.
21-10. Check valves. When evaporators are connected
in multiple and the temperatures are different, the
pressure in the warmer evaporator is higher than that in
the colder. When the control valve opens, the high-
pressure vapor in the

Figure 36. Two-temperature valve with manual closing

arrangement.

tioned above should be installed in a location where

frosting will not occur and should be reasonably close to
the refrigerator which is to be controlled. These valves
may be used on flooded or direct-expansion evaporators,
providing defrosting is not required.
21-8. Snap-action type. A suction-pressure regulating
valve of the snap-action type is not a throttling type and
can be set to cut in and out at definite predetermined
pressures. This valve is either wide open or closed
tightly. You use it when you want to operate an
evaporator on a defrosting cycle, and when a shorter
operating time than that provided by the condensing unit
is required. The effect of using a snap-action valve on an
evaporator in a multiple system is the same as if it were
connected to a separate compressor. This valve should be
used only with a low-side float or with a thermostatic
expansion valve. Most valves of this type have a gauge Figure 37. Thermostatically controlled suction-pressure
port to which a gauge may be attached to aid the proper valve.
setting.
21-9. Thermostatic type. A thermostatically controlled
suction-pressure valve is shown in figure 37. This valve

73
warmer evaporator would back up into the colder
evaporator if no means were provided to prevent it. This
vapor would cause a warming up of the colder evaporator
and would impair its efficiency. To prevent this, you
install a check valve which will permit the vapor to flow
in only one direction. See figure 39 for the proper
location of check valves in a multiple system. Next, let us
review some important points before discussing the use of
solenoid valves in a multiple system.
21-11. Important Points for Multiple Installations.
Because of the large number of possible multiple
combinations, it is impossible to give a set of rules and
expect them to apply to all cases. Although there are
exceptions to the rules, the eight rules explained next
should be adhered to whenever applicable.
(1) The coldest evaporator or evaporators must
comprise more than one-half of the total load on the
condensing unit. If the warmer evaporator were the major
part of the load, the condensing unit would be operating at
the higher suction pressure a greater portion of the
running time and would not be able to bring the colder
refrigerator down to the desired temperature.
(2) The capacity of the condensing unit is selected at
the suction temperature or pressure of the colder
evaporator. Since the colder evaporator constitutes the
major part of the load, the compressor will be operating at
its pressure most of the time, although the pressure in the
warmer refrigerator will be higher. This is another case
where we must remember that the capacity of a
compressor is less at lower suction pressures.
(3) The evaporator for each refrigerator is selected at
the suction pressure which will give the correct
temperature and humidity for the particular application.
The selection is made just as if each evaporator were to be
connected to its own compressor.
(4) When the temperature difference between the
colder and the warmer fixture is greater than 5° F., a
control for the warmer evaporator or evaporators is
necessary. This control may be either a suction valve of
the pressure or temperature type or a solenoid valve. In
some cases, although the temperatures are the same, one
refrigerator will be used much more than the other. In
instances like this, a control valve should be used and
placed in the suction line of the refrigerator with the least
usage.
(5) A snap-action type of suction-pressure control
should be used if defrosting on the off cycle is required.
This cannot be done, even though a snap-action valve is
used, unless the refrigerator temperature is above 35° F.
(6) The coldest evaporator should always be directly
connected to the compressor, and a check valve should be
74
located in the suction line between the outlet and the first
takeoff. In following the rule that half of the total load
should be the cold evaporator, there is sufficient load on
the compressor to eliminate low back pressure even
though the control devices have isolated all the warmer
evaporators.
(7) In general, thermostatic expansion valves should
be used as the liquid control when direct expansion
evaporators are installed in multiple. The control of
temperature in any refrigerator should not be by the
adjustment of any expansion valve. This should be done
by the adjustment of the suction-pressure valve in order to
obtain the best operating conditions.
(8) The liquid and suction lines should be sized
according to the amount of refrigerant flowing and
according to the load on each branch or main. These
important points place a limitation on the applications in
which a multiple installation should be made. When the
temperature difference between the warmer and the colder
refrigerators is greater than 25° F., multiplexing should be
considered the exception rather than the rule unless
humidity is not a factor. When high humidities are to be
maintained, such as in florist's boxes, it is better to use a
compressor for each evaporator.
21-12. Evaporators with forced convection. Although
multiple installations can be made with all expansion
coils, all low-side float coils, or with a combination of
both, you must give extra thought when you want to use
forced-convection coolers. A forced-convection unit
must be caused to defrost during the OFF cycle unless
some means for artificial defrosting is provided. In some
multiple installations where the forced-convection unit is
the colder evaporator, a sufficiently low suction pressure
may occur so that the unit cannot defrost, and it thus
become inoperative in a short time. If the forced-
convection unit is the colder evaporator, successful
multiplexing may be done if suction-control valves are
used.
21-13. Low-pressure cutout. Multiple installations,
where suction-pressure or temperature-control valves are
used, have the colder refrigerator controlled by the low-
pressure cutout at the condensing unit. The warmer
refrigerator, in this type of arrangement, does not require
any electrical control. The low-pressure electrical control
is set at the proper cut-in and cut-out points just as if it
were operating on a single evaporator. Some of the
modern suction-control valves that are used on the
warmer evaporators are calibrated so that the temperature
setting can be made in advance. If this is not so, you must
operate the system until the refrigerators come
down to the desired temperature; you then adjust the
control to shut off the evaporator from the compressor at
this point. In any event, the final adjustment of the
controls is governed by the thermometer readings in the
various refrigerators.
21-14. Solenoid Valves in Multiple Systems. Solenoid
valves are used extensively in a multiple system. They
may be placed in either the liquid line or the suction line.
Figure 38 shows a multiple hookup using solenoid valves
in the liquid line. As may be seen from the diagram, there
is a thermostat in each refrigerator, and each thermostat is
connected to the solenoid valve that is in the liquid line
leading to its refrigerator. The operation of the system is
as follows: Assume that all the thermostats call for
cooling and that the compressor is operating on all of the
evaporators. When one thermostat is satisfied, it opens
the circuit and the solenoid valve closes the liquid line to
the evaporator. The compressor pumps out the refrigerant
from that evaporator and continues t operate on the others.
As each thermostat is satisfied, its solenoid valve closes;
and finally, when all valves are closed, the compressor is
stopped by a low-pressure cut-out.
21-15. There are several important factors that must be
considered in connection with multiple systems using
solenoid valves. As each solenoid valve closes, its
evaporator is pumped out and the refrigerant is returned to
Figure 38. Multiple system using solenoid valves.
75
the receiver. The receiver, therefore, must be large
enough to hold the entire charge in the system. When the
compressor is operating on all the evaporators, it is at full
load and the suction pressure is high. As one evaporator
after the other stops refrigerating, the suction pressure
drops progressively lower. This drop in suction pressure
has the disadvantage of continually upsetting the balance
between the refrigerator temperature and the coil
temperature. The result affects the humidity in the box
and, in some cases, prevents the defrosting of the coil. A
suction-pressure regulating valve placed in the suction
line near the compressor will hold the pressure at the
desired point in the evaporation although the crankcase
pressure will be low when only one evaporator is
operating from the compressor. The low-pressure control,
which shuts off the compressor after the last solenoid
valve closes, must be set lower than the suction pressure
when the compressor is operating on only one evaporator.
The setting of the cut-in point should be made so that the
opening of one solenoid valve will start the compressor.
21-16. Solenoid valves that are used in the suction line
from the evaporator should be selected so that the
pressure drop through the valve will not be over 2 p.s.i.
When a solenoid valve is so used, the refrigerant remains
in the
coil and does not return to the receiver. If the valve is
placed in the suction line, there is danger of accumulated
liquid flooding over into the compressor in the event of a
leaking float or expansion valve.
21-17. Installation. A multiple system is installed like
a simple one insofar as the coils and condensing units are
concerned. In order to simplify service operations, a
manifold is usually placed on the wall near the
condensing unit. Three-way valves are sometimes used to
allow the refrigerant to pass through the valve
unobstructed on the run of the valve, while the branch line
from the side outlet may be shut off. Prefabricated
manifolds may also be obtained.
21-18. Evaporators at same temperature. When the
temperatures are the same in all of the refrigerators, there
is an expansion valve on each coil. When two coils are
located in the same case, it is not good policy to connect
coils in series, because the second coil will not maintain
its rating. Two coils should not be connected to one
expansion valve, regardless of whether they are in series
or parallel. There are no pressure-control valves needed
when all evaporators are operated at the same
temperature. The entire low side of the system is
controlled by a low-pressure control located on the base
of the compressor unit.
Figure 39. Multiple systems using evaporative-regulating valves.
76
21-19. Evaporators at different temperatures. The line
diagram in figure 39 shows the connections for three coils
at different temperatures. Note the presence of a suction-
pressure control valve in each of the warmer coils. The
suction line from the coldest evaporator is directly
connected to the compressor with a check valve in the
line. In this diagram, the -10° evaporator should
constitute the major portion of the load. A check valve is
also found in the suction line from the 35° evaporator,
since this evaporator is colder than 45° and there would
be the possibility of the warm vapor backing up and
condensing,
22. Multiple Compressors
22-1. Compressor units are sometimes connected in
parallel to obtain greater flexibility or to use small units
on one evaporator where a larger one that will balance
properly is not obtainable. The practice of operating
compressors in multiple is not new; in fact, it is quite
common in ammonia plants and cold storage warehouses.
The principle difficulty in interconnecting condensing
units is in the oil return to the crankcase. Ammonia does
not present any problem in this regard, since oil and
ammonia are not miscible. Freon, methyl chloride, and
other oil-miscible refrigerants, on the other hand, present
a real difficulty when condensing units that use them are

Figure 40. Balanced lines between compressors.
interconnected. Multiple installations of condensing units
should be avoided and made only when it is not possible
to split up the units that each evaporator has its own
condensing unit.
22-2. Connections Between Compressors.
Compressors that are to be interconnected should be of
the same manufacture and preferably of the same size. A
good installation is one in which each condensing unit
will carry its share of the load and the oil return will be
such that the proper level will be maintained. To get this
balance of the load, the liquid, suction, and discharge
lines are interconnected and it is necessary that oil- and
gas-equalizer lines are installed between the crankcases.
The compressors should be placed close to each other so
that the connecting lines will be as short as possible.
22-3. Balanced refrigerant lines. Lines should be
connected as shown in figure 40 so that the elbows and
length of pipe from the tee to one compressor are the
Figure 41. Oil equalizer lines.
77
same as to the other compressor. Thus the frictional
resistance between each receiver and the manifold should
also be approximately the same. Both suction and
discharge lines should be balanced in the same manner as
we have just described. Suction lines should be
connected so that the oil which is returning through the
line will divide between the compressors as evenly as
possibly. Suction lines from a manifold to the
compressor, if used, should be taken off at the side to
facilitate oil return.
22-4. Oil-equalizer line. The crankcase oil-equalizer
line may be connected in one of two ways, A or B, a
shown in figure 41. The A method is preferable although
the B method is more often used because of the location
of plugs in the crankcases of some compressors where the
equalizer lines may be connected. In the method shown
in A, the oil-equalizer connection should be made at the
lowest safe oil level. Condensing units should be placed
on their foundations so that the oil level in each is in the
same horizontal plane. The gas-equalizer connection is
made above the maximum oil level. All equalizer lines
should be level. The size of the manifold to which the
various branches are connected should be at least equal in
area to the sum of the branches. Crankcase oil- and gas-
equalizer lines should be not less than 3/4-inch ID up to
10 tons capacity and l-inch ID over 10 tons.
22-5. Control of Multiple Compressors. When
condensing units are interconnected for purposes of
capacity control, usually you have to provide a means for
starting and stopping the compressor according to load
demands. The compressors are manually operated only
when an operator is in attendance and when load changes
can be anticipated beforehand. For liquid or air cooling,
if close temperature control is not required,
two temperature controls may be used, one being set a
degree or two higher than the other. A more common
method is to use pressure controls on the common suction
line, set in sequence so that the compressors will start and
stop according to changes in suction pressure. When this
method is used, thermostats and solenoid valves are
almost always installed.
22-6. When a number of compressors are connected
together or when an installation consists of a number of
single evaporator and condensing-unit installations in one
refrigerated space, situations occur in which all
compressors will start at the same time. This puts a very
heavy load on the electric lines and power system. A
timer, which will delay the starting of compressors until
after the first one, should be installed. The action of the
timer is such that when the contactor for the first
compressor has closed, there is a delay of 10 or 15
seconds before the timer closes the control circuit of the
second compressor and allows it to start. If there are
more than two compressors, a timer may be used on each
except the first one.
23. Ultralow Temperature Systems
23-1. The use of ultralow-temperature refrigeration in
industrial work has increased tremendously in the past
few years. Commercial units are now manufactured to
produce temperatures below -100° F. for various
applications. An example is the production testing of
various instruments and appliances, such as radios,
cameras, clocks, and meters which may be subject to low
temperatures in arctic climates or in outer space.
Ultralow temperatures find application in various kinds of
metal treatment. The hardness of certain kinds of steels
has been materially increased after a conventional
hardening process by lowering the temperature to about -
110° F., allowing them to warm to room temperature, and
then tempering. Another development is the shrink-fitting
of parts by using cold instead of heat. The male part is
reduced in temperature to -100° F., after which it is fitted
to the female part and the unit allowed to warm to room
temperature. The extensive use of aluminum riveting in
aircraft and other metal work has led to the use of special
alloy rivets which may be prevented from age hardening
and kept soft by holding them at -40° to -45° F. until
ready for use.
23-2. Test chambers which are designed for simulating
conditions encountered by military and other aircraft are
being used increasingly. They are used for testing
instruments, clothing, military weapons, and equipment
that is normally carried in an airplane. Weather bureau
78
information shows a temperature of -50° to -60° F. at
elevations around 50,000 feet, and cabinets for testing are
usually kept between -60° and -70° F. Some cabinets are
equipped so that any temperature from +100° to -100° F.
may be obtained.
23-3. Insulation Requirements. Ultralow-
temperature cabinets require more consideration in regard
to insulation and construction than do zero cabinets.
Insulation thicknesses of 10 and 12 inches are needed, and
extra care must be taken with vaporproofing to prevent
the entrance of moisture. When a refrigerator is intended
to maintain a low temperature at all times, it is usually
desirable to use an insulating material which has a high
thermal capacity such as cork. Any interruption in
refrigeration will not be so serious because of the slow
warming up of the box. On the other hand, when rapid
fluctuations in temperatures are desired, such as in
simulated flight, an insulation of low heat capacity should
be used. Ferrotherm (a number of thin steel sheets with
air spaces) and Santocel (silica aero-gel) are two such
insulating materials. Tests at Wentworth Institute using
dry ice in a box insulated with nine sheets of Ferrotherm
with 36-inch air space between the sheets gave a
temperature reduction from +70° to -70° F. in 45 minutes.
23-4. Refrigerant and Compressor Problems. A
simple refrigeration cycle is neither suitable nor
economical for ultralow-temperature application. In order
to obtain heat extraction from a box at a temperature of,
say, -70° F., it is quite evident that a coil temperature less
than -70° F. is necessary. If a 10° F. temperature
difference were assumed, a design temperature of -80° F.
for the coil would be used. If Freon 12 were the
refrigerant selected, the corresponding absolute pressure
and volume would be 2.885 p.s.i.a. and 11.57 cubic feet
respectively. This would give a compression ratio of over
30 to 1 with normal condensing temperatures. This is
much higher than is possible with a conventional
compressor. As a matter of fact, a compressor operating
with any such ratio would not discharge vapor but would
simply compress and expand the vapor in the cylinder
without doing any useful work. The compression ratio for
units working under average commercial conditions is
approximately 4 to 1. Ratios up to 8 to 1 are considered
as being satisfactory for a single compressor. When ratios
are above these values, because of extremely low
temperatures, you must employ staging in order that there
will be less work required per ton of refrigeration.
23-5. Staging. In a simple compression system, the
heat that is absorbed at the low level of temperature is
rejected at a higher level in one
step. In a low-temperature application where this is either
impossible or impractical, the heat may be "pumped" in
two or more steps. This is called staging. Staging may be
done by two methods in refrigeration work: (1) by using
compound compression in which the vapor is removed
from the evaporator by the low-pressure compressor and
discharged by it to the high-pressure compressor, which
discharges to the condenser in the usual manner; (2) by
using an arrangement called cascading which is, in effect,
two cycles operating at different heat levels. The low-
pressure compressor discharges into a condenser which is
the evaporator for the high-pressure cycle. The final heat
is rejected to the cooling water as in the simple system.
In direct staging the same refrigerant is used throughout,
while in the cascade system different refrigerants may be
used in the high- and low-pressure stages.
23-6. Compound Systems. Although a compound
compression system consists essentially of two or more
compressors in series, the addition of intercoolers and
subcoolers will increase the efficiency and reduce the cost
of operation. Of the several arrangements, two of the
most common, the direct compound and the cascade
systems, are included here.
23-7. Direct compounding. Direct compounding with
an intercooler is illustrated in figure 42. This is a two-
stage compression in which the refrigerant vapor is drawn
Figure 42. Direct compounding with an intercooler.
79
from the evaporator through the heat exchanger by the
first-stage compressor. The discharge from this
compressor passes through a water-cooled intercooler,
which is located between stages, and from there to the
suction of the high-pressure compressor (second stage).
The vapor is then liquefied in the condenser and flows
through the other side of the heat exchanger to the
expansion valve. The use of an intercooler reduces the
superheat and the work of compression. The piston
displacement of the low-pressure compressor is greater
than that of the high-pressure compressor because of the
greater volume of the vapor at low pressure. The proper
sizing of the high- and low-pressure cylinders is such that
the desired capacity will be obtained, and the compression
ratios for each compressor will be approximately the same
and within reasonable limits. When two individual
compressors are used, they should be at the same level,
and oil-equalizer lines between them must be provided as
shown in the illustration. The intermediate pressure
which exists between stages is not controlled and will
fluctuate within small limits as the load varies.
23-8. A compound compression system with a liquid
subcooler is shown in figure 43. The colder the
refrigerant when it enters the expansion valve, the less
flash gas will be formed when the refrigerant cools down
to the evaporator
 Figure 43. Direct compounding with a subcooler.
temperature. The purpose of the subcooler is to subcool
the refrigerant and thus increase the refrigeration effect.
Referring to the diagram, you see that the liquid leaves
the condenser, and a potion of it expands in the subcooler
coil at the suction pressure of the high-pressure
compressor. The remainder, at a much lower
temperature, leaves the subcooler and goes to the
expansion valve. What actually happens here is that the
flash gas generated in the coil of the subcooler need only
be compressed in the high-pressure compressor. The
vapor has a smaller volume at this intermediate pressure,
and for these reasons, a considerable amount of work may
be saved. Without the subcooler, the flash vapor would
have to be compressed from the evaporator pressure,
where the volume is high, through both the first- and
second-stage compressors. This arrangement, or one
which will attain similar results, is a necessity in ultralow-
temperature refrigeration. In place of single compressors,
a V-design of a compound compressor is used in smaller
size units. This type of compressor requires only one
motor and eliminates the problem of oil level equalizing.
23-9. Cascade systems. A cascade system consists of
two or three separate simple cycles operating in
conjunction with each other at different temperature
levels. The connecting point is a heat exchanger between
the stages. This interstage heat exchanger is the
80
condenser for the first stage and the evaporator for the
second stage. An elementary diagram of a cascade
system is shown in figure 44. Beginning with the low-
pressure cycle, the vapor from the evaporator is
compressed in the first-stage compressor and goes to the
interstage heat exchanger, where it gives up its heat to the
second-stage evaporator coil. The condensed liquid then
flows to the first-stage expansion valve and the
evaporator, completing the low-pressure cycle. The vapor
which is generated in the coil in the heat exchanger
because of the heat it has absorbed is compressed in the
second-stage compressor, and the high-pressure vapor is
condensed, its heat going to the cooling water. Each stage
is an independent simple cycle, and for this reason has
some advantages over the compound compressors. There
is no problem of oil equalizing, and a different refrigerant
may be used in each stage. There is some loss in the
cascade system because a temperature difference must
exist in the heat exchanger in order that the heat from the
first stage will flow into the second stage. At the present
time, the use of Freon 22 in the low stage and Freon 12 in
the high stage will produce temperatures down to -90° F.
23-10. A two-stage cascade system with a second heat
exchanger for subcooling the liquid and with an oil
separator in the discharge of the first
stage compressor is show in figure 45. There are a
number of variations of this arrangement as far as the
location of the second heat exchanger is concerned. The
interstage heat exchanger, however, is always located in
the same place- between the two stages.
23-11. Refrigerants for Compound Systems. At the
present time, the number of refrigerants that are suitable
for ultralow-temperature applications are few. Of the
common refrigerants, ammonia SO2, methyl chloride, and
CO2 are not used. Ammonia and methyl chloride have
higher specific volumes than either Freon 12 or Freon 22,
and SO2 has a freezing point of -98° F., in addition to a
high boiling point. Carbon dioxide becomes a solid when
it expands to a temperature below -70° F. Freon 12 and
especially Freon 22 possess the best characteristics for
low-temperature applications. The condensing pressure
of Freon 12 at 80° F. is 98.76 p.s.i.a., whereas for Freon
22 it is 159.7 p.s.i.a. Compressors designed for Freon 12
may ordinarily be used with Freon 22, but in the large
sizes particularly, compressors designed for Freon 22
should be used. The displacement of the compressor is
les for Freon 22 than it is for Freon 12. Therefore a Freon
12 compressor would have a greater capacity when using
Freon 22 than when using Freon 12. Under some
conditions, then, a larger motor would be required when
using Freon 22. In systems under 10 h.p., other parts such
as liquid and suction lines would be the same as for
Figure 44. Elementary cascade system.
81
Freon 12. Ethane, ethylene, and methane are hydrocarbon
refrigerants which are occasionally used in applications
where the temperatures are below -100° F. These
refrigerants are explosive and are, therefore, unacceptable
where there would be a hazard. Freon 13 is a refrigerant
which is replacing the hydrocarbons for ultralow
temperatures. All of the low-boiling-point refrigerant
have high head pressures, and pressure-relief valves must
be provide wherever they are used.
23-12. Controls. In an ultralow-temperature system,
the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator may be controlled
either by an expansion valve or by a float control.
Ordinary expansion valves are not suitable because
excessive superheating at the bulb location is necessary to
operate the valve. A differential-temperature expansion
valve designed for ultralow application has two power
element operated by thermal bulbs. When an expansion
valve is used, a solenoid valve is always placed ahead of
it, and the coil is pumped down at the end of the running
cycle.
23-13. The high-side float is used quite extensively and
is simple and inexpensive. When used with an
accumulator, the charge is not too critical, and since the
float valve is in the high side of the system, any moisture
is less subject to freezing.
 (Copyright 1952. McGraw-Hill Book Company. used by permission.)
Figure 45. Two-stage cascade system.
23-14. There are various ways to wire the controls in a
compound compression system, depending on the
particular application. In a system which consists of one
condensing unit and one evaporator, the simplest
arrangement is to use a solenoid valve and a low-pressure
cutout with a temperature control in the refrigerated
space. The temperature control actuates the solenoid
valve, and the pressure control operates the compressor.
A special cutout must be used since the conventional tools
are not satisfactory for vacuums over 20 inches Hg.
Design of these control circuits should consider overload
protection because of heavy loads and excessive pressures
which occur during pulldown. The electrical controls for
cascade systems consist fundamentally of a set of controls
for each cycle.
23-15. Lubricating Oil for Low Temperature. It is
very important that the lubricating oil which is to be used
for low-temperature applications be an oil from which no
wax will separate at or below the lowest expected
operating temperature. The Freons as well as other
chlorinated refrigerants possess solvent-extraction
properties which remove wax from oil. With a
refrigerant-oil mixture, there are two conditions which
bring about wax separation. These are low temperatures
82
and a high percentage of oil in the mixture. The use of a
high-grade oil which has been processed especially for
low-temperature refrigeration and the use of oil separators
will minimize if not eliminate wax formation.
23-16. An expansion valve or other refrigerant control
in which there has been wax formation acts somewhat
like one in which moisture has frozen. With wax
formation, the valve will "let go" at a temperature lower
than 32° F. if heated. Also, if the valve is taken apart, the
wax may be seen in the orifice or at the outlet. Such
conditions would indicate that a poor grade of oil had
been used in the system.
REVIEW EXERCISES
The following exercises are study aids. Write your
answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
1. How is capacity control obtained in a large
system with a variable heat load? (21-1)
 2. Give two applications of multiple evaporator 11. What two equalizer lines are necessary for
systems. (21-2) proper lubrication of multiple compressors? (22-
4)

3. Name five type of evaporator-regulating valves.

(21-4-9) 12. In the case of multiple compressors, what is done
to reduce heavy electrical loads on starting? (22-
6)

4. Where are check valves installed in multiple

evaporators at different temperatures? (21-10)
13. List two applications of an ultralow-temperature
system to Air Force problems or testing. (23-2)

5. Why must the coldest evaporator make up more

than half of the heat load? (21-11)

14. What is the main requirement of an insulation for

an ultralow-temperature chamber which must
6. With multiple evaporators at different respond to rapid changes in temperature. (23-3)
temperatures, which evaporator will be
controlled by a low-pressure cutout at the
compressor? (21-13)

15. What are two methods of “staging” to produce

ultralow temperatures. (23-5)
7. How is the size of the receiver affected in a
multiple evaporator system with solenoid valves
in the liquid line? (21-15)

16. Describe a direct compound system which has

good efficiency. (23-6, 7)
8. What is the possible danger to the compressor
when solenoid valves are used in the suction
line? (21-16)

17. Why may two different refrigerants be used in a

cascade system? (23-9)
9. What is the main difficulty with compressors
connected in parallel? (22-1)

18. Name three refrigerants used for ultralow

10. What are the installation requirements for temperatures. (23-11)
satisfactory operation of compressors in parallel?
(22-2)

83
19. Why is an ordinary expansion valve 21. How is wax prevented from causing trouble in an
unsatisfactory at ultralow temperatures? (23-12) ultralow-temperature system? (23-15)

22. How can you tell the difference between wax

20. Why is a special cutout necessary for ultra-low and moisture as the cause for a frozen expansion
temperatures? (23-14) valve? (23-16)

84

Vehicle Refrigeration Units
FROM MARKET TO warehouse and from warehouse
to dining hall, refrigerated Air Force trucks transport
many tons of perishable foods safely without risk of
spoiling. The safe delivery of these foods is dependent on
the operation of refrigeration units. Part of your job is
proper maintenance of truck-mounted units to insure the
delivery of good food to all the troops. This chapter
discusses the units for truck refrigeration and car cooling.
24. Refrigeration Unit for Trucks
24-1. Since trucks and semitrailers transport perishable
or frozen foods long distance, they require some type of
refrigeration. Refrigeration units for trucks and
semitrailers are of the same type, design, and size as units
used in reach-in and walk-in refrigerators. Specifications
will depend on the demand.
24-2. Refrigerator trucks and semitrailers have
specially designed bodies adapted for the transportation of
material under refrigeration. These bodies are designed
with a double wall or shell, with Fiberglas insulation
between them. The refrigerator unit is installed where it
will give the best circulation of refrigerated air for the
demand. The source of power and control operation of
the condensing unit and engine will be explained in the
following section.
24-3. Types of Units. The refrigeration units used
today are called package units. In such a package unit,
the refrigeration unit, gasoline engine, starter-generator,
and battery are all mounted on one frame as a single self-
contained unit. Older type units may, however, have the
gasoline engine and the starter-generator mounted on a
separate frame with a belt to the compressor.
24-4. There are two types of compressor drives which
get their power from the truck's engine: (1) the engine-
driven electric generator and motor and (2) the
transmission shaft-driven compressor. If either of these
types is used, the refrigeration unit stops when the truck
engine stops, thus requiring an outside source of
refrigeration during layovers.
85
CHAPTER 5
24-5. On the other hand, the package type gasoline-
engine-driven units are automatically controlled to start
and stop as the system may require. The space, or
opening for the refrigeration unit, is designed for the
demand, as are the special bodies. Both the size of the
bodies and the type of material to be under refrigeration
determine the type, size, and number of refrigeration units
to be installed.
24-6. Installation. Refrigeration units for trucks and
semitrailers are usually mounted on the front of the
bodies, either at the top or bottom. When the unit is
mounted other than on the front, the trailer may have a
rack or platform designed for the purpose, as well as
mounting bolts to secure the unit to the trailer body.
24-7. Power Connections. Power is furnished by a
gasoline engine, which is usually of the 2-cylinder, 4-
cycle, L-head, air-cooled type. This engine is equipped
with a 12-volt, d.c., combination starter-generator, with
the armature mounted on the engine crankshaft. The
engine is started electrically by the power from two 6-volt
storage batteries, connected in series, that are mounted on
the front of the truck or trailer body near the refrigeration
unit. Most of these engines are governor controlled so
that the engine runs at a speed of 2400 r.p.m. This speed
will give a maximum horsepower of 9.4. The power is
transmitted from the engine to the evaporator blower, the
condenser fan, and the compressor by the use of V type
belts and pulleys. The compressor is set to run at 1800
r.p.m. when engine speed is 2400 r.p.m.
24-8. Starting Procedures. The starting procedures
are the same for most truck refrigeration units. After
checking for leaks, valve settings, compressor oil level,
engine oil, and fuel level, etc., turn the refrigeration unit
thermostat until the pointer indicates the temperature to be
maintained within the truck or semitrailer. Then set the
heat-cool switch to the cool position. (NOTE: Some units
have an electric heating coil mounted
in the evaporator blower which is used in the refrigeration
system to cool the trailer. The blower forces air across
the heating coil surfaces to raise the temperature in
subzero weather. On other units the cooling element of
the thermostat is bypassed when the heat-cool switch is
on HEAT. The heating element of the thermostat
completes the circuit to start the engine and to energize
the defrost solenoid valve. When the defrost valve opens,
hot refrigerant gas is permitted to flow to the evaporator
to provide heat, which will raise the temperature a few
degrees above freezing inside the trailer.)
24-9. Electrical Circuit Operation. The starter
switch is turned to the ON position in order to close the
circuit and energize the thermostat, which operates the
starter-relay coil. This action set up a magnetic field that
attracts the relay contractor bar to complete the circuit to
the starter-generator. When the relay circuit is opened or
broken, the relay coil is deenergized, and the contact bar
springs away from the coil and opens the circuit to the
starter-generator circuit. This stops the engine. The
thermostat bellows expands or contracts with the
temperature change at the feeler bulb to automatically
open or close the contacts of the switch within the
thermostat. In turn, the opening or closing of this switch
opens or closes the circuit to the starter-relay coil.
24-10. When the starter-relay closes, it also completes a
circuit to the choke-solenoid relay. This relay armature
closes the contacts that operate the automatic choke and
the defrost solenoid valve. When the engine starts, the
current flowing through the choke-solenoid relay reverses
direction and decreases in magnitude so that the relay is
deenergized. This releases the relay armature and opens
the contacts to the automatic choke and the defrost
solenoid valve.
24-11. When the automatic choke coil is energized, it
attracts an armature lever attached to the carburetor choke
valve by a linking rod. When the lever is drawn to the
magnetized coil, the carburetor choke valve closes. As
the engine starts, a reverse flow of current is set up in the
choke-solenoid relay circuit, and the relay contact point
break the circuit to the automatic choke.
24-12. The starter-generator has a charging rate resistor
placed in the generator field circuit to regulate the
generator charging rate, which is controlled by the voltage
regulator. As the batteries near a fully charged state,
voltage in the field circuit of the voltage regulator rises.
At 17 volts, magnetism created by the regulator winding
insufficient to pull the armature down. This opens the
contacts of the normal control circuit, causing the current
to flow through the resistor in the field circuit and forcing
the generator to operate at a minimum output.
86
24-13. The defrost thermostat is energized when the
defrost switch is pressed and completes the circuit to the
defrost holding relay. This permits an increase in the
evaporator coil temperature to 50° F. This temperature
increase causes a bimetallic disk in the thermostat to snap
to a reverse position. The thermostat switch contacts
open and deenergize the defrost holding relay. This last
action returns the refrigeration unit to its normal cooling
cycle.
24-14. Operational Check. All of the controls which
we have been discussing operate automatically, except the
starter switch, the heat-cool switch, and the defrost
switch. Also, the gasoline gauge registers continually
when the starter switch is on.
24-15. Blast Chilling. The technique known as blast
chilling saves time, investment, and fuel. In blast
chilling, liquid carbon dioxide or nitrogen is injected into
mechanically refrigerated trucks, resulting in quick
cooling. Paragraphs in this section identified by an
asterisk (*) are in part reprinted from January 1964
Refrigeration Service and Contracting by permission of
Nickerson and Collins Company.
24-16. Do not confuse this type of cooling with total
truck refrigeration by liquid CO2 throughout the run. We
will discuss total liquid CO2 cooling later in this chapter.
Blast chilling is used at maximum cooling demands.
Such a demand occurs, for example, after loading has
been completed.
24-17. Blast chilling is also an excellent means of
auxiliary refrigeration in transit, especially after partial
unloading or extended periods of parking (meal times,
vehicle servicing, etc.). In addition, it can supplement
mechanical cooling if the mechanical refrigerating system
should fail.
*24-18. Let us compare blast chilling with mechanical
cooling in regard to initial temperature pulldown. Thus,
while some tests made by some users and reported in
trade publications have shown that blast chilling with
liquid CO2, started at +40° F., drops trailer temperature to
-40° F. in 3 minutes, mechanical cooling required 12
hours to cool the same trailer from +40° F. to -10° F.
*24-19. There are two supplemental benefits when blast
chilling is used. First, the refrigerants (carbon dioxide
and nitrogen) are inert gases, which will not harm most
cargoes but will in many cases benefit the cargo by
blanketing it against contact with the oxygen and moisture
of the air. Secondly, the quick temperature reduction
minimizes initial thawing and cuts down or eliminates
refreezing. Blast chilling cools the entire
trailer quickly, including the "hot spots" near the doors.
*24-20. The equipment for blast chilling is very simple.
It consists of CO2 tanks, a liquid control valve, flexible
hose, and a nozzle arrangement. A manifold is necessary
if a bank of tanks is used.
*24-21. Safety measures. Adequate vents or openings
must be provided to relieve any buildup in pressure and
facilitate the complete displacement of warm air with cold
CO2 vapor. During the first half minute or so of blast
chilling, we recommend that you leave a door partially
open. Special clothing should be worn during blast
chilling. This may include gloves, coveralls, face shield,
etc. You must be conscious at all times that you are
working with liquids at very low temperatures and
substantially high pressures. Blast chilling fills the entire
cargo space with refrigerant gas, CO2 or gaseous nitrogen,
and, at the same time, decreases the oxygen concentration
to a point where the atmosphere is no longer safe for
breathing. During this operation, no one may be present
in the space. Furthermore, the compartment must be
vented before anyone enters it after the operation is
completed.
*24-22. Dry ice versus liquid. The use of liquid CO2 (dry
liquid nitrogen) for blast chilling must be compared to the
more conventional use of solid CO2 (dry ice). One pound
of liquid CO2 does produce less refrigerating effect
(B.t.u./lb.) than a pound of dry ice, but several factors
make the liquid a more suitable refrigerant for blast
chilling. These are: (1) the immediate vaporization of
liquid CO2 can pull the temperature down much faster
than dry ice can; (2) the injection of liquid CO2 can be
controlled automatically and at much higher rates than are
feasible with dry ice; and (3) liquid CO2 is easily stored
and is ready for use at any time. Also, (4) dry ice requires
delivery shortly before it is to be used and cannot be
stored (for practical purposes) for long periods of time.
Finally, (5) and (6) liquid CO2 can be handled more easily
and at a lower cost than dry ice can.
24-23. Complete Liquid CO2 Truck Refrigeration.
The use of liquid CO2 for truck refrigeration has been
developed recently. Carriers have long desired a
refrigeration system that would require less maintenance
and fewer breakdowns than is usual with mechanical
systems. Tests have shown that a liquid CO2 system is
practical. It has only one moving part, which is the
control valve used to turn the system on or off. A
pressure reduction valve is also necessary for safe
operation of the system. Besides the ducts and nozzles,
there are the storage tanks, which present the main
drawback of the system. These tanks are very heavy,
87
have a charge which is limited by the size of the tank, and
need special equipment for recharging.
24-24. For continuous cooling, the control valve would
be operated by a thermostat. For blast chilling, the same
system would serve by operating the control valve
manually to attain the desired cooling. The same
precautions and safety rules for blast chilling must also be
observed with continuous cooling. Remember, when
either liquid carbon dioxide or dry ice is used, the
refrigerated area becomes dangerous to life because of the
displacement of oxygen.
25. Automotive Air Conditioning
25-1. There are various types of automotive air-
conditioning installations. Among these are the dash,
trunk, dash-and-roof, and dash- and trunk-mounted units.
The basic components in each of these installations
remains the same as those for the reach-in and walk-in
refrigerator. Paragraphs in this section which are marked
by an asterisk (*) are reprinted in whole or in part from
the Mark IV Service Manual by courtesy of John E.
Mitchell Company, Dallas, Texas. This source is used so
that specific information can be given on the latest
components and procedures. Let us first consider the
refrigerant and oils recommended for Mark IV units.
*25-2. Refrigerant. R-12--clean, dry and free from
contamination-is the only fluid to be used in Mark IV
units. It is nontoxic, noncorrosive, nonflammable,
nonexplosive and odorless under ordinary usage.
CAUTION: There is one exception to the above: R-12
released in the presence of an open flame will form
phosgene gas, a lung irritant. Although it is a safe
refrigerant, certain precautions must be observed when
handling it or when servicing any unit in which it is used.
At normal atmospheric pressure it will, in a liquid state,
evaporate so quickly that anything it contacts will freeze.
*25-3. Refrigerant Oil. The Yolk or Tecumseh
compressor may be used in a Mark IV unit. Either of two
types and grades of compressor oil may be used with
York compressors: Suniso No. 5 or Texaco "Capella E."
The Tecumseh model HA compressor uses a special dual
inhibited oil: Suniso 3 G Dual inhibited or Texaco
Capella B inhibited. These oils have been highly refined
and sealed against moisture contamination.
• DO NOT transfer to any other container for use
or storage.
• DO NOT at any time, other than when pouring,
allow the oil container to remain uncapped or loosely
capped because moisture from the surrounding
atmosphere will be absorbed.
It is especially important to use only recommended oils in
a compressor during the warranty period. Use of other
oils will void the warranty in the event of failure.
*25-4. Safety precautions. The following list of safety
precautions is intended for you, the automobile air-
conditioner serviceman. Observance of these points may
avoid personal injury to you, damage to your equipment
and to your customer's car-as well as possible lost
manhours.
a. Never remove the automobile radiator pressure
cap when the engine is hot.
b. Never close the compressor discharge valve with
tie unit in operation.
c. Keep your hands clear of the automobile engine
fan and belts when the engine is running. This should
also be considered when opening and closing the
compressor service valves.
d. Be sure gauge manifold hoses are in good
condition. Never let them come in contact with the
engine fan or exhaust manifold.
e. Make sure refrigerant hoses are clamped so that
they cannot come in contact with any sharp metal or with
the exhaust pipe or manifold.
f. Always wear goggles when opening the
refrigeration system. Refrigerant liquid or gas can
permanently damage the eyes. (See paragraph 25-5 for
first aid treatment.)
g. Never apply heat from a torch to a sealed
refrigeration system. Refrigerant will expand rapidly with
heat and could cause an explosion.
h. Refrigerant 12 in the presence of an open flame
produces phosgene gas. This is toxic. Never breathe it.
i. Do not use refrigerants other than R-12.
j. Extreme care should be taken never to use
methyl chloride refrigerants, because a chemical reaction
between methyl chloride and the aluminum pans of the
system will result in the formation of product which burn
spontaneously on exposure to air or decompose with
violence in the presence of moisture.
k. Be sure all engine capscrews are tight and are of
the correct length for their particular application. Pulleys
coming off at high speed can cause costly damage to the
automobile and possible injury to the occupants.
l. Wear goggles when using a hole saw or portable
jig saw. This is cheap insurance for eye protection.
m. Use extreme caution when drilling holes in the
automobile. Holes drilled into the electrical wiring or into
the gasoline tank can cause fire or explosion.
n. Do not run the automobile engine in an area not
well ventilated. Carbon monoxide displaces oxygen.
88
o. Keep hands away from moving evaporator fans
and blower wheels. High-speed motors have enough
power to cause painful injury.
p. Use caution when working around exposed
evaporator coil fins. Painful lacerations can be inflicted
by the fins.
q. Do not run the automobile engine with automatic
transmission fluid lines disconnected or costly damage to
the transmission may result.
25-5. First Aid. The skin and eyes should also be
protected from contact with R-12 liquid or vapor. Since
R-12 is readily absorbed by most oils, a small bottle of
sterile mineral oil and a small quantity of boric acid
should be located near the service stall. Should R-12
contact the eyes, wash them immediately with a few drops
of mineral oil, followed by a thorough cleansing with a
weak solution of boric acid. See a physician if irritation
continues. FOR YOUR OWN PROTECTION, WEAR
GOGGLES when opening the refrigeration system.
25-6. Components. As you know, the parts of an auto
air conditioner do the same things as the parts in a
refrigerator. However, because of location and
environment, the installation and operation of some parts
are quite different in an auto.
25-7. Condenser. The condenser is mounted ahead of
the radiator for the car's engine. For this reason the
engine tends to run hot, particularly at low speeds. This
may be compensated for by using a larger fan or one with
more blades. When air conditioning is added to a car, it
may also be necessary to change the standard radiator and
install a larger size to keep the engine from overheating.
The addition of an air conditioner imposes these three
new factors on the car's operation: (1) the condenser
reduces the volume of air to the radiator and the engine
compartment, (2) the compressor requires the engine to
produce more horsepower while it is engaged, and (3) the
heat output from the engine is more for any given speed.
The use of ethylene glycol in the car's radiator will help to
get rid of heat from the engine faster. Also, the engine
cooling system is pressurized to increase cooling. The
radiator cap is spring-loaded to retain a certain operating
pressure, usually from 4 to 16 pounds, in the system.
Failure of the cap to maintain cooling system pressure
will result in the engine's overheating.
25-8. Evaporator. Most units are made for mounting
under the dash or on the firewall. However, some units
have been mounted in the trunk or in back of the rear seat
The disadvantage of the rear mounting is the long runs of
tubing required to connect the unit. On the other hand, a
mounting under the dash makes the lines much shorter but SelecTrol, its operation is entirely automatic with no
fills the center space between the dash and the floor. In provision for manual temperature control. The function
any case, copper lines are not satisfactory for automotive of the RoboTrol is to control evaporator pressure and
work, because vibration over a long period of time will volume flow to the compressor to provide the coldest
cause copper to harden and become brittle. Consequently, possible consistent air temperature without allowing
refrigerant lines for an automobile air-conditioning condensate to freeze on the evaporator coil fins.
installation are made from high-pressure neoprene hose. *25-12. Refer to figure 46, which is a cross-sectional
25-9. Receiver, drier, and strainer. On most view of the RoboTrol revealing its internal construction.
automobile air-conditioning systems, the receiver, drier, Actually the valve is quite simple, operating through. a
and strainer a- combined into one compact unit which is balance between a coil spring (6) and a sealed metal
installed in the liquid line. The function of these bellows (7) which is subjected to suction line pressure and
components is similar to those previously mentioned. A flow pressure drop at the valve. Increased pressure
sight glass is the means of observing refrigerant leaving collapses the bellows against the spring, thus moving the
the condenser. Under normal operating conditions, a fully conical valve head away from its seat. Reduced suction
charged system will deliver a solid stream of liquid line pressure allows the spring to overcome the bellows
refrigerant to the liquid line leading to the expansion action, thus pushing the valve head back toward its seat.
device. A clear sight glass usually indicates a fully
charged system, unless the system is completely
discharged. Bubbles in the sight glass are an indication of
a partially charged system. Some units also have a
moisture indicator in back of the sight glass. The
moisture indicator should be blue if moisture is not
present in the system. Moisture in the system would
cause the blue indicator to turn pink. Do not confuse this
type of indicator with those which you may find in large
refrigerator systems. (For example, one indicator is green
but turns bright yellow with moisture, while others show
different color combinations.)
*25-10. Expansion valve. Control of the liquid
refrigerant entering the evaporator coil is done by a
thermostatic expansion valve. The power clement or
thermobulb and connecting tube will be charged with
either a liquid or gaseous refrigerant, usually of the type
used in the air-conditioning system. The power element
is connected to the open area above the diaphragm by
means of a small capillary tube. The lower side of the
diaphragm actuates a ball check valve by means of push
rods. Thus movement of the diaphragm provide control
of the valve inlet opening. The power element clamped to
the evaporator coil outlet responds to the suction as
temperature. An increase of this temperature increases
the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant in the
power element. Conversely, a decrease of suction gas
temperature decreases the pressure and temperature of the
power element refrigerant. It can be seen from this that
increased suction gas temperature causes the expansion
valve to open, admitting more refrigerant, while a
decrease in suction gas temperature causes the expansion
valve to move toward the closed position.
*25-11. RoboTrol valve. The RoboTrol valve replaces Figure 46. RoboTrol valve.
the SelecTrol valve which was used in older models of
Mark IV units. The RoboTrol valve is, like the SelecTrol,
a suction line flow control valve; but, unlike the

89
*25-13. Spring tension is regulated at the factory to close
the valve when suction line pressure indicates a
temperature in the evaporator coil that would cause
freezing of condensate on the fins. An adjusting screw
(1) is provided for changing spring tension in the field if
specific humidity conditions require a different setting
from that made at the factory. Turning the adjusting
screw clockwise increases spring tension to provide a
higher pressure setting. This may be necessary in areas of
extreme humidity where ice can form on the coil rapidly.
*25-14. It should be understood that adjustment of the
RoboTrol must not be made unnecessarily. Many miles
of highway driving may be required to prove an
inadequate valve setting. A low setting will be
satisfactory at city driving speeds where ice has little
chance of forming but will be very unsatisfactory at road
speeds when refrigeration capacity is in surplus. A high
setting may rob the unit of efficiency at all speeds.
*25-15. Correct setting of the RoboTrol will maintain
about 26 p.s.i.g. in the evaporator coil. Because the valve
is connected directly to the compressor and suction-
pressure readings are normally taken at the compressor,
pressure drop in the suction line must be considered. For
normal operation in all areas the valve should be set to
close at 17 p.s.i.g. and to open at 19 p.s.i.g. pressure with
readings taken upstream from the valve.
*25-16. Other than adjustments described above, no
service to the valve can be carried out. A leaking valve
must be replaced. When installing a RoboTrol, use the
backup flats provided on the inlet side fitting to avoid
strain and possible distortion of the outlet connection at
the compressor. This distortion will cause icing of the
evaporator regardless of the adjusting spring setting.
*25-17. Thermostatic controls. Three types of
thermostats have been used in Mark IV units, beginning
with the Commuter and Sportsman Evaporators in 1961.
These units used a bimetal type thermostat responsive to
discharge air temperature. The thermostat as applied in
the 1962-63 Monitor has a control lever and pin. When
replacing this lever-actuated thermostat, move the control
lever to the extreme right end of the slot. Position the
thermostat so that the lever and pin lightly touch one
another. Tighten the mounting screws in this position.
Low temperature cut off is 28° F.
*25-18. Electrical system. All wiring is stranded copper
with plastic covering. Most 12-volt units will have No.
16 wire, while No. 12 wire is furnished for 6-volt units.
The Sportsman unit uses No. 14 wire for either voltage.
*25-19. Fuses. Prior to the 1962 Monitor, all units
provided for a fuse or fuses between the automobile
90
ignition switch accessory terminal and the evaporator
switch. Fuse requirements are a 20-amp fuse for 14-volt
circuits and a 30-amp fuse for 6-volt circuits. Instead of a
conventional fuse, the 1962-65 Monitor has a 15-amp
circuit breaker, mounted at the rear of the evaporator.
The circuit breaker has a current rating of 15 amps at 20
percent overload for 30 minutes.
*25-20. Motors. Three motor types have been used since
1958 with Mark IV units. While differing in size and
number as well as length of shaft extension, all are series
wound D.C. Both 6- and 12-volt applications are used.
No service to the motors should be required. Bearings are
porous bronze with oil saturated wicks and are designed
to last the lifetime of the automobile without additional
lubrication. Occasionally a motor may chatter audibly,
especially on rough roads or when the automobile is
driven rapidly around a corner. This can usually be
attributed to excessive armature end play. Correct end
play, when the motor shaft is moved by hand, should be
about 1/64 inch. Additional spacing washers placed on
the armature shaft inside the motor will reduce end play.
The motor housings must be separated for installation of
these washes.
25-21. Magnetic clutch. A magnetic clutch has a field
coil which is stationary in one type. Another type has a
field coil which rotates, and this type requires brushes and
two collector rings to supply electricity to the coil. The
rotating field has the possibility of trouble from poor
contact between the brushes and rings. The stationary
coil is not subject to such trouble and is therefore
considered to be more reliable.
*25-22. Operation of the magnetic clutch is very simple.
When the current to the clutch is off, the rotor pulley idles
free on the clutch bearing. The compressor shaft does not
rotate. When current flows to the field of the clutch, the
rotor-pulley and armature (attached to the compressor
shaft) are "locked" together magnetically. The
compressor shaft rotates and refrigeration is provided.
Note the following instructions for refrigerant lines which
will conclude our discussion of components.
*25-23. Refrigerant lines. Always use grommets where
rubber refrigerant lines pass through the radiator yoke,
firewall, or trunk compartment floor. All holes for
refrigerant lines should be cut with a hole saw of the
proper size, as indicated by the instruction sheet. Be sure
that rubber lines are not against the exhaust manifold or
any sharp metal edges and that they are clamped properly
in enough places to keep them from sagging under the
car. Clamps should be
attached to the car with No. 10 sheet metal screws. Use a
1/8-inch drill for these screws.
25-24. Control of Refrigeration. There are three
methods to control the cooling. Some units may be more
sophisticated than others, combining two of these
methods. Here is a brief discussion of three types of
control.
25-25. Thermostat. A thermostat which operates a
switch is used on some units. The feeler bulb is located in
the airstream next to the evaporator. The switch closes
the circuit to the magnetic clutch when cooling is called
for. With this type of control the compressor will only
operate when cooling is demanded.
25-26. Pressure-operated bypass. This method of
control uses a bypass valve which is operated by pressure
on the low side of the system. A diaphragm in the valve
controls the bypass by responding to changes in pressure
on the low side. As the temperature in the car become
lower, the pressure in the low side reduces, and this
reduced pressure on the diaphragm causes it to open the
bypass so that refrigerant no longer flow to the
evaporator. Operation of the valve is adjusted by a
linkage which change spring pressure on the diaphragm.
25-27. Solenoid-operated bypass. The solenoid valve is
controlled by a thermostat set in the air-stream from the
evaporator. The valve opens the bypass line when the
thermostat senses that the temperature in the car is cold
enough. When the air becomes warm enough, the
thermostat will cause the solenoid valve to close the
bypass line, and the unit will again operate to cool the car.
25-28. Servicing and Adjusting. In this area we will
present service information which can be applied to most
installations. The owner's service manual is required
when it is necessary to make exact adjustments. It is not
practical to adjust valves without the specification,
because you can do more harm than good. Let us begin
with the drive pulley.
*25-29. Crankshaft drive pulley. The seating and
centering surfaces, both on the air-conditioner crankshaft
pulley and the original pulley hub, or balancer to which t
is to be attached, must be wiped free of all dirt and grit
before installation. Any foreign material on these
surfaces an prevent the pulley from seating properly,
resulting in a wobble which may permanently damage the
pulley and balancer or cause the V-belt to fail
prematurely. This is especially true with respect to
pulleys of the type secured to the crankshaft with only one
retaining bolt. Where a key is employed with this type of
pulley, make sure the key length is correct to just fill the
key-way without causing any pulley wobble. File or mind
the key to length if necessary. To check pulleys which
91
appear to be out of line, hold a straightedge against the
faces.
*25-30. Magnetic clutch removal. In most units you can
remove the clutch as follows: Remove the center bolt and
washer from the crankshaft. Screw a 5/8-inch NC
(National Coarse) capscrew into the threads in the end of
the clutch hub and tighten it against the crankshaft until
the clutch comes free. Use a centering disc when you
reinstall a clutch. If no centering disc is available, check
the edge of the clutch against a fixed point on the
compressor while the clutch is slowly turned. No runout
will be observed when the clutch is properly centered.
25-31. Belts. While exact specifications are given for
some belts, you will seldom have the equipment to make
exact adjustments. The general rule calls for 1/2-inch belt
deflection between pulleys. If a belt shows rapid wear,
check the pulleys for dents or scratches in the grooves. A
damaged groove will tear up a new belt. If the belt shows
signs of the cord separating from the rubber, it indicates
the belt has been stretched in attempting to force it over
the pulleys. This is the main cause of ruined belts and
pulleys. The fan pulley is designed to have at least 3/8-
inch clearance between the fan and the radiator. Make a
check for the cause if there is much departure from the
correct clearance.
*25-32. Oil. Occasionally, after having been in service
some length of time, some units may show a grayish
discoloration of the refrigerant and oil. This can be
observed through the sight glass which may become
coated on the inside until it is opaque. This condition is
caused by moisture contamination and should be rectified
immediately. Usually, replacement of the drier is
sufficient, but in cases of extreme coating the expansion
valve should be removed and cleaned out manually. Then
replace the valve along with a new drier. Check the
compressor oil for severe discoloration. Drain and refill
with clean, dry refrigeration grade of oil if required.
*25-33. Expansion valve. Perhaps the most important
thing to remember here is to make sure the thermobulb is
good tight metal-to-metal contact with the copper suction
line. When replacing the expansion valve, sand the bulb
and suction tube mating surfaces. Then tighten the bulb
clamp securely. To avoid twisting the copper tubing,
always use a backup wrench on the valve when loosening
or tightening connections.
*25-34. Inadequate compressor oil, aside from causing
possible damage to the compressor, will result in
improper lubrication of the valve needle. Lack of oil at
the needle and seat materially affects the liquid seal,
resulting in excessive wear.
*25-35. Refrigerant lines. All hose assemblies
are manufactured to rigid specifications. Each length of
hose is thoroughly cleaned and dried before being cut to
length for installation of couplings. When servicing, use
clean refrigeration oil on all fittings-nothing else. The use
of refrigeration oil on all fittings will aid in making
leakproof connections. DO NOT USE SEALANT
COMPOUNDS. If these compounds (blue or red in
color) are introduced into the system they will clog
strainers. The result will be complete failure or lowered
efficiency and a voided warranty.
*25-36. Lines must be clamped to prevent their contact
with exhaust manifolds, carburetors, linkage, etc. Be sure
grommets are installed to protect hoses where they pass
through metal partitions.
*25-37. Switches and rheostats. Defective switches
should be replaced. Attempted repairs are seldom
satisfactory. Intermittent unit operation may be caused by
a defective rheostat. Rheostat switches with built-in
clutch circuits have, on rare occasions, been known to
cause intermittent cooling. This could result from an
uneven bedding of the resistor coil in the ceramic switch
base. The sliding contact shoe, being moved along the
resistor coil as the switch knob is turned, may ride up on a
section of the coil that is sufficiently high to lift the shoe
almost clear of the clutch circuit ring. The resulting poor
contact may cause the clutch to slip or cut out. If a
condition of this sort is suspected, check the clutch circuit
with a voltmeter while turning the rheostat knob slowly
back and forth. If the voltage varies sharply, replace the
rheostat switch.
*25-38. Evacuation with a vacuum pump. The following
procedure is given for Mark IV units. However, they may
be generally applied to most auto air conditioners when it
is necessary to remove air or moisture from a system.
a. Remove protective caps from gauge ports of
compressor service valves. Connect gauge manifold
hoses to appropriate compressor service valves.
b. Schrader gauge line adapters are required for all
1964 compressors.
c. Connect gauge manifold center hose to
refrigerant container. OPEN refrigerant container valve.
(Use only refrigerant grade R-12.)
d. Crack open high-pressure gauge manifold valve
and allow refrigerant vapor to enter system until a
pressure of 50 p.s.i.g. is observed on low-pressure gauge.
CLOSE high-pressure gauge manifold valve. CLOSE
refrigerant container valve and disconnect hose from
container.
e. Using a leak detector, thoroughly check all
connections, the compressor, evaporator, condenser, and
service valve operating stems or Schrader fittings with
protective caps in place. Repair any leaks at this time.
92
f. Connect gauge manifold center hose to vacuum
pump. OPEN both gauge manifold valves and start
vacuum pump.
g. After vacuum pump has run at least 15 minutes,
CLOSE both gauge manifold valves and stop vacuum
pump. Low-pressure gauge should indicate at least 28-
inch vacuum. High-pressure gauge should read zero (0)
p.s.i.g. or below.
h. Disconnect gauge manifold center hose at
vacuum pump and connect to refrigerant container.
OPEN refrigerant container valve. Loosen gauge
manifold center hose at gauge manifold. Refrigerant
released will purge air from hose. Tighten center hose
connection at gauge manifold.
i. Crack open high-pressure gauge manifold valve
and allow refrigerant vapor to enter system until a
pressure of 0 to 5 p.s.i.g. is observed on low-pressure
gauge. CLOSE high-pressure gauge manifold valve.
CLOSE refrigerant container valve and disconnect hose
from container.
j. Repeat steps f. and g. This will complete
double evacuation procedure necessary for thorough
moisture and air removal.
k. Disconnect gauge manifold center hose at
vacuum pump.
l. Connect portable charging cylinder filled with R-
12 to the center gauge manifold hose. Open charging
cylinder valve and purge center hose. Open both gauge
manifold hoses and admit 34 ounces of R-12 for the
monitor.
OR
An alternate method of charging the system
involves the use of cans or factory filled drums of
refrigerant. Connect the container(s) to the center gauge
manifold hose. Purge hose and admit refrigerant until the
system is at container pressure. Do not invert the
container.
m. CLOSE charging container valve and both
manifold valves.
n. Start engine and set idle to approximately 1500
rpm. If shop temperature is 90° or above, place a fan in
front of radiator to simulate ram airflow.
o. With temperature control knob or lever turned to
maximum cold position, allow unit to operate for 2
minutes with blower(s) on. (Monitor evaporator only
must have a jumper wire connector from a 12-volt source
to the clutch.) Observe the sight glass located in top of
receiver-drier or in expansion valve body. If bubbles
appear, OPEN low-pressure gauge manifold valve and
container valve. Add charge until bubbles disappear.
p. CLOSE low-pressure gauge manifold valve
and turn blower(s) off. Bubbles should not a pear in sight 3. Which source of power (see question 2) has a
glass until low-pressure gauge reading reaches 12 p.s.i.g. disadvantage and why? (24-3, 4)
At low-pressure gauge reading of 8 p.s.i.g., it is normal
for bubbles to appear in sight glass. If bubbles do not
appear between 12 and 8 p.s.i.g., disconnect gauge
manifold center hose from container and purge a small
amount of refrigerant from system. After purging 4. What is the relationship between the governed
refrigerant from system repeat this step until bubbles speed of the engine and the speed at which it
appear within a low-pressure range of 12 to 8 p.s.i.g. drives the compressor? (24-7)
q. Turn blower(s) on. When low-pressure gauge
reading indicates 25 to 30 p.s.i.g., sight glass should not
show bubbles. Turn blower(s) off. Observe sight glass;
bubbles should not appear at low-pressure gauge reading
of 12 p.s.i.g. or above. Make at least two complete cycles 5. Explain the two methods of supplying heat to the
of this step. If bubbles appear above 12 p.s.i.g., add storage area in very cold weather. (24-8)
refrigerant as described in steps o. and p.
r. Close container valve and disconnect gauge
manifold hose from contains. Remove clutch jumper
wire.
s. Place a thermometer inside of discharge or cold 6. Is the gasoline-engine-operated refrigeration unit
air outlet. Turn blowers on full. Run unit 10 to 15 on trucks automatic? Explain. (24-9-13)
minutes. Thermometer should read 50° dry bulb or
below, with a return air temperature of 80° dry bulb or
below.
t. If equipped with conventional service valves,
BACKSEAT both valve operating systems and open 7. Explain the use of liquid for blast chilling a
gauge manifold valve to purge charging hoses. If trailer. (24-15-20)
equipped with Schrader type service valve, slowly loosen
charging hoses at valve to purge. Replace all protective
caps on compressor service valves.

*25-39. If a unit has lost its charge, follow the above 8. Are there dangers as well as advantages to blast
procedure to recharge and BE SURE TO LEAK TEST chilling? Explain. (24-15-21)
THOROUGHLY.

REVIEW EXERCISES

The following exercises are study aids. Write your 9. How does the use of dry ice compare to liquid
answers in pencil in the space provided after each CO2 for cooling a trailer? (24-22)
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
10. What would be the advantages of liquid CO2
refrigeration of a trailer as compared with those
1. Why do some trucks and semitrailers require of mechanical refrigeration? (24-23)
refrigeration? (24-1)

11. Why should you use only the manufacturer’s

2. What are the two prime sources of power which specified grade of refrigerant oil in a compressor
may be used to drive a compressor for a for an automotive air conditioner? (25-13)
refrigerated truck unit? (24-3, 4)

93
12. Give two conditions which require you to wear 19. What should always be installed where
goggles when working on an auto air refrigerant lines pass through a metal wall? (25-
conditioner. (25-4) 23)

13. How can a pressure radiator cap cause an engine 20. How could failure to clean the crankshaft or
to overheat? (25-7) pulley hub result in wobble of the pulley? (25-
29)

14. Why are copper lines unsatisfactory in an

automobile? (25-8) 21. Describe how a magnetic clutch with a threaded
hub can be removed without resorting to a puller.
(25-30)

15. Where would you look for a sight glass in an

auto air conditioner? (25-9)

22. What are two causes of belt failure? (25-31)

16. Compare the operation of an expansion valve

with the RoboTrol valve. (25-10-12)
23. The thermobulb should be checked for what
condition if you suspect improper operation of
an expansion valve? (25-32)

17. What are the two means of protecting the

electrical system of an automobile air
conditioner? (25-19)
24. Why must sealant compounds never be used on
fittings? (25-35)

18. What two types of fields may be used in a

magnetic clutch? (25-21)
25. To insure a clean system, what is the most
important operation to perform when you
connect lines for charging? (25-38)

94
 Answers to Review Exercises
CHAPTER 1
1. A modern refrigerator is constructed of two metal shells
separated by a layer of insulation. (1-2)
2. The insulation in a refrigerator must reduce heat transfer by
convention, conduction, and radiation. (1-3)
3. The greatest heat load is usually from the heat outside the box.
(1-4)
4. Improved insulating material has resulted in molded insulation
which is very effective and yet takes much less space than older
types. (1-5)
5. A moisture or vapor barrier must be used to seal the insulation.
(1-6)
6. (1) New synthetic materials can be molded to fit. (2) They have
such a low K-factor that only half the space is needed as for some
natural products. (3) The synthetics are more resistant to rot. (4)
They have no food value to attract rodents. (1-6)
7. Breaker strips are often brittle and may be broken or kinked.
Consequently, you should know the proper way to remove each
type to prevent damage to it from forcing. Also, carelessness
may break the wiring or heaters in the stile or mullion. (1-8,9)
8. The latch of such a refrigerator should be removed so that the
door cannot be locked. (1-11)
9. The seal of a door gasket is checked with a sheet of thin paper for
uniform drag. (1-12)
10. The refrigerator should not be placed near an oven or heater and
should have its own branch circuit, where possible. (1-13)
11. Refrigerators for use overseas will have a special notice (usually
posted in a conspicuous place inside the box) stating the voltage
and frequency of the current for which each is designed. (1-14)
12. One thermostat senses when ice is made and starts the harvest
cycle. The other thermostat senses when the storage tray is full
and holds off the harvest cycle. (1-18)
13. Automatic defrosting with an electric heater can be completed so
quickly that the melted water would freeze in the drain pipe if a
second heater were not used to warm the drain. (1-20)
14. Automatic defrosting with hot gas can be done with a solenoid
valve, which allows hot gas from the compressor to pass directly
through the evaporator. (1-22)
15. Electricity supplies the heat for some units made in Europe but
absorption systems in America are made for LP or natural gas. (2-
1)
16. The main distinction regarding fuels is that the burner orifice
used with LP gas is smaller, because LP gas has much more heat
value. (2-2)
17. The absorption cycle is based on the principle that water has a
strong affinity for ammonia. (2-5)
95
18. Changes in heat load are reflected by a thermostat in the freezer
compartment which regulates a valve to vary the size of the
flame. (2-5)
19. If the heater should be dislodged from the flame during cleaning,
the pushbutton would not reset the poppet. To correct this, move
the heater back into the flame, and the reset will hold. (2-5)
20. An absorption system must be kept clean. Dust and soot must be
removed periodically from all heat exchangers, and the flame
must be properly adjusted for maximum heat and minimum
carbon. (2-6)
21. If installation is made so that the unit is not level, the system will
not perform properly. (2-7)
22. If the fault is in the ammonia-water cycle, it may be corrected by
turning the unit upside down for about an hour. (2-8)
23. Clearances in a compressor may be as little as 0.0001 inch,
because it runs in a closed environment (no moisture, no acids)
with a relatively narrow temperature variation. (3-3)
24. A piston may approach the head as close as possible without
touching. Clearance may be only 0.01 inch at top dead center. (3-
4)
25. Compressor valves may get noisy when their maximum lift is
greater than 0.10 inch. (3-5)
26. Rotary compressors have fewer moving parts and produce less
vibration than piston types. (3-6)
27. To do this, part of a condenser coil may be placed so as to
evaporate the water collected from defrosting. (3-9)
28. A restrictor placed between two evaporator sections forces the
first coil to operate at a higher pressure and temperature than the
second. (3-10)
29. Because a weighted valve is sensitive to its position, any
departure from the correct mounting angle will cause improper
operation. (3-11)
30. The critical factors in the makeup of a capillary tube are its
internal diameter, its length, and the length of the heat exchanger
portion. (3-16)
31. A bleeder resistor is connected in parallel with a capacitor to help
absorb the discharge of the capacitor when the relay contact open.
This arrangement prevents burning of the relay contact. (3-19)
32. A hot wire relay opens the circuit to the starting winding after the
motor is started and provides overload protection if the motor
draws too much current. (3-19)
33. A current relay is sensitive to current and is designed to release
when the current in the relay falls below a certain point. (3-21)
34. You would first check for an open circuit at the bleeder resistor
when you have found relay contacts badly burned.
35. Bubbling noise or hissing from a capillary tube is usually an
indication of low refrigerant. (3-32)
36. Low voltage will cause a motor to run slow so that a compressor
might have to run continuously to cool a refrigerator, resulting in
high electric bills. (3-33)
37. A freezer may have frost accumulations scraped off with a
wooden paddle or with a stiff fiver brush. However, ice should
never be chipped off; it should be melted with warm water. (4-3)
38. For a freezer door to become frosted shut, the electric heater strip
would have to be out of operation. (4-4)
39. A mistake made by many servicemen when troubleshooting is to
pass over one of the more common faults because it seems too
obvious or too easy. (5-3)
40. The advantage of placing the overload protector inside the shell is
to extend the off time in case of an overload operation which
keeps the unit from short-cycling. (5-5)
41. A thermostat closes its contacts when temperature rises, while a
freezestat opens its contacts when temperature drops below its
operating point. (5-6)
42. Checking a motor circuit with direct current is better where there
is a capacitor, because alternating current passes through a
capacitor easily and may lead to a false conclusion. (5-9)
43. When a test shows that a motor is drawing current equal to its
LRA rating, it indicates that the rotor is locked. (5-11)
44. A capacitor may be checked either (1) by charging and
discharging it or (2) by measuring the current through it. (5-12)
45. The current relay is current sensitive, and its contact first close
and then open in normal operation. (5-15, also 3-21)
46. The potential relay is voltage sensitive, and its contacts are
normally closed. The contacts should be open when the motor is
running normal. (5-16, also 3-24)
47. Some of the causes of vibration in a refrigerator are loose motor
or tubing mounts, failure to remove shipping bolts, and uneven
floor or refrigerator feet. (5-17, Table 2)
48. An acetylene cylinder must be secured upright because: (1) It
must no be allowed to fall. (2) If the safety plugs blow, they will
pass harmlessly into the floor. (3) In any but an upright position,
the material in the cylinder may become dislodged and foul the
gauges and valves. (6-2)
49. For two reasons: (1) The safety plug is at the top of the cylinder,
and if it blows in an upright position the plug will be blown
through the roof. (2) The tank will vent itself harmlessly if
upright, but if lying flat, it will be jet propelled. (6-2)
50. Soapy water is the correct test for an acetylene leak, since a flame
could cause a flareback resulting in a cylinder fire. (6-2)
51. The reason is that even a small amount of oil or grease in contact
with pure oxygen can result in spontaneous combustion or an
explosion. (6-2)
52. The red hose identifies it. The acetylene valve can only be
attached to the red hose because of the left-hand threads of the
connection. (6-3)
96
53. Regulator screws must be released before valves are opened, to
avoid damaging the regulators and the gauges. (6-3)
54. The most important factor in making a leakproof solder joint in
tubing is to have correct clearance between the parts. (6-5)
55. You should heat the work to flow point of the alloy before
applying it to the joint. (6-8)
56. Valves with neoprene seats must have them removed before you
begin any soldering; otherwise, the heat will destroy the valve
seat, and it will leak. (6-9)
57. Flux changes its appearance with temperature. At 600° F. it may
appear puffy, and it will smooth out with a milky color at 800° F.,
while at 1100° F. it will turn clear. (6-10)
58. In silver brazing, the copper is not heated to as high a temperature
as it is in copper welding; thus the copper would not tend to
absorb carbon monoxide from a carburizing flame. (6-11)
59. The reason is that the oxidizing flame is used to prevent
formation of carbon monoxide which copper would absorb,
forming a porous weld. (6-12)
60. Copper conducts heat away faster than steel; thus the welding of
copper requires a larger tip for the torch, which will give a larger
flame. (6-13)
61. In stainless steel, the cut is covered with a length of welding rod.
When heated the welding rod will burn, supplying the added heat
necessary to melt out the cut. (6-15)
62. A line tap is expensive and can only be used once. Also, as the
gasket hardens, it will start to leak; then the leak will have to be
repaired. (7-1)
63. In a contaminated atmosphere a leak detector may be so sensitive
that results continue to be erratic even after adjustments have
been made for the background. (7-3, 5)
64. If the probe is exposed to a concentration of halogens, the
electronic leak detector will be overloaded and may be damaged.
(7-5)
65. Small holes in the low side of a refrigerator or freezer can be
patched with a cold solder or glue made for refrigeration work.
(7-7)
66. Before cold patching a hole, the surface must be absolutely free
of oil so that the patch will bond to the metal and make a
complete seal. Do not pack the material or force it into the
tubing, where it would form an obstruction. (7-7)
67. Flux has a critical temperature. If a high-temperature flux is used
with a lower temperature solder, the solder will flow easily long
before the flux. In contrast, the right flux will flow at about the
same temperature as the solder (7-8)
68. Cold solders or special glues are limited to systems charged with
R-12 and should be used for patching only in the low side. (7-9)
69. A system can be pressurized with dry nitrogen and leak tested
with soapy water. If the system is partially charged and then
pressurized with nitrogen, a halide leak detector can be used. (7-
12)
70. These are that a capillary tube should have the same length and
diameter as the one which it re-
 places. Also, the length soldered to the suction line should be the
same as that of the original heat exchanger. (7-13)
71. Gauge a wire to be sure that it is slightly smaller than the ID of
the capillary tube. If it is the correct size, it should slip inside the
capillary easily without forcing. (7-14)
72. At any time that a system is opened, the ends should be taped or
capped to keep moisture and air out. (7-15, 17)
73. After major replacement, the system should be leak tested,
evacuated, dried, charged, and checked for proper operation. (7-
16)
74. The leak must be in the low part of the system at or near the
compressor, because most of the oil is stored in the compressor.
(7-20)
75. If the charging line is not purged, air will be forced into the
system when the charging valve is opened. (7-23)
76. When the suction line shows frost extending too far from the
evaporator, the system is overcharged, and some refrigerant
should be bled from it. (7-24)
77. When frost extends too far on the inlet line to the evaporator
(after the capillary has been replace), increase the size of the heat
exchanger by soldering more capillary tube to the suction line.
(7-24)
78. The refrigerator serviceman must be able to make a leakproof
joint quickly and correctly so that moisture and air may be kept at
a minimum. The shorter the time that a system is open, the better
are your changes of purging air quickly. (7-1–24)
CHAPTER 2
1. The thermostat is set so that a thin coat of ice will form before the
compressor is stopped. This ice provides a cushion so that the
unit will not operate for each drink which is drawn. The
freezestat insures that the unit will stop before ice gets thick
enough to damage the tank if the thermostat fails. (8-2)
2. The waste water from a bubbler fountain is already cold, so it is
made to pre-cool the warm water before it enters the cold tank.
(8-3)
3. Patching a water tank or line used for drinking purposes requires
approved materials only. Certain plastics or synthetics are very
poisonous. (8-5)
4. When different bottled beverages are cooled in the same cabinet,
the thermostat would have to be set high enough for the one kind
most liable to freeze. (9-2)
5. A warm coil could lead you to a wrong conclusion if you mistake
an oil cooler for a condenser coil. (9-3)
6. The big difference between ice making machines lies in the
evaporator. Examples are the tray, plate, tube, channel, and cell
types. (10-1)
7. In an ice cube machine, you may find a tube type evaporator, a
cell type evaporator, or a plate type evaporator. (10-4–6)
8. Dissolved salts concentrate in the water that is left from ice
making. These salts would make unpalatable ice or could lower
the freezing temperature so that the machine would not make ice
properly. (10-8)
97
9. Aside from mechanical troubles, the water supply is the biggest
source of trouble, because it produces sediments, scale, and salt
crystals, which affect both metals and nonmetals adversely. (10-
12)
10. Where multiple evaporators are used, a heat exchanger is
necessary to insure that the line will deliver liquid refrigerant to
all of the expansion valves. (11-1)
11. A dry type heat exchanger must be correctly sized so that it can
cool the liquids sufficiently without producing too much pressure
drop in the low side. (11-2)
12. The water pump supplies a high-velocity jet of cold water so that
it will absorb CO2. Water pressure must exceed the CO2 pressure
which charges the tank to 80 pounds. (11-3)
13. If the ground connection is broken at the isolating transformer,
the water pump motor would run continuously until stopped by
operation of an overload device. (11-4)
14. A simple test is to connect a jumper wire from the tank to the
ground side of the isolating transformer. When the ground circuit
is completed, the motor should stop if the tank is full. (11-4)
15. The use of aromatic woods, which will spoil the flavor of foods,
could do this. This spruce and maple are used inside a cabinet,
since they are hard and do not have an obnoxious odor. (12-2)
16. On such models, not only must the system be shut down but also,
where forced air is used, the fan must be turned off to prevent the
blowing of water all over the cabinet. (12-3)
17. A "double duty" display cabinet is one in which the lower
compartments under the display section are also refrigerated.
(12-5)
18. The area around the door of a display case may be warmed with a
heater strip to prevent the formation of frost. (12-6)
19. The flow of cold air must be continuous across the display
section of an open case because it must have a curtain of cold air
in order to operate properly. (12-7)
20. Storage cabinet defrosting methods are (1) compressor off-time,
(2) hot gas, (3) hot wire, (4) hot water, and (5) secondary
solution. (12-8)
21. Compressor off-time defrosting is limited to cabinets operating
above 28° F. (12-9)
22. Reverse cycle defrosting is a hot gas method, using a four-way
valve so that the evaporator becomes the condenser and the
condenser becomes the evaporator. (12-11)
23. A high-temperature control is a safety device to terminate the
defrost cycle before the cabinet temperature rises too high. (12-
15)
24. The capillary tube from a defrost valve supplies pressure to
operate a high-pressure safety control to limit pressure in the
system. (12-16)
25. The service valves provide connection points for gauges and
charging and permit isolating the compressor from the system.
(13-4)
26. The shell-and-tube condenser uses the shell to serve
 as both condenser and receiver. The tube-within-a-tube type
circulates refrigerant through the outer tube to take advantage of
air cooling also. (13-7)
27. This is done because the receiver must be able to hold all of the
refrigerant charge when the system is pumped down. (13-8)
28. The receiver outlet valve, sometimes called a king valve, is
provided with a quill, or inlet tube, which reaches to the bottom
of the receiver to insure the picking up of liquid rather than gas.
(13-8)
29. Reversing the flow of a drier-strainer might allow particles of the
drier to get into the system. (13-9)
30. A good expansion valve should have modulating action, it should
not starve the evaporator, and it should not cause flooding. (13-
11)
31. The automatic expansion valve works well with a water cooler
because the load is uniform in a narrow temperature range and
because the valve is not required to modulate. (13-12)
32. The equalizer line is used to compensate for pressure drop across
the valve. (13-12)
33. You can identify a thermostatic expansion valve by: (1) the size
of the connections, (2) the length of the capillary, (3) the type of
charge, (4) the internal or external equalizer, and (5) the capacity
in tons. (13-13)
34. Three types of charge used in a thermostatic expansion valve are
the liquid, the gas, and the cross charge. (13-13)
35. The cross charge is a refrigerant different from that used in the
system so that the cross charge temperature-pressure curve will
cross the curve of the refrigerant used in the system. (13-13)
36. The liquid-charged bulb will always have some liquid left in the
bulb; thus it will continue to hold control even when the valve is
colder than the bulb. Its drawbacks are the possibility of flooding
and/or of hunting. (13-13)
37. The gas charge is smaller than the liquid charge; therefore the
maximum operating pressure of the valve can be determined by
fixing the amount of the charge. Its disadvantage is that control
is lost if the diaphragm is colder than the bulb, since gas will
condense away from the bulb. (13-13)
38. The advantages of a high-side float valve are that the capacity of
the valve is not subject to change from flashing and all of the
refrigerant enters the evaporator as a liquid, so there is no lost
cooling. (13-14)
39. A layer of oil on top of the refrigerant may cause the refrigerant
to refuse to boil unless it is agitated or unless an ebullient is used.
(13-15)
40. Before making tests on a "line" circuit, you should remove rings
and metal watchbands, because safety records show many sever
burns from metal jewelry which has caused a short circuit. (14-2)
41. When a circuit breaker is reset, you should determine what
caused the trip to operate, as you can often find and correct a
minor defect before it becomes a major problem. (14-4)
42. A compressor motor which draws full LRA may be good if it
starts normally with belt tension released. The indication is that
there is a locked compressor. (14-5, 6 also 5-11)
98
43. Trying repeatedly to start a motor with a locked rotor can cause
more damage because of excessive current in the circuit. (14-6,
8)
44. Causes of abnormally high head pressures are restrictions caused
by pinch, air, a clogged screen, a frozen expansion valve, a partly
closed valve, or a think head gasket. (14-9)
45. When a compressor continuously runs but does not cool, check
for high suction pressure, which would indicate a low-side
restriction; or check for bubbles in the sightglass, which would
indicate a low charge. (14-10, 11)
46. If the capillary in a thermostat had lost its charge, the bellows
could not expand. Since warming of the charge expands the
bellows to make the compressor run, the unit would remain idle.
(14-11)
47. A quick check for ice blocking a refrigerant control is to warm
the control and watch to see whether or not the pressure gauges
return to normal readings. (14-12)
48. When a valve is supposed to be shut and it continues to leak
refrigerant, it indicates that the needle and seat are worn. (14-13)
49. When you make adjustments or repairs on a float valve, be sure
to restore its operating point to the original level of the fluid.
(14-14)
50. Equipment which can be isolated from the system by valves must
have been purged by bleeding off pressure before it is removed
from the system. (15-2)
51. The ratchet stop in a micrometer makes it possible to exert the
correct driving force on the spindle when a measurement is made.
(15-5)
52. In figure 18, the top illustration will read 0.012 inch less if the
thimble is moved 12 divisions in the direction of the arrow.
Thus, the reading would be 0.292 inch. (16-5)
53. You can check the proper mating of an extension rod with an
inside micrometer by measuring it with an outside micrometer.
(16-5)
54. The best tool for checking a crankshaft to see whether or not it is
true is a dial micrometer. (16-5)
55. Loss of oil pressure may be from (1) a low oil supply, (2) worn
bearings, (3) a defective oil pump, (4) a defective oil pressure
regulator, or (5) oil diluted with refrigerant. (16-6, 18)
56. When installing a new oil seal, be sure to clean all grease and
preservative from the seal, apply refrigerant oil to the seal, and
carefully inspect all seal surfaces for scratches which would
cause a leak. (16-8–10)
57. To check a new seal for a leak, operate the compressor with the
suction line closed till the vacuum gauge levels off. Then close
the compressor discharge line and watch the high-pressure gauge
for a rapid rise, which would indicated that air is being drawn
into the compressor. (16-11)
58. Check the depth of the valve seat for too much wear, and check
the valve to see that it is not worn too thin. (16-12)
59. Check for a slight burr or feather edge on one side of a spring
steel valve. The burr could damage the sea; therefore the valve is
installed with the
 burr side up. A heavy burr should be removed, as it could
produce metal particles in the system. (16-13)
60. In a refrigeration compressor, the compressor ring usually has a
taper which slopes to the top of the ring (marked “TOP”). The
top side must be installed facing the head. Oil rings which do not
have a taper may be installed with either side up. (16-15)
61. Two indications of upside-down compression rings would be low
oil in the sight glass and noisy compressor operation – knocking-
because of pumping oil. (16-15)
62. Ring gap can be checked with a feeler gauge after the ring has
been inserted into the cylinder about 3/8 inch below the top. (16-
15)
63. When a new set of rings is installed in an old cylinder, the glaze
must be broken from the cylinder wall so that the rings will wear
in quickly. (16-15)
64. When a compressor has worn to the point of requiring new
bearing inserts, other moving parts must also be inspected for
signs of wear beyond specified limits. (16-16)
65. System cleaning is required on a new installation before it is
placed in service as well as on a system which has suffered a
hermetic motor burnout. (16-19)
66. While cleaning a system after a hermetic motor burnout, avoid
contact with the sludge, as it may contain acid. Also avoid
bleeding contaminated refrigerant into the air, as the acid may be
strong enough to burn your eyes. (17-2,7)
67. system cleaning is done by evacuating from the high side. The
reason for doing this is to reverse-flush the system. (17-3)
68. After a system is cleaned, the drier will have absorbed
considerable moisture, and the installation of a new drier will
insure a dry system. (17-3)
69. When cleaning a system use refrigerant to break the vacuum in
order to keep air and moisture from enter the system. (17-4, 7)
70. Activated alumina may be used as a drier only on the suction side
of a system charged with SO2 (18-5)
71. Anhydrous calcium sulfate must not be used as a drier in a
system charged with SO2. (18-7)
72. Before installing a drier, it should be opened and baked at 300º F.
for 24 hours to insure dryness. (18-9)
73. A vacuum of about 1-inch mercury is required to boil water at 80º
F. (18-11)
74. A vacuum pump requires that the oil be changed to get rid of the
moisture which accumulates in the oil during service. (18-15)
Chapter 3
1. The coldest rooms are located in the center of a refrigerated
warehouse surrounded by warmer areas which act as a buffer and
make it easier to maintain zero temperatures in freezer rooms.
(19-2)
2. During normal work, the floors in meat processing an storage
99
rooms become very slipper. Also, where large quantities of
potatoes are stored, you must have positive ventilation, as
accumulations of CO2 can cause asphyxiation. (19-4, 5, 8)
3. If potatoes in storage are piled too high – more than 6 feet – heat
will accumulate in the center of the pile, and they will spoil
rapidly. (19-8)
4. Using modern methods of construction provides a cold storage
room with a continuous vapor barrier to keep out moisture; also,
a room which can move independent of the building. (19-10)
5. In the construction of a modern refrigerated warehouse, the vapor
barrier must be attached only to the cold room walls, because
they can move. (19-14, 15)
6. A blueprint can be studied to learn the meaning of symbols and
give one a mental picture of the layout of equipment. For
example, a blueprint will show changes and additions to the
plant. Also, a blueprint will often help you find the location of
equipment. Finally , you should use a blueprint to record
modifications to the plant as they are made. (19-21, 22)
7. Blueprint details are enlargements of small parts of a drawing to
show fine points which would be lost in a small-scale diagram.
(19-21, 22)
8. When four or more compressors are installed, the plant can be
split into two systems, with two compressors for high
temperature and two for low temperature. Either system can
continue operation at reduced capacity, even if one compressor
fails. (19-24).
9. The determining factor for setting the operating points of a
pressure control in the suction side is temperature. Adjustment is
made so that the control cuts in when the evaporator coil is at its
desired operating temperature and cuts out when coil temperature
has dropped 10º F. While it is essentially a pressure control, its
adjustment is most satisfactory when made according to
temperature. (19-24)
10. True. Evaporator coil temperature is more reliable because our
concern is to keep a room within temperature limits. Suction
pressure is more susceptible to variations which occur during the
operation of the system. (19-24)
11. In cold weather when compressor discharge pressure drops, you
can build up pressure in the system by (1) throttling the king
valve and (2) reducing the capacity of the condenser. (19-24, 25)
12. In checking for voltage at a three-phase magnetic switch, check
the upper terminals from A to B, B to C, and A to C. (19-24)
13. Dashpot oil is used in time-delay relays. Use of other oils in a
dashpot would result in erratic operation with changes in
temperature. (19-24)
14. On the installation or replacement of a motor, you should test it
for correct rotation and line up the pulleys. (19-24)
15. When working on or around V-belts, you should plan on
replacing them soon, as oil causes the belt material to rot. (19-24)
16. If oil cannot be cleaned off a set of V-belts, you should plan on
replacing them soon, as oil causes the belt material to rot. (19-24)
17. When one belt shows a flutter more pronounced than that of the
other belts in a set, the condition indicates that the one belt has
stretched in service, and the belt tension should be readjusted
before the vibration gets too severe. (19-24)
18. A gradual drop in head pressure over a few hours would
accompany a drop in ambient temperature. Over a few days, a
continual drop would indicate trouble. To contrast, a sudden
drop in pressure usually indicates trouble. (19-24)
19. The purpose of a recording chart is to provide a continuous
record of plant operating conditions. (19-24)
20. The purpose of bleed-of water is to get rid of some of the water in
which salts are concentrating. (19-25)
21. When makeup water is controlled automatically by a float valve,
the rate of bleed-off water will determine the amount of makeup
water added. (19-25)
22. In cold weather operation, the best method of capacity control of
an evaporative condenser is by means of modulating dampers in
the air inlet. (19-25)
23. The disadvantages in operating a cooling tower are (1) scale
formation, (2) algae growth, and (3) that it must be protected
from freezing in cold weather. (19-25)
24. When making a walk-through inspection of a freezer room, make
these checks: (I) Look for unusual sins of frost on expansion
valves and extension of frost on the lines. (2) Check to see that
fans are operating. (3) Note any unusual noise, vibration, or
odor. (19-27-29)
25. A hot gas defrost system may be operated to drive out oil which
has accumulated in an evaporator by operating the defrost for a
longer period. (19-30)
26. In an ice plant, an agitator is used to keep the brine moving to
insure transfer of heat from the ice cans to the evaporator coil.
(20-3)
27. Water jackets are used to cool the head of an ammonia
compressor because of the high operating temperature of around
250° F. (20-3, 17)
28. Three factors in making a good grade of ice are (1) a brine at 15°
F., (2) agitation of the ice water during freezing, and (3) removal
of the core water and replacing it with fresh water at the proper
time. (20-5)
29. A core sucker is necessary to remove the core water that contains
a large concentration of salts which, if left, would take much
longer to freeze and would make ice with a disagreeable taste and
odor. (20-5, 10)
30. While the brine temperature is 15° F., it must circulate around the
evaporator coils which are at 5° F.; consequently, the solution is
adjusted low enough to keep it from forming ice around the
evaporator. (20-15, 16)
31. Inhibited acid should be prepared in a crock or wooden barrel.
Goggles, rubber gloves, and apron must be worn. Inhibitor
powder is first dissolved in water at the rate of 3 2/3 ounces of
powder for each 10 gallons of water. Muriatic acid is added
slowly at the rate of 11 quarts of acid to each 10 gallons of water.
Use commercial grade acid of 1.190 specific gravity. (20-19)
100
32. Baking soda should be at hand for instant use to neutralize an
acid burn of the skin. It can also be used to check the strength of
the acid solution during the cleaning process. (20-19, 20)
CHAPTER 4
1. Capacity control for a variable heat load is obtained by using
multiple compressors. (21-1)
2. Two applications are multiple evaporators operated at the same
temperature and multiple evaporators at different temperatures.
(21-2)
3. Types of evaporator-regulating valves are: (1) bellows, (2)
diaphragm, (3) two-temperature, (4) snap-action, and (5)
thermostatic. (21-4-9)
4. With multiple evaporators at different temperatures, check valves
are installed in the suction line of each of the colder evaporators.
(21-10)
5. The coldest evaporator must make up more than half of the heat
load or it will not pull down to the desired temperature. (21-11)
6. Since the coldest evaporator has the lowest suction pressure, it
will be controlled by the low-pressure cutout. (21-13)
7. When the solenoid valves are closed the evaporators are pumped
down, so the receiver must be large enough to hold the total
system charge. (21-15)
8. A solenoid valve in the suction line may allow liquid refrigerant
to accumulate and flood into the compressor, causing damage
when the valve opens. (21-16)
9. The main difficulty with compressors in parallel is insuring equal
division of the oil. (22-1)
10. For good operation in parallel, compressors should be the same
make and size and all interconnecting lines should be balanced.
(22-2)
11. Oil equalizer and gas-equalizer lines must be connected between
crankcases of multiple compressors to insure lubrication. (22-4)
12. With multiple compressors, a time delay allows a 10- or 15-
second interval between the starting of the first compressor and
the second. (22-6)
13. An ultralow-temperature chamber is used to test aircraft and
weapons. (23-2)
14. A test chamber which makes rapid changes to ultralow
temperatures must have an insulation such as Ferrotherm, which
has a low heat capacity. (23-3)
15. Two methods of staging are compound compression and
compressors in cascade. (23-5)
16. A direct compound system has two compressors in series with an
intercooler between, for better efficiency. (23-6, 7)
17. Since there are two separate systems in a cascade system, two
refrigerant having different temperature ranges may be used. (23-
9)
18. Three refrigerants for ultralow temperatures are R-12, R-13, and
R-22. (23-11)
19. At ultralow temperatures, an ordinary expansion valve requires
excessive superheating at the bulb location to operate the valve.
(23-12)
20. Ultralow temperature requires a special cutout because a
conventional model is not satisfactory for a vacuum over 20
inches Hg. (23-14)
21. To avoid problems from wax in an ultralow-temperature system,
a high grade oil and oil separator are used. (23-15)
22. Warm the frozen valve carefully and if it is released at a
temperature colder than 32° F., the difficulty is the result of wax
formation. (23-16)
CHAPTER 5
1. Trucks which must transport perishable foods re- quire
refrigeration to prevent spoilage. (24-1)
2. The primary source of power may be either a small gasoline
engine or the main engine which powers the truck. (24-3, 4)
3. Using the main engine as the primary power source is less
advantageous, since the compressor stops when the truck engine
is stopped. (24-3, 4)
4. When engine speed is governed for 2400 r.p.m., the compressor
is driven at 1800 r.p.m. (24-7)
5. Heat may be furnished by a blower and an electric heating coil, or
it may be supplied from operating the unit, with the defrost valve
open so that hot gas flows through the evaporator. (24-8)
6. Yes. All of the controls operate automatically, except the starter
switch, the heat-cool switch, and the defrost switch. (24-9-13)
7. Liquid CO2 is released into a trailer as a fog, which removes
cargo heat very quickly. (24-15-20)
8. Yes. While blast chilling can cool a trailer in a few minutes, the
atmosphere will have too little oxygen for breathing, and
protective clothing should be worn to protect against frost burns.
(24-15-21)
9. The liquid CO2 vaporizes faster than dry ice, so it will cool a
given area in less time than the water. Also, the liquid can be
controlled easily by a valve. Finally, the liquid is stored in tanks
for use at any time, while it is impractical to store dry ice for an
extended period of time. (24-22)
101
10. The liquid CO2 refrigeration of a trailer is more reliable because
it has a minimum of moving parts and reduces temperature faster.
(24-23)
11. The manufacturer's warranty may be void if a compressor fails
while operating with an unrecommendable oil. (25-3)
12. You should wear goggles when opening the refrigeration system
and when using a hole saw or portable jig saw. (25-4)
13. Failure of the radiator cap to maintain pressure can cause an
engine to overheat. (25-7)
14. Vibration causes copper to harden and become brittle. (25-8)
15. You would look for a sight glass in the receiver-drier-strainer,
located in the liquid line. (25-9)
16. An expansion valve operates by means of a thermo-bulb to
control liquid refrigerant to the evaporator. A RoboTrol valve
operates by means of suction line pressure to control evaporator
pressure and volume flow to the compressor. (25-l0-12)
17. Either fuses or a circuit breaker may protect the electrical system.
(25-19)
18. A magnetic clutch may use a stationary field coil or a rotating
field coil with brushes and collector ring. (25-21)
19. Always install grommets on a line where it passes through a
metal wall. (25-23)
20. Failure to clean dirt from the shaft or hub may prevent proper
mating causing a pulley to wobble. (25-29)
21. A magnetic clutch can be removed without a puller if its hub is
threaded. Screw a 3/8-inch NC capscrew into the bulb and
tighten it against the crankshaft until the clutch comes free. (25-
30)
22. Two causes of belt failure are damaged pulley grooves and
separation of belt material because of being stretched too tight.
(25-31)
23. When you suspect improper operation of an expansion valve,
check the thermobulb to see that it is securely clamped and makes
metal-to-metal contact with the suction line. (25-32)
24. Never use sealant compounds on fittings as the sealant may clog
the strainer and void the warranty on the unit. (25-35)
25. When connecting lines to charge a system, always purge the lines
with refrigerant before you tighten the fittings. (25-38)
SUBCOURSE EDITION
OD 1749 A

REFRIGERATION AND
AIR CONDITIONING III
(AIR CONDITIONING)
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING III
(Air Conditioning)

Subcourse OD 1749
Edition A

United States Army Combined Arms Support Command

Fort Lee, VA 23801-1809

18 Credit Hours

INTRODUCTION

This subcourse is the third of four subcourses devoted to basic instruction in refrigeration and air conditioning.

This subcourse discusses airflow properties and temperature response including an explanation of air and temperature
measuring devices. Instruction is also provided on the installation, operation, and maintenance of self-contained air-
conditioning units. In addition, the subcourse covers the electric motor, pneumatic controls of refrigeration, the installation
of ventilation systems, and the types and components of heat pumps.

There are four lessons.

1. Temperature, Airflows, and Measuring Devices.

2. Self-Contained Units and Duct Systems.

3. Controls.

4. Evaporation, Ventilation Systems, and Operation of Heat Pumps.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men and women are included.
 PREFACE

THIS subcourse deals with another phase of your specialty description-air conditioning. Since the principles of
refrigeration and air conditioning are similar, your mastery of the subject will come easy. You will find that we discuss
several components peculiar to air-conditioning systems.

To qualify you in the area of air conditioning we discuss the following systems in this subcourse:

1. Self-contained package air conditioners

2. Mechanical ventilating systems

3. Fresh sir and air duct systems

4. Control systems

5. Evaporative cooling systems

6. Heat pump systems

We're also going to refresh your knowledge of the following:

1. Components of sir

2. Temperatures, airflows, and their measuring devices

3. Design and installation factors

*** IMPORTANT NOTICE ***

THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%.

PLEASE DISREGARD ALL REFERENCES TO THE 75% REQUIREMENT.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Grateful acknowledgment is made to the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration ad Air-Conditioning Engineers;
Johnson Service Company; Honeywell, Inc.; and Taylor Instrument Companies for permission to use illustrations and text
material from their publications.

ii
 CONTENTS

Page

Preface ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i

Acknowledgment -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ii

Chapter

1 Undesirable Properties of Air ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

2 Temperatures, Airflows, and Their Measuring Devices------------------------------------------------------------------ 11

3 Design and Installation Factors---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18

4 Self-Contained Package Air-Conditioning Units ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

5 Fresh Air and Air Duct Systems -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43

6 Controls ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53

7 Evaporative Cooling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91

8 Mechanical Ventilation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 104

9 Heat Pumps------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 118

Answers to Review Exercises ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 133

iii

Undesirable Properties of Air
HOW DOES THE atmosphere of a hospital operating
room differ from the atmosphere of your work area?
Well, the atmosphere of the operating room must be free
of foreign matter, humidity controlled, and air-
conditioned. But most work areas are not air-conditioned
at all. Some may have fans to ventilate the area. Since
your duties will bring you to areas in which the
atmosphere is conditioned, you must know how to control
the various undesirables you might find in the air.
2. The elements you will study in this chapter are
foreign material, odors, and moisture.
1. Foreign Material
1. Normal air contains varying amounts of foreign
materials commonly referred to as permanent atmospheric
impurities. These materials can arise from such natural
processes as erosion, wind, and sea water evaporation.
Such contaminants will vary considerably in
concentration but will range far below those caused by
manmade activities.
2. Some manmade contaminants are: smoke caused
by transportation and industry, chemical sanitizers, and
various dusts and sprays used in agriculture.
3. Dusts. Dusts are solid particles projected into
the air by wind, grinding, drilling, shoveling, screening,
and sweeping. Generally, particles are not called dust
unless they are smaller than approximately 100 microns.
Dust may be of mineral type. such as rock, metal, or
sand; vegetable, such as grain, flour, wood, cotton, or
pollen; or animal, including wool, hair, silk, feathers, and
leather.
4. Fumes. Fumes are solid particles commonly
formed by the condensation of vapors from normally solid
materials. Fumes may be formed by sublimation,
distillation, galvanization, or by chemical reaction
whenever such processes create airborne particles
predominantly smaller than 1 micron. Fumes which are
permitted to age tend to flocculate into clusters of larger
size. This characteristic is often made use of when we
want to remove fumes from the air.
1
CHAPTER 1
5. Smokes. Smokes are extremely small solid
particles produced in incomplete combustion of organic
substances such as tobacco, wood, coal, oil, and other
carbonaceous materials. Smoke particles vary
considerably in size, the smallest being much less than 1
micron and often in the size range of .l to .3 micron.
6. Air Filters. Air filters are ordinarily used to
remove particles such as those found in outdoor air.
Filters are employed in ventilating, air-conditioning, and
heating systems where the dust content seldom exceeds 4
grains per 1000 cubic feet of air. Since the purpose of a
filter is to remove as much of the contamination as
practical, it is obvious that the degree of cleanliness
required is a major factor in determining the type of filter
design to be used. The removal of these particles
becomes progressively difficult as the particle size
decreases. The installation of air filters will justify their
cost through a reduction of equipment failure and
housekeeping, and by providing dust-free air for critical
manufacturing processes.
7. Air filters can generally be classified into three
groups, depending upon their principle of operations: (1)
viscous impingement, (2) dry, and (3) electronic.
8. Viscous impingement type filter. This filter
consists of relatively coarse media constructed of fiber,
wire screen, woven mesh, metal stampings or plates, or
sometimes a combination of these. The filter may be of
(1) the unit or pane) type, which is manually cleaned; (2)
the disposable type, which is replaced after it has
accumulated its dirt load; or (3) the automatic moving
curtain type, which changes its media in the airflow when
the pressure across the filter reaches a predetermined
pressure.
9. The viscous impingement filter derives its name
from the fact that the medium is treated with a viscous
substance, frequently referred to as an oil or adhesive. In
the operation of the filter, the airstream is broken down
into small columns which are made to change directions,
depending upon filter construction. At each change of
direction, the larger dust articles continue in a straight line
because of their momentum, and when they impinge
against the medium they are held by the adhesive surface.
The viscous material used on this type filter requires
careful selection. In general, it is considered good
practice to follow the manufacturer's recommendations.
However, desirable characteristics of a suitable adhesive
are: (1) a low percentage volatility so as to have
negligible evaporation, (2) a viscosity that varies only
slightly with normal temperature change, (3) the ability to
inhibit the growth of bacteria and mold spores, (4) high
capillarity, or the ability to wet and retain the particles, (5)
high flash and fire point, and (6) freedom from odor.
10. The arrangement of the filter medium is one of
two types. The high velocity type has the filtering
medium placed on edge, perpendicular to the base of the
duct, so as to offer low resistance to airflow. Filters in
this category carry a face velocity rating of 480 to 520
f.p.m. This filter does not have any recommended
direction of airflow.
11. The progressive pack or progressive density
design, in which the medium is packed more densely on
the leaving air side, permits the accumulation of dirt
throughout the depth of the media. Filters of this design
are rated at a face velocity of 300 to 350 f.p.m.
12. Unit filters generally have metal frames which
are riveted or bolted together to form a filter bank or
section. The rate at which they need cleaning depends
upon the type and concentration of the dirt in the air being
handled. Various cleaning methods can be used, but the
most widely used procedure is to wash the filter with
steam or water (frequently using a detergent) and then dip
or spray the filter with its recommended adhesive.
Excessive adhesive should be allowed to drain off before
you reinstall the filter in the air-stream.
13. Manometers or draft gauges are often used to
measure the pressure drop across the filter and thereby
indicate when the filter requires servicing. Unit filters are
serviced when the pressure drop reaches 0.5 inches water
gauge pressure. A visual inspection should be made
periodically if a manometer or draft gauge is not installed
in the system.
14. The disposable filter is constructed of
inexpensive materials and is to be discarded after one
period of use. The cell side of this design is a
combination of cardboard and metal stiffeners.
15. The moving-curtain viscous filters are available
in two main types. In one design the filter medium is
installed on a traveling curtain which intermittently passes
through an adhesive reservoir, where the medium gives
up its dirt load and takes on a coating of new adhesive.
The medium used in the design consists of metal panels or
sections made of screen wire, stamped plates or baffles, or
reinforced mesh, which is attached to a pair of chains.
2
The chains are mounted on sprockets located in the top
and bottom of the filter housing. The medium thus forms
a continuous curtain which moves up one face and down
the other.
16. Automatic filters of this design may often utilize
a timer for periodical filter movement. The timer is so set
that it allows the curtain to make one revolution every 24-
48 hours.
17. The precipitated dirt must be removed from the
adhesive reservoir. This is done by scraping the dirt into
a tray which can be conveniently suspended from the
reservoir lip. The frequency of dirt removal is variable,
but in normal operation, this type of filter will require
attention approximately once every 3 months. Where it is
desirable to eliminate this maintenance, the adhesive may
be pumped through oil clarifiers or can be allowed to
circulate through large settling tanks.
18. The moving-curtain filter is also available in roll
form, which is fed automatically across the filter face.
The dirty medium is rewound on a spool at the bottom of
the filter housing. Movement of this type filter is
controlled by a pressure switch control.
19. Filters of this type are considered to be fail safe,
as they have a trip switch that indicates that the filter
medium is exhausted. This switch also opens the circuit
to the filter drive motor.
20. At this time you must remove the old filter and
spool and insert a new one. The old filter is not reusable.
21. Most automatic types of viscous filters are
equipped with a fractional horsepower motor operating
the drive mechanism through a gear reducer. The
operating period is adjustable so that the media travel can
be adjusted for changes in dust concentration. In
operation the resistance of an automatic filter will remain
constant as long as proper operation is obtained. A
resistance of 0.4 to 0.5 inch water gauge pressure at a face
velocity of 500 f.p.m. is typical of this class filter.
22. Dry type air cleaners. The media used in dry
type air filters are usually fabriclike or blanketlike
materials of varying thicknesses. Media of cellulose
fiber, bonded glass, wool felt, asbestos, and other
materials are used. The medium is frequently supported
by a metal frame in the form of pockets or V-type pleats.
In other designs the media can be constructed to be self-
supporting. The pockets and pleats provide a high ratio of
filter area to face area.
23. The efficiency of the dry filter is higher than that
of the viscous impingement type. The wide choice of
filter media makes it possible to supply a filter for any
cleaning efficiency desired. The life or dust holding
capacity is lower than the viscous impingement filter,
because the dust tends to clog
the fine pore or openings. Dry filters have a large lint-
holding capacity because of the large surface area
exposed by the pleated arrangement of the media.
24. Types of media which provide extremely high
cleaning efficiency consist of pleated cellulose-asbestos
paper, sand beds, compressed glass fibers in the form of
paper, or glass fiber blanket material. The use of these
filters is limited to concentrations in the range of outdoor
air and where efficiencies to 99.95 percent on submicron
particles are required.
25. In some designs of dry type air filters, the filter
medium is replaceable and is held in position in
permanent metal cell sides. Other dry air filters are
discarded after one period of use.
26. The initial resistance of a dry type filter will vary
with the medium being used. A number of commercial
designs have an initial resistance of 0.1 inch water gauge
pressure and are replaced when a final resistance of 0.5
inch water gauge pressure is reached. The more cleaning
efficiency the filter offers, the more resistance there will
be to airflow. In any event, the filter should be
compatible with the resistance against which the fan will
be called upon to operate.
27. Automatic dry filters are similar to the roll type
viscous impingement filter. These filters are not
recommended for handling of atmospheric dust, but are
used in such applications as textile mills, drycleaning
establishments, and printing press room operation.
28. Electronic air filters. The two types of
electronic air filters are the ionizing type collectors and
charged media type collectors.
29. The ionizing type electronic air filter uses the
electrostatic precipitation principle to collect particulate
matter.
30. In a typical case, a potential of 12,000 volts may
be used to create the ionizing zone, and some 6000 volts
between the plates upon which the precipitation of dust
occurs. Safety devices are used to protect personnel from
shock. The door to the filter section is outfitted with a
switch that will open the circuit to the filter plates.
31. The voltage necessary for operation of the
equipment is obtained from high-voltage, direct-current
power packs which operate from a 120-volt, 60-cycle,
single-phase power supply. Power consumption is
approximately 12 to 15 watts per 1000 c.f.m. plus about
40 watts required to energize the rectifier tube heaters.
32. Filters of this type have very little resistance to
airflow. Therefore, care must be exercised in arranging
the duct approaches on the entering and leaving sides of
the filter in order to evenly distribute the air across the
entire area of the filter. The efficiency of the filter is
sensitive to air velocity. In most systems, resistance is
deliberately added in the form of a perforated plate,
3
prefilters, or afterfilters for the purpose of obtaining a
uniform distribution of air. The resistance generally
ranges from 0.15 to 0.25-inch water gauge pressure at
velocities of 300 to 400 f.p.m. Screens of 16 mesh should
be installed across outdoor air inlets to prevent larger
foreign objects from entering the system. Special devices
must be installed in front of the ionizing filter to remove
excessive lint.
33. The ionizing type electronic filter is very
efficient. It is available in either fixed or moving
collector types. The fixed collector plates are often
coated with a special oil which acts as an adhesive.
Cleaning is accomplished by washing the cells in place
with hot water from a hose or by means of a fixed or
moving nozzle system. The bottom of the filter chamber
is made watertight and is provided with a drain.
34. In one moving-plate type the grounded elements
on which the dirt collects are mounted so as to form a
traveling curtain. The traveling curtain intermittently
passes through a reservoir containing a fireproof chemical
adhesive. This unit is equipped with wipers which
remove the collected dirt from the plates. The dirt then
settles as a sludge in the bottom of the reservoir from
which it must be removed periodically.
35. The charged media type electronic filter consists
of a dielectric filtering medium, usually arranged in
pleats, as in the typical dry type filter. The dielectric
material may consist of glass fiber, cellulose, or other
similar materials. The medium is supported on or is in
contact with a gridwork consisting of alternately
grounded and charged members, the latter being held at a
potential of 12,000 volts d.c. so that an intense and
nonuniform electrostatic field is created through the
dielectric medium. Airborne particles approaching this
field are polarized and drawn toward filaments or fibers
of the media.
36. The precipitator of this type offers resistance to
airflow. The resistance, when clean, is approximately
0.10-inch water gauge pressure at 250 f.p.m. velocities.
The resistance of this type filter increases as dust
accumulates on the media. Like the typical replaceable
media dry filter, the charged media precipitator is
serviced by replacing the medium. The dielectric
properties of the media become impaired when the
relative humidity exceeds 70 percent.
2. Odors
1. Odor is defined as that property of a substance
which excites the sense of smell. To be odorous, a
substance is usually in a gaseous or vapor state, or
possesses a vapor pressure. Some odors are pleasant,
others unpleasant, depending
upon their psychological and sociological association.
2. The sources of odor that cause discomfort to
individuals are many. They may be introduced from the
outdoor atmosphere and contain a high percentage of
hydrogen sulfide, industrial effluents or smog. In
enclosed areas, odors may be caused by the human body,
tobacco, etc. Odors may also be caused by wet, dirty air-
conditioning coils. The metals and coatings used on coils
materially affect the possibility of producing
objectionable odors.
3. Odor removal may be done by physical or
chemical means. Ventilation with clean air, air washing
or scrubbing, charcoal adsorption, and masking are
physical methods; while chemical adsorption, destruction
of odor sources, vapor neutralization, and catalytic
combustion are chemical methods.
4. Washing and scrubbing, like filtering, are
applicable to the removal of particulates and, in some
cases, are means of recovery of a valuable product. Odors
associated with the particulates are removed indirectly by
this process. Combustion is employed to alleviate the
effects of harmful exhaust gases and particulates on
people, vegetation, and property.
5. Ventilation, charcoal adsorption, and masking
are effective in air-conditioning for odor control. We will
limit our discussion to these three.
6. Mechanical Ventilation. Ventilation systems
supply fresh air where natural ventilation is insufficient;
remove heat, vapor, or fumes from a building; and
discharge these undesirables to the atmosphere. It has
been found that 30 c.f.m. per person is necessary for
effective ventilation in sports arenas to avoid eye
Irritation, odors, and impaired visibility.
7. The actual oxygen requirement per person varies
with the activity. It is normally about 0.89 cubic feet per
man-hour when the activity is walking at the rate of 1
mile per hour.
8. Smoke and other solid or liquid particulates can
be effectively removed by electronic precipitators or
absolute liters. Odors, gases, and vapors can be removed
effectively by charcoal adsorbers. Considerable fuel and
power savings can result from the use of charcoal
adsorbers as compared to ventilation.
9. Charcoal Adsorption. Charcoal adsorption is
the physical condensation of a gas or vapor on the
charcoal sorbent. The charcoal or carbon is especially
prepared from coconut shells, peach kernels, or other
materials. To increase the surface area and thereby
increase the adsorption capacity, the charcoal or carbon is
activated.
10. The preparation of activated charcoal is usually
done in two steps: first, the carbonization of the raw
material; second, the high temperature oxidizing process.
The purpose of the oxidizing process is to remove from
4
the capillaries of the raw material those substances which
cannot be carbonized. This is done to create extensive
surfaces on which adsorption can take place.
11. Coconut charcoal, properly prepared, is
considered the standard high quality material for air or
gas purification in air-conditioning systems. The quality
of charcoal as an adsorber of gases is rated on the
breakthrough time when subjected to the standard
Accelerated Chloropicrin Test. The capacity of charcoal
to adsorb gases or vapors depends primarily on the types
of gases and vapors being adsorbed. Some are readily
adsorbed, while others are not. Improved adsorption of
various gases and vapors can be obtained by impregnation
of the charcoal with certain mineral salts.
12. Masking. Odor masking is the process of hiding
one odor by superimposing another odor to create a more
overpowering sensation, preferably pleasant. The
masking agent, which can be in spray cans, wick bottles,
etc., does not alter the composition of the pre-existing
odors. It simply covers such odors during the period of its
addition to, or presence in, the air.
13. The application of a pleasant masking agent to
an offensive atmosphere may result in a final combination
that is still objectionable to the sense of smell. Therefore
the objectionable odor concentration must not be so
intense that the masking agent is itself required in
objectionable quantities.
3. Air and Water Vapor
1. As we have stated previously, air is made up of
various mixtures, including gases and moisture. We will
discuss moisture in the air and its relation in
psychrometry, and the means used to add or remove it
from the air.
2. Psychrometry. Psychrometry literally means the
measurement of cold. It is the name that has been given
to the science that deals with air and water vapor
mixtures. The amount of water vapor in the air has a
great influence on equipment cooling and human comfort.
Such atmospheric moisture is called humidity, and the
common expression "It isn't the heat, it's the humidity" is
an indication of the discomfort-producing effects of
moisture laden air in hot weather.
3. The water vapor in the air is not absorbed or
dissolved by the air. The mixture is a simple physical
one, just as sand and water are when mixed. The
temperature of the water vapor is always the same as the
air.
4. When the air contains all the water it can hold, it
is called saturated air. The amount of moisture present at
the saturation point varies with the temperature of the air.
The higher the temperature, the more moisture the air can
hold.
 5. Moisture Removal. The moisture in the air may
be removed by various methods. We will discuss the
mechanical and chemical methods.
6. Dehumidifying coils. Air can be cooled and
dehumidified by passing it over the cold surfaces of
cooling coils. The efficiency of this process may have to
be checked if the desired values are changed or the system
becomes unbalanced. In a later chapter you will become
acquainted with methods of checking the efficiency of
this type of system.
7. When dehumidification is accomplished with
cooling coils, the coil temperature must be below the
dewpoint temperature of the humid air. This low coil
temperature causes the moisture in the air to condense
out. The air is then reheated to lower the relative
humidity. For example, an entering air condition of 100°
F. dry bulb and 67 percent relative humidity could be
conditioned to 70°-72° F. dry bulb and 40-50 percent
relative humidity by the following procedure:
a. The air being drawn into the system is preheated
if it is below 70° F.
b. The air then passes over the cooling coil. (Coil
size is calculated by c.f.m., approximately 400 c.f.m. per
ton of refrigeration.) The air is now cooled to
approximately 33° F. and has a relative humidity of 100
percent.
c. It now passes to the reheat coil, where its
temperature is increased to 65°-70° F. The relative
humidity is now 20-30 percent.
d. We can now add humidity to the air if desired.
Adding humidity to the air will be discussed later in this
chapter.
8. Chemical dehumidification. Sorbents are solid
or liquid materials which have the property of extracting
and holding other substances (usually gases or vapors)
brought in contact with them. The sorption process
always generates heat, which is the major factor in
dehumidification. All materials are sorbents to a greater
or lesser degree. However, the term "sorbent" refers to
those materials which have a large capacity for moisture
as compared to their volume and weight. We will discuss
the liquid absorbents and the solid adsorbent.
9. The liquid adsorbent (sulfuric acid, lithium
chloride, lithium bromide, etc.) can adsorb moisture from
or add moisture to the air, depending upon the vapor
pressure difference between the air and the solution.
10. For dehumidification, the strong adsorbent
solution is pumped from the sump of the dehumidifier to
the sprayers. The sprayers distribute the solution over the
contactor coils.
11. The solution, at the required temperature and
concentration, comes in contact with the humid air which
5
is flowing over the coil surface in the same direction as
the liquid absorbent. Equipment is also available for
counterflow operation.
12. Moisture is absorbed from the air by the solution
and is maintained at a constant condition by automatic
regulation of the flow of water through the cooling coils
by means of a water regulating valve.
13. The heat generated in absorbing moisture from
the air consists of the latent heat of condensation from the
water vapor, the heat of the solution, or the heat of mixing
of the water vapor and absorbent. The heat of mixing
varies with the liquid absorbent used and the
concentration and temperature of the absorbent. The
solution is maintained at the required temperature by
cooling with refrigerated or cooling tower water, or
refrigerant flowing inside the tubes of the contractor coils.
The quantity of coolant required is a function of the
temperature of the coolant and the total heat removed
from the air by the absorbent solution.
14. The dry-bulb temperature of the air leaving the
liquid absorbent contactor at a constant flow rate is a
function of the temperature of the liquid absorbent and the
amount of contact surface between the air and the
solution. In most commercial equipment the dry-bulb
temperature of the air leaving the dehumidifier will be
within 1° to 5° F. of the absorbent solution temperature.
15. The liquid absorbent is maintained at the proper
concentration by automatically removing the water vapors
condensed from the air. Approximately 10 to 20 percent
of the solution supplied by the pump passes over the
regenerator coil. The coil heats the solution with steam or
other heating mediums. The liquid absorbents commonly
used can be regenerated with 2 to 25 p.s.i.g. steam. The
vapor pressure of the solution at temperatures
corresponding to 2 p.s.i.g. steam is considerably higher
than that of the outdoor air. The hot solution at the
relatively high vapor pressure is in contact with outdoor
air in the regenerator, where water is absorbed from the
solution by the scavenger air. The hot moist air is
discharged to the outdoors and the concentrated solution
falls to the sump. The solution is then ready for another
cycle.
16. The steamflow to the regenerator coil is
regulated by a control responsive to the concentration of
the solution circulating over the contactor coils.
17. Dehumidification by solid adsorption systems
may be performed under static or dynamic operation.
These desiccants can be silica gel, activated alumina, etc.
18. In the static method there is no forced circulation
of air into or through the desiccant.
Instead, the air surrounding the adsorbent is initially
dried. Subsequently, through convection and diffusion,
water vapor (humidity) passes into the air surrounding the
desiccant and then to the desiccant, where it is stored.
Since considerable time is required for dehumidification,
this method is used quite often in shipping and storing
delicate instruments that are sensitive to moisture.
Various foods, such as potato chips, also use the static
method of solid adsorption dehumidification.
19. On the other hand, dynamic dehumidification is
operated with forced passage of air through a desiccant
bed. The only prerequisites for a dynamic dehumidifier
are a desiccant bed, a fan to force the humid air through
the bed, and a heater to reactivate the adsorbent.
20. As the air passes through the desiccant bed it
gives up a certain amount of its moisture. The rate of
moisture pickup and the humidity condition of the leaving
air are functions of a great many variables. Some of these
variables will be discussed later.
21. The ratio of adsorbed moisture to entering air
moisture content is known as adsorption efficiency. The
adsorption efficiency in dynamic uses remains constant
and at a relatively high level until some point within the
cycle, at which time the efficiency begins to drop. This
point is known as the breakpoint, and the amount of
moisture adsorbed until this point is called breakpoint
capacity. It is considered ideal to have the breakpoint
capacity coincide with the equilibrium capacity. In actual
operation, breakpoint capacity can be a small portion of
the equilibrium capacity, depending on operating
conditions. High inlet temperature and humidity, small
bed depths, and high airflow rates will all tend to decrease
the breakpoint capacity. Regeneration of the desiccant
bed should be accomplished at breakpoint capacity, but
adsorption can still be carried on. The adsorption is now
done at a slower rate until the desiccant is completely
saturated. This saturation point is called completion.
22. To regenerate the desiccant bed, the heater is
energized and the airflow through the bed is usually
reversed. The temperature of the effluent air rises rapidly
at first, and then virtually levels off for a period of time.
This period of time represents the period during which the
major portion of the heat input is being used to boil off
the adsorbed water. When the latent heat (evaporization)
requirements begin to diminish, the heat input goes into
sensible heat gain to the passing airstream. This period,
measured from the start of desorption, is called
temperature rise time. Although additional regeneration
can be accomplished beyond this point, it is considered
uneconomical because of the slower rate of desiccant
activation. Regeneration past temperature rise time, until
the adsorbent is in moisture equilibrium with the
6
airstream, is known as complete desorption or desorption
to completion. The energy used in the heater per unit
weight of water desorbed for any given time is called
economy of desorption and is usually expressed in
kilowatt hours per pound of water desorbed.
23. Some of the many variables that influence the
results of a dynamic dehumidification operation are as
follows:
a. Variables concerning the desiccant bed:
(1) Type of desiccant.
(2) Dry weight of desiccant.
(3) Particle size.
(4) Bulk density.
(5) Shape of bed.
(6) Area of bed normal to airflow.
(7) Depth of bed.
(8) Packing of desiccant in the bed.
(9) Pressure drop through the bed.
b. Variables concerning the air to be dried:
(1) Flow rate.
(2) Temperature.
(3) Moisture content.
(4) Pressure.
(5) Contact time between air and desiccant.
c. Variables concerning reactivation:
(1) Reactivation temperature.
(2) Rate and magnitude of heat supply.
(3) Heat storage capacity of the bed.
(4) Temperature gradient of the bed.
(5) Amount of insulation.
(6) Amount of sweep gas.
24. Solid adsorption dehumidifiers are usually of the
stationary dual-bed type. One bed absorbs while the other
is being reactivated. The cycle time for the dual-bed
operation is normally specified by the manufacturer and is
controlled by a timer. Larger units may have adjustable
time cycles that can be changed for various operating
conditions. Still others are operated from either manual
or automatic reading of the effluent moisture content.
25. Humidifiers. There are many different types of
humidifiers available for adding moisture to a conditioned
area. The types that you will study in this section are the
steam, atomizer, impact, forced evaporation, and air
washer. Of these humidifiers, the steam type is the only
one which puts vapor into the air. All the others consist
of arrangements for exposing large surfaces of water, in
the form of small droplets or wet surfaces, to the air. The
water will evaporate and humidify the air.
26. Before we continue our discussion, let us review
the principles of humidification. Humidity refers to the
amount of moisture (water vapor) in the air Absolute
humidity is the actual weight
of water vapor per unit volume of air. Do not confuse the
term "absolute humidity" with specific humidity. It is a
common error. Specific humidity is the actual weight of
water vapor per unit weight of dry air in the mixture.
Specific humidity is dependent upon dewpoint
temperature only and is expressed in grains of moisture
per pound of dry air. The continual changes in volume
which takes place with changes in temperature and in
water vapor content make it very difficult to base any
calculations upon the volume of the mixture. Through all
of these changes, the pound of dry air remains a known
factor and a suitable basis for our measurements. As you
work with air and water vapor mixture calculations, you
will realize why this basis was chosen.
27. Relative humidity refers to the amount of
moisture actually in the air as compared to saturated air.
Relative humidity depends only upon the vapor pressure
of the water vapor present in the air and the dry-bulb
temperature. The presence of air or any other gas has
nothing to do with the relative humidity of a given space.
28. Now let us get back to humidification. In order
to change water to vapor we must add 1050 B.t.u.'s to
each pound of water evaporated. The heat may come
from the air being humidified. This procedure will cause
the air to cool at the same time that its being humidified.
In any humidifying process in which no external heat
source is used, the wet-bulb temperature will remain
constant throughout the process.
29. Let us consider a sample of air at 80° F. dry-bulb
temperature, 17 percent relative humidity, which is to be
humidified to 100 percent. Using a psychromatic chart,
you will find that the wet-bulb temperature is 55 F. The
air will become cooler until it has reached 55° F. dry-
bulb temperature. At this point the air is completely
saturated and the relative humidity is 100 percent. You
will also notice that the dewpoint temperature has risen
from 31.3° to 55° F. and that the moisture content has
increased from 25.5 to 64.7 grains of vapor per pound of
dry air. You have added 39.2 grains at 0.0056 pounds of
vapor to the air. Let us now discuss the various types of
humidifiers that use this principle. Remember, the steam
humidifier is the only type that uses an external heat
source.
30. Steam humidifier. The simplest type of steam
humidifier contains a nozzle or a set of nozzles through
which live steam is allowed to escape into the air. This
means of humidification is seldom used because steam
carries odors that are objectionable in an air-conditioning
installation. It is also difficult to eliminate the hissing
sound produced by the escaping steam. Another fault is
that the stream humidifier often provides more heat than
is desired in the conditioned area.
7
31. Atomizer humidifier. The atomizer humidifier is
very effective, because water is taken from a supply tank
and blown into the air in the form of a fine mist. The
atomized water vapor may be sprayed into the
conditioned area or into a duct leading to the area. It
functions much like a can of spray deodorant or a perfume
atomizer.
32. Instead of the plunger arrangement found in a
perfume atomizer, compressed air passes through a
narrow section of pipe at a high velocity. This movement
of air causes the water to be lifted out of the tank and be
blown into the room or area. The tank is usually
connected to a water supply line and is kept full by a float
valve.
33. This humidifier adds no heat to the conditioned
area. The atomized water vapor readily evaporates by the
addition of heat taken from the air within the space. The
evaporation will cause the dry-bulb temperature to
decrease while the relative humidity increases. The wet-
bulb temperature (total heat) will remain constant.
34. While the atomizer humidifier is efficient
because it uses all the water supplied to it, it is
objectionable in areas where noise cannot be tolerated.
The noise is caused by the high velocity air passing
through the pipe. A drainpipe is not needed because the
atomizer uses all its supplied water.
35. Impact humidifier. This type of humidifier uses
an arrangement similar to an air washer. Fine jets of
water are directed against a hard surface. The impact of
the spray upon the surface causes the water to break up
into a finer spray. The conditioned air is brought past the
surface to pick up by evaporation as much of the spray as
possible.
36. Eliminator plates are placed downstream from
the spray to restrict large water droplets collected in the
air. The water is thus prevented from entering the
conditioned area and damaging the contents.
37. Twenty to fifty percent of the water supplied to
an impact humidifier is actually evaporated and carried
off in the conditioned air. This percentage varies because
of the speed of the water leaving the jet, the entering air
temperature and humidity, and the mixing of air and water
vapor ahead of the eliminator plates. Greater jet velocity,
higher air temperature, lower relative humidity, and better
mixing of air and water will increase the percentage of
evaporation.
38. Forced-evaporation humidifier. You know that
evaporation takes place continuously from any water
surface. But, do you know which factors determine the
rate of evaporation? First, the rate of airflow plays an
important role. If
more air is brought into contact with the water in a given
length of time, more evaporation will occur. When you
heat the water you are actually increasing its vapor
pressure. This heating effect will allow the water to
evaporate more readily.
39. Those are the two factors-airflow and heat. Now
let us apply these factors to the forced-evaporation
humidifier. The forced-evaporation humidifier is so
named because it provides a means by which water may
be evaporated into the air more than would be normal.
Most of these humidifiers consist of a large shallow pan
in which a steam coil is immersed. A fan blows air across
the pan at a high velocity. The water level is maintained
by a float valve.
40. This humidifier does not waste any water. It is
simple, in that there are no moving parts. If no heat is
applied to the water, the water will evaporate by the heat
in the air, or adiabatically. When the Water is heated,
both the wet-bulb temperature and the total heat will
increase. For example, if you added 40 B.t.u.'s of heat per
hour to the water, and if the air is passed over the surface
of the water at the rate of 20 pounds of dry air per hour,
the total heat of the air will be increased by 40/20, or 2
B.t.u.'s per pound of dry air. Thus, if the air enters the
humidifier with a total heat of 250 B.t.u.'s per pound of
dry air and a wet-bulb temperature of 57.8° F., it will
leave with a total heat of 27.0° B.t.u.'s per pound of dry
air and a wet-bulb temperature of 60.8° F.
41. Air washer humidifier. You have studied air
washers earlier in this chapter as a method of odor
removal. Now you will learn how they are used to
humidify air.
42. The spray type air washer is a very effective
humidifier. Two banks of sprays are directed against the
airflow and one is directed with the airflow. This
arrangement of spray banks is 100 percent efficient,
because all the air passing through the air washer will
leave saturated.
43. If fewer spray banks are used, the efficiency will
decrease. A general comparison of the saturation
efficiency is:
Number of banks Direction Efficiency
1 .......................... downstream ......... 50-70%
1 .......................... upstream ............. 65-75%
2 .......................... downstream ......... 85-90%
2 ........................... opposing ............. 90-95%
2 ........................... upstream ............. 92-97%
44. The efficiency of a washer is usually measured
by the drop in dry-bulb temperature relative to the
entering wet-bulb depression. For example, if the
entering air conditions are 95° F. dry-bulb and 75° F.
wet-bulb temperature with a leaving air temperature of
8
76° F., the efficiency is 95 percent. The principal factors
affecting the efficiency are air velocity, the quantity of
water sprayed per unit volume of air, the length of the
chamber, and the fineness of the spray.
45. Most standard rating tables are based on a
velocity of 500 f.p.m. through the air washer. Velocities
above 750 or below 350 f.p.m. often result in faulty
elimination of the entrained moisture. The quantity of
water sprayed per 1000 c.f.m. of air varies between 1.5
and 5 g.p.m. per bank. The fineness of the spray depends
upon nozzle design and the water pressure supplied to the
nozzle. The pressure will vary between 20-40 p.s.i.g.
You will find that the air resistance of an air washer is
usually 0.2 to 0.5 inches of water.
46. The material most commonly used in the
construction of air washers and the other types of
humidifiers is galvanized sheet steel. The maintenance
that you will be required to accomplish on humidifiers
consists mostly of cleaning and painting.
47. The nozzles used on impact and air washer
humidifiers are designed to produce a dense spray. To do
this with a reasonably low water pressure, the body of the
nozzle may be designed to give the water a swirling
motion as it enters the nozzle cap. The cap is cupped to
give an accelerated action to the water before it emerges
into a spray at the orifice. The capacities of several
standard size nozzles at different pressures are:
Shank Orifice Capacity of nozzle at indicated
diameter diameter pressure (g.p.m.)
10 20 25 30 40
1/4 3/32 0.33 0.47 0.52 0.57 0.66
3/8 1/8 0.59 0.83 0.93 1.02 1.18
3/8 3/16 1.27 1.79 2.01 2.20 2.54
3/8 1/4 2.01 2.84 3.18 3.48 4.02
48. Flooding nozzles are often used to provide
continuous flushing of the eliminator plates. These
nozzles may also be used to flush the inlet baffles when
lint-ladden air is being handled. Under this condition,
they operate at 3 to 10 p.s.i.g. and are spaced to handle 3
to 6 g.p.m. per foot of humidifier width.
49. Corrosion is often encountered in humidifiers.
When corrosion exists you must clean the humidifier and
treat the water to prevent or retard further deterioration of
the equipment. Chemical treatment should be a means of
maintaining a pH of 7.5 to 8.5. A corrosion inhibitor may
also be used, if allowable.
50. Humidifier operation. A humidistat is normally
used to control the operation of a humidifier. A low
humidity condition is sensed by the humidistat, which in
turn will start the humidifier pump, position dampers,
open valves, or start fans. The maintenance, adjustment,
and calibration of humidistats will be discussed later.
 Review Exercises
NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. Write
your answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
1. What factor determines the type of filter design
you would use on a particular installation? (Sec.
1, Par. 6)
2. Which filter arrangement would you use in a
duct system having a velocity of 500 f.p.m.?
(Sec. 1, Par. 10)
3. The pressure drop through a duct system is 2
p.s.i.g. What has occurred? (Sec. 1, Par. 13)
4. Which type of filter requires the least amount of
attention? (Sec. 1, Par. 17)
5. Which type of filter would you install in a
critical area such as a missile complex? Why?
(Sec. 1, Par. 19)
6. How can you increase the surface area of a dry
filter? (Sec. 1, Par. 22)
7. The fan motor on an air-conditioning system
overheats. The filter is clean and the fan is not
malfunctioning. What has caused the motor to
overheat? (Sec. 1, Par. 26)
9
8. How many watts will an ionizing filter consume
when 3800 c.f.m. of air is being handled? (Sec.
1. Par. 31)
9. How much would it cost to operate the filter in
question 8 for 1 hour at 3 cents a kilowatt? (Sec.
1, Par. 31 and Question 8)
10. The conditioned air passing through a charged
media filter is not being cleaned. The dry-bulb
temperature is 50° F. and the dewpoint
temperature of the air is 50° F. What has caused
the air to remain dirty? (Sec. 1, Par. 36)
11. A complaint is submitted to your shop about an
air conditioner giving off a peculiar odor. What
condition most likely caused the air to become
odorous as it passed through the duct? (Sec. 2,
Par. 2)
12. Air at 70' F. and 100 percent relative humidity is
____________. (Sec. 3, Par. 4)
13. How many c.f.m. can be handled effectively by a
5-ton cooling coil? (Sec. 3, Par. 7)
14. How is the quality of a liquid absorbent
controlled? (Sec. 3, Par. 12)
15. The temperature of the air leaving the
dehumidifier is 10° below the absorbent
temperature. How can you correct this
condition? (Sec. 3, Par. 14)
16. What is the adsorption efficiency of a dynamic
dehumidifier when the adsorbed moisture is 20
grains and the entering air moisture content is 25
grains? (Sec. 3, Par. 21 )
17. To regenerate a filter bed, 400 watts per pound
of water is used. The amount of water desorbed
is 3 pounds and the cost of electricity per
kilowatt is 2.5¢. What is the economy of
desorption and the cost of desorption? (Sec. 3,
Par. 22)
18. How many B.t.u.'s are required to evaporate 9
pounds of water? (Sec. 3, Par. 28)
19. Adding moisture to the air with an atomizer
humidifier will ____________ the wet-bulb
temperature. (Sec. 3, Par. 28)
20. How can you control the amount of humidity
added to the air with an atomizer humidifier?
(Sec. 3, Par. 32)
10
21. What is maximum efficiency of the impact
humidifier as compared to the atomizer type?
(Sec. 3, Par. 37)
22. Why does the rate of airflow play an important
role in evaporation? (Sec. 3, Par. 38)
23. If you added 100 B.t.u.'s of heat per hour to a
forced-evaporation humidifier and air is passing
through it at the rate of 20 pounds of dry air per
hour, how much heat will be added to each
pound of dry air? (Sec. 3, Par. 40)
24. The air leaving an air washer, used for
humidification, is carrying water droplets out
with it. The air velocity through the washer is
800 f.p.m. How can you correct this condition
without altering the washer or changing the
velocity? (Sec. 3, Par. 44)
25. The resistance of the air passing through an air
washer is 2 p.s.i.g. What has caused the pressure
to rise and how can it be prevented in the future?
(Sec. 3, Pan. 45 and 48)

Temperatures, Airflows, and Their
Measuring Devices
MOST MANUFACTURERS of automobiles in the past
few years have installed warning lights to indicate heating
of the engine, low amperage output, and low oil pressure.
Many times you' have probably wished to know the rate
the battery was charging or the temperature of the engine.
The trend in some automobiles is back to the gauges
which will tell the owner more precisely how his
automobile is performing.
2. Lets fit this to our situation. Can you tell how
hot or cold a surface is or how much air is flowing out a
ceiling outlet by placing your hand on it? No, you must u
some type of instrument that will indicate the true
condition of the component being checked. In air-
conditioning troubleshooting, you will find that the
thermometer, psychrometer, and airflow measuring
devices are valuable tools.
4. Temperature
1. Temperature is defined as the heat intensity or
heat level of a substance. Temperature alone does not
give you the amount of heat in a substance. It is an
indication of the degree of warmth, or how hot the
substance is.
2. The methods and scales used to measure
temperatures have been arbitrarily chosen by scientists.
The most common scale that you will use is the
Fahrenheit scale, but we will also discuss the centigrade
scale. as you may come in contact with it during an
overseas tour. The Fahrenheit scale is so fixed that it
divides the temperature difference from the melting
temperature of ice to the boiling temperature of water into
I80 equal divisions. It sets the melting point of ice at 32
divisions above the zero indication on the scale.
Therefore, ice melts at 32° F., and water boils at 212° F.
(32° F. + 180° F. = 212° F.) under an atmospheric
pressure of 14.7 p.s.i.a.
3. The centigrade scale has coarser divisions than
the Fahrenheit scale, and the melting point of ice is set at
0°. The boiling point is 100 divisions above this point, or
100° C.
11
CHAPTER 2
4. It may be necessary to convert a Fahrenheit
reading to a centigrade reading or vice versa. For this
purpose, formulas have been developed. The formula to
convert Fahrenheit to centigrade is:
C. = 5/9 (F. -32)
Centigrade may be converted to Fahrenheit by using this
formula:
F. = 9/5C. + 32
5. Sensible Heat. Sensible heat is the heat added
to a substance that causes a temperature change.
Likewise, heat may be removed from a substance; and if
the temperature falls, the heat removed is sensible heat.
6. Specific Heat. The sensible heat required to
cause a temperature change in substances varies with the
kind and amount of the substance. This property is called
the specific heat of a substance and is the amount of heat
required to raise 1 pound of the substance 1° F. This
value is good for computations, provided no change of
state is involved. If a change of state should occur, the
specific heat of the substance changes. To determine the
amount of heat necessary to cause a temperature change
in a substance, multiply the weight of the substance by its
specific heat. Then multiply that answer by the
temperature change (B.t.u. = specific heat X weight X
temperature change).
7. Latent Heat. Latent heat is the heat that is
added or taken from a substance, causing a change of
state. These changes of state occur without any changes
in temperature or pressure. Latent heat is commonly
referred to as hidden heat. latent heat of fusion, latent
heat of vaporization, and latent heat of condensation.
8. Total Heat. Any mixture of dry air and water
vapor (atmospheric air) does contain both sensible and
latent heat. The sum of these two heats is called total heat
and is usually measured from 0° F.
9. Now that we've covered the various types of
heat, we're ready to discuss temperature, or the intensity
of heat.
 Figure 1. Thermometer.
10. Dry-Bulb Temperature. In air conditioning,
the air temperature is listed more accurately as the dry-
bulb temperature. This temperature is taken with the
sensitive element of the thermometer in a' dry condition.
Figure 1 shows a thermometer common to the air-
conditioning trade. Unless otherwise specified, all air
temperatures are dry-bulb temperatures.
11. Wet-Bulb Temperature. A wet-bulb
thermometer is an ordinary thermometer with a cloth
sleeve of wool or flannel placed around its bulb and then
wet with water. The cloth sleeve should be clean and free
from oil and thoroughly wet with clean, fresh water. The
water in the cloth sleeve is evaporated by a current of air
at high velocity. The evaporation withdraws heat from
the thermometer bulb, thus lowering the temperature.
This temperature is now measured in degrees Fahrenheit.
The difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures is called the wet-bulb depression. If the air
is saturated, evaporation cannot take place, and the wet-
bulb temperature is the same as the dry bulb. Complete
saturation, however, is not usual and a wet-bulb
depression is normally to be expected.
12. The wet-bulb thermometer indicates the total
heat of the air being measured. If air at several different
times or different places is measured and the wet-bulb
temperatures found to be the same for all. the total heat
would be the same in all, though their sensible heats and
respective latent heats might vary considerably. In any
given sample of air, if the wet-bulb temperature does not
change, the total heat present is the same even though
some of the sensible heat might be converted to latent
heat or vice versa.
13. Dewpoint Temperature. The dewpoint
depends upon the amount of water vapor in the air. If air
at a certain temperature is not saturated that is, if it does
not contain the full quantity of water vapor it can hold at
that temperature-and the temperature of that air then falls,
a point is finally reached at which the air is saturated for
the new lower temperature, and condensation of the
moisture then begins. This point is the dewpoint
12
temperature of the air for the quantity of water vapor
present.
14. Relation of Dry-Bulb, Wet-Bulb, and
Dewpoint Temperatures. The definite relationships
between the three temperatures should be clearly
understood. These relationships are:
a. When the air contains some moisture but is not
saturated, the dewpoint temperature is lower than the dry-
bulb temperature and the wet-bulb temperature lies
between them.
b. As the amount of moisture in the air increases,
the difference between the temperatures grows less.
c. When the air is saturated, all three temperatures
are the same.
5. Relative Humidity
1. The water vapor mixed with dry air in the
atmosphere is known as humidity. The weight of water
vapor, expressed in pounds or grains. occurring in each
pound of dry air is called specific humidity. The amount
of moisture that 1 cubic foot of air does hold at any given
time is its absolute humidity.
2. When a gallon bucket contains 1/2 gallon of
liquid, it is 50 percent full. If a cubic foot of air that could
hold 4 grains of moisture holds only 2 grains, it is 50
percent full, or 1/2 saturated. The ratio of the amount of
moisture which the air does contain to what it could
contains is called its relative humidity. Expressed in
general terms, relative humidity is defined as the actual
absolute humidity divided by the absolute humidity of
saturated air at the temperature being considered. The
simple equation would be:
% R. H. = actual gains per pound X (100)
max. grains per pound
that could be held at the
given temperature.
3. Psychrometers. Instruments for measuring wet-
and dry-bulb temperatures are known as psychrometers.
A sling psychrometer, shown in
 Figure 2. Sling psychrometer.
figure 2, consists of two thermometers mounted side by
side on a holder with provisions so that the device can be
whirled in the air. The dry-bulb thermometer is bare, and
the wet-bulb is covered with a wick which should be kept
wet with clean water. After whirling for a minute or two,
the wet-bulb thermometer reaches its equilibrium point,
and both the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers should then
be quickly read. The difference between the two
thermometer readings will depend on the relative
humidity of the air. By a series of experiments, the effect
of different relative humidities has been found through a
wide range of temperatures. From these values, tables
and charts have been constructed from which, when the
wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures are known, both the
relative humidity and the dewpoint temperature can be
found.
4. In the aspiration psychrometer, a small fan is
used to blow the air past the mounted wet- and dry-bulb
thermometers to bring about the wet-bulb equilibrium.
5. There are several types of direct reading
hygrometers. A hygrometer is a device that measures the
relative humidity by use of a wet- and dry-bulb
thermometer. In the hygrometer a pointer is actuated by
some material sensitive to changes in the moisture content
of the air. The pointer moves across a dial graduated in
relative humidities. While these hygrometers have the
advantage of reading relative humidity directly, they are
not sufficiently accurate for most industrial purposes.
6. At some points in an air-conditioning system,
recording psychrometers are used to provide a continuous
record of both the temperature and relative humidity.
Thus they eliminate the necessity for frequent sling
psychrometer readings. Distilled water should be used for
wetting the wet-bulb wick. If ordinary tap water is used,
the dissolved solids could clog the capillaries in the cloth
and the wick could become dry, resulting in an incorrect
record. The air which is circulated over the bulb should
be as free as possible from dust, dirt, and lint for the wick
to retain its capillary action and give an accurate reading.
At some locations where a low relative humidity is
combined with dust-laden air and water, the wet-bulb
wick may have to be changed twice daily to obtain proper
accuracy. Wicks may be used over again after they are
washed.
7. It is necessary to locate the sensitive wet and dry
bulbs in ducts and chambers remote from the recording
13
instrument. Remote panels are installed in ducts where
natural circulation is adequate.
8. Psychrometric Charts. The psychrometric
chart may be used in conjunction with psychrometers to
determine the relative humidity of any particular space.
These charts consist of straight lines and curves showing
relationships between the relative humidity, dry-bulb
temperature, wet-bulb temperature, dewpoint temperature,
specific humidity, effective temperature, and air velocity
(generally a fixed factor for each chart).
9. While relative humidity must be given
consideration by all persons concerned with the
conditioning of air, all major determinations for its
specific control will be up to your supervisor. The
amount of moisture in a space may have to be reduced,
the dry-bulb temperature may have to be changed, or the
source of moisture may have to be controlled. Wherever
it is necessary, mechanical machinery and controls are
installed to effect a continuous automatic control of this
relative humidity.
10. The use of the psychrometric chart involves no
more than knowing the wet-bulb thermometer reading and
the dry-bulb thermometer reading. Various charts are
constructed for different altitudes and situations where
abnormally low surface pressures are encountered. Figure
3 illustrates the use of a psychrometric chart.
11. The procedures listed in the following
paragraphs may be used to find the properties of air if two
of the properties are known:
a. Dry-Bulb Temperature. The dry-bulb
temperature is found by following the vertical lines down
to the bottom scale of figure 3. detail A.
b. Wet-Bulb Temperature. The wet-bulb
temperature is read directly at the intersection of the wet-
bulb line with the 100 percent relative humidity line
(saturation curve). as shown in figure 3. detail A. The
scale is marked along the 100 percent line.
c. Relative Humidity. The relative humidity is read
directly from the curved lines marked "relative humidity,"
as shown in figure 3, detail B. For points between the
lines, estimate by distance.
d. Moisture Content. The moisture content or
absolute humidity is read directly from the horizontal
lines, as shown in figure 3, detail C. It is the weight of
water vapor contained in a quantity

Figure 3. Segment o! psychrometric chart.
of air and water vapor mixture which will weigh 1 pound
if all water vapor were extracted.
e. Dewpoint Temperature.
temperature is read at the intersection of a horizontal line
of a given moisture content with the 100 percent relative
humidity line, as shown in figure 3, detail C.
f. Total Heat. The total heat is read directly by
following the wet-bulb line to the scale marked "Total
Heat," as shown in figure 3, detail A. Total heat refers to
a quantity of air and water vapor mixture which would
weigh 1 pound if all water vapor were extracted,
including the heat of the water vapor.
g. Specific Volume. The specific volume is read
directly from the lines marked "cubic foot per pound of
dry air," as shown in figure 3, detail D. For points
between the lines, estimate by distance. Specific volume
is the volume occupied by a quantity of air and water
vapor mixture which would weigh 1 pound if all water
vapor were extracted.
h. Vapor Pressure. The vapor pressure
corresponding to a given moisture content is read directly
from the left-hand scale marked "pressure of water
vapor," as shown in figure 3, detail C.
12. Assume that readings in an area taken with a
sling psychrometer were 85° F. dry bulb and 70° F. wet
bulb. Use foldout at end of this memorandum and follow
along with this example. The dry-bulb temperature (85)
is located at the bottom of the chart. Following the 85
line upward until it intersects the 70.5° F. wet-bulb line
(slanting downward from left to right), the user marks this
point. In this example, there is no wet-bulb line for 70.5°
F., so it is necessary to mark the point of intersection. It
will be found that under these conditions the relative
humidity is 50 percent as shown by the curved line also
running through this point Projecting the point
horizontally to the left of the wet-bulb scale will give a
dewpoint of 64.4° F. The steep diagonal line running
through the point of intersection indicates that a pound of
air under these condition will occupy 14 cubic feet.
Projecting the point horizontally to the right shows that
there are 90 grains of water per pound of dry air. The
total heat, found by following the wet-bulb line upward to
the left, is 34 B.t.u.'s per pound of air, which is the heat
represented by the dry air plus the latent heat present at
this degree of partial saturation (50 percent relative
humidity). If the sensible temperature were 85° F. and
the relative humidity were 70 percent the total heat would
be 39.5 B.t.u.'s per pound of air.
6. Airflow
1. Most air-conditioning systems are designed to
specifications, but you will find changes made and
accepted that will be entered on as-built blue prints. The
specific volumes of air in each individual section should
be checked with the specifications or as-built drawings.
2. Air passages provide the means for air to
The dewpoint
14

Figure 4. U-type manometer.
flow. With constantly changing requirements, a system
designed for a specific need may have an entire new heat
load or distribution requirement. Many of us have faced
this situation, so you must understand how to make
adaptations to correct the balance.
3. Air passages for air-conditioning systems in an
installation contain the following: air intake, return,
mixing, recirculating, exterior and exit division ducts,
heating, cooling, humidification, dehumidification, air
washing, filtering equipment, and inlet and discharge of
the fan. The air passages from air-conditioning
equipment to the spaces served are called duct systems.
The distribution duct system includes the chamber,
branches, risers, inlets, dampers, registers, returns,
recirculating, mixing, baffling, and exit systems.
4. The factors that can affect air volume are the
number of occupants, various heat transfers in building
equipment. and temperature differences of interior and
exterior spaces. All these factors are considered by
engineers in their design of an air-conditioning system.
5. If the air weight or volume is determined and the
load requirements are known, then duct and distribution
systems are calculated according to velocities, pressures,
and pressure drop in the duct system.
6. We will now discuss the devices used in
measuring airflow and static and total pressures.
7. Manometers. Two types of gauges that can be
used to measure air pressure are shown in figures 4 and 5.
8. The pressure required for the velocity of airflow
necessary to overcome all the losses
15
Figure 5. Slant type manometer.
throughout the duct system is called the dynamic or total
pressure. The pressure required to overcome losses due to
friction of duct systems is called static pressure. Figure 6
shows a slant gauge used to measure pressure differences.
9. The various pressures of air applied to an air-
conditioning system are relatively small and cannot be
measured in pounds for an accurate reading. Total, static,
and velocity pressures for airflow in air-conditioning
systems are usually measured in inches of water. The
pressure of air is measured by the application of a gauge
calibrated in inches of water on the scale for accurate
reading, as shown in figure 4.
10. The gauge in figure 4 contains a free-flowing
liquid. The connections are extended by flexible tubing to
the air passages and the atmosphere. The difference in
pressure of the air will cause the liquid in the tube to rise
or fall, indicating the pressure on the scale in inches of
water according to the connections of the gauge.
11. Pitot Tube. Total and static pressure for airflow
through a duct system can be measured by a pitot tube.
Use of a pitot tube is illustrated in figure 7. The static
pressure can be found by subtracting the velocity pressure
from the total pressure. The static pressure subtracted
from total pressure will equal velocity pressure for air in a
duct system. The total (dynamic) pressure is equal to the
static and velocity pressures.
12. The use of the pitot tube for pressure indication
should be done with care. The tube should be located so
that an average condition of airflow
Figure 6. Measuring resistance of air filters.
will be measured in the interior of the duct. The tube
should not be placed in a sharp turn in the duct, in a
restricted area, in an offset, or in a section having varying
airflow. Also avoid contact with material or substances
that would obstruct air pressure to the pitot tube opening.
13. The pitot tube consists of two tubes, one sealed
within the other. The opening of the pitot tube which
faces toward the airflow measures the total pressure. The
other opening of the pitot tube has airflow sweep across
the opening so as to measure the static pressure. The
velocity is determined by the differential reading on the
gauge which is connected to the double pitot tube.
14. A certain pressure for airflow in ducts is required
to cause motion and to overcome resistance and friction in
the ducts.
15. Static pressure will vary according to the surface
area with which the air is in contact. Some factors are:
condition of air passages, construction and installation,
dampers, interior design, length of duct system, leakage,
eddy currents, and pulsation of airflow throughout the
installation.
16. Anemometer. The anemometer, shown in
figure 8, is used to measure air velocities at the opening of
the air duct. The anemometer is moved across the entire
area of the duct opening for a period of 1, 2, or 3 minutes
and the average velocity in feet of air is calculated or
measured.
17. The anemometer should be used with precaution
and care. It requires frequent calibration or adjustment to
maintain it for accurate measurement of air velocities at
duct openings.

Figure 8. Use of the anemometer.

18. Kata Thermometer. A kata thermometer is an

Figure 7. Measuring airflow with a pilot tube.
alcohol thermometer developed for determining very low
air velocities. The bulb of the thermometer is heated in
water until the alcohol rises to a reservoir above the
graduated tube. The time for the liquid to cool 5° F. is
observed by the use of a stopwatch, and this time is a
measure of the air movement.
19. Velometer. The velometer is an instrument that
is calibrated to read directly in feet per minute. The
velocity pressure readings are converted by use of a
formula without the necessity for timing. The velometer
may be placed directly in the airstream or may be
connected through a flexible tube to special jets which
permit taking velocity readings in locations where it
would be very difficult to use an anemometer or pitot
tube. The velometer accuracy is within 3 percent and is
much quicker to use than other instruments designed for
this purpose.

16
 Review Exercises
NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. Write
your answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
1. What degree on a centigrade thermometer is
equivalent to 60° on a Fahrenheit thermometer?
(Sec. 4, Par. 4)
2. What degree on a Fahrenheit thermometer is
equivalent to 40° on a centigrade thermometer?
(Sec. 4, Par. 4)
3. How many B.t.u.'s would be required to raise the
temperature of 8 pounds of cast iron 4°?
(Specific heat of cast iron is 0.119)(Sec. 4, Par.
6)
4. What term is applied to the sum of sensible heat
and latent heat? (Sec. 4, Par. 8)
5. If the air is dry, which thermometer will indicate
the highest temperature, a dry-bulb or a wet-bulb
thermometer? (Sec. 4, Pars. 10 and 11)
6. After whirling a sling psychrometer, how will
the wet-bulb thermometer reading compare to
17
the dry-bulb thermometer if the wet-bulb wick
was dry while whirling? (Sec. 4, Par. 11; Sec. 5,
Par. 3)
7. Will the difference in the dry-bulb thermometer
reading and the wet-bulb thermometer reading
become greater or less as the relative humidity
decreases? (Sec. 4, Par. 11; Sec. 5, Par. 3)
8. What two factors must be known in order to
determine the relative humidity? (Sec. 5, Pa. 3)
9. What type of water should be used to wet the
wick of a wet-bulb thermometer? (Sec. 5, Par.
6)
10. If the total pressure of an air-conditioning system
remains constant and the air ducts become
partially clogged, will the static pressure increase
or decrease? (Sec. 6, Pars. 8-11)
11. If the total airflow pressure is equal to 20 inches
of water and the static pressure is equal to 4
inches of water, what is the velocity pressure?
(Sec. 6, Par. 11)
12. Is it possible to determine static pressure with a
velometer? (Sec. 6, Pars. 11 and 19)
CHAPTER 3
Design and Installation Factors
COST REDUCTION has become an important part of
military policy. How can you contribute to this program ?
You may be called upon to install an air conditioner or to
calculate the heat load of a building. In either case, your
skill can determine the savings. If your unit is undersized,
it will have to be supplemented with another unit. If it is
oversized, the running cost will be high. You may install
the correct size unit but use poor duct insulation. Once
again you are defeating the purpose of cost reduction.
2. In this chapter you will study heat loads, the
selection of a good location for the condensing unit,
insulation, and calculating a heat load.
7. Heat Sources
1. Heat that must be removed from a building arises
from various sources. Some of this heat is gained through
walls, doors, partitions, windows, ceilings, and roofs, and
is caused by the difference in the temperature between the
conditioned and unconditioned areas. Remember, heat
always travels from the warmer to the cooler mass.
Engineering formulas are used to calculate heat
transmission. Glass and door areas are not used in
calculation of wall area but are considered in heat
transmission calculations in a separate formula.
2. In calculating wall area, use the length (ft.) of
exposed wall measured on the inside and the height of
ceiling.
3. Consideration must be given to construction
materials of the walls and ceilings. For example, brick
construction has a different heat transfer characteristic
than wood.
4. Special tables are used in determining heat
transmission through various building materials. Listed
below are some heat sources that must be considered in
cooling load computations.
5. Solar Effects. Heat that is transmitted by
radiation through glass is absorbed by inside furnishings
and surfaces. When the sun's rays strike glass, the glass
will absorb a small percentage of the sun's energy, but
most of the energy passes through the glass and causes an
increase in heat.
18
6. The solar heat which passes through glass is
absorbed by interior furnishings, walls, and floors. This
heat is quickly given up to the air. Some of the solar heat
absorbed by thick walls and doors will not dissipate its
heat readily, but will continue radiating heat even after the
sun has set. Because of this, the heat load is more
continuous.
7. The intensity of the sun radiation on walls and
glass varies with the time of day, the season, and the
direction the walls and windows face. All the above
factors must be considered when you are computing solar
heat transmission.
8. Heat delivery by sun radiation through glass may
be reduced by use of awnings, Venetian blinds, or shades.
Any type of shade will help reduce the load on air-
conditioning equipment.
9. Special formulas and tables have been devised to
determine solar heat transmission through glass and walls.
10. Infiltration and Ventilation. Heat and moisture
are transmitted into a building by infiltration and
ventilation. Air enters by leakage through window and
door cracks, through doors or windows opened, and
through porous walls. Special tables have been devised to
determine the infiltration of air through window openings
and for finding the volume of air entering from door
traffic. All the above factors must be considered in
cooling load computations.
11. Occupants. Heat load from occupants will
cause an increase in sensible and latent heat. The amount
of heat transmitted will vary with the degree of activity of
the occupants.
12. Equipment. Heat load transmitted by
equipment used in a building will vary with the type and
operation. Electrical and mechanical equipment will have
a major effect on total heat load. Tables have been
developed that give values of common heat sources. All
of the tables referenced in the preceding paragraphs may
be found in the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers' Guide.
13. Listed above are a few of the major heat
transmission sources that must be considered when
installing an air-conditioning unit. The total heat
load must be established before an air-conditioning unit
can be installed in a building. All heat transmission
sources must be used in figuring out the total heat load.
When the heat load has been determined, an air-
conditioning unit of correct tonnage can be installed and
the proper cooling can be maintained in the building.
8. Selecting Location
1. The following are major considerations in
selecting the location for air-conditioning equipment.
2. Availability of Space. Equipment should be
located in the place most suitable for it. It may be
necessary to compromise the ideal location with the actual
one and to locate equipment in the space which is
available.
3. Ambient Temperatures. Ambient temperature
refers to the air temperatures surrounding the refrigeration
equipment, such as the condensing unit and other parts of
the system. Avoid extreme ambient temperatures, either
too warm or too cold.
4. Excessively warm locations result in high heat
leakage and service loads. High ambient temperature can
give high condensing pressures with consequent loss of
capacity. An ambient temperature of 10° F. above
normal may increase the heat load and decrease
equipment capacity to the extent where the operating time
increases 25 percent above normal.
5. Consideration must be also be given to low
temperature to which the equipment may be exposed. Do
not install water-cooled equipment in locations colder
than 40° F. to avoid frozen water-lines in condensers.
6. Ventilation. Proper ventilation is very
important for carrying heat away from the condensing
equipment. It is most important to air-cooled equipment
which uses air to carry heat away from the condenser. It
is also important to water-cooled equipment, even though
water removes heat from the condenser. The heat from
the compressor and motor must be carried away by the
surrounding air, and this cannot be accomplished without
adequate ventilation. Keep all ventilation facilities such
as doors and windows free of barriers and other obstacles
so that the air can be properly circulated.
7. Radiant Heat. Part of the heat given off by a
hot object such as a hot stove, boiler, furnace, or even a
hot brick is radiant heat. Avoid installing refrigeration
equipment near such objects. It is not Sways possible, but
the extra load of radiant heat should be avoided whenever
possible.
8. Electric Supply. Be sure that the proper power
is furnished before selecting a location. Check the
19
electric supply to be sure there is correct voltage,
frequency (cycles per second), phase, and capacity of the
wiring. If the equipment has a motor requiring 220-volt,
60-cycle, 3-phase alternating current, it will not run on
110-volt, 60-cycle, single-phase alternating current.
Consult a qualified electrician on suitability of electric
supply for motors installed on equipment. Motors should
never be connected to a source of electric current until
you are sure that available current is the same as that
specified on the nameplate.
9. Water Supply. Before selecting a location for
water-cooled refrigeration equipment, check the water
supply for available capacity and maximum temperature.
The capacity of a water-cooled condensing unit depends
upon whether or not it is supplied with enough cool
condensing water. Rated capacities of condensing units
are usually based on 75° F. condensing water being
available. Higher temperature water requires more water
supplied. If enough water is not available, the capacity of
the condensing unit may be reduced 5 percent for each 5°
F. higher than the correct temperature of condensing
water.
10. Drain. Check location of suitable drain and its
capacity before installing equipment. Drain lines are
connected to sewers through an open sight connection. If
possible, trap and vent the sewer branch to guard against
entry of sewer gas into the rooms.
11. Accessibility. When selecting the location of
equipment, consideration must be given to its accessibility
for cleaning and servicing. It is not always possible to
find all the room you actually need. Whenever possible,
leave enough room for a workman to get at all sides of the
unit, and enough room to permit removal or replacement
of any major assemblies, such as motor, compressor, and
condenser.
12. Accessibility to those parts of equipment subject
to preventive maintenance and inspections, or requiring
readjustment, repair, or replacement must be given special
preference. See that oil wells of motors, belts, air-cooled
condensers, service valves, and especially suction service
valves on compressor, gauge, and gauge ports, controls,
and nameplate data are readily accessible.
9. Insulation
1. Insulation represents the composite covering
which consists of the insulating material, lagging, and
fastening. The insulating material offers resistance to the
flow of heat; the lagging, usually of painted canvas, is the
protective and confining covering placed over the
insulating materials; the fastening attaches the insulating
material to the piping and to the lagging.
 2. Insulation Temperatures. Insulation covers a
wide range of temperatures, from the extremely low
temperatures of the refrigerating plants to the very high
temperatures of boilers. No one material could possibly
be used to meet all the conditions with the same
efficiency. Cork, rock wool, or hair felt is used for low
temperatures. Such basic minerals as asbestos, carbonate
of magnesia, diatomaceous earth, aluminum foil,
argillaceous (clay-like) limestone, mica, fibrous glass, and
diatomaceous silica are employed for high temperatures.
Because of its high degree of refractoriness, diatomaceous
silica forms the base of practically every high temperature
insulating material.
3. Insulating Material Requirements. The
following quality requirements for the various insulating
materials are taken into consideration in the
standardization of these materials:
a. Ability to withstand highest or lowest
temperature to which it may be subjected without its
insulating value being impaired.
b. Sufficient structural strength to withstand
handling during its application, and mechanical shocks
and vibrations during service without disintegration,
settling, or deformation.
c. Stability in chemical and insulation
characteristics.
d. Ease of application and repair.
e. No hazard in case of fire.
f. Low heat capacity, when used for boiler wall
insulation, so that starting-up time may be minimized.
4. Insulating Materials. Listed below are a few of
the more popular insulations that you may encounter in
air-conditioning work.
5. Cork: Cork in block sections or compressed
board form, coated with a special retardant cover, is used
(where authorized) for temperatures below 50° F. It use
is generally limited to refrigeration spaces where it will
not be a serious fire hazard. Molded cork pipe covering,
treated with a fire-retardant compound, is used on
refrigerant piping.
6. Mineral or rock wool. Mineral or rock wool is a
fiber made by sending a blast of steam through molten
slag or rock. The rock fibers are usually from dolomite
rock, composed of calcium and magnesium oxides and
silicates. The fibers are brittle, of low tensile strength,
light in weight, and resistant to moisture. The fibers are
used in wire-reinforced pads for insulating large areas.
7. Hair felt. Hair felt, 1 inch or more in thickness,
may be used in any service where the temperatures do not
rise above 119° F. When combined with heavy asphalt-
impregnated paper, this material is used on cold-water
lines where the temperature range is from 50° to 90° F.
When suitably waterproofed, it may be used for
refrigerator piping.
20
8. Asbestos. Molded sheets, pads, blankets, or
tapes of long asbestos fibers are suitable for insulating
temperatures up to 850° F. This insulation material is
cheaper and lighter than the diatomaceous earth type and
is durable and rugged. The pads or blankets are used for
insulating flanges or valves which must be taken down
fairly often, as well as for turbine casings. The pads are
molded to fit any shape, and the outer surface is fitted
with metal hooks to facilitate their installation and
removal. The blankets are generally made 1 inch thick,
40 inches wide, and fitted with hooks. The tapes are used
for covering ½a-inch and smaller piping with curves and
bends. They can be used for temperatures up to 750° F.;
they tend to reduce fire hazards, but they have poor
insulating quality.
9. Magnesia and asbestos. The magnesia and
asbestos mixture, of which about 85 percent is magnesia,
is the most common material used for hot piping. It is
obtained commercially in pulverized form, in sheets, in
shaped blocks, and in cylindrical sections for standard
pipe sizes. Its principal features are low heat
conductivity, ease of application, light weight, low cost,
and chemical inactivity. The chief disadvantage is the
limited temperature range, as the mixture calcines and
decomposes at about 500° F.
10. Diatomaceous earth. The diatomaceous earth
(sand formed from skeletons of certain microscopic
plants) materials are combinations of the earth and
magnesium or calcium carbonates, bonded together with
small amounts of asbestos fibers. These materials are
heavier, more expensive, and less insulating than others,
but their high heat resistance allows their use for
temperatures up to 1500° F. When practical, pipe
coverings are made up with this material as an inner layer
and with an outer layer of the magnesia-asbestos material.
This lightens the overall weight.
11. Aluminum foil. Aluminum foil is the most
effective insulating material for high temperatures. The
foils are produced commercially from pure aluminum and
are supplied in long, thin sheets, some 12 inches to 16
inches in width. The covering is light, particularly for
large piping for which it is best suited. There is very little
uncleanliness connected with the installing or removing
of aluminum foil; it is easy and economical to
manufacture and, because of its light weight and low
inertia, it stands up well under vibration or shock.
12. There is more than one method of applying
aluminum foil. The following is the most common of
these methods. One or more layers of foil are wrapped
about the material to be insulated, leaving a 3/8-inch
airspace between each layer, and with a sheet metal cover
to protect the foil. The airspace between the layers of foil
is kept by
first hand-crinkling the foil so that its surface becomes
uneven. This type of insulation serves to reduce to a
minimum any convection current present in the air
pockets.
13. The chief objections to the use of aluminum foil
for insulation are the weight of the sheet metal cover
necessary to cover the assembly and the high skill
necessary for its application or repair.
14. Fibrous glass slabs. Fibrous glass slabs are used
widely for insulating living quarters. The glass fibers in
the pressed slabs are 4 inches or more in length and
0.0005 to 0.0008 inch in thickness. The slabs have a low
moisture-absorbing quality and offer no attraction to
insects, vermin, fungus growth, or fire. The slabs are first
cut to shape, then secured in place by mechanical
fasteners (as quilting pins), and finally covered with glass
cloth facing and stripping tape (held in place by fire-
resistant adhesive cement).
15. The insulating cements. Insulating cements are
composed of many varied materials. These materials
differ among themselves as to heat conductivity, weight,
and physical characteristics. Typical of these variations
are the asbestos cements, diatomaceous cements, and
mineral and slag wool cement. These cements are less
efficient than other high-temperature insulating materials.
They are valuable for patchwork emergency repairs and
for covering small irregular surfaces (valves, flanges,
joints, etc.). The cements are also used for a surface
finish over block or sheet forms of insulation, to seal
joints between the blocks, and to provide a smooth finish
over which asbestos or glass cloth lagging may be
applied.
16. Insulation Application. In applying insulating
material, care should be taken that air does not circulate
through the insulation, that moisture is kept from reaching
the insulation, and that the insulation will not move or
slip.
17. All sections or segments of the pipe coverings
should be tightly butted at joints and secured with wire
loops, metal banks, or lacing. Block insulation should be
secured with 1/8-inch steel wire and galvanized mesh
wire or expanded metal lattice. Insulating cement is used
to fill all crevices, to smooth all surfaces, and to coat wire
netting before final lagging is applied.
18. Moistureproofing is important for insulation over
heated surfaces. Even though the temperature of the
insulation dries off moisture, the heat loss is increased due
to the evaporation. Moisture also impairs many insulating
materials. This moistureproofing is also very important
for low temperatures. At very low temperatures, the
insulation should be air-sealed. Moisture drawn into low-
temperature insulation condenses and freezes, thus
lessening the efficiency and eventually causing
disintegration.
21
19. The same insulating material employed on the
piping may be used on pipe fittings, flanges, and valves.
These components require additional consideration during
installation.
20. When a permanent type of insulation is applied
to a piping 4 inches and larger in size, a block insulation 1
inch thinner than that on the adjacent piping may be used
for the bodies of flanged fittings and valves, for the entire
surface of a threaded fitting, for the entire surface up to
the bonnet of screwed valves, and for the flanges. The
total thickness of insulation on the valve or fitting is made
equal to that on the adjacent piping by applying insulating
cement. The pipe insulation should be stopped short of
the flanges and leveled off to enable the flange bolts to be
removed. On piping under 4 inches in size, the insulation
of the fittings may consist entirely of insulating cement,
the same thickness as that of the adjacent piping.
21. When a removable type of insulation is applied,
the flanges should be insulated with asbestos felt pads,
sectional pipe insulation of the same thickness as that on
adjacent piping, or block insulation 1/2 inch thinner than
that on the adjacent piping and covered with 1/2 inch of
insulating cement.
22. Installation Precautions. The following
general precautions should be observed with regard to the
application and maintenance of insulation:
a. Fill and seal all air pockets and cracks. Failure
to do this will cause large losses by conduction and
convection currents.
b. Seal the ends of the insulation and taper off to a
smooth, airtight joint. Sheet metal lagging should be used
at joint ends and at other points where insulation is liable
to damage. Flanges and joints should be cuffed with 6-
inch lagging.
c. Cotton duck covering, fitted over insulation,
should be smooth and well sewn (not less than three
stitches per inch). It should be covered with two coats of
lead and oil paint. Too much paint will cause the cotton
duck to crack and split.
d. Keep moisture out of all insulation work.
Moisture is an enemy of heat insulation as much as it is of
electrical insulation. Any dampness increases the
conductivity of all heat-insulating materials.
e. Insulate all hangers and other supports at their
point of contact with the pipe or other units they are
supporting. Failure to insulate these supports will cause a
considerable quantity of heat to be lost by conduction
through the support.
f. Sheet metal covering should be kept bright and
not painted unless the protecting surface has been
damaged or worn off. The radiation from bright-bodied
and light-colored objects is con-
siderably less than from rough and dark-colored objects.
g. Once installed, heat insulation requires careful
inspection, upkeep, and repair. Any lagging and
insulation that is removed to make repairs should be
replaced just as carefully as when originally installed.
Old magnesia blocks and sections broken in removal can
be mixed with water and reused in the plastic form. Save
all old magnesia for this use.
h. Insulate all flanges with removable forms. The
forms can be made up as pads of insulating material wired
or bound in place, and the flange can be covered with
sheet metal casings which are in halves and easily
removable.
10. Making Survey for Air-Conditioning Installation
1. We will now-relate the facts we have discussed
to a specific air-conditioning installation. This
installation is at Denver, Colorado. You may be called
upon to determine the size of a unit needed at your
installation. The primary difference between this example
and your base would be the mean wet- and dry-bulb
temperatures.
2. Cooling Load Requirement. In this chapter we
have discussed heat sources in an area that is to be
conditioned. These heat sources are as follows:
a. Solar heat load on walls, roofs, and glass.
b. Human heat load.
c. Infiltration and ventilation.
d. Machinery,
3. Upon adding the values of the heat sources
listed, you would have a load that is called total internal
cooling load.
4. Special consideration must be given to location
of a room or building when cooling load calculations are
being made. The interior load may change from one
portion of the buildings to another. Varied heat loads
from equipment, solar radiation, and occupants will alter
the calculations. When calculating heat load, always
consider the peak load that could be reached in the
building.
5. With a building that may have a changeable heat
load. an experienced air-conditioning man cannot state
definitely the time of day that the building cooling load
would be at a maximum. Therefore, it is necessary to
calculate cooling load for this establishment at several
different periods during the day. These times should be
chosen when the values of the various heat sources are at
their maximum.
6. Calculation of Cooling Load. Problems in
calculating cooling load can be done with mathematical
22
exactness or by rough approximate estimates. The
method that is used to calculate a cooling load depends
upon the purpose for which the results will be used.
Rough estimates are very inaccurate, and your plant may
not meet cooling load requirements.
7. The mathematical exactness method is quite
complicated and requires very accurate information
regarding construction materials. It may require the
drilling of holes through walls, roof, and floors to
determine construction materials. Some principles used
in determining the size of refrigeration plant required for
a typical installation are mentioned below.
8. Rate of Heat Flow Through Walls. The rate at
which heat is transmitted through walls, floors, and roofs
is dependent on the following factors:
a. Unit heat transfer coefficient (U-factor). The U-
factor depends on wall material and thickness.
b. Area of the heat-transmitting surface.
a. The temperature difference between the sides of
the wall.
9. The heat transfer coefficient is the combined rate
of transmission of any substance expressed in B.t.u. per
hour per square foot of area per degree Fahrenheit mean
temperature difference. It combines the amount of heat
transmitted by radiation, conduction, and convection into
a single quantity referred to as the U-factor.
10. The basic heat transfer formula is expressed as Q
= UA (T1 – T0). This formula is used in most
calculations.
Q = solar radiation in B.t.u. per hour.
U = coefficient of heat transfer in B.t.u. per square
foot taken from tables.
A = area of transmitting surface in square feet.
T1 = inside building temperature.
T0 = outside building temperature.
11. Another formula that is used in calculations for
radiation through glass is expressed as Qg = Ag Ig Fg
Ag = area of glass in square feet.
Ig = coefficient of heat transfer for glass taken from
table.
Fg = glass radiation factor.
The following is a list of heat loads:
a. Load from solar radiation.
b. Sky radiation.
c. Outdoor-indoor temperature differential for glass
areas, exterior walls, partitions, ceilings, and floors.
d. Load due to ventilation.
e. Load due to heat sources within the conditioned
spaces such as occupants, lights, fans, power, and other
heat-generating equipment
 12. This data is available in ASHRAE Guides and Heat transmission through roof = 1790 B.t.u./hr.
manufacturers' manuals. Solar radiation through roof = 3460 B.t.u./hr.
13. Specifications of Building To Be Air Total heat gain through roof = 5250 B.t.u./hr.
Total heat gain through walls and roof is equal to
Conditioned.
5337 +F 1707 + 1475 4- 1475 + 1344 + 5250 =
Location: Denver, Colo.
16,588 B.t.u./hr.
Southern exposure.
Heat gain from occupants.
South wail: Front 20 ft. inside, 12 ft. high; plate glass 10
Sensible heat loss = 200 B.t.u./hr.
ft. x 6 ft. high; door 3 ft. x 7 ft. (glass).
Latent heat loss = 460 B.t.u./hr.
North wall: 20 ft. inside, 12 ft. high; plate glass, 2
Total heat gain sensible (5 men) = 1000 B.t.u./hr.
windows 5 ft. x 3 ft. high; wooden door 3 ft.
Total heat gain latent (5 men) = 2300 B.t.u./hr.
x 7 ft.
Total heat gain from equipment.
East wall: 20 ft. inside, 12 ft. high; plate glass, 2
Heat gained from coffee urn.
windows 5 ft. x 3 ft. high.
Latent heat = 1200 B.t.u./hr.
West wall: 20 ft. inside, 12 ft. high; plate glass. 2
Sensible heat = 1200 B.t.u./hr.
windows 5 ft. x 3 ft. high.
Electric motor = 640 B.t.u./hr. (sensible)
Floor: Wooden lath and covered with 1/4-inch
Electric light = 7816 B.t.u./hr. (sensible)
linoleum laid on wooden floor.
Stove burner = 3150 B.t.u./hr. (sensible)
Ceiling: 4-inch wooden rafters, metal lath plaster
= 3850 B.t.u./hr. (latent)
below with 1-inch wooden roof deck,
Total sensible heat gain from
covered with roofing paper.
equipment = 18.566 B.t.u./hr.
Occupancy: 5 employees (manual labor).
Total latent heat gain from
Equipment: Electric lights 2000 watts, two 1/2-hp.
equipment = 5.050 B.t.u./hr.
motors, stove burner heating water, coffee
Approximate total cooling load in B.t.u./hr.
urn (12 inch).
Sensible Latent
Outside design condition: Denver, Colo., 95° F. dry bulb and
1. Through walls and solar radiation 16.588
78° F. wet bulb.
2. Human load 1.000 2,300
Inside design condition selected as 81° F. dry bulb and 68° F.
3. Equipment 18,566 5.050
wet bulb.
36,154 7,350
All walls are constructed of 12-inch brick plastered inside.
Heat gain calculation at peak load approximately 1:00 p.m. 14. An additional factor of 10 percent is often added
South wall 20 ft. X 12 ft. = 240 sq. ft. gross. as a safety factor to the sensible load to take care of
Area glass l0 ft. X 6 ft. = 60 sq. ft. additional energy that may be added to the internal
Area door 3 ft. X 7 ft. = 21 sq. ft. system. Therefore, total cooling load requirements
Transmission coefficient for glass 1.13. become:
Transmission coefficient for brick .34. Sensible load = 36.154 X 1.10 = 39,769 B.t.u./hr.
Heat transmission through wall = 757 B.t.u./hr. Latent load = 7,350 B.t.u./hr.
Heat transmission through glass = 1280 B.t.u./hr. Total cooling load = 47.119 B.t.u./hr.
Heat transmission by solar radiation = 3300 B.t.u./hr. 47,119
South wall heat gained = 5337 B.t.u./hr. Refrigeration = 12,000 = 3.9 tons of refrigeration
North wall 20 ft. X 12 ft. = 240 sq. ft. gross.
equivalent to cooling load. This calculation is
Area glass 5 ft. X 3 ft. (2) 30 sq. ft.
Area door 3 ft. X 7 ft. = 21 sq. ft.
approximate because there are other factors that must be
Heat transmission through wall = 900 B.t.u./hr. considered in cooling load calculations. Ventilation,
Heat transmission through glass = 475 B.t.u./hr. infiltration, and duct losses are part of your cooling load
Heat transmission through door = 332 B.t.u./hr. requirements and will change in value with each
North wall heat gained = 1707 B.t.u./hr. installation.
Fast wall 20 ft. X 12 ft. = 240 sq. ft. gross. 15. Cooling load formulas and tables can be found in
Area glass 5 ft. X 3 ft. (2) 30 sq. ft. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Heat transmission through wall = 1000 B.t.u./hr. Conditioning Engineers' Guide, Fundamentals and
Heat transmission through glass = 475 B.t.u./hr.
Equipment, 1963.
Fast wall heat gained = 1475 B.t.u./hr.
West wall 20 ft. X 12 ft. = 240 sq. ft. gross.
Area glass 5 ft. X 3 ft. (2) 30 sq. ft. Review Exercise
Heat transmission through wall = 1000 B.t.u./hr.
Heat transmission through glass = 475 B.t.u./hr. NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. Write
West wall heat gained = 1475 B.t.u./hr. your answers in pencil in the space provided after each
Floor 20 ft. x 20 ft. = 400 sq. ft. exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
Transmission coefficient is .24. the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
Heat transmission through floor = 1344 B.t.u./hr. with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your
Ceiling 20 ft. x 20 ft = 400 sq. ft. answers for grading.
and roof
Transmission coefficient is .32

23
1. Calculate the following wall areas. The outer
dimensions are 10' x 14' and the walls are 8"
thick. (Sec. 7, Par. 2)
2. A complaint is received from one of the base
housing units. The user tells you that the air
conditioner will not cool down the house
sufficiently.. After questioning her, you find that
she has all the drapes on the windows open and
also that she didn't start the unit until noon.
What directions should you give the user? (Sec.
7, Pars. 5-8)
3. Which type of heat load will affect humidity the
most? (Sec. 7, Par. 11)
4. The normal ambient temperature for a
condensing unit was 80° F. when it was
installed. Additional units have been installed in
the area and the ambient temperature is now
105°. This increase in temperature is affecting
the operating time of the units. How could you
correct this situation? (Sec. 8, Pars. 4 and 6)
5. How much efficiency would a condenser lose if
the water supplied to it was 85° F. instead of 75°
F.? (Sec. 8, Par. 9)
6. Which type of insulation should you use on a 40°
F. cold storage room? (Sec. 9, Par. 5)
7. The strainer on a low-pressure steam coil
installation must be removed periodically for
cleaning. How would you insulate the strainer?
(Sec. 9, Par. 8)
24
8. A new barracks is being built and you are called
upon to insulate it. What type of insulation
would you use and why would you select that
particular type? (Sec. 9, Par. 14)
9. The temperature of the hot water at the heating
coil is 130° F. The design coil temperature is
180° F. and the supply temperature from the
boiler is 185° F. Why is the temperature
dropping from 185° to 130° F.? (Sec. 9, Par.
18)
10. You are insulating a 2-inch pipe with 3/4-inch
insulation. How much insulation and what type
of insulation should you put on a globe valve?
(Sec. 9, Par. 20)
11. Find the solar radiation through a brick wall 20'
x 40' which has a 30° F. temperature
differential. (Sec. 10, Pars. 10 and 13)
12. Find the heat gain of a brick wall 10' x 12' which
has two 2' x 4' glass windows. The outside
temperature is 94° F. and the inside design
temperature is 72° F. (Sec. 10, Par. 13)
13. Which type of heat load will give off the most
latent heat gain? (Sec. 10, Par. 13)
14. Find the total cooling load when the sensible
load is 42,156 B.t.u.'s and the latent heat load is
8,750 B.t.u.'s. (Sec. 10, Par. 14)
15. What size unit would you install if the sensible
load is 57,150 B.t.u.'s and the latent load is 9,170
B.t.u.’s? (Sec. 10, Par. 14)

Self-Contained Package Air-Conditioning Units
MOST SERVICEMEN call these air conditioners
window- and floor-mounted units. You will find that they
are identified in this manner throughout the chapter. The
self-contained units differ from the remote units discussed
in another volume (Equipment Cooling) of this course in
that one housing contains all the components.
2. These units are usually found in offices or in a
portion of a building that is separate. One example is a
panel room in a heat and power building. It would be
impractical to air-condition the entire building because of
the heat load from the diesel engines, furnaces,
refrigeration equipment, etc. The panel room houses
gauges, recorders, and various instruments that the duty
engineer observes to oversee plant operation.
3. You will study the window- and floor-mounted
units. Included under these topics are installation,
operation, maintenance, and various components peculiar
to these systems.
11. Window-Mounted Units
1. The window-mounted air conditioner is a
factory-made incased assembly, designed as a unit for
mounting in a window or through a wall. It is designed
fir free delivery of conditioned air to an enclosed space
without ducts.
2. This air conditioner has a prime source of
refrigeration and dehumidification, and a means of
circulating and cleaning the air. It may also include
means for ventilating and heating. The basic function is
to provide comfort by filtering, cooling, dehumidifying,
and circulating the room air; and to provide ventilation by
introducing filtered outdoor air into the room or
exhausting room air to the outside. If heating is provided,
steam coils, hot water coils, or electric resistance heaters
may he used, or the conditioner may be designed as a heat
pump unit. We will discuss the heat pump later in this
volume.
3. Sizes and Classifications. The cooling
capacities of window-mounted air conditioners range
approximately from 4000 to 36,000 B.t.u./hr. or 1/3 to 3
25
CHAPTER 4
tons. Remember, whenever you want to convert B.t.u.'s
to tons, 12,000 B.t.u.'s equals 1 ton. The sizes had
commonly been designated in terms of horsepower, but
this proved to be inaccurate because various refrigerants
differ in cooling efficiency. Capacities (sizes) are now
measured in B.t.u./hr.
4. Most of these air conditioners are designed as
household appliances and are equipped with line cords
that may be plugged into a standard I15-230 plug
receptacle with a ground. Conditioners requiring 115
volts are usually limited to a current load of 12 amperes,
which is the maximum allowable load of a single -outlet
15-ampere circuit. This is in compliance with the
National Electric Code (N.E.C.). 1959. A very popular I
115-volt model is one which is rated at 7.5 amperes.
This rating allows the unit to he plugged into any standard
115-volt 15-ampere circuit. large units, generally over
10.000 B.t.u./hr. are designed as 230-volt units, which can
be plugged into a 230-volt circuit within the limitations
set forth by the National Electric Code.
5. There are also units which are designed for
;application to the particular power supplies you may
encounter in countries outside the United States.
Remember, always read the nameplate before plugging in
a unit.
6. Many mounting designs are available for
particular applications of window-mounted air
conditioners. A few of the various mountings are:
a. Inside flush mounting. The interior face of the
conditioner is approximately flush with the inside edge of
the window sill.
b. Balance mounting. The unit is installed
approximately half inside, and ha1f outside the window.
c. Outside flush mounting. The outer face of the
unit is flush or slightly beyond the outside wall.
d. All-in-mounting. The unit is completely inside
the room so that tie window can be closed.
e. Upper sash mounting. The unit is mounted in
the top of the window.
 f. Built-in mounts. The mounts are used for
installing units in the walls of hotels, motels, residences,
etc.
7. There are many special mounts that can be used.
We will not discuss each one. A special mounting may be
used for casement windows, swinging windows, and
office windows with swinging units, to permit window
washing. Special mounts are also used for transom
windows over doorways.
8. Installation and Operation. Installation
procedures vary because units can be mounted in several
ways. It is important to consider the most suitable
mounting for the installation, the user's desires, and
existing building codes.
9. Electrical system. We've already discussed the
electric power source needed for a 115- or 230-volt unit,
but we didn't cover proper grounding of the unit. All
window type air conditioners, regardless of voltage or
amperage rating, must be grounded. Most units are
equipped with grounding type male plugs. These plugs
are used with a grounded (three-prong) 115-volt
receptacle.
10. The National Electric Code states that non-
current-carrying metal parts which are liable to become
energized shall be grounded under one or more of the
following conditions:
a. Where permanently connected to metal-clad
wiring.
b. When in a wet location and not isolated.
c. When within reach of a person standing on the
ground outside the building.
d. When in a hazardous location.
e. When in electrical contact with metal or metal
lathe.
f. Where the voltage is more than 150 volts to
ground.
11. Can you think of any installation that wouldn't
require grounding? It's very doubtful that you can, so
remember, whenever you install a unit, make sure it's
grounded.
12. Can you plug the unit into any receptacle? Yes,
if the total load of the air-conditioning equipment does
not exceed 80 percent of the current rating of the branch
circuit, provided the voltage rating is satisfied. If the
branch circuit also feeds lighting units or other
appliances, the total load of the air conditioner shall not
exceed 50 percent of the current rating of the circuit.
13. If a question about the power source or
grounding arises, contact an electrician. He is a specialist
in electricity, as you are in refrigeration. The
manufacturer includes instruction sheets with his unit.
You will find these helpful in mounting and installing the
unit.
26
14. Through-the-wall units with steam or hot wire
coils must be wired in or connected with armored cable or
conduit. The electrician should complete this task. When
the cooling unit can be removed without disturbing the
heating system, it is customary to provide enough wire to
facilitate installation and servicing without disconnecting
the entire air conditioner.
15. The electrical system of an air conditioner
consists of an appliance cord, plug, thermostat, fan
motor(s), starting relay, starting capacitor, running
capacitor, compressor motor, overload protector, and
switches that control the flow of current to the various
electrical portions of the system. Now we will discuss
each electrical component.
16. The appliance cord and plug are manufactured as
one unit. The cord is usually a three-wire cord with two
current-carrying conductors and a ground wire. The
conductor should be the correct size to carry the current
that is necessary to operate the unit. The round third
terminal of the service plug (1 15-volt) is the grounding
terminal and should never be removed.
17. The control switch (es) mounted on the control
panel of the unit directs electric current to various
portions of the system to satisfy the desires of the user.
All functions of the switch (es) are clearly marked.
18. The thermostat automatically controls the
operation of the compressor motor, fan motor, and
accessories to provide the comfort conditions required by
the user. This control is accomplished by a feeler bulb
located in the return airstream. The ambient temperature
of the feeler bulb causes a bellows in the thermostat to
expand or contract. This in turn causes the thermostat
switch to open or close electrical contacts to the
compressor and fan motors. Some thermostats have
positions which afford the user constant operation.
19. The fan motor(s) and fans provide the forced air
through the evaporator and condenser coils. The fan
motor always operates when the compressor is running.
20. The starting relay, used frequently on 115-volt
units, may be of the voltage operated type with normally
closed contacts. The relay magnetic coil is wired in
parallel with the starting winding of the compressor
motor. Voltage developed by motor operation at 80 to 90
percent of full speed is impressed on the relay coil, which
opens its contacts. With the relay contacts closed, the
starting and running capacitors are wired in parallel with
each other and in series with the compressor motor
starting winding. When the relay contacts open, the
starting capacitor is disconnected, but the running
capacitor remains in series with the starting winding.
21. The starting capacitor stores electricity and
provides power for extra compressor motor starting
torque at the starting instant. This capacitor remains in
the circuit for only a brief
 Figure 9. Room air-conditioner wiring diagram.
interval at startup. If the starting relay fails to quickly
take the starting capacitor out of the circuit, it is possible
that the starting capacitor will fail.
22. The running capacitor, which can be a heavy-
duty, oil-filled capacitor, is used in the circuit to reduce
the current requirements of the compressor motor power
factor.
23. The compressor motor may he of various types.
Two common types arc the capacitor start-capacitor run
and the permanent-split capacitor motor. The permanent-
split capacitor motor doesn't use a starting relay.
24. The motor overload protector is used on all
compressor motor:; to protect them against excessive
current draw and abnormal heat. The overload protector
is usually mounted either under the terminal block cover
or on top of the compressor against the shell. The
overload protector consists of a bimetal strip with contacts
and, in some cases, a heater clement. Excessive current
draw will cause the heater element or the bimetal strip
itself to heat up, thereby causing the contacts to open.
Excessive compressor shell temperature can also cause
the bimetal strip to open the contacts.
25. When the bimetal contacts open, they remain
open until the temperature of the heater and/or
compressor shall have cooled enough to cause a reset
action. When making replacements, never use an
27
unknown type of overload protector. Replace the
overload protector with a like unit, as shown in an
illustrated parts breakdown for that specific air
conditioner. Be certain, also, that the overload protector
has good metal-to-metal contact with the compressor shell
to protect the compressor motor.
26. The operation of the electrical system for all
window-mounted air conditioners are similar. We will
use an air conditioner with a two-speed fan motor as an
illustration. Figure 9 shows the wiring diagram for this
air conditioner. With the pushbutton switch in the cooling
position, current is applied to the fan motor Remember,
the fan motor always operates when the compressor motor
is running. Current also passes the thermostat. If the
thermostat is calling for cooling, the compressor motor is
energized. The compressor starts to rotate, helped by the
starting capacitor. The start capacitor is in the circuit
when the compressor motor starts, because the starting
relay contacts on the voltage type relay are always closed
when the relay coil is not energized. When the
compressor reaches 80 to 90 percent of full speed, the
voltage developed in the start winding is impressed upon
the relay coil. The voltage developed at this speed is
enough to pull the relay contacts open and take the
starting capacitor out
of the circuit. The compressor continues to run on the run
winding and the running capacitor. Now we'll turn our
thoughts to the refrigeration cycle.
27. Refrigeration cycle. The refrigeration cycle of
an air conditioner consists of a compressor motor,
condenser coil, evaporator coil, capillary tube, strainer
assembly, and its interconnecting tubing.
28. The fan motor(s) circulates air to remove the
heat picked up by the refrigerant system. The condenser
fan brings in outside air and forces it through the
condenser coil, where it picks up heat and carries it to the
outside air. The evaporator blower wheel recirculates
room air, passing it through the cold evaporator, where
moisture in the air condenses and its heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant in the cooling system. The refrigerant
system is hermetically sealed.
29. The compressor pumps the low-pressure gas
from the interior of the compressor shell into the
discharge line. The high-pressure gas, with its heat
concentrated by compression, is forced into the
condenser. The high-pressure gas is raised in
temperature, at the compressor, above the outside air
temperature which is being used to cool the condenser.
The hot gas gives up its heat as it passes through the
condenser coils. The hot refrigerant gas gives up enough
heat to condense to a liquid. High-pressure liquid
refrigerant leaves the condenser. It now passes through a
strainer assembly. The strainer is an enlarged tube with a
very fine mesh screen to remove any foreign particles.
The high-pressure liquid now enters the capillary tube.
The capillary tube acts as a restrictor (metering device)
and separates the high side of the system from the low
side.
30. The high-pressure liquid refrigerant is reduced in
pressure by the restrictive action of the capillary tube.
The liquid enters the evaporator low-pressure area, which
was created by the suction stroke of the compressor. The
liquid refrigerant exposed to this reduced pressure begins
to boil and absorb more heat from the recirculated warm
air. The boiling action of the liquid refrigerant progresses
throughout the evaporator tubes, picking up heat as it
travels. This low-pressure liquid now changes to low-
pressure gas which is drawn out of the evaporator and
back to the compressor, where the cycle is repeated.
31. Airflow system. The airflow system consists of a
fan motor(s), evaporator blower wheel, condenser fan(s),
and their housings. Two-speed or variable-speed fans and
controls may be used. Many air conditioners have two
separate airflow systems. These systems are the room air
cooling, ventilating circuit and the condensing or outside
air circuit. They are separated by a bulkhead and gasket
32. To maintain peak performance, it is important
that the filter, evaporator coils, and condenser coils be
28
kept clean. Any restriction of airflow to these
components will result in reduced unit capacity.
33. The evaporator blower wheel draws the room air
through the louvered grille of the cabinet, through the
filter, then through the evaporator coils. It is then
discharged back into the room.
34. The condenser fan draws its air from the outside.
It then passes this air over the compressor and electrical
controls and out the condenser, where it carries off heat
collected from the room air and the various components
of the air conditioners. The condenser fan is often
equipped with a slinger ring that removes condensate
water collected from the evaporator. This is done by
slinging the condensate on the condenser where it
evaporates.
35. Air seals are provided around the outer edge of
the evaporator housing and in the front grille to restrict
airflow to its proper path. Now that we've discussed the
various systems, we can relate the troubleshooting
techniques you might use on them.
36. Trouble Diagnosis and Testing Procedures.
There are various pieces of test equipment you could use
to diagnose trouble. These are the ohmmeter, volt-
wattmeter, load checker, test starting set, and
psychrometer.
37. Electrical system. If you find the air conditioner
inoperative with the service cord plugged into a power
supply, check the electrical outlet with a test lamp or
voltmeter. If power is not available, you must check the
possible faults which we will discuss in the next
paragraphs.
38. First, examine the fuse box for blown fuses
(circuit breaker for tripped breakers) and be certain fuses
are of the time-delay type and of the correct size as
indicated on the front of the air conditioner. If no power
is available at the line side of the fuse box, tell the user
and advise the electric shop.
39. To determine if the power supply is adequate,
check the voltage at the power source with a voltmeter.
The voltage must be within ±10 percent of the voltage
required with the air conditioner on maximum cooling. A
load checker may be used to simulate the wattage that the
air conditioner will draw.
40. If the correct voltage is available at the
receptacle, examine the service plug to be sure it is
making good contact with the receptacle. Remove the
service plug from the receptacle and check the service
cord with an ohmmeter. Full continuity should exist the
length of the service cord. You must check all the
connections within the air conditioner to insure that they
are securely fastened and making good contact.
41. Another possible fault could be grounding. The
third wire of the service cord (green) is grounded to the
chassis and will eliminate the

Figure 10. Test starting set.
shock hazard. Internal grounds will cause fuses to blow
or, if of a minor extent, cause excessive power
consumption and breakdown of components. Grounded
current-carrying paths in the electrical system should not
be allowed to exist.
42. Grounds nay he eliminated by testing each wire
or component with an ohmmeter. With the ohmmeter on
a high scale, test between the wire and any bright metal of
the chassis, such as the copper tubing. No continuity
should exist between the wire or electrical components
and the chassis. Continuity should exist between the
round prong of the service plug and the chassis. This is
the grounding line.
43. To check the starting relay, disconnect the
service cord from tie power source and expose the relay.
With the ohmmeter, test the relay switch contacts for
continuity. If there is no continuity, replace the relay.
Another malfunction that may exist within the relay is a
grounded relay coil. If an ohmmeter check indicates no
continuity across the coil, the relay must he replaced.
44. The starting and running capacitors may be
checked with an ohmmeter. The capacitors must be
removed from the circuit and fully discharged before
making a test. You can discharge the capacitors by
shorting the capacitor leads. The first indication you
should observe with the ohmmeter is a short circuit
(needle will swing toward 0) and then the reading should
slowly change to indicate a resistance reading of
approximately 100,000 ohms.
45. To test the compressor motor, you must first
disconnect the service plug from the power source. Now
attach the test starting set, shown in figure 10, to the
compressor motor. You may use the starting capacitor on
the air conditioner if you've already tested it and found it
not malfunctioning. The test set plug should be connected
to the same or equivalent power supply used for the air
conditioner. Push down the push button switch, then
release it. The compressor motor should start. If it didn't
start or if it blew fuses repeatedly, replace the compressor.
If the compressor starts, the trouble is in one or more of
the other electrical components.
29
46. One of the components that may be faulty is the
overload protector. The contacts in the overload
protector are normally closed. An ohmmeter check
between any two of the terminals should indicate
continuity. If no continuity exists, the overload protector
must be replaced. If the overload protector opens
repeatedly and the voltage, wattage, and temperature of
the compressor are normal, substitute a known good
protector. If the opening continues, the trouble lies
elsewhere.
47. Another component that may be malfunctioning
is the thermostat. The thermostat test is very easily made.
Set the thermostat to its coldest position and test for
continuity between the two terminals. If there is no
continuity, the thermostat must be replaced. Make sure
that the thermostat feeler bulb is above 70° F. To make it
that warm, hold the bulb in your hand.
48. We have discussed the troubleshooting
techniques that you may use on the electrical system of an
air conditioner. Remember that all conditioners are not
alike. Therefore you should always refer to the
manufacturer’s manual and wiring diagrams.
49. Refrigeration system. In the event a user
complains of insufficient cooling or no cooling, there are
some logical checks you should make before
troubleshooting the refrigeration system. One would be
the electrical system and the other the airflow. We’ve
already discussed the electrical system, so we’ll discuss
what to check in the airflow.
50. Check the airflow system for cleanliness of the
filter, evaporator coils, and condenser coils. If these are
clean, check the fan speed. The fan speed may be
checked with a portable tachometer. These malfunctions
are the primary causes of low or no cooling. If no
electrical or airflow fault is found, you must then
troubleshoot the refrigeration system.
51. The correct refrigerant charge will be indicated
by normal amperage draw. The amperage may be found
on the data plate. Low amperage draw is an indication of
low refrigerant charge, while a high draw may be an
overcharge or dirty condenser.
52. Another test you may accomplish to check
refrigerant charge is the "frost back test." With the unit
running, block the evaporator air inlet with a piece of
cardboard. After a period of time, the suction line should
frost back to the compressor. A partial frost back
indicates a low refrigerant charge. If the suction line does
frost back to
 Figure 11. Thermometer placement for performance tests.
the compressor, the air conditioner should be given a
performance test to determine that it is operating to its
fullest efficiency.
53. Two dry-bulb thermometers, one psychrometer,
and a wattmeter are needed for this test. Before you make
the test, allow the unit to operate at full capacity for one-
half hour. Be sure that the damper doors in the unit and
any doors or openings to the room are closed so that no
outside air is allowed to enter the room and no cooled air
is allowed to leave the room.
54. Next, you must position the louvers on the front
of the air conditioner so that the conditioned air flows
upward. Now you place the various instruments that you
will use to obtain values for comparison with performance
data and tables in their pertinent places. One of the dry-
bulb thermometers is suspended in the condenser inlet
airstream. You must be careful not to allow it to make
contact with any metal parts and must keep it out of the
direct rays of the sun. The remaining dry-bulb
thermometer is supported in the approximate center of the
evaporator air outlet stream. The psychrometer is placed
in the center of the evaporator inlet airstream. Be certain
that you wet the wet-bulb wick. The wattmeter is
connected in series with the power supply to the air
conditioner. Figure 11 shows the various locations of
these instruments during the performance test of a
window air conditioner. Read the temperatures and
30
wattage draw when the lowest wet-bulb temperature is
obtained. All readings should be taken as nearly
simultaneously as possible.
55. At this point you need a helper stationed outside
to read the inlet condensing air temperature. These
readings are now compared to the performance table
values. Each manufacturer has these tables available for
each model he produces. You cannot perform the test
accurately without them. These tables contain
information such as condenser inlet air temperature,
evaporator inlet air temperature (wet bulb), evaporator
inlet-outlet air temperature differential, total wattage, low
side pressure, and high side pressure.
56. Let's assume the following readings were taken
from an Anthony make air conditioner, model 21-9588-
06. This is a 1-H.P. 115-volt unit. Figure 12 is the
performance table for this air conditioner. The condenser
air inlet temperature is 95° F. and the evaporator air inlet
temperature is 67° F. You must now refer to figure 12.
Under column A we find the 95° F. condenser air inlet
temperature, and in column B we find the 67° F.
evaporator air inlet temperature. When we follow to the
right from the 67° F. reading, we find the following
values:
Evaporator Inlet-Outlet Air Temperature Differential
17°-24° F.
 Figure 12. Performance chart.
Watts Total to Unit 1290-1470 Watts.
Low Side Pressure 71-75 p.s.i.g.
High Side Pressure 300-330 p.s.i.g.
57. From these performance values, we find that the
normal air temperature drop across the evaporator is 17°-
24° F. If the temperature drop exceeded 24° F., you could
Suspect a dirty filter, incorrect fan speed, or a restriction
in the evaporator airflow. A temperature less than the
minimum (17° F.) could indicate low line voltage, air
leakage from normal paths, or a dirty condenser
58. Well, let's say that we've found the air
conditioner operating at its fullest capacity and the user
still complains of insufficient cooling. One possible
remedy would be to replace the unit with a unit of larger
capacity or install an additional unit.
59. If you have determined, by use of the
performance test, that the air conditioner is not operating
at its fullest capacity, you must troubleshoot the unit. The
last possible fault you should troubleshoot is a low
refrigerant charge. If leak testing is necessary, you could
use the following test procedures.
a. Expose the unit and the refrigeration component.
b. Examine all components and tubing for breaks,
cracks, and traces of oil. (Since a small amount of oil
travels through the system with the refrigerant, a trace of
oil would be a good indication of a leak.)
c. With a halide leak detector, probe every joint for
a leak source.
60. A soap-water solution may also be used for
finding leaks. Finding a leak is one of three conditions
that may make entry into the sealed unit necessary. The
other conditions are restrictions and compressor and/or
compressor motor failure.
31
61. Service Procedures. The service literature
published by the manufacturer contains replacement
diagrams for each model he produces. The knowledge
you will gain from a close examination of these diagrams
will help make the replacement of any part of an air
conditioner readily possible. A step-by-step procedure is
usually given on more difficult part removal items. This
procedure is usually brief and keyed to a picture by
numbers. To replace parts that you've removed, reverse
the sequence you used to remove them.
62. Filters. Dirty filters, along with low voltage, are
the major causes of poor performance of an air
conditioner. You should familiarize the user with the
location of the filter and with the fact that it should be
inspected frequently for cleaning or replacement.
Aluminum mesh type filters may be cleaned as often as
necessary without damage. The filter should be cleaned
with hot soapy water, then flushed thoroughly. After the
filter is dry, it should be recoated with a domestic mineral
oil or commercial type metal filter coating. You should
explain to the user that the entire surface of both faces of
the filter requires recoating. This procedure increases the
dirt enhancing quality of the filter.
63. Condenser and evaporator. The coils of the
condenser and evaporator should be cleaned periodically.
You may accomplish this task with a soft brush or a
vacuum cleaner.
64. Condensate disposal system. In order to reduce
the humidity in the conditioned area, an appreciable
amount of air-conditioner capacity is required. This is
referred to as latent load,
 Figure 13. Sectional view of an air-cooled floor-mounted air conditioner.
while the actual reduction of air temperature is called the
sensible load.
65. As the room air passes through the evaporator
coils, the moisture in the air condenses. This condensate
then drains back to the condenser housing sump, where it
is drained or picked up by the slinger ring of the
condenser fan. The slinger ring blows the water into the
hot surfaces of the condenser coil. This moisture helps to
cool the condenser coil as it is vaporized and blown into
the outside air. It is important to keep the condensate
drain clear to allow free drainage of this water. Proper
slope of the air conditioner to the rear provides for this
drainage.
32
12. Floor-Mounted Units
1. The floor-mounted or console air conditioner
may have either water-cooed or air-cooled condensing
units. The air-cooled model is gaining in popularity due
to water restrictions. Figure 13 shows an air-cooled
console unit. Note how the condensate from the
evaporator coil is entrained in the condenser air. We also
find that two separate fans and motors are used to move
the air, while the window-mounted air conditioner
normally uses one Fresh air or ventilating air is bypassed
from the condenser air just as it leaves the condenser fan.
2. This air conditioner is applied to either resi-
dential or commercial use. The latter is used for comfort
cooling and control of temperature and humidity for
manufacturing purposes. In residences it is used for
comfort only.
3. We won't discuss each component of the various
systems which make up the air-conditioner, as they are
directly related to components that we've already
discussed. Instead, we will discuss each system briefly
with more thought concentrated on components peculiar
to this unit.
4. Refrigeration System. The refrigeration system
consists of a compressor, cooling coil, condenser,
expansion device, and the necessary interconnecting
tubing. The components peculiar to this system are the
different types of condensers, expansion devices, and
compressor capacity controls.
5. Condensers. We will discuss the various types
of condensers that you may find on this air conditioner
and how they are cleaned. The most common is the air-
cooled condenser. The air-cooled condenser consists of
coils over which air is blown. Refrigerant cooling is
obtained by adequate condenser surface and maximum sir
circulation over the outside coil and fin surface.
6. Ordinary brushes and mild soap cleaning
solutions will remove the usual dirt and dust deposited on
air-cooled condensers. However, in some applications,
the materials that may be deposited on the condenser
cannot be removed by these means. If this situation
arises, you can make a good cleaning agent by mixing 1/2
pound of trisodium phosphate with 1 gallon of water.
After you use an acid or alkaline solution, you should
rinse or flush the condenser with large quantities of clear
water.
7. Another problem that you may have to cope with
is carbon deposits. There is more danger to restricted
airflow in using a solution which would loosen, or
partially loosen, the carbon deposit than there would be in
using a solution which would not remove all of it. The
loosened particles could plug the condenser. The most
satisfactory method of cleaning the inner portion of the
condenser is to use superheated steam. You will find that
this method will do a thorough job of removing all the
loosened material from the inside of the condenser, and
will prevent formation of any oxide or other material on
the coils and fins. One precaution you should apply when
using superheated steam is to be sure that the temperature
of the steam is not above the melting point of any of the
materials from which the condenser is constructed.
8. One water-cooled condenser (shell-and-tube)
consists of a gas type sealed shell containing a copper coil
or tubes. The hot refrigerant gas is admitted into the
condenser shell and flows down over the condenser tubes
33
in which cooling water is circulated. The gas condenses
on the surface of the tubes and runs to the bottom of the
condenser shell. These condensers are used frequently
where the cooling load is heavy and the ambient
temperature may rise over 90° F.
9. The tubes in a shell-and-tube condenser have a
tendency to become coated, and sometimes even filled,
with deposits (magnesium, calcium, etc.) from the water
that passes through them. The safest method that you
may employ for cleaning a water tube is soft metal
brushes. You should start with a small diameter brush
and increase the diameter of the brushes until one that is
just the diameter of the inside of the tube is used. Do not
attempt to apply force to the brush rod with a hammer. A
large piece of scale or deposit could cause the rod to
deflect and rupture the tubing wall opposite the deposit.
Most tubes are not galvanized or coated with a surface-
protecting material, so you should oil each tube after it
has been cleaned. This may be done by drawing an oil-
soaked cloth through the tube. The film of oil will
prevent oxidation and will be washed off in a short time
after water has run through the tube.
10. Another water-cooled condenser is the double-
pipe condenser. This type of water-cooled condenser has
become very popular because of its performance and its
convenience of manufacture. The double-pipe condenser
consists of one pipe inside a large pipe. The ends of the
larger pipe are sealed against the inside pipe so that
liquids or gases may be directed through its entire length.
11. The water usually passes through the inner pipe,
and the refrigerant through the outer. The counterflow
principle is usually employed so that the lowest
temperature water comes in contact with the lowest
temperature refrigerant This type of operation could lower
the leaving refrigerant temperature to the same
temperature of the incoming. water. However, a 10°
differential is considered satisfactory.
12. Liquid cleaning with solutions of strong caustic
soda or mild muriatic acid is practically the only cleaning
method you can use on this type of water-cooled
condenser. You should test the strength of the solution
before you use it, as it may weaken the tube. The
manufacturer usually recommends the strength of solution
you should use on his condenser and how to test it. When
you mix the solution, always add the acid to the water and
wear the appropriate safety equipment.
13. On large equipment, double-pipe condensers are
made of iron pipe. These are so constructed that the
return ells can be removed. This exposes the inner tube
so that it may be cleaned with a brush, as were the tubes
in the shell-and-tube condenser.

Figure 14. Evaporative condenser.
14. The repair of water-cooled condensers is usually
performed by the manufacturer, unless it is otherwise
specified in the manufacturer's service publication. In this
case a detailed breakdown and procedure are given.
15. The evaporative condenser, shown in figure 14,
consists of a fan and motor, eliminators, condensing coil,
waterpump, spray headers and nozzles, a water sump, and
a makeup water valve.
16. The operation of the evaporative condenser is
similar to that of the cooling tower except that condensing
coils are installed in the airflow. The two types of
evaporative condensers are the draw-through and the
blow-through. We will limit our discussion to the draw-
through type, as it is the most popular of the two.
17. First, we'll discuss the operation of the
evaporative condenser. In the draw-through type, we find
that the air enters at the sump plenum, then flows up
through the condenser coils, spray nozzles, eliminators,
and out to the atmosphere. The entering air causes the
water on the condensing cods to evaporate. The
evaporation process removes heat from the refrigerant
within the coils, causing the high-pressure gas to
condense. The moisture-laden air then passes on to the
34
eliminator plates, which are closely spaced surfaces that
provide abrupt changes in airflow direction. The moisture
particles are deposited on these surfaces and drained back
to the sump. Effective elimination of moisture from the
leaving air is essential to prevent projection of mist which
can deposit moisture on surrounding surfaces. The
carryover of water particles will also tend to form scale on
the fan blades, thereby causing operational difficulties.
18. Scale is formed by low soluble salts.
Polyphosphate chemicals may be added to the water,
thereby enabling the water to become supersaturated
without precipitation of scale-forming solids. Let's look
at figure 14 again. We haven't mentioned the bleed tube
which allows some of the pump discharge water to -drain
off. What does that have to do with the formation of
scale? Before we answer that question, let's state a few
facts.
a. The water contains suspended solids (salts, iron,
etc.).
b. The cycles of concentration increase each time
the water circulates through the system (evaporization of
water).
c. The dissolved solids are less soluble because of
changes in the water temperature (water heated by
condenser coils).
19. With these facts in mind, we find that bleeding
off some of the recirculated water and replenishing it with
makeup water will decrease the amount of solids
suspended in the cooling water. Remember, the cycle of
concentration is the ratio of bleedoff water hardness to
makeup water hardness. The bleedoff water rate is
directly proportional to the amount of water being
evaporated. Continuous bleedoff, with rates based on
condenser evaporation rate and makeup water hardness,
decreases the precipitation of scale on the condenser coil.
Scale on the condenser coil surface decreases the heat
transmission through the surface and may reduce airflow.
20. Normally the next component in the refrigeration
system is the receiver. Since you are already familiar
with the receiver, we will bypass our discussion of it and
proceed to the expansion device.
21. Expansion device. The most common expansion
device used on this air conditioner is the thermostatic
expansion valve with an external equalizer and
distributor. The external equalizer is used to compensate
for the pressure drop across the evaporator. A valve with
an internal equalizer would cause the evaporator to starve
because the pressure sensed under the valve diaphragm
would be the inlet evaporator pressure. Let's set up an
example to clarify our discussion.
22. Figure 15 shows a thermostatic expansion valve
(for refrigerant -12) with an internal

Figure 15. Thermostatic expansion valve with an
internal equalizer.
equalizer. We are going to give the evaporator a 10-
p.s.i.g. pressure drop across it. We find that the pressure
acting on the lower side of the diaphragm is 37 p.s.i.g.,
which is causing the valve to close. With the valve
superheat spring set at a compression equivalent to 10° F.
superheat or a pressure of 9.7 p.s.i.g., the required
pressure above the diaphragm to equalize the forces is
46.7 p.s.i.g. (37 + 9.7). Using your temperature-pressure
chart, you will find that this pressure corresponds to a
saturation temperature of 50° F. Therefore, the refrigerant
temperature at point C must be 50° F. if the valve is to be
in equilibrium. Since the pressure at this point is only 27
p.s.i.g. and the corresponding saturation temperature is
28° F., a superheat of 22° F. (50 - 28) is required to open
the valve. This increase in superheat makes it necessary
to use more of the evaporator surface to produce this
higher superheated refrigerant gas. Therefore the amount
of evaporator surface available for absorption of latent
heat of vaporization of the refrigerant is reduced. The
evaporator would be starved before the required superheat
is reached. This starving effect increases as the load
increases.
23. To compensate for an excessive pressure drop
through an evaporator, you should install a valve of the
external equalizer type, with the equalizer line connected
into the evaporator (at a point beyond the greatest
pressure drop) or into the suction line (on the compressor
side of the remote bulb installation). The most common
installation is in the suction line. When this valve is used,
the true evaporator outlet pressure is exerted under the
diaphragm. The operating pressures on the valve
diaphragm are now free from any effect of the pressure
drop, and the valve will respond to the superheat of the
refrigerant gas leaving the evaporator.
24. The same pressure drop still exists through the
evaporator; however, the pressure under the diaphragm is
now the same as the pressure at point C, or 27 p.s.i.g. The
35
required pressure above the diaphragm for equilibrium is
27 + 9.7, or 36.7 p.s.i.g. This pressure corresponds to a
saturation temperature of 40° F., and the superheat
required is now 40 - 28, or 12° F. The use of an external
equalizer has reduced the superheat from 22° F. to 12° F.
Thus the capacity of a system will be increased.
25. The expansion device shown in figure 16 is the
thermostatic expansion valve and pressure drop
distributor. This arrangement is used on the multicircuit
evaporator to assure that an equal mixture of gas and
liquid refrigerant reaches each evaporator circuit An
external equalizer is used to compensate for the pressure
drop caused by the distributor. An internally equalized
valve would limit the action of the valve and cause the
evaporator to starve.
26. The maintenance and servicing of this valve is
similar to that of the common thermostatic expansion
valve.
27. Our next discussion will cover the various
capacity controls that may be used on the system. These
are the hydraulic cylinder unloader and the compressor
bypass valve.
28. Capacity controls. The hydraulic cylinder
unloader is used to improve compressor capacity control
during light load conditions. The unloader accomplishes
this by holding open the suction valve on some cylinders
and allowing the piston to draw gas on the downstroke,
but on the upstroke it returns the gas to the suction line
without compressing it.
29. On single-step unloader systems, one-half of the
cylinders are unloaded, while on multistep unloaders the
cylinders are unloaded in increments. These increments
depend on the number of cylinder in the compressor.
Figure 17 and 18 illustrate a typical unloader mechanism,
loaded and unloaded. The bottom portion of each figure
shows the capacity control actuator.
30. To understand the complete operational cycle,
you should think of the unloader mechanism
Figure 16. Single outlet expansion valve with a
pressure drop distributor.
 adjustable by a set screw (6). When the system requires
less than full-refrigeration load, the suction pressure will
fall below the predetermined point, causing an unbalance
within the device, and the unloading cycle will
commence. The drop in suction pressure permits the
bellows (3) to expand, forcing the plunger (7) against the
lever (8), and moving it downward. The downward
movement of this lever opens the regulated orifice (9).
The opening and closing of this orifice controls the action
of the valving mechanism.
33. The function of the valving mechanism is to
supply each of the cylinder unloaders with oil under pump
pressure when full compressor capacity is required and to
relieve this pressure when the cylinders are to operate
unloaded. This valving mechanism consists of a
hydraulic cylinder, containing an annularly grooved,
floating piston

Figure 17. Hydraulic cylinder unloader (loaded).

as two distinct components, the capacity control actuator

and the cylinder unloader mechanism.
31. The capacity control actuator reacts to variations
in refrigeration load requirements and transmits them to
the cylinder unloader mechanisms which load or unload
the cylinders. To perform this dual function, the capacity
control actuator consists of a pressure-sensing device,
which is sensitive to variation in suction pressure; and a
valving mechanism, which regulates the oil pressure to
the various cylinder unloader mechanisms.
32. The pressure-sensing devices (fig. 17) consist of
a chamber (1) connected to the suction line (2) and a
bellows (3), which is vented to atmosphere (4). The
function of the pressure-sensing device is to maintain, as
nearly as possible, a predetermined suction pressure. This
pressure is the maximum pressure required to satisfy the Figure 18. Hydraulic cylinder unloader (unloaded).
refrigeration system. The specific set point is maintained
by a balance of forces. Suction pressure is balanced
against a combination of atmospheric pressure and force
from a spring (5). The amount of spring tension is

36
(11). The annular grooves are constantly fed with oil
through a line (23).
34. Above the piston is a chamber (12) vented to the
crankcase through an orifice (10). Below the piston is
another chamber (13) connected to the annular grooves in
the piston by an orifice (14). It is also connected to
crankcase pressure through a regulated orifice (9).
Located within the hydraulic cylinder is a spring (15),
which tends to move the floating piston toward the lower
chamber.
35. Under full capacity operation, as shown in figure
17, the regulated orifice (9) is shut off and the oil pressure
in the lower chamber (13) increases because oil under
pump pressure is being supplied through orifice (23).
This pressure overcomes the force of the spring (15) and
the floating piston (11), which rises in the cylinder. As it
rises, the annular grooves in the floating piston coincide
in sequence with lines 16-1, 16-2, and 16-3 to the cylinder
unloaders, providing them with full oil pressure and
permitting them to operate at full capacity. To make
figures 17 and 18 as simple as possible, only line 16-1 is
connected to a cylinder unloader mechanism. Lines 16-2
and 16-3 are, in reality, connected to identical
mechanisms; and while this discussion is concerned with
only one unloader mechanism, we could extend it to cover
them all.
36. When full compressor capacity is not required,
the regulated orifice (9) is opened through the movement
of the lever (8); oil bleeds through it, and pressure within
the lower chamber approaches crankcase pressure, as
shown in figure 18. Under these circumstances, the force
of the spring (15) overcomes the pressure in the lower
chamber, and the floating piston (11) is moved downward
so that lines 16-1, 16-2, and 16-3 become connected in
sequence to crankcase pressure through the orifice (10).
The spring-loaded ball (24) permits the piston to move
only in distinct increments, one groove at a time.
37. In this manner the valving mechanism supplies
or withdraws from each cylinder unloader the oil pressure
that operates the unloader mechanism.
38. When oil from the forced feed lubricating system
flows through line 16-1 from the valving mechanism to
the cylinder unloader, it enters the annular chamber (17).
The inner wall or unloader cylinder is firmly anchored to
the cylinder liner; the unloader piston (18), however, is
free to move. The up and down movement of this
unloader piston raises and lowers the takeup ring (19),
which, in turn, raises and lowers the suction valve lift pins
(20).
39. Under full capacity operation (fig. 17), oil flows
into the annular chamber (17) under pressure sufficient to
contract the unloader piston springs (21 ). When oil
37
pressure forces the springs to contract, the unloader piston
(18) moves down, and takeup ring (19) and the suction
valve lift pins (20) move with it. This permits the suction
valve (22) to function normally and the cylinder operates
at full capacity. When the compressor is to operate at less
than full capacity (fig. 18), crankcase pressure flows
through the orifice (10), which allows the pressure in the
annular chamber (17) to dissipate; the cylinder unloader
springs (21) expand, lifting the unloader piston (18). This
raises the takeup ring (19) and the valve lift pins (20), and
holds the suction valve (22) open so that the controlled
cylinder is operating in an unloaded condition.
40. You will find that the compressor unloader is
sensitive to variations in suction pressure. It may be
desirable to unload the compressor in response to
variations in air temperatures. This can be accomplished
also through the use of pneumatic or electric controls. By
introducing controlled air pressure from a pneumatic
thermostat to the inside of bellows (3), in place of normal
atmospheric pressure, the suction pressure at which
unloading begins can be varied, thus making compressor
operation responsive to variations in air temperature as
sensed by the pneumatic thermostat. When electric
control of unloading is desired, the screw (6) is replaced
by a mechanical device. It resets the suction pressure
which causes unloading to begin. This device is driven
by an electric motor that is positioned by an electric
thermostat.
41. The hydraulic cylinder unloader may be adjusted
to maintain a balance between the load and compressor
capacity. This adjustment is usually made after an
installation. We will discuss this adjustment, but you
should follow the manufacturers recommendations while
performing this task on your specific piece of equipment.
Before you adjust the capacity control, you must load the
system either naturally or artificially until design suction
pressure is reached with the adjusting screw (6) turned all
the way out. Now, slowly open the suction shutoff valve
until the suction pressure is 2 p.s.i.g. below the design
pressure.
42. The next step is to turn the adjusting screw
clockwise until the first cylinder unloads. Just before it
unloads, the control oil pressure will drop to
approximately 26 p.s.i.g. below oil pump pressure. The
control oil pressure is present in line 16-1. When the
cylinder unloads, there will be a distinct change in the
sound of the compressor and in the amperage being
drawn. The remaining cylinder are automatically
unloaded as suction pressure drops.
43. Maintenance of the cylinder unloader can be
found in the manufacturer's publications. We
 (in tons of refrigeration), maximum operating pressure
differential, maximum working pressure, and electrical
characteristics. The capacities of solenoid valves are
given in tons of refrigeration at standard conditions for
the various refrigerants, with a pressure drop across the
valve of 2 or 4 p.s.i.g. for liquids and 1 p.s.i.g. for gas.
Most manufacturers publish tables extending these
capacities for higher pressure drops.
48. You'll find that all solenoid valves are rated in
terms of the maximum operating pressure differential
(m.o.p.d.) against which the valve will open. Let's use an
example here to clarify our discussion. With the valve
closed and an upstream pressure of 150 p.s.i.g. against a
downstream pressure of 50 p.s.i.g., the pressure
Figure 19. Direct-acting solenoid valve. differential across the valve would be 150 - 50, of 100
p.s.i.g. The m.o.p.d. of this valve must be equal to, or in
will not discuss it as it may not be applicable to your excess of, the valve (100 p.s.i.g.).
equipment and would only tend to confuse you. 49. Now that you've selected the valve, the next step
44. The next capacity control device you will is to install it. Remember, most solenoid valves are
encounter is the compressor bypass valve. A special designed to operate in a vertical position and, therefore,
solenoid hot gas valve, installed in a bypass line around must be installed in a horizontal line. Special valves are
one or more cylinders, will provide compressor capacity available to be installed in any position. When installing
control. The valve may be operated either by a thermostat the valve, be sure the arrow on the valve body points in
or a switch. A check valve is required in the discharge the direction of refrigerant flow. The final step in the
line beyond the bypass line to prevent a reverse flow of installation of the valve is the electrical wiring. You must
discharge gas from other cylinders. be sure that the voltage, type of current, and frequency
45. There are two types of solenoid valves you may marked on the valve nameplate are compatible with the
find on this installation: the direct-acting, shown in figure system voltage, current, and frequency.
19, and the pilot-operated, illustrated in figure 20. In the
direct-acting type, the pull of the solenoid coil opens the
valve port directly by lifting the pin out of the valve seat.
Since this valve depends solely on the power of the
solenoid coil for operation, its port size for a given
pressure differential is limited by the solenoid coil size.
46. Therefore large solenoid valves are usually of the
pilot-operated design. In this type the solenoid plunger
does not open the main port directly, but merely opens the
pilot port (A). Pressure trapped on top of the piston (B) is
released through the pilot port, thus creating a pressure
unbalance across the piston (B). The pressure underneath
is now greater than that above and the piston moves
upward. This opens the main port (C). To close port C,
the coil is deenergized, causing the plunger to drop and
close the pilot port (A). Now the pressures above and
below piston (B) equalize. The piston (B) will now close
the main port (C). The pressure difference across the
valve, acting upon the area of the valve seat, holds the
piston in a tightly closed position.
47. You may have to select a solenoid valve while
performing your routine duty. You'll find that there are
many applications for this device. When you select a Figure 20. Large pilot-operated solenoid valve.
valve, you should know the fluid to be controlled, cap city

38
 50. Should the valve fail to function after
installation, the following are some of the probable causes
of failure and suggestions for correcting them:
a. Solenoid valve fails to open.
(1) System operating pressure too high. The
m.o.p.d. rating of the valve may be lower than the actual
differential. A valve with a higher m.o.p.d. must be used.
(2) Valve body or internal parts are warped.
These faults are caused by excessive wrench torque or
high brazing temperatures.. You must replace the
damaged part or the entire valve as required.
(3) Dirt or sludge causing valve to stick. You
must dismantle the valve and completely clean the interior
and component parts. Use an approved cleaning agent.
(4) Low voltage. Check the power supply with
a voltmeter. The applied voltage must be at least
85.percent of the rated voltage given on the nameplate.
For example, a 115-volt solenoid requires at least 97.75 or
98 volts. If the voltage Is lower than 98 volts, the cause
of the voltage drop must be determined and corrected.
Common causes of voltage drops are undersized supply
lines, other loads connected in series with the coil, loose
or faulty connections, and faulty control switches or
devices.
(5) Coil burnout. Excessive voltage is the
primary cause of coil burnout. Coils should not be
subjected to voltages higher than 10 percent above the
rated nameplate voltage-126.5 volts for a 115-volt rated
coil. High ambient temperatures can also cause coil
burnouts. Use a special high-temperature coil if your
evaluation established overheating as the fault.
b. Solenoid valve fails to close.
(1) Valve body or internal parts are warped.
Cause and correction same as (2) under subparagraph ,
Solenoid valve fails to open.
(2) Dirt or sludge causing valve to stick. Cause
and correction same as (3) under subparagraph a.
(3) Electrical circuit closed. Troubleshoot
electric circuit and repair or replace the faulty component
(switch, relay, thermostat, etc.).
(4) Congealed oil causing valve to stick.
Refrigerant oil should be of the proper type for
temperature range of the system. Corrections is the same
as (3) under subparagraph .
51. These service hints are general in nature and can
be applied to most solenoid valves. If problems arise
beyond this scope, you should consult the manufacturer's
service manual.
52. There are many other components that we might
discuss but they are peculiar to one manufacturer only.
53. We will now enter into discussion of the air-
handling system. The components that will be discussed
are fans, motors, and drives.
39
54. Air-Handling System. The air-handling system
on the floor-mounted air conditioner in similar to that on
the window-mounted type except that the components are
larger.
55. Fans. The two types of fans common to this air
conditioner are the propeller and centrifugal fans. The
propeller fan consists of a propeller, or disk wheel, within
a mounting ring or plate; the centrifugal fan consists of a
fan rotor, or wheel, within a scroll type of housing.
56. In some air-conditioning systems, it is desirable
to vary the volume of air handled by the fan. This may be
done by a number of methods. Where the change is made
infrequently, the pulley, or sheave, on the drive moor or
fan may be changed to vary the speed of the fan and alter
the air volume. Dampers may be placed in the duct
system to vary the volume. Variable-speed pulleys or
transmissions, such as fan belt change boxes, or electric
or hydraulic couplings, may be used to vary the fan speed.
Fan volume can also be varied with the use of variable-
speed motors and variable-inlet vanes.
57. From the standpoint of power consumption, the
reduction of fan speed is most efficient when a direct
mechanical method is employed. Inlet vanes save some
power, while dampers save the least
58. When considering first, or initial cost, you'll find
that damper are usually the lowest. Air supply demands
and noise will dictate which type of control to install
59. Fan selection as to size and type depends on
capacity, static pressure or system resistance, air density,
type of application, arrangement of system, prevailing
sound level, nature of load, and type of motive power
available. To help you make your choice, a fan
manufacturer will furnish you information on different
sized fans working against different static pressures.
Some of the important information is as follows: (1)
volume of air (c.f.m.), (2) outlet velocity, (3) r.p.m., (4)
brake horsepower, (5) tip or peripheral speed, and (6)
static pressure. The most efficient operating point is
usually shown by either boldface or italicized figures in
the capacity tables.
60. Many fan applications and the corresponding
types of fans commonly used are listed in the following
paragraphs.
61. Unitary systems are equipped with centrifugal or
propeller fans,, the later usually being limited to the
relatively small suspended type (window-mounted) where
no duct work is involved. Fans for units having
considerable internal, or possible external resistance, a-
mostly of the forward-curved blade, or so-called mixed-
flow centrifugal type. The latter is really a centrif-
ugal type with axial inlets, having a pressure curve
resembling a backward-curved-blade centrifugal fan.
Both types have the high capacities requisite for a
compact unit.
62. Cooling tower fans are usually of the propeller
type, but axial types are used for packed towers, and
occasionally a centrifugal fan is used on the forced-draft
tower.
63. Circulating fans are invariably of propeller, or
disk type, and are made in a vast variety of blade shapes
and arrangements. They are designed for a pleasing
appearance as well as for efficiency.
64. We will discuss the maintenance of fans in
Chapter 5. Now let's move on to the motors used on the
floor-mounted unit.
65. Motors. Room air conditioner use motors
ranging from 1/6 horsepower to 6 horsepower. Motors in
most cases are controlled directly by the system controls,
such as thermostats, timers, pressure switches, or other
automatic devices. The most common voltage application
is 115 or 230 volts.
66. The necessity for low current draw on a 115-volt
circuit also makes it necessary to use permanent-split-
capacitor motors for the fans on room air conditioners.
Shaded pole motors are used when current draw isn't a
problem.
67. The hermetic compressor design makes it
impossible and unnecessary to service compressor
motors. Fan motors are accessible and you should service
them as recommended by the manufacturer's instructions.
68. Permanent-split-capacitor motors do not require
a starting switch, but the capacitor-start induction-run and
the capacitor-start capacitor-run motors use a starting
switch.
69. Motor protection is similar to that described in
the previous section. Most compressor motors and air-
moving motors are equipped with thermal protectors.
These may be hermetically sealed for installation within
the compressor shell or open for mounting on the outside
compressor shell. Hermetically sealed protectors provide
better protection where conditions such as loss of charge,
obstructed suction line, or low ambient temperatures on
stalled rotors can be troublesome.
70. When applying an electric motor, the following
characteristic are important:
a. Mechanical arrangement including the position
of motor and shaft.
b. Speed range.
c. Horsepower.
d. Torque.
e. Inertia.
40
f. Frequency of operation.
71. The torque required to operate the driven
machine (compressor) at every moment between initial
startup and eventual shutdown is an important factor in
determining the type of motor to be used.
72. The torque available at standstill, the starting
torque, is usually welt above the torque at rated full load.
The starting torque may be less than I00 percent, or as
high as 300 percent of full load torque.
73. The starting current is usually 400 to 600 percent
of the current at full load.
74. Full-load speed also depends upon the design of
the motor. For induction motors, a speed of 1725 r.p.m.
is typical for 4-pole motors, and a speed of 3450 r.p.m.
for 2-pole motors (60-cycle). Full-load torque is the
torque developed to produce the rated horsepower at the
rated speed. Motors have a maximum or breakdown
torque which cannot be exceeded without causing an
abrupt change in speed. The relation between breakdown
torque and full-load torque varies with motor design.
75. The required horsepower also determines the
motor rating. The horsepower delivered by a motor is a
product of its torque and speed. Since a given motor will
deliver increasing horsepower up to a maximum torque, a
basis for horsepower rating is needed. The National
Electrical Manufacturers Association bases horsepower
rating upon breakdown torque limits. Full-load rating of
general purpose open type motors is related to the
winding temperature rise, with a temperature rise limit of
40° C. by thermometer and of 50° C. by resistance for
Class A insulation. Higher temperature rises may be
allowed for enclosed and special-purpose motors.
76. The service factor of a general purpose motor is
defined as "a multiplier which, applied to the normal
horsepower rating, indicates a permissible loading which
may be carried under the conditions specified for the
service factor." Motors, other than general purpose
motors, have a service factor of 1.0.
77. In this chapter the last subject we shall discuss is
that of drives.
78. Drives. The fans and compressor motors are
usually direct drive. Fans over 30 inches in diameter are
belt driven to reduce the speed below that of the driving
motor and to meet the sound level requirements. Housed
fans in the smaller sizes (up to l0 inches) are either direct
driven or belt driven, in accordance with sound level and
other application requirements. Larger-size housed fans
are exclusively belt driven.
79. Adjustable pitch pulleys are usually provided to
permit you to balance air delivery against system
resistance.
 Review Exercises 7. What three components of an air-conditioning
unit will collect dir and thus restrict airflow
NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. Write through the unit? (Sec. 11, Par. 32)
your answer in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your 8. Before you check a capacitor with an ohmmeter
answers for grading. you should __________________ the capacitor.
(Sec. 11, Par. 44)
1. Before you plug in an air-conditioning unit you
should read the _____________. (Sec. 11, Par.
5)
9. During the process of troubleshooting an
inoperative. compressor motor, you check the
overload protector with an ohmmeter. What is
2. When proceeding to plug in an 155-volt air- the condition of the protector if. the meter
conditioning unit you find that the receptacle is indicates zero? (Sec. 11, Par. 46)
for a two-prong plug and the A/C unit hat a
three-prong plug. You cut off the round prong
and make your connection. What condition
exists with the round prong removed? (Sec. 11, 10. Does a low- or high-wattage draw indicate a low
Pars. 9, 10, and 16) refrigerant charge? (Sec. II, Par. 51)

3. Is it permissible to connect a 9.5-ampere rated air

conditioner to a 15-ampere circuit if other 11. What are the two major causes of poor
equipment connected to the same circuit uses 4 performance of an air-conditioner? (Sec. 11,
amperes? (Sec. 11, Par. 12) Par. 62)

4. You receive a work order to replace an air-

conditioner compressor motor that has burned 12. What precaution should be observed when
out due to an overload. What other unit should cleaning an air-conditioner condenser with
you replace? (Sec. 11, Pars. 24 and 25) superheated steam? (Sec. 12, Par. 7)

5. As the room air passes through the its heat is

absorbed by the refrigerant. (Sec. 11, Par. 28) 13. When mixing a liquid acid cleaning solution
should you add the water to the acid or the acid
to the water? (Sec. 12, Par. 12)

6. At what component of the air-conditioning unit

is the temperature of the refrigerant gas raised
above the outside air temperature? (Sec. 11, Par. 14. What will .result if the water bleed tube of the
29) evaporative condenser should become clogged?
(Sec. 12, Pars. 18 and 19)

41
An air-conditioning compressor was written up because it 18. Should the air-conditioning compressor be
would not unload during light load conditions. What loaded or unloaded when adjusting the cylinder
could prevent the compressor from unloading? (Sec. 12, unloader system? (Sec. 12, Par. 41)
Pars. 31-39)

19. When you are preparing to install a solenoid

valve, what two things on the valve should you
What part of the capacity control actuator regulates the oil check? (Sec. 12, Par. 49)
pressure to the compressor cylinder unloader
mechanisms? (Sec. 12, Par. 31)

20. You have been assigned the task of replacing a

What pressure in the cylinder unloader mechanism will
hold the compressor suction valves open? (Sec. 12, Par.
39)
solenoid valve that has a burned out coil. What
should you check for before installing the new
valve? (Sec. 12, Par. 50)

21. What are the two methods of varying the volume

of air handled by an air-conditioning system?
(Sec. 12, Par. 56)

42

Fresh Air and Air Duct System
YOU HAVE probably heard this statement many times:
"This room is smoky." As an air-conditioning mechanic
you should be particularly interested. Why is the room
smoky? Why can't the air-conditioning system handle the
smoke? What can you do to correct this situation?
2. These questions and many others you may come
upon will be answered in this chapter. Such subjects as
dampers, fans, coils, and air duct systems are discussed.
You will also learn how to determine duct sizes and how
to balance a system.
13. Dampers
1. Dampers of the following types are usually
installed in an air-conditioning system:
a. Bypass damper (A of figure 21).
b. Mixing damper (B of figure 21).
c. Air intake damper (C of figure 21).
d. Volume damper, as shown in figure 22.
e. Recirculating damper (D of figure 21).
2. Bypass dampers control and regulate the airflow
from return ducts and the intake openings. The air is
diverted in specific directions to avoid airflow through a
certain duct area. Mixing dampers are usually installed at
duct and intake openings to provide a mixture of air from
the exterior and interior spaces to the air-conditioning
equipment. Mixing dampers control and regulate the
airflow from room areas and the fresh air intake. The
purpose of a mixing damper is to mix these volumes of air
in the proper proportion. The volume damper is installed
in the interior of the duct, as shown in figure 22. It
provides a division for air volume to the openings by
changing the area of the passageway. The volume
damper is generally constructed of one blade and is
fastened to the side of the duct with indicating sections on
the exterior side of the duct surface for adjustments.
3. Intake dampers are installed at the opening
connections to the air-conditioned equipment. These
dampers usually control and regulate the airflow from the
duct system connecting the spaces served to the
equipment. The recirculation damper and exhaust damper
are usually connected to a common motor by linkage.
43
CHAPTER 5
The linkage is arranged so that when one damper is open,
the other damper is closed. Usually they can be at any
position, from fully open to fully closed.
4. Dampers are installed in numerous ways to
regulate and control air movement. They may have either
one or several blades and may have automatic or manual
controls.
5. Operation and Controls. All dampen operate
either manually or through the use of automatic controls.
Automatically controlled dampers are generally used in
large air-conditioning systems and are operated by a
motor. The motor operates pneumatically or electrically,
and moves the dampers to various positions. The size,
material, methods of operation, leverage, location, and
signs of the motor vary with the manufacturer's
specifications and installation requirements. Motor
control and operation was covered in the preceding
chapter.
6. Manual damper control is done through the use
of rope or cable extensions. They are generally used as
exit or intake dampers located in remote locations or
inaccessible places in the system.
7. Maintenance. A few defects that might occur in
the operation of a damper or louver follow:
a. Bent shafts.
b. Binding of blades or operating mechanism.
c. Bent rods or levers.
d. Air leakage.
The most common defect that causes erratic damper
operation is binding blades.
8. Wherever possible, you must inspect damper
operation; and if any of the above defects are found,
immediate action must be taken to repair the unit.
9. Most large dampers are built as a single unit and
constricted with a frame to fit the duct and chamber
opening. If the unit needs to be replaced, the complete
damper unit can be taken out and a new damper installed.
Whenever the services of a sheet metal worker are
needed, the civil engineering section should be notified
according to local procedures.
Figure 21. Typical air-conditioning system.

44
 7. Supply and Booster Fans. Depending on their
use in a duct system, a fan may be referred to as a supply
fan or a booster fan. If a fan is furnishing or supplying a
large volume of air, it is often referred to as a supply fan,
its name being derived from the fact that it supplies the
air. A booster fan is used in distributing air to a certain
portion of the duct system. This fan helps in

Figure 22. Volume damper.

10. You should refer to construction drawings and

specifications for location of dampers and installation
details.

14. Fans
1. Fans are used for circulation of air in duct
systems and are usually of one of the following types:
a. Multiblade fans with blades curved backwards.
b. Multiblade fans with blades curved forward.
c. Multiblade fans with blades curved backward at
the tip and forward at the heel.
d. Multiblade fans with radial blades.
e. Propeller or disk type.
2. The forward blade fan is a commonly used fan.
It operates at a relatively low tip speed for a given
pressure. It is compact in size and quiet in operation. The
motor used with this type of fan should have a greater
capacity than is actually needed by the fan. Forward
blade fans do not operate well in parallel. The backward
blade fan requires higher speeds for equivalent efficiency.
3. The propeller, or disk type fans are seldom used
in duct systems. They develop relatively low pressures.
The propeller fan is used for moving large quantities of
air against low pressure with free exhaust.
4. The following information is required in
selecting a fan for a given installation:
a. The number of c.f.m. of air to be moved.
b. The static pressure required to move air through
the system.
c. The motive power available.
d. The operation of fans in parallel or singularly
e. The degree of noise permissible.
f. The nature of the load.
5. Knowing the above information, you can refer to
the manufacturer's manuals to determine the
specifications of each size fan. Figure 23. Types of fans.
6. Figure 23 illustrates two different type fans that
may be used in an air-conditioning system.

45

Figure 24. Blower bearing.
moving a specific amount of air to a portion of the
building.
8. Maintenance. Once a year you should
completely disassemble and inspect fans for defects.
Bearings on fan shaft or motor are cleaned, checked for
wear, and replaced if necessary. Ball bearings are
repacked with grease and sleeve bearings are lubricated
with oil or grease as prescribed by the manufacturer.
When handling fan wheels, you must be careful not to
bend them. This will cause them to wobble. Rusted
surfaces should be cleaned and painted to reduce
corrosion.
9. The blower wheel is inspected for proper
alignment and freedom of rotation. Bent vanes must be
repaired. Axial clearance is checked to insure that the
wheel is not binding on the scroll. The adjustment is
made by relocating the position of the shaft thrust collar,
as shown in figure 24. Total axial movement of the shaft
after final adjustment should be approximately 1/32 inch.
The thrust collar is locked in place with a thrust collar set
screw; worn thrust washers must be replaced. Periodic
soakings of the washer in oil prolongs its life. The blower
shaft sleeve bearings are normally lubricated with oil,
while the ball bearings are packed with grease. Grease
cups are generally refilled once a year, but should be
46
inspected frequently for lubricant. During periodic
inspections, you may find the blower surfaces rusted.
You must clean it and apply a coat of rust-resistive paint.
10. Fan noise may be caused by improper fan
selection. The tip speed required for a certain capacity
and pressure varies with the type of blade. You must
remember that a fan has a rated capacity and if it operates
beyond this, it will become noisy. Other factors that
could cause noisy operation are loose or worn belts;
improper construction of ducts and airways; and loose fan
mountings.
15. Evaporator or Chilled Liquid Coil
1. Chilled water coils are designed to conform to all
the specifications and to handle the necessary chilled
water that may be required by changing load conditions in
a building. The fin metal is generally made of copper or
aluminum, as these metals readily conduct heat. Fin type
construction gives more surface area. The plate-fin coil
used for the refrigerant circulating system and the chilled
water circulating system are similar, differing only in
minor construction aspects; one system is filled with
refrigerant and the other with chilled water.
2. Operation and Controls. The duct type, plate-
fin cooling coil is supplied with a coolant control
assembly, which is fitted with a drip pan and drain. The
related duct thermostat bulb is fitted within the air inlet
duct. The coil tubing passes through plates or fins of thin
metal stacked six to the inch, the entire length of the coils.
The airflow through the coil is parallel to the fins which
may be curved slightly to create a turbulent flow of the
air. Thus, all the air is caused to come in contact with the
cooling surfaces. The coils are preferably installed on the
intake side of the recirculating fan in the system so that
the coil inlet face is always open and free for cleaning.
Slight deviations in air quantity from the cooling ducts
will materially alter the performance of the system. The
designated air quantities should be limited to plus or
minus 5 percent so that the proper operating speed for the
circulating fan in the air ducts is maintained.
3. Maintenance. In most installations, cooling
units are provided with filters in front of the coils to
prevent the coil from becoming coated with foreign
materials. These filters must be inspected and cleaned at
frequent intervals. Where filters are not provided, a linty,
matlike accumulation will form at the intake side of coils.
Too much of this accumulation would result in a marked
decrease of airflow over the coils. A film of dust, organic
material, and grease will also form on the entire cooling
surface, reducing the rate of heat transfer and creating a
source of objectionable
odors. Therefore, the coils should be inspected frequently
and cleaned as often as necessary.
4. Cleaning. In cleaning coils, a regular check-off
list is generally followed for the entire air duct system.
First, you must stop the fans, then open the coil access
plates. After this is done, brush the intake side of the coil
to loosen the lint and dirt. If this material is caked on the
fins, use the special combs with teeth spaced to fit
between the fins. Wire brushes may be used if care is
taken to avoid damage to the fins.
5. Leaks. Coils that develop leaks must be
repaired immediately. Repairing a leak can develop into a
major job. It may require the coil to be drained so that
proper maintenance can be performed. Manufacturer'
maintenance manuals generally give coil structural
material and recommended procedures for repairing coils.
6. Replacement. Every air-conditioning
Installation has its own peculiarities as to design and
installation; therefore it is impossible to give specific
procedures on coil replacement information relative to
your particular installation can probably be located in the
constructed prints and manufacturers specifications and
handbooks.
16. Brine and Heating Coils
1. Brine coils are used in air-conditioning systems
that require low temperatures for dehumidification
purposes. The brine (usually ethylene glycol) flowing
through coils is designed to withstand low temperatures.
Location of the brine coils for your installation can be
found in construction drawings.
2. Operation and Controls. Brine coils operate on
the same basic principle as the chilled water coils except
for minor engineering differences. Refer to construction
drawings and manufacturer's manuals and handbooks for
detailed information concerning operation and controls.
3. Maintenance. Maintenance for the brine coil is
accomplished in the same manner as maintenance on
chilled water coils, as explained previously. One
maintenance precaution that must be taken in repair or
replacement of the brine coil is the preservation of the
brine.
4. Heat Coils. Heating coils are used to heat the air
pressure through coils for humidification purposes. These
coils are supplied with hot water or steam. Hot water
coils should not be operated with final air temperature
below 50° F. Construction characteristic and location of
the heating coils can be found in installation drawings,
manufacturer's manuals, and handbooks.
5. The operation, control, and maintenance of
heating coils are very similar in principle to that of the
chilled water coils explained previously. Many heating
47
coils are controlled by an automatic temperature control;
this control throttles the steam or water to the coils to help
protect against subfreezing air coming into direct contact
with the hot coil. This can become very dangerous and
would result in damage to the equipment. A bypass
damper control is used on hot water coils under the above
circumstances, which allows the maximum amount of
water to flow into the coil.
6. Heating coils are constructed to withstand high
pressures and may or may not be of the self-draining type,
therefore provisions are made for draining in case of
repair or replacement.
17. Air Duct Systems
1. The duct system is used to distribute conditioned
air from one location to another. This system may cost 25
percent of the initial investment. The resistance of a duct
system is a substantial portion of the static pressure
against which the fan operates-an important item in
annual power cost. For this reason, in larger installations
economies can be realized by designing the ducts to
balance first cost against operating cost rather than by
using the rule-of-thumb methods sometimes permissible
on smaller installations.
2. Pressure Losses. Along an ideal frictionless
duct system, total pressure-the sum of static and velocity
pressures-remains constant in an actual system, losses
occur due to two effects: friction losses and dynamic
losses. Friction losses are primarily from surface friction,
while dynamic losses result from sudden changes in
velocity or direction, or from other eddy sources. Most of
the pressure drop in a straight duct is caused by surface
friction. You will find that various equations are used to
calculate losses. These formulas are slanted toward
design engineering. You will not be required to study
them.
3. Duct Sizing. Ducts are sometimes sized by
selecting a velocity at the fan discharge and by making
arbitrary reductions in velocity down the run, usually at
each branch or takeoff.
4. This method, called the velocity reduction
method, has simplicity to recommend it, but it takes no
account of the relative pressure losses in various
branches. It use is acceptable only for estimating simple
layouts. The method is not recommended for actual
design.
5. The following table presents maximum design
velocities considered good practice for conventional
systems in various applications. Quality and size of
installation, power costs, space limitations, and noise are
the factors which should be considered in the selection of
the proper velocity.
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM DUCT VELOCITIES, IN F.P.M. leakage, and it is common practice to seal all joint and
APPLICATION SUPPLY DUCT seams with sealing compound, tape, or by welding or
Trunk and Small Rises Return
soldering. Round duct is preferred to rectangular because
Large Rises and Mains
Branches
of its greater rigidity, which allows the use of lighter
Residences 800 600 600 gauges and avoids the need for reinforcing members.
Apartments and hotel Spiral conduit, made from 2 1/2- to 6-in. zinc-coated steel
bedrooms 1,500 1,100 1,000 or aluminum strip spirally wound with a double-locked
Theaters 1,600 1,200 1,200 seam, is light, tight, and strong. Particular care should be
Private offices-deluxe 1,100 800 given to the selection of fittings to avoid excessive
Private offices-average 1,300 1,000 pressure drops and noise generation. Avoid using 90°
General offices 2,200 1,400 1,200 fittings, or fittings that are sleeved into the inside diameter
Restaurants 1,800 1,400 1,200
of the main duct. The problem of maintaining satisfactory
Shops-small 1,500 1,200
Department stores-
sound levels is magnified, and outlets with a low level of
lower floors 2.100 1,600 1,200 noise generation and a high degree of sound attenuation
Department stores- are required. The higher sound level of a high-pressure
upper floors 1,800 1,400 1,200 fan ordinarily requires the use of a sound absorber
6. High-Velocity and High-Pressure Air immediately downstream. Lined duct may be used where
Distribution. In recent years there has been a trend space permits; otherwise a baffle, cell, or plenum type
toward higher duct velocities to reduce duct size at the absorber is required. Special attention should be given to
expense of increased friction. Any system with velocities the design of fan isolation and the use of flexible
greater than 2,000 f.p.m. is usually considered to be a connections.
high-velocity system. Because of the higher average 10. It is good practice to examine the critical
static pressure (5 to 10 in. w.g. at the fan), these systems (maximum pressure drop) run of conduit after preliminary
are frequently called high-pressure systems. sizing is completed and to reduce velocity at selected
7. In these systems, relatively high duct pressures points if a significant reduction in fan horsepower can be
are necessary to obtain stable control of variable volume effected. Sometimes the use of more costly special
outlets, or to obtain the required velocity for high fittings of low dynamic loss can be justified for such runs.
induction terminal units. Increased stability is inherent in Conversely, where excess static pressure is to be
outlets with high design pressure drops (1/2 in w.g. or dissipated in shorter runs, it may be desirable to size
greater), since a given change in duct static pressure, due certain portion for higher velocities.
to throttling of a portion of the outlets, has a decreasing 11. Duct Materials. The composition of ordinary
effect on the airflow through the remaining outlets as the galvanized-steel sheets includes approximately 0.10
design pressure drop increases. For example, a duct static percent carbon, 0.40 percent manganese, and minute
pressure increase of 0.20 in. w.g. will increase the quantities of phosphorus, sulphur, and silicon, with a
airflow through an outlet designed for a 0.20-in. drop by heavy zinc coating. Of somewhat superior resistance to
41 percent, but by only 10 percent through one designed atmospheric corrosion (where high moisture conditions
for a 1.0-in. drop. are encountered) is galvanized copper-bearing steel with a
8. When high outlet discharge velocities are used, copper content of about 0.20 to 0.30 percent. Aluminum
high-temperature differentials between room and supply duct should be fabricated from 2S or 3S 1/2 or 3/4 hard
air may be employed, since induction within the room stock; 3S is preferred for larger ducts.
will afford adequate mixing of the supply stream before it 12. Exhaust ducts for chemical laboratories and
enters the occupied zone. For example, a 30° F. other applications involving corrosive fumes use copper,
difference may be used instead of the 20° F. differential stainless steel, monel metal, lead-coated, or lead itself
common to conventional systems, with a one-third when necessary. Intake and exhaust hoods are frequently
reduction in the supply-air volume. Some systems made of copper although this refinement is necessary
employ high velocity in the main ducts, with sound- when galvanized-steel construction is accessible for
attenuation boxes where the velocity is reduced. inspection and painting. Materials other than metal may
9. The space saved as a result of using high be used in ducts for reasons of appearance or cost.
velocities should be balanced against increased first and 13. Board material. Such materials are cut to
operating costs. It is necessary to use fans of heavier desired size and fastened by various means, with corner
construction for the higher static pressures. Great care is trim or edges and band trim along the seams. Most
needed in the construction of duct work to prevent materials in use include in-

48
sulation value as a property. Besides filling the
requirements for any ducts, the material should be
fireproof, verminproof, moldproof, free from odor, and
not subject to deterioration from water or vapor
penetration.
14. Prefabricated materials. These ducts and
fittings are available in standard even-inch dimensions in
the smaller sizes and are designed primarily for the
residential and small commercial market. They must
meet standards similar to those specified for the board
materials.
15. Sheet-Metal Standards. Ducts and sheet-metal
connections may be fabricated according to several
methods of construction. It is not too important which
method we use, but the construction must meet the
following standards:
a. Materials of suitable quality for the purpose.
b. Proper gauge for strength.
c. Cross breaking and reinforcement, where
needed, for rigidity and freedom from mechanical noise
induced by vibration.
d. Tightness of seams and corners to minimize
leakage.
e. Freedom from sharp internal edges to avoid
noise regeneration.
f. Conformance with design standards to permit
desired airflow.
16. To insure desired airflow without excessive
frictional and dynamic losses design standards are
essential to govern the fabrication of shapes, fittings,
vanes, and connections to equipment. Nearly all of these
standards are based on two fundamentals of airflow:
a. Air flowing from the chamber or conveyor of
smaller section area into one of larger area tends to
continue in a straight line. Air will not diverge, unless
changed by vanes, at an included angle greater than about
20°.
b. Air flowing from a chamber or conveyor of
larger section area into one of smaller area tends to
converge uniformly and follows the laws of entrance to
orifices in fluid flow.
17. Duct Heat Gains and Losses. Whenever the air
inside the duct is at a temperature different from the
ambient temperature, heat will be transmitted outwardly
or inwardly. The gain or loss, if of appreciable
magnitude, may be important because:
a. Transmission to or from a space not being
treated, but through which the duct passes, is a total loss
of heating or cooling effect.
b. Transmission to or from the same space being
conditioned may put too large a part of the heating or
cooling effect where it is not wanted. The correction in
the first case is either insulation (or dead air space) or a
greater investment in heating or cooling capacity, or both.
49
The correction in the second case is a redistribution of the
air to the various supply grilles to compensate for the
cooling or heating effect of the duct surface.
18. Heat Insulation. Insulation is employed for two
reasons: (a) to reduce loss of heating or cooling effect or
(b) to prevent sweating of the duct. Determination of the
first effect is computed by use of the following equations:
Q = UA (t1 – t0.)
where Q = heat loss (B.t.u./hr)
U = B.t.u./(hr)(sq ft.)(°F. diff.) average values
values
A = duct surface (sq. ft.)
t1 = air temperature inside duct (°F.)
t0 = air temperature outside duct (°F.)
19. The economic value of insulation depends upon
the total annual cost of the heating or cooling effect
saved. A precise answer can be obtained only by a study
of the particular application.
20. Sweating occurs when the temperature of the
duct surface is below the dewpoint of the air touching it.
For bare-sheet-metal duct:
f0 (t0 – t3) = U (t0 – t1)
t3 = t0 - U (t0 – t1)
1.6
where t3 = duct surface temperature (°F.)
U = overall transmission coefficient
f0 = surface conductance of outside duct
surface
21. Air Leakage and Duct Maintenance. Air
leakage varies over wide limits, depending on air
pressure, type of construction, and workmanship,
principally the last. Actual tests on typical supply
systems have shown leakages from 5 to 30 percent.
Corner holes normally account for only a small portion.
22. The largest source is at transverse seams located
against the wall or ceiling in such manner that tight joints
are almost impossible. Allowance should be made for
leakage, depending on job conditions. For supply systems
with static pressure in excess of 1 inch w.g., calking,
felting, or soldering is recommended.
23. Ventilating and air-conditioning ducts normally
require little maintenance. When they are dry the
deterioration by corrosion is usually negligible. Periodic
cleaning is important because even with comparatively
efficient air-cleaning devices, dirt accumulates over a
period of time. A shift in dampers will frequently blow a
cloud of dirt into the room. More important is the real
fire hazard of such an accumulation, which has been
recognized by the Fire Underwriters. Ducts should be
provided with access doors to allow for cleaning.
24. System Balancing. With the fan in operation,
adjust the damper op the air-intake trunk until the
velometer shows an air intake equal to
one-half the dwelling's cubic volume per hour. After you
have done this, you must lock the damper in place.
25. A formula for calculating air quantities required
for sensible cooling load is:
Quantity of air (c. f. m.)
= sensible heat load (B.t.u./hr.)
1.08 X temperature change
26. Temperature change is the difference (°F.)
between the room temperature and the temperature of the
entering air. Another rule of thumb that you may use to
estimate the quantity of cooling air required is to figure on
eight air changes per hour in the area to be conditioned.
Quantity of air (c.f.m.) = 8 X room volume (cu. ft.)
60 min. /hr.
27. You should not use this rule if the risers are
smaller than standard (3 1/4" x 14") or if the branch ducts
are less than the equivalent of an 8-inch round duct.
Another exception is when unusually large amounts of
glass or exposed wall are present.
28. At all T-type duct transitions, check the first
grille downstream from each branch with all of the grille
frets or louvers in straight-flow position. Adjust the
branch dampers until the velometer registers equal
velocity through the grilles on both trunks. After you
have equalized the velocities, you must lock the dampers
in position. Continue this procedure along the duct
system to any addition T-type transitions until all the T-
type transition dampers are adjusted.
29. If splitter dampers are installed, follow the same
procedure until approximately the same air velocity over
the entire duct and grille system has been reached.
30. Proper quantity of return air. After you know
the total quantity of air required for cooling the
conditioned area, you must adjust the air-conditioner
blower drive for delivery of the design airflow. Check the
delivery as close to the fan outlet as possible. The air
velocity times the total outlet area will determine the total
air volume being circulated. For example:
80 f.p.m. X 8 sq. ft. = 640 c.f.m. being circulated
31. Once the airflow is adjusted to the desired cubic
feet of air per minute, you will have to tighten the nuts on
the fan sheave for permanent adjustment of airflow. At
this time you should check the current the blower motor is
drawing to b certain that it is capable of driving the fan
without overloading and burning out.
32. You must be sure that the return-air grille is large
enough to handle all the air supplied to the space. Any
lack of return air can seriously affect system operation.
50
33. Balancing air discharge grilles. High-side-wall,
double-deflection supply-air grilles predominantly used in
average sized systems will be discussed first. You must
use the design data to find the amount of air required for
each room or area. The grilles are usually dampered.
Equalize and properly deflect the air delivery to the
various areas by adjusting the louvers or grille frets.
34. Starting with the grilles closest to the blower,
adjust the front horizontal grille frets so that you achieve
the proper blow and drop. Blow and drop will be
discussed later in this volume. A lighted match, warm
thermometer, or rubbing alcohol on the exposed surface
of your arm will help you to determine just how
accurately the desired vertical flow of air is being
achieved. Constant association with airflow will enable
you to tell just what the air deflection is doing by the
sensation of the airflow over your body. By adjusting the
rear frets of the grille, the horizontal width of the air
pattern is established. The ultimate goal is to achieve an
even air pattern about 5 ½ to 6 feet above the floor level
over the greatest amount of room area while attaining as
close as possible the cubic feet of air required for the
particular room. Then continue to the next closest grille
to the supply blower, and so on to the last grille. It is
possible that proper airflow from distant grilles cannot be
attained. It is then necessary to return to the grilles
closest to the blower outlet and partially close some of
their rear frets, thereby forcing more air to the distant
parts of the system. Continue the adjustment of rear grille
frets in the same sequence until there is ample air supply
to all rooms. 35. In checking the air volume from the
grille, play the recording air-measuring instrument over
several locations on the grilles and average the readings
for final tabulation of total airflow. In setting the supply-
air delivery patterns, refrain from projecting supply air
directly toward a return grille.
36. The ceiling diffuser must be adjusted to pattern
the airflow over most of the ceiling area. The diffuser
usually has adjustable rings, dampers, or diffusing grids
which will do the same thing as a high-side-wall grille
when it is adjusted for patterning air delivery to the
conditioned area.
37. The flush-floor diffuser with bars or frets is
adjusted to pattern air sweep in an arc toward the ceiling.
This will blanket the conditioned area just as high-side-
wall grille does.
38. The baseboard type of diffuser has a balancing
damper for controlling airflow. This diffuser does a good
job, even though it has a minimum of adjustments that
you can use for balancing.
39. The low-side-wall diffuser has grids, vanes, or
frets for producing air patterns. It can produce an
excellent cooling or heating condition when the
air is deflected properly. You will encounter few 7. How many fins would a 2-foot coil contain?
problems with high-side-wall or ceiling diffusers. Care (Sec. 15, Par. 2)
should be taken with the other types of diffusers,
especially in relation to obstruction which interfere with
the required air pattern. Such devices must be balanced
differently for summer and winter conditions. 8. How would you straighten the fins on a coil?
(Sec. 15, Par. 4)
Review Exercises

NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. Write

your answer in pencil in the space provided after each 9. Why is a brine solution used as a coolant in an
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on air-conditioning system? (Sec. 16, Par. 1)
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
10. Which type of pressure loss is caused by an
1. What type of dampers regulate airflow from elbow in the duct? (Sec. 17, Par. 2)
return ducts? (Sec. 13, Par. 2)

11. Why isn't the velocity reduction method used for

sizing duct for complex systems? (Sec. 17, Par.
2. The damper in a duct is operating erratically. 4)
What is the most probable cause? (Sec. 13, Par.
7)

12. A system with a velocity rating of 2400 f.p.m. is

considered a ______________ system. (Sec.
17, Par. 6)
3. Which type of fan is most commonly used in a
duct system? (Sec. 14, Par. 2)

13. How are duct joints sealed? (Sec. 17, Par. 9)

4. What type of fan would you install in an area

where large amounts of air are to be exhausted? 14. What type of material would you construct a
(Sec. 14, Par. 3) duct with if corrosive fumes are to be handled?
(Sec; 17, Par. 12)

5. How is the axial clearance adjusted on a blower 15. What occurs when air flows from a small
wheel? (Sec. 14, Par. 9) chamber to a large area? (Sec. 17, Par. 16)

6. Why are the fins a cooling coil made of

aluminum-or copper? (Sec. 15, Par. 1)

51
16. What is the loss of cooling effect of a 12-square 19. How can you determine the vertical flow of air
foot duct with a temperature differential of 10° from a grille? (Sec. 17, Pa. 34)
and a U-factor of 1.14? (Sec. 17, Par. 18)

20. The horizontal airflow pattern is controlled by

17. Where does most duct air leakage occur? (Sec. the ______________ ______________ of the
17, Par. 22) grille. (Sec. 17, Par. 34)

18. How much air is required when the sensible heat 21. Which type of diffuser is the hardest to use for
load is 49,000 B.t.u./hr. and a temperature balancing? (Sec. 17, Par. 38)
change is 15°? (Sec. 17, Par. 25)

52

Controls
YOUR BRAIN is a control system. It controls your
movements and it responds to various situations. Have
you ever touched something hot? You really let go of it
fast, didn't you? The control system of an air conditioner
acts like a brain. It senses a change and responds with a
corrective action.
Three types of control systems will be discussed.
These are motor, electric, and pneumatic controls.
Responsive devices sensitive to temperature, pressure,
and humidity will also be studied.
18. Responsive Devices
1. Most automatic controls function because they
are responsive to changes in temperature, pressure, and
humidity. We will discuss the various responsive devices
that you will encounter in your control system.
2. Temperature-Responsive Devices. Many of
the automatic control units such as the thermostat, fan
switch, etc., must be responsive to temperature changes.
The temperature change actually makes and breaks
electrical contact within each unit.
Figure 25. Bimetal strip.
53
CHAPTER 6
This action is an indicating signal transmitted to the
primary control for specific action such as starting or
stopping the operation of a piece of refrigeration
equipment.
3. Bimetal strip. To accomplish the above specific
action, the automatic control unit may be equipped with a
bimetallic strip. This strip is made by welding together
two pieces of dissimilar metals such as brass and "Invar,"
as illustrated in figure 25. At a certain predetermined
temperature, this strip does not deflect or bend. However,
when the strip is heated, it will tend to bend in the
direction of the metal which has the least amount of
expansion, as shown in figure 26.
4. By welding two electrical connections and
contacts to the arrangement shown in figure 27, an
electrical switch is constructed. This switch can be used
to control an electrical circuit responding to temperature
changes.
5. The bimetal strip is the basic principle of
operation of many of the temperature responsive
automatic units. However, some units may be operated
by a bimetallic strip in the form of a
Figure 26. Bimetal strip being heated.

Figure 27. A bimetallic switch.
spiral, a U-shape, a Q-shape, or even a helix, as shown in
the illustrations in figure 28.
6. Vapor-tension device. Another very common
type of temperature-responsive device is one in which the
effects of the temperature changes are transmitted into
motion by a highly volatile liquid. The most commonly
used vapor-tension device of this type is a simple
compressed bellows, shown in figure 29. It is made of
Figure 28. Various shapes of bimetal strips.
54
brass and partially filled with alcohol, ether, or some
other highly volatile liquid not corrosive to brass. When
the temperature around the bellows increases, the heat
gasifies the liquid, causing the bellows to extend and
close a set of electrical contacts, as shown in figure 30.
When the bellows cool, they contract and open the
electrical contacts. This vapor-tension principle also is
used to operate some of the automatic control units.
7. Remote-bulb device. Not all the liquid-filled
devices are limited to just a simple bellows as described
above. There are remote-bulb type devices that not only
have bellows but also have a capillary tube and a liquid or
gas-filled bulb, as shown in figure 31. When the liquid or
gas in the bulb is heated, part of the liquid gasifies or the
gas expands and forces its way through the capillary tube
into the bellows. The increase of pressure inside the
bellows causes the bellows to extend and close a set of
electrical contacts. When the bulb cools, the gas
liquefies, causing a decrease of pressure in the bellows.
This causes the bellows to contract and open the set of
electrical contacts.
8. Pressure-Responsive Devices. Pressure-
responsive devices are incorporated in refrigeration and
air-conditioning systems to operate and regulate valves,
controllers, operators, etc.

Figure 29. Bellows contracted when cooled.
9. Bellows. One type of pressure-responsive device
uses the action of a bellows in a similar way to the
remote-bulb device mentioned previously. In this case
the bellows extends and contracts in response to the
changes in pressure. The action caused by the movement
of the bellows opens and closes a set of electrical
contacts.
10. Bourdon tube. Another pressure-responsive
device used in a pressure gauge is illustrated in figure 32.
In this unit the pressure acts inside a hollow, flattened,
bent tube called a Bourdon spring tube. The pressure
inside the tube tends to straighten it, moving the
mechanism which turns the pointer. The pressure gauge
measures pressures in pounds per square inch.
11. Humidity Responsive Devices. Humidity-
responsive devices e regularly used to cause the opening
or closing of solenoid or motorized valves which, in turn,
control the flow of water or steam to the humidifying
equipment.
Figure 30. Bellows extended when heated.
55
Figure 31. Remote bulb device.
12. Humidity-responsive devices are designed with
sensing elements which am very sensitive to humidity
changes. Usually these sensing devices activate the
action of a switch. A typical humidity-responsive device
is shown in figure 33. The sensing element in this device
is a number of human hairs which lengthen when the
humidity is high and shorten when the humidity is low.
The lengthening and shortening action of the hairs moves
the lever, which. in turn opens and closes the contact
points to a humidifying unit.
19. Motor Controls
1. A motor control is similar to a switch installed in
a motor circuit that opens and closes the power lead to the
motor. The major difference is that the motor control acts
automatically in response to temperature or pressure
changes.
2. Function of Motor Controls. The function of
any motor control is to maintain a relatively constant
temperature within the refrigerated space.
Figure 32. A pressure gauge showing the Bourdon tube.

Figure 33. A humidity responsive device.
This may be done by starting the unit when the
temperature rises and stopping it when the temperature
reaches its set point (control is satisfied). The
temperature is constantly rising and failing between
predetermined set points (cut-in and cut-out).
3. Low-Pressure Motor Control. We can control
the temperature of a refrigerated space through low side
pressure. If we control low side pressure, we ultimately
control the temperature of the refrigerant in the
evaporator. A pressure-temperature relationship chart is
needed for the following example. Our system contains
R-12, and the desired space temperature is 40° F. Now,
using the chart, we find that we must control the low side
pressure at 37 p.s.i.g. Therefore, we have controlled
temperature by pressure.
4. A bellows, diaphragm, or Bourdon tube is used
to motivate the points in the low pressure control (LPC).
5. The differential, cut-out minus cut-in, is set by
regulating the amount of force exerted upon the bar by the
adjusting spring. There are many variations in the
characteristics of individual types of motor controls.
Each control has an adjustment of one kind or another.
This allows the control a wide range of applications.
6. One of the more useful tools in control
adjustment is the pressure control setting chart. The
settings for most applications can be found by referring to
this chart.
7. If the particular application desired is not found
on this chart, the next approach to use is the pressure-
temperature relationship chart.
8. Assume that the desired cut-in pressure is 25
p.s.i.g. and that the cut-out pressure is 10 p.s.i.g. The
differential would be 15 p.s.i.g. Since most controls have
only two setting. to make, cut-in and differential, we find
that knowing the cut-out pressure is an important factor.
9. The two scales (one for cut-in and the other for
differential) are located on the front of the control. The
adjusting screws are located on top of the control. The
adjusting screws are turned until the pointers indicate the
pressures desired. Make sure that you read the scales
very carefully. The unit should be allowed to cycle once.
The cycling ON should take pace when the low side
pressure is 25 p.s.i.g., and the OFF cycle should occur
when the pressure drops to 10 p.s.i.g. These pressures
may be observed on a gauge installed in the suction line.
56
10. Thermostatic Motor Control. The thermostatic
motor control (TMC) operates on temperature rather than
on pressure. These motor controls can be used on most
types of refrigeration and air-conditioning units. They
must be used on all units that utilize high or low side
floats and capillary tube refrigerant control devices.
11. Principles of operation. The operating principle
of the thermostatic motor control is based on a physics
law which states that matter will expand when heated and
contract when cooled. The power element uses this law
in its function.
12. The element is a sealed container filled with a
liquid, gas, or combination of the two. Any change in
temperature surrounding the element will cause a pressure
change within the element. The power element consists
of three parts-a feeler bulb, capillary tube, and bellows.
Any leak in the power element will render it useless.
13. The feeler bulb of the power element is located
in suck a position as to be sensitive to any change in the
temperature of the controlled space. For domestic units
this location is right on the evaporator so as to control the
evaporator temperature. It might also be fastened inside
the refrigerated space.
14. Any rise in temperature will heat the bulb,
causing the charge to expand. This expansion will be
transmitted through the capillary tube to the bellows,
causing the bellows to expand. Attached to the bellows
and inserted into the housing to rest against one end of the
lever system is a short push rod. The pressure of the
power element will expand the bellows, pushing the rod
against the lever. This lever will cause other levers to
move, and the net result will be a set of electrical contact
points closing. Closing of the points will cause the motor
to start, and the unit will be in operation.
15. As the temperature at the feeler bulb drops, so
will the temperature of the bulb. This causes a drop in
power element pressure and will reduce the "push" on the
lever system. Part of the lever system consists of a spring
which counteracts the power element pressure. As the
element pressure drops, the spring will pull the points
apart and stop the unit.
16. When you turn the adjusting knob clockwise, the
spring will become compressed, causing the cut-in
temperature to rise. Compressing the spring puts more
pressure in opposition to the power element and demands
that the element heat up even more to overcome this
increased pressure, closing the points. The converse
(turning the knob counterclockwise) will decrease spring
tension and lower the cut-in point
17. The TMC has a second spring that works in
conjunction with the power element instead of
against it. This spring is used to set the "cut-out"
temperature (on some controls) or the differential (on
other type controls).
18. Location of feeler bulb. Normally, the feeler
bulb will be tightly clamped to the evaporator. The TMC
will operate on the evaporator temperature. The bulb can
be located elsewhere if the situation demands it; some
bulbs will be located in the cold box rather than on the
evaporator. In this case the TMC will operate on the cold
box temperature. On ice-making machines the feeler bulb
should be located in the ice bin. In this application the
TMC will shut the unit off when the ice level reaches the
feeler bulb and cools it. When the ice level falls below
the bulb, the bulb will warm up and turn the unit on. If
the refrigerated space has forced air circulation, the TMC
bulb should be mounted in the return airstream.
19. Replacement. The control mechanism is so
delicately built that it is impractical to repair in the field.
If operation is erratic because of power element failure,
mechanical (lever) action failure, or contact point failure,
you should replace the entire switch.
20. Checking thermostatic motor controls.
Thermostatic motor controls are very delicate
instruments. However, if they are not misused, they will
give years of trouble free service. Thermostatic motor
controls are subject to several troubles, each of which
usually requires replacement of the complete control.
Some of the more common troubles are treated in the
following paragraphs.
a. Loss of Charge. Occasionally the power element
will lose part or all of its charge. This charge is very
small and any loss at all will cause the unit to fail. A
kinked or clogged capillary tube will give the same
indication as a loss of charge. Usually a power element
failure requires replacement of the complete control.
However, it is possible to get replacement power elements
for some controls, although care must be taken to insure
that you have the correct replacement item.
b. Burned Contacts. Even though there is snap
action when the points open and close, they will burn. In
such cases the points will either stick closed or become
pitted and never close. In some cases the point can be
filed and the control will operate satisfactorily for a
period of time. Filing the points should be considered a
temporary repair and the control should be replaced as
soon as possible.
c. Wear. The parts of a TMC are light and do not
move very far, but they do move many, many times each
day. One should not become too concerned about wear
57
unless the unit has been in use a long time. However, the
TMC will wear out; when it does, remove and replace it.
d. Electrical. Low and high voltages, high current
flow, frayed insulation, bad electrical contacts, and
various other electrical malfunctions will cause the TMC
to fail. Electrical troubles can often be determined and
repaired without having to replace the control.
20. Electric Controls
1. There are many devices that may be used in
single- or three-phase circuits. We will cover each of
these devices and how they operate.
2. Switches. The two types of switches used in
electric controls are the snap action and mercury. These
switches help. to reduce the problem of arcing when a
circuit is open or closed.
3. Relays. There are many types of relays used in
electrical application. The type that we are interested in is
the control relay. These are relays that open or close an
electric circuit of higher voltage by the use of lower
voltage. These relays might be defined as an electrically
operated switch. The main use of this relay is to remotely
control an electrical device such as a fan motor or pump.
4. Control Transformers. A control transformer
steps voltage down to operate different kinds of electrical
controls. Line voltage applies to wiring or devices using
110 or 220 volts. In control terminology, low-voltage
control takes in all controls and controlled devices that
use 25 volts or less.
5. Magnetic Starter. Three-phase motors must
have at least two of the leads open to stop their operation.
The device that opens these wires (circuit) is a line starter
or magnetic starter. A magnetic starter is nothing more
than a larger control relay which electrically operates two
or more switch contacts.
6. Trouble Analysis. Before you can effectively
troubleshoot a control circuit or system, you should know
the circuit and how it operates. You can study the circuit
in a wiring diagram of that particular circuit. Studying
the diagram will give you a knowledge of the circuit as it
should normally operate. If the system does not function
properly, the circuit is defective and an analysis of the
trouble and its location must be made.
7. Types of trouble. In practically all defective
circuits, one .of the following types of trouble will exist:
a. Open-A circuit that has a break in any part of the
circuit between the load and source.
b. Short-A circuit in which a conductor comes in
contact with a point or object that it is not supposed to
touch.
 (1) Direct short-A circuit in which one of the
hot conductors comes in contact with a neutral conductor.
This type of short circuit will "blow" a fuse or trip a
breaker because there isn't any resistance in the circuit.
(2) Cross short-A circuit in which two of the hot
conductors make contact. This short will cause an
electrical feedback even though one of the conductors is
open.
c. Low power-This trouble causes units to operate
improperly. Two effects are sluggish motors and dim
lights. Low voltage may be caused by loose, dirty, or
corroded connections as well as a low power source.
8. Location of trouble. As soon as you have
studied the wiring diagram, the next step is to check out
the circuits with the appropriate test equipment.
9. Opens may be checked with a voltmeter or by a
continuity Lest. The continuity of a circuit may be
checked by a continuity meter or light, an ohmmeter, or a
bell. The power must be off when making continuity
tests. An ohmmeter will indicate infinity across an open
circuit, while the light or bell would not function.
10. A short can be located with an ohmmeter or by a
continuity test. When checking a circuit with an
ohmmeter, a zero-resistance reading indicates a short, and
an infinity reading indicates an open. Remember, when
using an ohmmeter to test a circuit, the circuit power
source must be off.
11. Major Advantages of Electrical Controls.
Electrical energy is commonly used to transmit the
change in space condition sensed by the controller to
other components of the system. This signal from the
controller will translate into work at the final control
element. For this purpose, electricity has the following
major advantages:
a. Electric controls are available wherever there is a
source of power.
b. Electric wiring is usually easy to install.
c. Electric power readily amplifies the relatively
feeble impulse received from the sensing element.
d. The impulse received from the sensing element
can be applied directly to produce one or several
combinations or sequences in electrical output. This
allows one actuator to perform several desired functions.
e. It readily permits remote control. The controller
can be a considerable distance from the controlled space
or element.
12. Modes of Electric Controls. All control
systems do not use the same types of action to accomplish
their purposes. The method by which a control system
acts is called the control mode. We will discuss the two-
position, proportional position, and floating controls.
58
13. Two-position control. In two-position controls
the final control element occupies one of two possible
positions (open or closed). The following is a list of
systems that can use two-position control operation.
a. Domestic heating systems. (You may be called
upon to calibrate and troubleshoot controls used on
heating systems.)
b. Electric motors on unit heaters and refrigeration
machines.
c. Water sprays for humidification.
d. Electric strip heaters.
14. There are two values of the controlled variable
which determine the position of the final control element.
Between these values there is a zone in which the
controller cannot initiate an action of the final control
element. This zone is called the differential gap. As the
controlled variable reaches the higher of the two values,
the final control element assumes one of its two positions,
which corresponds to the demands of the controller, and
remains there until the controlled variable drops back to
the lower value. The final control element then travels to
the other position as rapidly as possible and remains there
until the controlled variable again reaches the upper limit.
15. There are two varieties of two-position control
which have been developed. The first, and oldest, may be
called simple two-position control. This has been more or
less standard in the past and, as its name implies, it is
fairly elementary. The second, which may be called
timed two-position control, is a later development which
is rapidly replacing simple two-position control.
16. In simple two-position control, the controller and
the final control element interact in the manner previously
described without modification from any source, either
mechanical or thermal. The result is cyclical operation of
the equipment under control. The controlled variable
fluctuates back and forth between two values determined
by the magnitude of the differential and the lag in the
system. Since the action of the controller is such that it
cannot change the position of the final control element
until the controlled variable reaches one or the other of
the two limits of the differential, these limits become the
minimum possible swing of the controlled variable.
17. In simple two-position control, the controller
never catches up with the controlled condition. Thus it
corrects a condition that has already passed, rather than
one which is taking place or is about to take place.
Consequently, simple two-position control is applicable
only to systems in which total system lag (including not
only transfer lags but also measuring and final control
element lags) is small. For this reason, simple two-
position control rarely finds application in comfort
heating control, but lends itself to the control of certain
industrial processes and auxiliary processes in air
conditioning.
18. There is no single control point in simple two-
position control. Rather, the controlled variable cycles
back and forth between two extremes. It is convenient to
think of the control point as being midway between the
two extremes and offset as being a sustained deviation of
this control point. Thus, offset is a shifting of the whole
curve either up or down, and the mean value is either
raised or lowered so that it no longer corresponds to a
point midway between the upper and lower limits of the
controller differential.
19. Offset (on a temperature control system, for
example) is caused by the fact that the average value of
the controlled variable must be lower under heavy load
conditions and higher under fight load conditions in order
that heat can be supplied at the lower or higher rate
needed. At peak load the burner must remain on 100
percent of the time. Therefore the controlled variable
cannot rise to the upper limit of the thermostat
differential; otherwise the burner would be shut off.
Likewise, under minimum load the controlled variable
cannot fall to the lower limit of the differential or the
burner would be turned on.
20. Since the amount of offset is limited in this way
by the differential, it is usually a serious problem in
simple two-position control unless it happens that a wide
differential must be used.
21. The ideal method of heating any space is to
replace lost heat in exactly the amount needed. With two-
position control, this is obviously impossible since the
burner is either "full-ON" and the heat delivered at any
specific instant is either too much or too little. However,
a close approximation of the ideal method .of heat
delivery can be had by using timed two-position control.
In this method of control, heat is delivered in measured
quantities on a "percentage ON-time basis" so that
fluctuations of the control point are, for all practical
purposes, eliminated.
22. For example, suppose we have a domestic
heating system with a two-position control which is
required to make up a heat loss of 20,000 B.t.u. in 1 hour
at a certain load. The total capacity of the burner is
40,000 B.t.u. per hour. This means that the burner will
have to operate 30 minutes out of the hour, whether it is
on for 30 minutes and off for 30 minutes, on for two 15-
minute periods and off for two 15-minute periods, on for
six 5-minute periods and off for six 5-minute periods, or
any other combination in the same ratio.
23. In many cases the longer cycles would be
unsatisfactory because the variations in temperature
59
would be too great. Dividing the heat into the correctly
sized packages, so to speak, and delivering them at the
right time gives a closer approximation of the desired
result.
24. In timed two-position control, the basic
interaction between the controller and the final control
element is the same as for simple two-position control.
However, the controller responds to gradual changes in
the average value of the controlled variable rather than
cyclical fluctuations. The gradual changes modify the
timing action to meet the changes in load.
25. Timing action may be provided mechanically,
for example, by a cam mechanism. The chief
disadvantage of this method is that only the relative
duration of the ON and OFF periods may be varied with
changes in load. The frequency remains fixed.
26. Thermal timing devices are more convenient and
flexible. Placing side-by-side a heating element and a
temperature-sensitive element controlling the power
supply to the heating element creates a thermal timer. As
long as the ambient temperature is within certain limits,
the thermal timer will cool on its ON point, energize the
heater, heat to its OFF point and deenergize the heater,
again cool to its ON point, and repeat the cycle. As the
ambient temperatures decline, the time required for the
timer to heat to the OFF point increases, and the cooling
time decreases. Thus the timer automatically changes the
ratio of ON to OFF time. Moreover, the nonlinear shape
of the heating and cooling curves may be utilized to vary
the total cycle time also, and therefore the frequency of
the cycles.
27. In the latest models of domestic heating
thermostats, this principle is utilized by taking full
advantage of the effect produced by the artificial heater
long included as standard in similar thermostats. The ON
and OFF points of the thermostat are fixed by adjustment
of the setting dial, and a small offset in room temperature
is allowed to measure changes in heating load so as to
vary the timing pattern of the thermostat.
28. In the two-position "weatherstat system," the
weatherstat, located outdoors, operates in essentially the
same way by turning its own heat supply (and
simultaneously that of the building or zone) on and off so
as to maintain its own temperature within its differential.
Here the ambient temperature variation which causes
variation in the timing pattern is the full range of
"effective" outdoor temperature (including the effects of
sun and wind), which constitutes the heating load.
29. In electronic systems the ambient temperature at
the timer or cycle is, in effect, held constant by means of
an ambient temperature compensator, and the ON and
OFF points are reset by remote temperature elements such
as a room
thermostat, an outdoor compensator, or any other
temperature controller suitable for this purpose either
alone or in combination. Raising the operating range of
the cycle is equivalent to reduction of the ambient
temperature, and thus increases the percentage of ON
time.
30. In whatever form the principle is applied, timed
two-position control offers a great advantage over simple
two-position control in that it greatly reduces the swings
in the controlled variable resulting from a large total lag.
Since the controller need not wait until it can detect cyclic
changes in the controlled variable and then signal for
corrective action, control system lags have no significant
effect, and the lags in the heat source and distribution
system serve only to smooth out the "humps" and
"valleys" in heat delivery so as to approximate closely the
results of a continuous-delivery system with proportional
position control.
31. In timed two-position control, the addition of
heat to the thermostat bimetal is a factor in offset.
32. In analyzing the cycle of a thermostat used in
this type of control, you can see that the control point
must vary if the bimetal is to heat and cool at different
rates necessary to time the cycle for the various load
conditions. As the outside air temperature decreases, the
heat loss from the space increases, and the ON cycle of
the burner must lengthen in order to replace heat lost at an
increased rate. This means that the heating rate of the
thermostat bimetal must be slower so that the burner will
remain on longer. It also means that the cooling rate of
the bimetal during the OFF part of the cycle must be
faster so that the burner will come on sooner. Both of
these demand that the difference between the bimetal
temperature and the air temperature become greater. This
difference is secured by a sustained deviation of the room
temperature, which is called offset.
33. Quantitatively, in timed two-position control,
offset is equal to the total added heat minus the manual
differential of the thermostat. Total heat is equal to the
difference between the maximum temperature of the
bimetal and the temperature of the air surrounding it.
Manual differential is the differential for which the
thermostat is set.
34. Both offset and temperature swing can be
reduced to negligible quantities by using a relatively
narrow manual differential (such as 1 ½° or 2°) and a
small amount of artificial heat applied directly to the
sensing element.
35. Proportional control. If proportional control the
final control element moves to a position proportional to
the deviation of the value of the controlled variable from
the set point. There is one and only one position of the
60
final control element for each value of the controlled
variable within the proportional band of the controller.
Thus, the position of the final control element is a
continuous linear function of the value of the controlled
variable.
36. Because there is but one position of the final
control element for each value of the controlled variable,
a sustained deviation is necessary to place the final
control element in any position other than the middle of
its range (assuming the set point to be in the middle of the
proportional band). Offset therefore becomes a major
problem in proportional position control.
37. As an example, suppose we have proportional
control of a hot water coil used in heating a room. Under
ideal load conditions, the thermostat is in the middle of its
proportional band, the coil valve is half open, and there is
no offset. Now suppose that the outside temperature
drops, increasing the load on the heating coil. At once,
more heat is required in steady supply to replace the heat
which is being lost from the room at a greater rate. To
deliver the required heat, the coil valve must open further
and remain in that position as long as the increased load
exits. To do this, the temperature must deviate from the
set point and sustain that deviation because the position of
the final control element is proportional to the amount of
deviation.
38. As the load condition increases from the ideal,
offset increases toward colder; and as the load condition
decreases from the ideal, offset increases toward warmer.
39. Floating control. Floating control is a mode of
control in which the final control element moves at a
predetermined rate in a corrective direction until the
controller is satisfied or until a movement in the other
direction is desired. The direction of movement
corresponds to the direction of deviation of the controlled
variable. Floating control is further divided into several
subclasses, two of which are of interest to us:
a. Proportional-speed floating control in which the
final control element is moved at a rate proportional to the
deviation of the controlled variable.
b. Single-speed floating control in which the final
control element is moved at one speed throughout its
entire range.
40. Either is adaptable to systems having a fast
reaction rate, a slight transfer lag, and a slow load change.
In general, proportional-speed control can be used in
systems having somewhat faster load changes than those
operating successfully with single-speed floating control.
41. Series 20 Control. The series 20 control circuit
acts to make and break an electrical circuit which results
in two-position response. This con-
trol is designed for low voltage, two-position control of:
a. Motorized valves.
b. Motorized dampers.
c. Relays.
42. Series 20 control circuits are not "fail safe" and
should not be used where continued operation of the
controlled equipment would be hazardous if the power
failed. Series 20 motors (and equipment under their
control) remain in whatever position they happen to
occupy at power failure.
43. A series 20 control circuit consists of one
holding and two starting circuits. The motor rotates in
one direction only, making a half turn each time one of
the starting circuits and the holding circuit are completed.
The holding circuit is made-at the beginning and broken
at the end of each half turn by a cam and switch
arrangement on the moor.
44. Figure 34 illustrates a complete series 20 control
loop. The equipment includes a thermostat, an actuator, a
valve, and a control transformer.
45. Let's assume that the temperature in the water
tower drops to the set point on the thermostat. The
bellows will contract, causing the R and B leads to
contact. The starting circuit is now established. The
motor is energized and starts to rotate clockwise. As the
motor and cam rotate, the right blade of the maintaining
switch makes contact with S-2, and the holding circuit is
established. The holding circuit is independent of the
starting circuit. Once it is completed, it furnishes current
to the motor, regardless of the thermostat action.
46. When the motor shaft has rotated 180°, the cam
opens contact S-1. All circuits are incomplete, the motor
stops, and the steam valve is now completely open and
will remain open until the red and white leads make
contact in the thermostat.
47. You can see that this is going to cause a rise in
temperature of the water. The rise in temperature will
become sufficient to move the thermostat blade to contact
the W lead. Now the starting circuit is reestablished. The
motor is energized and begins to rotate once again in the
clockwise position. As the motor and cam rotate, the left
blade of the maintaining switch makes contact with S-l,
and the holding circuit is established. Once again, the
motor will rotate a 180° before the cam breaks the holding
circuit.
48. The steam valve is closed and will remain there
until the thermostat calls for it to open. The control of the
valve in this manner will produce the two-position
response which was pointed out before
49. Series 40 Control. The series 40 control circuit
acts to make and break an electrical circuit which results
61
in two-position response. This circuit is a line voltage
control circuit which is switched directly by the single-
pole, single-throw switching action of a series 40
controller. Series 40 is a two-position control and
requires two wires. It can be used to control fans, lights,
electric motors, and other standard line voltage
equipment, as well as a series 40 controlled device and
line voltage. The series 40 control circuit depends on the
equipment under control as to whether it is "fail safe" or
not.
50. In operation the equipment under control is
energized when the controller switch is closed and
deenergized when it is open. Normally the series 40
controller makes and breaks the load directly, as shown in
figure 35. It is possible for loads to exceed the controller
rating. In this situation a simple control relay is used
between the controller and the load circuit.
51. Figure 35 shows a complete series 40 control
loop. It includes a series 40 thermostat series 40
controlled device, and line voltage. The thermostat is
sensing the temperature of the water. A drop in
temperature below the set point causes the mercury bulb
to rotate, allowing the mercury to close the circuit to the
solenoid valve. The solenoid opens the valve and allows
the steam to enter and heat the water. This cycle
continues as the temperature changes, and you can see
that this is ON and OFF control or two-position.
52. Series 60 Control. The series 60 control circuits
make and break electrical circuits which results in two
kinds of response. Series 60 controls can be used as two-
position and floating response.
53. The series 60 two-position control circuit is
similar to the series 20 except that series 60 is a line
voltage circuit. It can be used for industrial application,
using line voltage equipment and installations where
single-pole, double-throw control of line voltage is
required. It is not a "fail safe" control circuit and should
not be used where it would be hazardous.
54. The series 60 floating control produces another
response that is different from two-position. Series 60
floating control is commonly applied to motorized valves
on tank level control systems, motorized dampers for
static pressure regulation, and specialized pressure and
temperature control systems.
55. The series 60 floating control circuit uses either
low voltage or line voltage, depending on the equipment
selected. The basic pattern of the floating control circuit
is like that of the two-position circuit except that the
motor is reversible and limit switches are substituted for
maintaining switches.
 Figure 34. Series 20 control loop.

56. In floating control there is no fixed number of
positions for the final control element. The valve or
damper can assume any position between its two extremes
as long as the controlled variable remains within the
values corresponding to the neutral zone of the controller.
Furthermore, when the controlled variable is outside the
neutral one of the controller, the final control element
travels toward the corrective position until the value of
the controlled variable is brought back into the neutral
zone of the controller or until the final control element
reaches its extreme position.

62
 Figure 35. Series 40 control loop.
57. Figure 36 shows a series 60 two-position and
floating control circuit. You can see that the two are
different in the voltage operation as well as in the
response.
58. Because of the close similarity of the series 20
and series 60 circuits, we will not discuss its operation to
a great extent. The main difference is that the 60 operates
on line voltage, whereas 20 uses low voltage.
59. Figure 36, B, illustrates a complete series 60
floating control circuit. The equipment includes a
temperature floating controller and a floating control
motor.
60. Referring to figure 36,B, when the temperature
drops, the controller blade completes a circuit from
contacts R to B. This causes the motor to energize by line
voltage. The capacitor in the circuit causes the motor to
turn clockwise, which will establish a corrective action of
the final control element.
61. The motor moves at a single speed toward
opening the valve. It will stop if sufficient heat is added
to raise the temperature on the thermostat to open R and
B. If not, it runs until the limit breaks and stops the
motor.
62. On a rise in temperature, the thermostat closes R
to W. This allows line voltage to go into the motor
through W and once again energizes the motor. The
capacitor in the circuit now causes the motor to rotate in
the counterclockwise direction. The motor rotates,
63
closing the valve, until the temperature is corrected or
until the limit of its travel is reached by limit switch S2.
The motor would remain here until heat causes a rise in
temperature sufficient to cause the thermostat to float the
blade back to the neutral position if the desired
temperature is satisfied.
63. Series 90 Control. The series 90 control circuit
acts to balance a bridge which results in modulating or
proportional control response.
64. The series 90 control circuit is a low-voltage
bridge circuit which operates to position the controlled
device (usually a damper or motorized valve) at any point
between full-open and full-closed. It can be used to
operate motorized valves, motorized dampers, and
sequence-switching mechanisms.
65. Figure 37 shows a typical application of a series
90 control circuit. The temperature of the equipment
cooling space is being controlled by governing the
amount of air that moves across the direct expansion
(DX) coil. The thermostat modulates to control the
modulating motor. The motor, in turn, proportionally
controls the face and bypass dampers to control
temperature.
66. Figure 38 shows how a balancing relay is made.
The balancing relay is applied to the series 90 control
circuit. The amount of current passing through coils 1
and 2 governs the position
 Figure 36. Series 60 control loop.
of the contact blade in respect to the two contacts of the
motor.
67. When equal amount of current flow through both
coils of the balancing relay, the contact blade Is in the
center of the space between the two motor contacts, and
the 24 volts cannot be applied to the motor. You see that
there is current flow in each coil even though the motor
isn't running.
68. In figure 38, if coil C1 receives more current
flow, and thus becomes stronger, the contact blade moves
64
to the left and completes the circuit between motor
winding W1 and the transformer. Current also passes
through the capacitor and W2. The motor will rotate in
the clockwise direction. When coil C2 receives more
current flow, the contact blade will move to the right and
a circuit is made once again to the motor. The capacitor
is now in series with winding W1. You know that this
causes the motor to rotate in the opposite direction now.
69. Figure 39 illustrates a bridge circuit which
is used in the series 90 control circuit. It consists of two
potentiometers and the coils of the balancing relay. One
potentiometer is located in the motor, and its wiper is
moved by the rotation of the motor. The other
potentiometer is in the controller, and its wiper is moved
by the thermal system.
70. The thermostat is satisfied and the bridge is
balanced. Power (24 volts) is applied to the bridge by the
transformer. There is a path for current flow; in fact there
are two paths for current flow. The left circuit has a total
of 135 ohms resistance plus coil C1. The right circuit has
a total of 135 ohms resistance plus coil C2. The amount
of current flow is equal in both circuits. This is called a
balanced bridge.
71. Figure 40 illustrates a complete series 90 control Figure 38. Series 90 balancing relay.
circuit. It consists of a modulating controller, modulating
motor, and control transformer. temperature rise indicates that more cooling is needed.
72. Referring to figure 40, you see by the dotted The series 90 control circuit will continually reposition
wipers that the temperature has increased. The wiper in the valve to correspond to the changes in temperature.
the controller potentiometer is now at a new position on 74. Modulating control is a much better mode of
the resistance. The left circuit now has 97 ½-ohms control that two-position. As you have seen, any change
resistance plus coil C1. The right circuit now has 162 ½- with modulating control immediately causes a
ohms resistance plus coil C2. Current will flow in the left proportional change of the final control element. But we
and right circuit, as indicated by the arrows. According to must remember that if we want to have more accurate
Ohm’s law (E = IR), 25 amps will flow through the left control, it costs more.
circuit and .15 amps will flow through the right circuit. 75. Electrical Actuator Adjustment. We have
As a result of the unbalance of the bridge, coil C1 has a discussed the electric controls that may be used to control
stronger magnetic field and coil C2 has a weaker magnetic temperature, pressure, flow, humidity, and any other
field. variable. Those controls must be installed, adjusted, and
73. Power is now applied to the motor windings, and calibrated properly before they are able to control those
the motor begins to rotate. The motor runs clockwise. As variables.
it turns clockwise, it moves the wiper on the motor 76. One of the important items that has to operate
potentiometer to the right, as shown. Now the circuits on properly is the final control element, such as the damper,
the left and right are once again balanced in resistance. louver, valve, or any device that might be used to control
The balancing relay is balanced, and power is broken to the control agent.
the motor. The chilled water valve was opened during the
change of the motor. The

Figure 37. Series 90 application. Figure 39. Current flow at one instant in a balanced
bridge circuit.

65
 Figure 40. Complete series 90 control circuit.
77. For example, if temperature is being controlled,
the control loop may be properly operating to maintain
the temperature. But let us look at the control loop from
the standpoint that the actuator isn't in adjustment with the
chilled water valve. Now, the control loop cannot
possibly maintain the temperature. Why can't the control
loop be able to control the temperature? Well, look at
figure 41 and we will see why.
78. Figure 41 illustrates a control loop in which the
actuator is out of adjustment with the final control
element. The temperature in the duct is below the set
point. The controller sensed this and controlled the
actuator (modulating motor) in a manner to compensate
for the lower temperature.
79. The controller signaled the actuator to close the
valve so that the temperature could increase. The actuator
moved to this position, stopping at the extent of its travel.
66
The linkage between the actuator and the valve causes the
valve to remain open, so chilled water continues to flow
through the coil.
80. With the actuator out of adjustment, the control
system will not function properly. So we see why it
cannot control. Therefore the actuator must be adjusted to
the device it operates.
81. Electrical Control Applications. Electrical
controls can be applied any time that a measured variable
is to be maintained. As you have seen in the previous
discussions, the controller senses the measured variable,
and the final control element regulates the control agent to
maintain the measured variable at a set point.
82. Maintaining temperature in a space with series
90 control. In figure 42, a system controlling temperature
is illustrated. You can see that
 Figure 41. Actuator out of adjustment.
a series 90 modulating control circuit is being used to
maintain the temperature.
83. The thermostat, T-l, is set to maintain a desired
temperature of 72° F. If, for instance, the temperature
sensed by the bulb is 72° F., the controller operates the
motor to position the face and bypass dampers at a
halfway position. This would mean that the bridge circuit
of the series 90 control is balanced because the
temperature is at set point.
84. When the temperature drops below set point (72°
F.), the bridge circuit is unbalanced and the motor will run
clockwise to close the face dampers and open the bypass
dampers. This allows more air to pass through the bypass
dampers. The result is less cooling because less air is
cooling in contact with the coil. The series 90 motor runs
until the bridge is once again balanced. The motor will
hold the dampers in this position until the thermostat
senses a temperature change which will once again
unbalance the bridge.
85. When the temperature increases above set point,
the bridge becomes unbalanced in the opposite direction.
The controller now causes the motor to rotate in the
counterclockwise direction. The motor now opens the
face dampers and closes the bypass dampers. Now more
cooling is produced because of the greater amount of air
coming in contact with the cooling coil. The motor will
run (opening the face dampers) until the bridge is once
again balanced.
67
86. Operating in this manner, the temperature is
controlled by this modulating control system.
87. Maintaining relative humidity with series 90
control. If we are to maintain humidity, it first has to be
measured by a controller. The humidity controllers
usually employ hair, leather, wood, or some moisture-
sensitive element to sense humidity and to convert it into
movement. This movement, in turn, operates the
controller.
88. Looking at figure 43, you will see a modulating
control system maintaining humidity. The humidity
controlled senses the percent of humidity as the air moves
through the duct. This control circuit operates in the same
manner as the previous system which was maintaining
temperature. The main difference between the two
systems is the sensing device which operates the wiper in
the controller.
89. As the humidity increases above set point (50
percent) the hair expands in length. This allows the
spring tension to move the wiper arm on the
potentiometer. The bridge is then unbalanced and the
series 90 motor is started rotating counterclockwise. The
motorized valve is modulated toward close due to the
increased humidity. The motor will continue to run
(closing the valve)
 Figure 42. Maintaining temperature with a series 90 control.
until the potentiometer in the motor balances the
potentiometer in the humidity controller.
90. The opposite action occurs when the humidity
drops below set point. The bridge is unbalanced in the
left circuit now. The motor rotates clockwise and
modulates the motorized valve toward open. The motor
will run (opening the valve) until the bridge is balanced.
The system will remain here until the humidity changes.
91. Maintaining temperature and relative humidity
with high limit control. A control system which maintains
temperature and humidity at a high limit is illustrated in
figure 44. The system is composed of several units that
we have discussed before, but in this case they are used in
conjunction with each other. The devices are a series 90
motor, thermostat, and humidistat.
92. The control circuit of the temperature control
system with high limit humidity is diagramed in figure 45.
As you can see, the series 90 thermostat has two
potentiometers. The wipers of these pots are moved by
the temperature sensed by the bulb ("pots" is short for
potentiometers).
93. The front pot forms a bridge circuit with the
series 90 motor that operates the face and bypass
dampers. The only thing abnormal in this part of the
68
temperature circuit is the pot of the humidistat being in
the blue wire of the right circuit
94. The rear pot forms a bridge circuit with the series
90 motor which operates the reheat valve. The rear pot is
somewhat out of line with the front pot. A factory
calibration, the "dead" spot is about 7/64 inch. You can
see in figure 45 that the wiper in the rear pot cannot start
to operate the reheat valve at the instant the front pot
wiper reaches B. The temperature must drop farther for
the rear wiper to reach W, where it will begin to
unbalance the bridge circuit.
95. If you will refer to figures 44 and 45, we will
discuss the operation of the control system and its circuit
as it functions to maintain the temperature and relative
humidity at a high limit. The set point is 72° F., which
the control system strives to maintain. We have seen that
the face and bypass dampers will be at midposition when
the temperature is at set 'point. It will modulate the face
and bypass dampers to control the temperature. The
system operates in this manner until the humidity reaches
the high limit.
96. Let us go through the operation when the
humidity increases above the high limit. This
 Figure 43. Maintaining relative humidity with a series 90 control.

Figure 44. Maintaining temperature and humidity with a high limit humidity control.

69
 Figure 45. Temperature and high limit humidity control circuit.

causes more resistance to be placed in the right circuit.
The motor runs clockwise, opens the face dampers, and
closes the bypass dampers. Of course, this allows more of
the air to come in contact with the coil. As a result, a
greater amount of moisture is removed from the c.f.m.
moved through the duct. In other words, the high limit
humidistat overrode the thermostat and caused the face
damper to open more than the thermostat wanted it to
open. Naturally, if the face damper is open more than the
thermostat is calling for it to open, the room temperature
will drop below the desired value.
97. The rear pot of the thermostat now comes into
action. The drop in temperature causes the rear wiper to
begin unbalancing the bridge circuit

70
 Figure 46. Air compressor station.
of the reheat valve. The reheat valve brings the
temperature back up to the desired amount by adding heat
through the steam coil. When the sensible heat is added,
it also lowers the relative humidity. The temperature and
humidity both have now been satisfied for the desired
conditions. This system continually strives to maintain
temperature and a maximum humidity within the limits of
the controllers.
21. Air Supply
1. Almost all large air-conditioning systems require
a supply of compressed air. It is used to operate valves,
controllers, transmitters, thermostats, humidistats,
receivers, etc. Such air can be furnished to an installation
by two possible sources:
a. Compressed air may be available in the building
by a remote compressor system.
b. Compressed air may be furnished by a
compressor station installed within the building. Figure
46 illustrates a simple, typical air-supply system. It
consists of a compressor, storage tank, filter, pressure
gauges, safety valve, pressure reducing valve, etc.
2. A Compressor Components. Compressors are
made in a number of different sizes and designs. They are
driven by electric motors or gasoline engines. Some are
the single-stage type, while others are of the multistage
type. The multistage compressor is designed to develop
higher pressures than the single-stage unit. Compressors
are cooled either by air or by a liquid coolant.
Compressor units are mounted in a variety of ways:
stationary, on skids, and with single or several wheels
which have rubber tires or steel rims.
71
3. Most of the air compressors installed in large
buildings are anchored tightly to the floor and are driven
by an electric motor. The compressor is connected to the
motor by a belt-drive arrangement. Belt-driven
compressors usually have more than one belt. If one belt
needs changing, they all must be replaced. New belts
should be adjusted to specifications and then checked
regularly because they sometimes stretch. The air
compressor is very similar in construction to the
refrigeration compressor. Care and maintenance
procedures are the same.
4. Air cleaners and filters. The air in an air
compressor must be clean to protect the air compressor
and other controls and equipment operated by the air
pressure. A defective air cleaner will not filter the air.
The minute particles in dirty air are apt to restrict the flow
of air, reducing the efficiency of the compressor and
operating air controls. Air cleaners may be constructed of
screen mesh or may be a filter disc type. No matter what
type cleaner is used, it must be serviced periodically.
Operating conditions will determine the service
requirements. Regardless of how frequently a cleaner is
serviced, you must never use a volatile cleaner such as
gasoline or diesel fuel for cleaning purposes. A
nonvolatile cleaner is required because, as the air is
compressed, it generates heat and the combination of
compressed air and fuel plus generated heat leads to
explosions. The higher the compressor pressures are, the
higher the temperature and the greater the emphasis which
must be placed on safety precautions. A bomb explodes
because the internal pressures
are greater than the housing can stand. Therefore, several
safety devices are built into the air compressor systems.
5. For efficiency and safety, air enters the filter and
passes on to the low-pressure cylinder. As air leaves the
low-pressure cylinder, it is cooled in the intercooler
before being compressed in the high-pressure side. The
air must be cooled again in some manner because heated
air doesn't have the body that cold air has under pressure.
6. To clean a dry pad filter, shake out the dirt from
the element and blow air through the filter in a reverse
direction. Then clean the filter with a nonflammable
cleaning fluid.
7. Controls. Safety controls are required for a
compressed air unit. Pressure regulators, relief valves,
safety valves, pressure switches, etc., are some of the
devices for control of compressed air and compressor
operation.
8. Relief valves' are installed in the receiver and
intercooler to relieve excessive pressures. Relief valves
and safety pop valves are usually set at the factory and the
setting should not be changed, although some units may
be disassembled for inspection. Some installations
require special valves in addition to the standard relief
valves. If a valve is disassembled for service, all parts
should be thoroughly checked. Proper operation of safety
valves is very important, as the name implies. Excessive
internal pressures can cause the air compressor unit to
explode, so be sure that only recommended procedures
and parts are employed when servicing a valve. Cleaning
is also important so that this valve will not stick open,
thus causing the second-stage pressure to drop to zero.
9. Intercooler. In the compressor the air is
compressed and then sent into an intercooler, where it is
cooled. The intercooler consists of a tank with coils
through which air or water is passed to cool the
compressed air. Under normal operating conditions the
air can be kept at a reasonable temperature by use of
aftercoolers. The aftercooler is generally located between
the air compressor and storage tank. Its function is to
cool the air to a desirable temperature and to condense
moisture out of the air.
10. Air tank. The air tank is a storage facility for the
compressed air. This tank is a sealed unit and will require
minor maintenance. All piping connections must be fit
tight, and valves adjusted according to specifications.
The air tank is generally located in a cool place for
efficient unit operation.
11. Chemical drier. A means of removing moisture
from the air is the use of a chemical drier for absorbing
moisture. After the chemical in the drier has become
saturated with moisture, it must be reactivated by heat or
be replaced. The drier in the air compressor system is in
72
many ways similar in construction to the type of
dehydrator used in a refrigeration system. The
dehumidifying cartridge containing the chemical is
generally placed in the pressure line. One type of
chemical that has been successfully used is calcium
chloride. Refer to the manufacturer's manual for
recommended procedures for cartridge reactivation or
replacement.
12. Motor. The motor size will vary with the
compressor size. Refer to the motor nameplate data for
specification. Maintenance such as cleaning and
lubrication should be done periodically.
13. Traps and drains. Traps and drains are used to
remove moisture that may have accumulated in the
system. The size of the air control system will determine
the number of traps and drains that are used. These
components must be cleaned periodically to remove any
moisture that may have collected in the system. Refer to
control air system diagram for actual location of these
components. Generally, a trap or separator is located near
the aftercooler
14. Gauge. Gauge locations will vary with each
control air system. Most gauge locations are visible to the
operator so that he can make an accurate reading on the
air pressure. The air pressure must remain constant for
accurate control operation; therefore a close inspection
must be maintained on gauge readings. If there is a
variation in air pressure, the cause must be found
immediately and corrected.
15. Maintenance. Before starting the compressor,
make sure the crankcase is filled to the proper level with a
recommended grade compressor oil. The crankcase is
filled to the line on the oil indicator or oil level elbow
located near the bottom of the compressor base. All
compressor parts are oiled from this base reservoir. A
close check must be periodically maintained on the oil
level for proper lubrication.
16. If the compressor is new, it should be drained
and refilled every 2 weeks of constant operation. When
the compressor is "broken in," drain and refill after every
2 or 3 months of daily operation or the equivalent.
17. The unit must be kept clean, since dirt is
responsible for most compressor troubles. The air filters
should be checked periodically and cleaned weekly with a
nonexplosive solvent or by blowing air through the filter
media. Make sure dry filters are free of all moisture. The
screen type filter should be dipped in oil for better
filtering action.
18. Special care must be given to make sure that all
components are free of moisture. The air storage tank
must be drained of moisture at least once a week and, if
necessary, more often. Chem-
ical driers are used for extracting moisture from the air in
excessively humid areas.
19. The belts should be tight enough to prevent
slippage, but not so tight as to cause excessive strain on
the motor shaft or bearings. V-belts require more slack
than fiat belts.
20. Exhaust and intake valves may become dirty
after a period of operation. This can result in valve
leakage and cutting down on efficient compressor
operation. Periodically, valves should be removed,
inspected, and thoroughly cleaned. If they continue to
leak after cleaning, they should be replaced. An
indication of valve leakage is any dark spots on the valve
seat or polished surface. Pop-off safety valves should be
blown off every 6 months to insure against sticking.
Reducing valves should be checked periodically to insure
that they maintain the correct system pressure at all times.
21. Troubleshooting. If there is a pressure loss in
the receiver, it can be caused by insufficient power unit
operation, slipping drive belt, leaky pipe joints, obstructed
air intake filter, obstructed or burned valves, or worn
rings. Knocks usually result from insufficient or
improper lubrication, too thin a cylinder head gasket,
worn bearings, loose flywheel, or foreign materials on the
top of the piston. If the compressor begins to knock, it
should be shut down immediately and the trouble reported
so that the necessary repairs or adjustments can be made.
22. Pneumatic Control System
1. The pneumatic control system, illustrated in
figure 47, consists of five major parts. They are:
a. Source of air supply.
b. Lines leading from the source of supply to the
controllers (thermostats, humidistats, etc.). These lines
are referred to as supply pressure lines.
c. The controllers, thermostats, humidistats,
recorders, etc.
d. The lines leading from controllers to the
controlled devices such as valves, dampers, etc. These
lines are referred to as control pressure lines.
e. The controlled devices (dampers. valves, etc.).
2. Lines. In order for the controller or any
pneumatic control device to operate successfully, the
devices must be connected to a regulated air supply. This
air must be clean and dry and supplied at a pressure from
15 to 20 p.s.i.g. The installation must be planned to
prevent water, oil, or dirt being carried through the piping
into the control or instruments.
3. All tubing, pipes, and fittings must be clean
inside and free of burrs. Shellac or a recommended joint
compound may be applied sparingly
73
Figure 47. -Typical air supply system.
to the male threads. All joints should be checked under
pressure with a soap and water solution.
4. In reference to figure 48, the supply header
furnishes air to a series of instruments in a building area.
Note that the supply header is pitched 1/4 inch to 1 foot to
help in the drainage of entrained oil or moisture. Sumps
and drains are located in the low points of the system and
should be blown off daily. The sump can be constructed
of pipe of sufficient volume to hold all the collected water
until it is blown out. Clean brass or iron pipe and fittings
½2 inch or larger should be used for the header.
5. The tubing that supplies air to the instruments
should be taken fi6m the top of the header. This is an
added precaution against letting the moisture enter the
instruments and other controlling devices. The
connections can be made at the side of the header when
necessary, but never at the bottom.
6. The air connections at the instruments are 1/4-
inch National Pipe Thread (N.P.T.), 3/8-inch copper
tubing (not less than .300 inch inside diameter (I.D.), or
1/4-inch iron pipe standard (I.P.S.). Brass pipe is used for
the air supply piping. Where corrosive conditions require
it, 1/4-inch I.P.S. clean, new, black iron pipe can be used.
Copper tubing is most practical and can be kept free from
leaks. The output piping to control valves should be ¾3/-
inch copper tubing with few exceptions.
7. The air filter and supply pressure regulator,
shown in figure 48, are installed in the supply piping
immediately before the instrument. These components
must be firmly supported to prevent the sagging of tubing.
Arrows on these devices indicate how they must be
connected in the system. Shutoff valves are installed in
the system to enable the repairman to remove devices
without shutting off the whole air-supply system.
 Figure 48. Air distribution piping.

8. The air filter catches any moisture, dirt, oil, and pressure system and illustrates a valve and switch for
other foreign materials that may pass through the system selecting either of the two pressures.
piping. Most filters have a rated capacity as to the 12. In most installations the air piping for the control
amount of moisture they can hold; therefore, they must be system is concealed internally into the building structure.
checked and drained periodically. Normally, this Generally, very little servicing is required unless there is
operation should be done daily, but under severe some possible damage due to building alterations. Piping
conditions of heavy moistened air it must be done more in the fan and equipment rooms is often exposed. In most
frequently. Close attention must be given to this detail for instances the exposed lines are run along out-of-the-way
efficient and successful instrument and control operation. places with properly designed supports and hangers.
9. The filter may be serviced by removing the Extra precautions must be taken so that the lines do not
bottom cover and removing the filtering element. The become damaged.
filter may be cleaned with an approved cleaning solvent 13. Instruments and Controls. Automatic controls
or compressed air. Whenever the filter element looks too are designed to do a specific job in an air-conditioning
dirty, it should be replaced with a new element. system. The controls may open
10. Pneumatic piping for instrumentation in large
installations becomes complicated. Many instruments are
located at designated positions in the duct system and
must have compressed air piped to them; therefore it is
advisable to refer to the installation schematic drawings
when determining the exact location of piping and
associated controls.
11. Reducing Valve Station. The supply pressure
for most single temperature controllers runs
approximately 15 p.s.i. Figure 49 illustrates an air filter
and a reducing station for a single pressure system.
Where two or more controllers or temperature thermostats
are required, a dual-pressure system is used. The supply
pressure for a dual installation is approximately 15 to 20
p.s.i. Figure 50 shows a reducing valve station for a dual
Figure 49. Single-pressure system.

74

Figure 50. Dual-pressure system.
or close valves and dampers, and operate other equipment
automatically whenever the need arises. Years of
research have gone into the design of these controls; and
if they are properly installed and maintained, they will
function efficiently. The type and number of electric and
pneumatic controls used will vary with the size of air-
conditioning installation and with equipment usage in the
building.
14. In equipment cooling, many different types of
instruments and controls are needed to control the
conditioned air at a required temperature and humidity.
All instruments, whether they are recording, indicating, or
control type, must operate and record accurately. You
learned earlier in this chapter that special care h given to
the compressed air supplied to the controls. It must be a
clean, dry air and supplied at approximately 20 p.s.i.g.
This air pressure initiates control operation.
15. Location. The location of controls and
instruments will vary with each air-conditioning
installation. Generally, a control is mounted near the
device it operates. For example, a damper motor is
usually located near the damper it operates. To find the
exact location of controls, refer to your installation air-
conditioning drawings.
16. All controls and instruments must be installed in
a clean, dry location. They must be mounted securely to
prevent sagging or vibration and must be accessible for
cleaning, adjusting, and repair.
17. Terminology. Before you can understand the
operating principles of controls, you must know the terms
that are applied to instrumentation. The following is a list
of some of the most common terms and their meanings:
a. Direct-acting controller is a control that is
adjusted to give an increasing air output pressure with an
increase in the variable, whether it is temperature,
pressure, flow, vacuum, or liquid level.
75
b. Reverse-acting controller is a control that is
adjusted to give a decreasing air output pressure with an
increase in the variable, whether it is temperature,
pressure, flow, vacuum, or liquid level.
c. Direct-acting diaphragm valve is a valve that
closes when the air pressure is applied to its diaphragm
motor. It may be referred to as an air-to-close valve.
d. Reverse-acting diaphragm valve is a valve which
opens when the air is applied to its diaphragm motor. It
may be referred to as an air-to-open valve.
e. Set point is the value of the controlled variable
that is asked of the controller by setting the indicator to
that value.
f. Control point is the actual temperature, pressure,
flow, vacuum or liquid level at any given instant
regardless of what the set point may be.
g. Proportional control is the type of control action
where the control signal varies in proportion to changes in
the controlled variable, and may be any value from
minimum to maximum.
h. Sensitivity of a controller is the ratio of output
pressure change to the movement of the pen or indicating
pointer.
i. High sensitivity results in a large output pressure
change for a given pen or pointer movement.
j. Low sensitivity gives a small output pressure
change for a given pen or pointer movement.
k. Throttling range is used to designate the
sensitivity of a controller and is expressed as the
movement of the pen or pointer in percent of chart, or
scale, width necessary to cause a full opening or closing
of the control valve.
l. Automatic reset response is only used when
automatic reset is adopted to the controller. It is an
additional output pressure change resulting from a control
point change and provides at a rate dependent upon the
proportional response. It acts in the same direction as the
proportional response and continues until the set point and
control point are together.
m. Reset action is the control action in which the
corrections are made in proportion to the time a condition
has been off and the amount of deviation.
n. Controlling medium is the liquid, vapor, or gas,
the flow of which through the diaphragm valve is varied
in accordance with the demands of the process.
o. Processed or controlled medium is the liquid,
vapor, gas, or solid which is to be maintained at a
constant value by varying the flow of the controlled
medium.
p. Load change is any factor which requires a
change in the flow of the controlling medium in order to
maintain the control point of the process.
 Figure 52. Remote bulb thermostat.
Figure 51. Spiral bimetallic thermostat.
ature changes and will control temperature accordingly.
These factors may include a change in the temperature, 21. Another type of thermostat frequently used is a
pressure, rate of flow, or composition of either the bellows type shown in figure 53.
controlling or the controlled medium. 22. Location. The location for a thermostat should
q. Hunting is the changing or variation of the be representative of that part of the building where a
controlled variable about the control point, generally required temperature is to be maintained. It should be
caused by excessive diaphragm valve movement. installed where it will be exposed to free circulation of
r. Wandering is an irregular shift of the controlled air, free from drafts, and away from the direct rays of the
variable about the control point resulting from frequent sun or any type of radiant heat.
23. Maintenance. The internal mechanism of a
load changes.
18. Thermostat. The thermostat is a nerve center of thermostat should be cleaned of dust and dirt. The
heating and cooling control centers and operates either contacts should be cleaned by drawing a piece of hard-
finish paper (such as a common post card with a hard
pneumatically or electrically. The thermostat is a
sensitive unit that responds to changes in room smooth finish) between the contacts. Never use emery
temperature and indicates where more or less heat is cloth or other abrasives to clean the contacts. For
required. It transmits its indicating signal to the primary recommended procedures or part replacement. refer to
control for action. On an electric thermostat this is done the manufacturer's maintenance manual.
by the making and breaking of electrical contact within 24. Humidistat. Figures 54 and 55 illustrate
the thermostat itself; within the pneumatic thermostat a
pressure relay regulates the air to the controlled unit.
19. Thermostats usually differ in construction
according to the type of primary control with which they
are used. Probably the most common type of thermostat
is the spiral bimetallic type shown in figure 51.
20. Figure 51 illustrates a remote bulb type
thermostat. This type of thermostat is used in installations
where severe vibration may exist at the point of
measurement, or where it is desirable to have an
instrument at a central location. The capillary tube shown
in figure 52 is usually a liquid-filled element. It is
sensitive to temper-

Figure 53. Bellows type thermostat.

76
 Figure 54. Room humidistat.
room and insertion type humidistats. The humidistat is
designed for the accurate control of the addition to or
removal of moisture from air in a system or space. Room
humidistats are available with various elements consisting
of wood, hair, or animal membrane with adjustable
sensitivity. Insertion humidistats are designed for
accurate control of the relative amounts of moisture in
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning ducts.
25. Operation. Under normal operating conditions,
the humidistat will control the humidity within 1 percent
relative humidity. Most humidity controls operate
electrically to regulate dampers, valves, or other
regulating devices. For example, when a humidifying
device having a spray nozzle is used, a solenoid valve is
ordinarily inserted ahead of the nozzle. A humidistat in
the conditioned space energizes the solenoid when the
relative humidity drops below the humidistat setting. As
soon as the humidity in the conditioned space is brought
up to that required to satisfy the humidistat, the circuit is
opened and the solenoid shuts off automatically.
26. Maintenance. The humidistat is a very delicate
instrument and must be handled with
Figure 55. Insertion type humidistat.
77
Figure 56. Hygrometer with motor-driven fan.
care. The instrument must be encased at all times and
kept free of dust and other foreign materials. It must be
mounted securely and located where there is a good
circulation of air through its mechanism. All adjustments
must be made with special precautions since they are very
sensitive devices. Refer to the manufacturer's manuals for
recommended maintenance and adjustment procedures.
27. Hygrometers. The hygrometer is a device used
to measure, record, and control humidity. There are many
types and designs of these instruments made by various
manufacturers, but their principles of operation are
similar.
28. The hygrometer gives instantaneous readings of
a measured area and will regulate valves or other controls
to maintain a necessary humidity.
29. There are two types of hygrometer instruments.
They are referred to as recording and recording-
controlling types.
30. Figure 56 shows a recording-controlling type
hygrometer. This instrument is installed in the area in
which the humidity is to be measured. When the
instrument is installed within an area, the air to be
measured is circulated through the wet- and dry-bulb
housing by a suction fan, as shown in figure 56. The fan
draws the air through the bulb housing by use of an intake
and exhaust port, usually located in back of the panel
housing, creating conditions similar to those which
psychrometric tables are obtained. In applications where
bulbs of hygrometers must be located inside an apparatus,
room, or duct, and where a continuous source of water
supply is not available, a water feed instrument, as
illustrated in figure 57, is used. The water supplied to the
instrument must be cleaned and constant.
 Figure 58. Damper control air movement.

and, as air is applied to the diaphragm, the piston is forced

to move outward, causing the stem to move in the same
direction. This forces a tension on the spring. The air
that is fed from the controller to the damper operator
Figure 57. Water feed hygrometer. usually ranges from 0 to 15 p.s.i., different spring ranges
are available for different applications. Generally, 5-to l0
31. Operation. The operating principles of a p.s.i. spring range is the most commonly used spring
hygrometer are similar to the operating principles of a design tension; and with such a spring tension, the
sling psychrometer, while on a hygrometer these operator is in normal position when the control pressure is
temperatures are transmitted through a Bourdon tube to an 5 p.s.i., a illustrated in figure 59. It is in its opposite-to-
instrument mechanism which records the temperature and normal position when the control pressure is above or
humidity. Refer to the manufacturer's manual for specific below 5 p.s.i. under normal load conditions. At
hygrometer instrument action.
32. Maintenance. The instrument mechanism is
similar in construction to the type used in transmitters and
recorders, a explained later in this chapter; therefore its
components can be maintained in the same manner. The
major difference in hygrometer construction is the
addition of water to the wick. The water and wick must
be kept clean r accurate instrument operation. Periodic
cleaning of the wick is required. Refer to manufacturer's
maintenance manuals for specific instructions for
maintenance and adjustment procedures.
33. Controlled Operator. Controlled operators
require position changing according to variations of a
controlled medium. For example, damper operators
position dampers in many ways to regulate airflow, some
of which are illustrated in figure 58. Blades may be used
in parallel or opposed operation, depending on their use in
duct system.
34. Damper operators. The damper operator is
generally of the piston type, a shown in figure 59. The Figure 59. Piston damper operation.
piston is attached to an operating stem

78

Figure 60. Diaphragm valve.
5 p.s.i., the operator assumes a midposition which is
proportional to the air pressure.
35. Operators are generally mounted on the damper
frame wherever possible and are connected directly to a
damper louver. They can be mounted externally on the
duct and operate through a crank arm on a shaft extension
to the damper louver.
36. Pneumatic valves. Pneumatic valves consist of a
diaphragm or bellows and a spring. Figure 60 illustrates a
typical diaphragm valve. Its operation is very similar to
that of the damper operator. The valve spring acts to
either open or close the valve in accordance with the
applied air pressure. The bellows type valve is generally
used on convector, unit ventilators, and radiators where
space is more restricted. Diaphragm valves are generally
used on larger cooling and heating coil installation. There
are many types and designs
Figure 61. Valve with positioner.
79
Figure 62. Damper operator with positioner.
of valves to meet various requirements. Each type will
have its own specific performance rating.
37. Positioner for operators. Figures 61 and 62
illustrate how a positioner can be applied to a valve or
damper operator. The positioner provides a means of
getting greater accuracy in positioning an operator and
also increases the repositioning power.
38. In reference to figures 61 and 62, note that the
positioner has a supply-air connection. Internally it has
supply and exhaust valves like a pneumatic relay. The
valves are operated jointly by the pressure from the
controller and by the spring attached to the operator stem.
A small change in control pressure can produce a large
change in pressure on the operator until the stem moves
sufficiently to cause the spring to stop the operation.
39. When positioners are used, the spring determines
the operating range of the valve or damper operator. The
range can be adjusted over a wide limit.
40. Maintenance of controlled operators. One of the
most important things to remember when inspecting a
damper operator is to make sure the stems or levers are
clean. They must be lubricated as required. Keeping the
unit clean is very important. If the diaphragm needs
replacing, the following procedure is recommended:
a. Remove the cylinder head and throw away old
diaphragm.
b. Place new diaphragm in its proper position.
c. Roll back flange and insert the piston in the
diaphragm.
d. Place the assembly on the upper end of the
cylinder with the loop of the diaphragm between the
piston and the cylinder wall. Make sure that the
diaphragm does not wrinkle.
e. Put the cylinder in place with the air connection
in the desired position and tighten the screws uniformly.
 45. Operation. Figure 64 illustrates a typical
controller installation. The purpose of the controller in
this system is to control the temperature of a process by
operating a direct-acting diaphragm valve on a steam
supply line. To understand its operation, let us assume
that the temperature of the process is below that for which
the controller is set. Because the temperature is low, the
air regulating mechanism in the controller allows the
valve to remain open, ,allowing more steam to flow into
the process. As the temperature increases toward the
control point setting, the bulb measures this increase. As
soon as the control point is reached, the Bourdon tube
uncoils. This action forces a change in the internal
pressure regulating mechanism in the controller and
forces air pressure down on the regulation valve, forcing
it to close.
46. Maintenance. The chart on the controller must
be replaced periodically. The chart on most controllers
can be removed easily by disengaging the pen from the
Figure 63. Exploded view of diaphragm valve. chart and removing the chart from the hub. Place a fresh
chart on the clock hub and rotate it until the correct time
41. The damper must be checked periodically for line is opposite the reference arc, which is usually indi-
rust and corrosion. If corrosion deposits are found, they
should be removed immediately with a steel brush, and
the surface should be repainted. All pivots, linkage, and
levers should be cleaned to remove dirt and other foreign
matter is that they may operate freely.
42. The following components of a valve should be
checked periodically and replaced if found unserviceable:
a. Leaky or worn diaphragm.
b. Leaky packing nut.
c. Worn or pitted valve or valve seats and disks.
d. Weak or broken spring.
e. Corroded or dirty valve stem.
43. Figure 63 shows the exploded view of a
diaphragm valve. Note the positions of each component
in this valve. Care must be taken when replacing the
rubber diaphragm. A kinked diaphragm will cause erratic
operation.
44. Controllers. Controllers are used to regulate
valve, dampers, and other devices by me of pressure or
temperature. Because there are so many different designs
of controllers, it is impossible to cover each controller
difference in this memorandum. To understand the
specific operation, maintenance, and calibration of any
instrument or control, always refer to the manufacturer's
manual in this section a general discussion will be given
on controller operation, maintenance, and calibration.
Figure 64 illustrates a typical controller. This type of
Figure 64. A typical controller installation.
controller records graphically the variations in
temperature or pressure of a measured process.

80
cated on the control face. The clock face generally has
small pins or clamps mounted in it, the purpose of which
is to hold the paper and serve as a means of driving the
chart.
47. You should fill the pen with manufacturer's
recommended grade and type of ink. General instructions
as to how to fill the pen are supplied with the ink.
Occasionally it is necessary to wash the pens with water
or alcohol.
48. If the pen fails to touch the chart paper because
of insufficient tension on the pen arm, bend the pen arm
slightly toward the chart so that the pen touches the chart
lightly. If the pen fails to follow the time line, adjust the
chart so that a time line corresponds to the reference arc.
Bend the pen so that it rests on the time line matching the
reference arc.
49. The following precautions should be followed to
improve controller efficiency and operation:
a. Do not allow water or steam to come into direct
contact with the instrument. If it is necessary to wash out
pipes, tanks, or other apparatus with steam or hot water,
remove instrument bulb first.
b. Do not subject the pressure element of
instrument to a higher pressure than maximum range of
the chart unless the instrument is designed to take care of
it.
c. Do not allow the controller door to remain open
longer than is necessary.
d. Blow out the compressor receivers periodically
to remove moisture and other foreign material.
e. Blow out moisture traps at regular intervals.
50. Calibration. The procedures you will study here
are considered as basic control calibration for most types
of controls-pneumatic, electric, and electronic. The
control manufacturer furnishes pamphlets with his control
to guide you in servicing and calibrating a specific
control. The basic procedures are:
a. Set the controller set point to the sensed variable-
temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.
b. Adjust the controller to the midrange of the
controlled device.
c. Set the dial to the desired value.
51. Transmitters. The transmission system consists
of a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter and
receiver with their connecting tubes and accessories form
a system that measures the magnitude (temperature or
pressure) of a process change and indicates this value at
the receiver.
52. The transmitter or receiver may be either an
indicating or recording type instrument. These
instruments can be used as temperature or pressure
transmitters, depending on the type of variable that needs
to be measured.
81
53. Temperature transmitter. In using the
temperature transmitter, the bulb of the tube system is
placed in the apparatus to be measured at the point where
the temperature is to be controlled and where the
circulation is a maximum. It should not be too close to a
radiating coil or an open steam inlet.
54. If the bulb is to be placed into a separable bulb,
well, or stem, these units should be fitted into the
apparatus first. Then insert the bulb and tighten the
coupling nut.
55. Installations where a well is-furnished with a
thermospeed sleeve must be given special consideration.
To install a bulb with thermospeed sleeve, first separate
the bulb from the well. Then screw the well tightly into
the apparatus. Start the bulb into the well carefully to
avoid any damaging. Force the bulb as far as it will go
into the well, then tighten sufficiently to hold the bulb in
place.
56. If the tube system is of a vapor pressure type,
make certain the elevation of the bulb with respect to the
instrument case is the same as that for which the
controller is designed. Should the elevation be slightly
different, it will be necessary to reset the pen to agree
with the reading of an accurate test thermometer. Bulb
elevation data will be given on the data plate of the
instrument or in the manufacturer's maintenance manuals.
57. Pressure transmitter. Where pressure
transmitters are used to measure the pressure of hot, moist
atmosphere, a condensate loop should be installed beneath
the instrument. The added pipe length protects the
instrument from the effect of high temperature, and the
loop retains condensate when the apparatus is shut down.
58. If the medium being measured is corrosive, the
pressure element should be protected by use of a purge
system or suitable sealing liquid.
59. Operation. Figure 65 illustrates schematically a
transmission system which measures the temperature of a
process.
60. The transmitter shown in figure 65 is actuated by
a Bourdon tube. With an increase in process temperature,
the Bourdon tube tends to uncoil and actuates components
in a pressure mechanism. The mechanism, in turn,
establishes an equilibrium at a new output air pressure,
proportional to the pointer movement. The output line
from the transmitter is connected to a bellows of a
receiver, as shown in figure 65. The air pressure within
the bellows actuates the pen of the instrument. The
receiver pen then records values which are identical to
those indicated to the transmitter pointer.
61. The dotted portion of figure 65 illustrates the
receiver controller. This part of the instrument
 Figure 65. A typical transmission system.
regulates a valve which controls a fluid or gas entering a
process.
62. Maintenance. The transmitter or receiver must
be mounted on a wall or panel where it will be free from
vibration. It should not be installed where extreme
temperatures may damage the delicate components.
63. The chart must be replaced at designated periods.
Replacement procedures will vary with instrument design.
Some transmitters are designed to use a type of disc chart
similar to the one shown in figure 65, while others use a
chart in the form of a roll. When a chart is replaced, care
should be exercised to set it at the reference point so that
the chart will record accurately for the particular time.
64. The pen must be filled with a recommended
instrument ink. If the ink does not flow, start it flowing
by touching the pen with the filler. Dried ink may be
removed by washing the pen with warm water. If the pen
fails to touch the chart, bend the pen arm inward so that it
will hear lightly on the chart. If the pen does not follow
the reference arc, adjust the length of the pen arm by
bending the pen point to a length indicated by the time
reference arc on the chart plate.
65. Temperature and Pressure Recorders. The
temperature or pressure recorders operate on the same
general principles as other type controls. The Bourdon
tube principle is adapted to the recorder operation. The
temperature or pressure recorder is used to record
graphically the temperature or pressure of a process or
apparatus operation. The thermal bulb attached to the
recorder is placed in the process that is to be measured.
82
Any change in the process temperature is transmitted
through the Bourdon tube to the recorder mechanism and
is shown graphically on the recorder chart. Figure 66
shows a typical type temperature or pressure recorder.
66. Figure 67 illustrates a typical temperature
recorder installation. The connecting tubing from the
recorder is placed in such a position that it will not
receive additional heat from heat surfaces such as boilers
radiators, pipes, etc. The bulb of the instrument is placed
at the point where circulation is best. This is necessary
for an accurate measurement and recording.
67. Figure 68 illustrates a typical pressure recorder
installation. On liquid line installations excessive
pulsations may occur; in such a condition, a needle valve,
as shown in figure 68, is installed in the line. The oil
seals are installed in the line to prevent excessive
pressures and corrosive liquids from damaging the
instrument.
68. The components of a temperature or pressure
recorder are similar to other types of controllers and
transmitters; therefore maintenance procedures are
similar.
69. Chan replacement is done periodically. When
replacing a chart, make sure the chart is inserted properly
into the pins or clamps mounted on the clock hub. Rotate
the chart until the correct time line is opposite the
reference arc inscribed on the control face. Special guides
attached to the recorder door generally hold the chart flat
against the plate.
 Figure 66. A typical recorder.

Figure 67. Temperature recorder installation.

83

Figure 68. Pressure recorder installation.
70. Adjusting and cleaning of the pen is done as
discussed previously in this chapter.
71. Recorders are calibrated and adjusted to testing
conditions at the factory. Do not make any adjustments
unless it is certain that the instrument is out of adjustment.
Refer to the manufacturer's maintenance manuals on
procedures for calibration of their instrument.
72. The following precautions must be observed
when using a temperature or pressure recorder:
a. Never allow a stream of water or jet of steam to
come into direct contact with the instrument mechanism.
b. Never wash or flush out pipes, tanks, or
apparatus with steam or hot water, as it might allow the
bulb of the instrument to reach a higher temperature than
maximum range on the chart unless the instrument is
designed to take care of these high temperatures. It is
recommended that the bulb be removed when cleaning the
apparatus.
c. Never subject the Bourdon spring of a pressure
recorder to a higher pressure than the maximum range of
the chart unless the instrument is designed for higher
pressures.
d. Never allow the door of the instrument to remain
open any longer than necessary. Keep the instrument
clean and free of dust and other foreign materials.
73. Electric Fire Protection Control. The purpose
of the fire protection control is to protect the installation
against the spread of fire by automatically switching off
air-conditioning fans and closing dampen. If a fire starts,
fans become quite a hazard by increasing the intensity of
the fire and helping it circulate through fire walls and
from room to room. Most air-conditioning systems that
use fan installations use some type of fire protection
device in connection with these fans.
74. Operation and construction. The back plate and
helix tube of a fire protection control is made of steel to
form a strong incasement. The sensitive bimetal helix
84
reacts instantly to a temperature change, the rotation of
the helix being transmitted by a cam or roller follower to
a switch. The electrical contacts are enclosed in a
dustproof case, and the contacts are opened by the cam or
roller follower in the event the air temperature around the
helix exceeds the cutout setting.
75. The cutout point is adjustable, approximately
from 75° F. to 160° F. It is provided with a dial stop to
prevent the adjustment from exceeding a maximum of
125° F.
76. The cam has both a high and low limit stop and
will not rotate forward to the ON position even if the fire
comes in contact with the bimetal helix. If the
temperature becomes high enough to reach the cutout
setting, the control may lock out and will require manual
reset before the unit may be placed back into operation.
The manual reset lever is exposed for easy setting ;and is
located on the control housing. Removal of the cover
exposes the instrument terminals and wiring.
77. Maintenance. Field repairs are not
recommended by the manufacturer. If the control is not
functioning properly, it is recommended that the unit be
replaced.
78. Airflow Detector and Control. The air-flow
detector type instrument is used to control and detect
airflow movements.
79. Operation. The airflow instrument contains a
heat source within its flow-sensing leg and operates on
the principle of heat transfer. The electrical mechanism in
the ambient compensating leg is actuated whenever there
is a change in rate of flow beyond the set point of the unit.
If there is a greater transfer of heat away from the flow-
sensing leg containing the heat source than that for which
the unit is set, the contacts in the electrical mechanism
remain closed. If the heat transfer is less than the set
value, the contacts of the electrical mechanism will open.
80. Since this device actually controls an electrical
circuit by a switch action, it can be used to, control fans,
alarm systems, air circulators, and other air-conditioning
and dust collecting systems.
81. Maintenance. The airflow measuring instrument
should be placed in a duct area with the two legs side by
side in the airflow stream. The electrical connector
should face either downstream or upstream. It can be
placed in other directions, but this results in some
calibration changes. The set point is generally set by
changes in turbulence, but the instrument may be located
in a turbulent region if it is calibrated in position. Airflow
measuring devices require very little maintenance since
they are hermetically sealed. It is recommended that the
instrument be replaced if you find that it is not
functioning properly.
 Figure 69. Schematic of an air-conditioner system.
82. Calibration. With the instrument installed,
energize the heater for approximately 5 minutes to obtain
an equilibrium. The airflow through the instrument
should be maintained at the desired point for
approximately 1 minute. Proceed to adjust the instrument
to the point where electrical contacts just operate.
Simulating decreased air-flow conditions or dirty filters
may be accomplished by blocking off a section of the
clean filter media. It is recommended that you refer to the
manufacturers' maintenance manuals for specific
instructions on calibration for their instrument.
83. Control System Operation. So far in this
chapter you have not been shown how control instruments
are used in a control system. Figure 69 is a simple sketch
of a control system and illustrates operation of a heating
and ventilating fan air-conditioning system.
84. In reference to figure 69, insertion thermostat T2
measures the temperature of return air and regulates
modulating motor valve V2 in accordance with the heat
measured in the conditioned area. The insertion
thermostat T3 measures the temperature of the discharge
air into the conditioned area and adjusts V2 to keep the air
from entering the conditioned area at too hot or too cool a
temperature. As the return air rises in temperature, T2
will close valve V2; and if the air continues to rise in
temperature, T2 will shift the control of damper motor M1
to insertion thermostat T1 to take in a volume of outdoor
85
air for cooling. This quantity of air will vary with the
outdoor air temperature to keep the air that is entering the
coil at-the setting of T3. Humidity controller HI operates
a solenoid valve V1 to add moisture to the air when
required. A control panel is used to monitor all
operations and control the positioning of the dampers and
the closing of the dampers when the fan stops.
85. Special procedures must be followed when
replacing an instrument or control that is not operating
properly. Since every air-conditioning control system has
its design differences, it is impossible to give specific
information or replacement procedures. It is
recommended that you refer to your installation SOP, and
ask your supervisor for information regarding instrument
or control replacement procedures.
CAUTION: Check all system components for proper
operation before adjusting, repairing, or replacing a
control. Many times, controls are functioning properly
but the equipment they control needs servicing.
23. Graphic Panel
1. The graphic panel, as the name implies, is a
graphic illustration showing flow diagrams, recording and
indicating devices, switches, and controlled equipment
used in a building. The graphic panel in an air-
conditioning installation shows
 Figure 70. Sectional view of a graphic panel.
graphically the complete installation with indicating,
recording, and control instruments. These instruments arc
mounted in such a position, with appropriate symbols and
flow lines that they represent schematically the systems
they monitor and control. The graphic illustration will
vary with the size and necessary instrumentation required
in the building air-conditioning system. The panel is
assembled from one or more sections and is so arranged
that the operator monitoring the controls can easily see
the lights, controls, and instruments mounted on the
graphic panel. Some of the control instruments on the
panel that can be used are: fan and pump control switches;
damper controls; pressure, temperature, and humidity
indicator and recorders; and associated controllers with
manual, automatic, and cascade controls. Pilot lights on
the panel give a continuous information concerning the
operation of fans, pumps, and other equipment.
2. The graphic panel illustrated in figure 70
provides a graphic representation of refrigeration
equipment, pumps, fans, and flow lines. The pilot lights
indicate the operation of the cooling tower fans, chilled
water pumps, and condenser water. The chilled water
temperature is always indicated and recorded. Complete
monitoring of the controls is done by. means of selector
86
switches, pushbutton switches, and recording controllers
to provide remote control of equipment as represented on
the panel.
3. The graphic panel shown in figure 70 is only a
sectional view of an air-conditioning system; if the other
sections were shown, the complete air-conditioning
system would be graphically illustrated.
4. Most graphic illustrated panels use colors to
identify components and flow lines. The following colors
can identify most components, but this color code system
may not be standard on all graphic panels.
Steam flow lines and heating coil..........................Red
Cooling water now lines and cooling coil .......... Blue
Condenser water line ......................................... Green
Duck work ..........................................................Black
Control wiring and piping .............................. Yellow
Background .........................Tan, gray, blue, or green
5. The sections of the panel generally illustrate the
following systems and controls:
(1) The refrigeration system.
(2) Water circulating systems.
(3) Air systems.
(4) Room induction system and exhaust fans.
(5) Interior zones.
 (6) Temperature and flow recorders and
indicators
(7) Building air-conditioning system.
6. The graphic panel can be installed in any
available space a building. It is generally installed inside
a room, away from the operating refrigeration equipment.
The advantages of having the panel installed in a separate
room are cleanliness, less noise, and better lighting
facilities. In some installations the panel is mounted in
the same room as the operating equipment.. This
arrangement allows the monitoring operator to be in direct
contact with the refrigeration equipment operator in case
trouble develops in the air-conditioning system. In either
case, the monitoring operator must be in contact with tie
equipment operator at all times by voice or through an
annunciator system. Close cooperation between all
operating personnel is very important for efficient and
effective equipment operation. In some installations,
more than one graphic panel is installed in the building
for a more complete monitoring system.
Review Exercises
NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. Write
your answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
1. What principle of operation does a thermostatic
expansion valve use? (Sec. 18, Par. 6)
2. The control response a motor control uses is
_____________. (Sec. 19, Par. 2)
10. Which mode of electric control would you use to
3. How would you set a LPC for a wider
differential? (Sec. 19, Par. 5)
11. A simple two-position control is used to open a
4. At what pressure will the compressor cutoff if
the LPC settings are 40 p.s.i. and 15 p.s.i.? (Sec.
19, Par. 9)
87
5. You have received a complaint from the
messhall. The newly installed walk-in, used for
fresh vegetables, is too cold. The system uses an
automatic expansion valve and a low-pressure
motor control. How would you correct the
below-design temperature in the walk-in? (Sec.
19, Par. 10)
6. An ice cube maker is out of order. You find the
storage bin is nearly empty. After
troubleshooting the system you locate the trouble
in the bin thermostat. What malfunction most
probably caused the thermostat to become
inoperative? (Sec. 19, Par. 12-15)
7. You find the air conditioner is not operating and
that someone has inked the feeler bulb of the
TMC. What has caused the air conditioner to
become inoperative, and how would you correct
the malfunction? (Sec. 19, Par. 20)
8. Why are snap action and mercury switches used
in electric controls? (Sec. 20, Par. 2)
9. What type of short exists when the ohmmeter
connected to a terminal of the TMC and the
TMC case indicates zero ohms? (Sec. 20, Par.
7)
operate a refrigeration unit? Why? (Sec. 20, Par.
13)
set of louvers when the temperature is 80° F. and
to close them when it is 70° F. What is the
control point temperature? (Sec. 20, Par. 18)
 20. How does the amount of current flowing through
12. How does the timed two-position control differ a series 90 balancing relay affect the operation of
in response from the simple two-position a series 90 control? (Sec. 20, Pars. 66-68)
control? (Sec. 20, Par. 24)

21. When will the series 90 motor stop running?

13. How is the heating rate of a bimetal element in a (Sec. 20, Par. 73)
thermostat dampened? (Sec. 20, Pars. 31 and
32)

22. The damper in a duct system is dosed, but the

14. You are installing a cooling coil that is used to
cool an area within close tolerances. What type
of control would you install? Why? (Sec. 20,
Pars. 35-37)
control is calling for e airflow. What has most
probably malfunctioned? (Sec. 20, Pars. 79 and
80)

23. What is the main difference between a series 90

15. The controls for a system used for heating and
cooling must be replaced. The new control
system must operate gas valves for heating and
relays for cooling. Lag time is not a problem.
What type of control would you install? (Sec.
20, Par. 41)
humidity control system and a series 90
temperature control system? (Sec. 20, Par. 88)
24. Which side of the bridge would be the proper
place to connect a humidistat for high limit
control in a temperature control circuit? (Sec.
20, Par. 93)

16. How is the rotation of a series 20 motor

controlled? (Sec. 20, Pars. 43-46)
25. One belt of a three-belt set driving an sir
compressor is broken. How many belts would
you install? Why? (Sec. 21, Par. 3)
17. Which type of electric controls acts similar to a
single-pole, single-throw switch? (Sec. 20, Par.
49)
26. What would you suspect if the air compressor
begins to lose efficiency? (Sec. 21, Par. 4)

18. The series 60 motor used on a motorized valve to

maintain a liquid level in a tank is burned out.
Can you substitute it with any series 60 motor? 27. The first stage of a two-stage compressor is
Why? (Sec. 20, Par. 55) operating normally but the output of the second
stage s zero. The compressor has an intercooler
between stages. What has caused the second-
stage pressure to drop to zero? (Sec. 21, Par. 8)
19. Can you substitute a series 60 two-position
motor for a series 20 motor? Why? (Sec. 20, Par.
58)

88
28. You have just finished installing an air 37. The piston type damper operator is at its normal
compressor. What should you check before you position. The control line pressure is 3 p.s.i.g.
start the compressor? (Sec. 21, Par. 15) Why hasn't the operator begun to open the
damper? (Sec. 22, Par. 34)

29. What will probably occur if you replace a

standard air compressor head gasket with a thin
head gasket? (Sec. 21, Par. 21) 38. What determines the operating range of a
positioner used for damper operation? (Sec. 22,
Par. 39)

30. What are supply-air lines? Control air lines?

(Sec. 22, Par. 1)

39. After overhauling a damper operator, you notice

that it is operating erratically. What has caused
31. How much pitch must you allow for a supply air this erratic operation? (Sec. 22, Par. 43)
header 12-feet long? (Sec. 22, Par. 4)

32. What factor determines the frequency of draining 40. The pen on a recorder chart is skipping on the
moisture from the compressor air filter? (Sec. chart. What should you do to correct this fault?
22, Par. 8) (Sec. 22, Par. 48)

33. What type of controller would you install if you

wanted a steam valve to open on a decrease in 41. When is it necessary to install a condensate loop
temperature? (Sec. 22, Par. 17) on a pressure transmitter? (Sec. 22, Par. 57)

34. How do you clean the contact points on a

thermostat? (Sec. 22, Par. 23) 42. The recorder you are going to install has been
removed from a cannibalized building. The pen
is full of dried ink. How should you clean the
pen? (Sec. 22, Par. 64)
35. Under normal conditions, how dose to the set
point will a humidistat control the humidity of
the conditioned air? (Sec. 22, Par. 25)

43. The system fan is off and the dampers are dosed.
The fan switch is in the ON position. What
36. Which type of controller is used to measure, caused the system to shut down and how would
record, and control humidity? (Sec. 22, Par. 27) you restart it? (Sec. 22, Pars. 73, 75, and 76)

89
44. How can you check the operation of an air-flow 46. On graphic panels, temperature is always
detector? (Sec. 22, Par. 82) indicated and recorded. (Sec. 23, Par. 2)

45. Why is a graphic panel an asset in an air-

conditioning system? (Sec. 23, Par. 1) 47. A malfunction is shown on a graphic panel. The
component indicated on the panel is color coded
green. What system is malfunctioning? (Sec.
23, Par. 4)

90

Evaporative Cooling
CAN YOU RECALL your days at the local swimming
pool or perhaps at the beach? If a slight wind was
blowing, you will remember that you were more
comfortable in the water than out of it. When you
climbed out of the pool, the water in your wet bathing suit
evaporated rapidly to leave your skin chilled from the loss
of heat. Though you didn't give it much thought at the
time, you were really experiencing evaporative cooling.
2. Applying the same principle, our older surgeons
used an ether spray to freeze those portions of the skin in
which incisions were to be made. Rapid evaporation of
the ether reduced the temperature of the skin and
underlying flesh to the freezing point. You can
demonstrate this principle for yourself by wetting your
hand with alcohol or water and holding it in the airstream
from a fan.
24. Principle and Application of Evaporative Cooling
1. In an evaporative cooler the air is drawn through
a finely divided water spray or a wet pad so that a portion
of the water is being continually evaporated. The latent
heat of evaporation, which must be passed on to the water
to evaporate it, is supplied from the heat of the incoming
air, thus reducing the dry-bulb temperature, an increase in
the relative humidity and dewpoint temperature, and an
unchanged wet-bulb temperature.
2. The water which is recirculated continually
through an evaporative cooler assumes the wet-bulb
temperature of the entering air after a short period of
operation. The recirculated water will remain at the air
wet-bulb temperature with no external heating or cooling.
Makeup water is added to replace the evaporated water.
3. The temperature reduction, which can be made
in the air passed through an evaporative cooler, depends
entirely on the wet-bulb temperature of the air which is to
be cooled. The wet-bulb temperature of the air entering
the evaporative cooler is at the lowest temperature to
which the circulating air may be cooled.
91
CHAPTER 7
4. Evaporative cooling should not be used to cool
air for spaces requiring constant temperature and
humidity control, such as hospital operating rooms and
certain types of highly technical electronic equipment.
Evaporative cooling is best suited and chiefly used for
cooling the space for the comfort of personnel.
5. Application. As we have shown, evaporative
cooling depends on the evaporation of water; thus, it can
be successful only under atmospheric conditions of a low
relative humidity. It can be used only where the
difference between the outdoor we-bulb and dry-bulb
temperature is relatively high. In the arid regions of the
southwestern United States, where there is low relative
humidity, properly installed and operated evaporative
cooling units cool comfortably. This type of system
brings in 100 percent outside air. It may be equipped with
a humidistat so that when the inside humidity is high and
the cooler cannot function properly as an evaporative
cooler, the water is cut off and the unit can operate as a
straight mechanical ventilating unit. Whenever the
outdoor wt-bulb temperature is 73° F. or lower, effective
cooling and indoor comfort can be maintained by
evaporative cooling.
6. The leaving air temperature of an evaporative
cooler usually is just short of saturation; that is, the dry-
bulb temperature of the air leaving a cooler does not quite
reach the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the
cooler. An evaporative cooler operating at 90 percent
efficiency will cool the air a number of degrees equal to
90 percent of its original wet-bulb depression. The
measurement of the approach to the entering wet-bulb
temperature is the saturation efficiency of the cooler. Air
entering at 95° dry-bulb and 75° wet-bulb will be cooled
to 77° if the cooler is operating at90 percent efficiency.
Computation: The depression amounts to 950 (dry-bulb
temperature) minus 75° (wet-bulb temperature), or 20°.
Ninety percent of 20 is 18. Subtract 18 from 95° (the dry-
bulb temperature) and you have 77?, which is the
temperature to which the air is cooled.
 bearing motor shaft, which eliminates pump bearings and
packing. The pump housing has a wire-mesh screen
through which the water passes as it is drawn in by the
pump impeller and forced through the discharge tube to
the distributor. Pumps sit in the water of the collecting
pan or are sometimes mounted on a special frame. In
either case, they must be insulated to prevent vibration
and transmission of noise. Figure 72 illustrates this type
of water pump and its breakdown.
12. A water distributor is a trough which receives the
water from the recirculating water pump through the
distributor head and distributes it evenly over the top of
the evaporating surface pads. One distributor is provided
for each pad in the cooler. The water flows through weirs
(triangular openings) of the trough onto the pads which
are on the air inlet sides of the cooler. (See fig. 73.)
13. The piping system consists of a T-fitting or a
water distributor head with one inlet and three outlets
which are connected by pipe or tubing to the water
distributors. The inlet connection from the pump is
usually a rubber hose. In figure 74 you can see that the
quantity of water which flows to the branch piping system
Figure 71. Evaporator cooler.
is regulated by an adjustable hose clamp which throttles
the flow of water in the hose connecting the water pump
7. Components of Evaporative Cooling Units.
to the water branch tubes. The quantity of water which
Components of evaporative cooling units are very much
flows through the branch tubes to the troughs is equalized
the same in each type except that some have a different
by rubber or metal metering rings placed in each branch
method of supplying the water to the evaporating pads.
tube.
8. Drip units. Typical drip type evaporative cooler
14. The water collecting pan forms the bottom of the
components consist of the following: a motor-driven fan,
cooler and contains the water, the water float makeup
or blower; a circulating water pump, piping, and water
valve, and water drain standpipe, as shown in figure 75.
distributors; a water collecting pan with water makeup
The makeup valve controls the level of the water in the
float valve and drain; and water evaporating surfaces. All
collecting pan and automatically admits water to replace
these components are assembled in a weatherproof
any that is lost through evaporation and bleedoff.
cabinet, the complete assembly being known as a self-
15. Water in the collecting pan should be kept at a
contained unit. It will range in size from the small, one-
depth sufficient to keep the recirculating pump primed.
room cooler with a capacity of about 700 cubic feet per
The overflow pipe consists of a removable length of pipe,
minute (c.f.m.) to the large industrial coolers with
the top of which is slightly below the top edge of the
capacities up to about 30,000 c.f.m.
collecting pan. When the water level in the collecting pan
9. The small, one-room cooler normally uses a
rises to the top of the overflow pipe, the excess water
propeller fan; the larger coolers use a squirrel-cage or
flows into the pipe and is carried away to a drain.
centrifugal blower. The propeller fan cooler discharges
16. Some drip type evaporative coolers (the older
the cooled air directly into the conditioned space from the
models and the small, one-room type) are not equipped
vaned air-discharge outlet of the unit. Duct work for air
with a recirculating water pump or troughs. In these
distribution is never attached to this type of unit.
coolers the water is supplied directly to the distributors.
10. Coolers of 2000-c.f.m. capacity and above use
In this case the distributors are usually copper tubes with
the squirrel-cage blowers which are driven by a motor
small holes drilled about I inch apart in order to give an
with a V-pulley and a V-belt. Figure 71 illustrates this
even distribution of water over the top edge of the
type. Electric motors vary in size according to the size of
evaporating pads. The flow of water is controlled by a
the fan blade or blower:
water valve mounted on the inside of the front panel.
11. The recirculating water pump is a vertical-shaft,
Other models, in order to control
directly connected unit of light construction. The pump
impeller is suspended in the pump housing from a ball-

92
 Figure 72. Breakdown of water pump.
the flow of water, use an electric solenoid water valve
which opens and closes when the cooler is turned on and
off. In this case the quantity of water also is regulated by
an adjustable hose clamp on the hose feeding water to the
distributor header and by metering rings in the branch
pipes or tubes. Many coolers of this type have been
installed in the past on military bases; however, present
military design criteria do not permit installation of a drip
type cooler that does not have a recirculating water pump.
17. The water evaporative surface of drip type
evaporative coolers consists of one or more pads of aspen
wood excelsior, redwood excelsior, a mixture of redwood
and aspen wood excelsior, glass wool, or a fiber made of
93
other materials. The bulb excelsior is inserted in either
cheesecloth, hardware cloth, or a metal frame to bind and
hold the material together in pads. The pads are held in
place by a barbed rack or other suitable means. Each pad
is placed in a louvered frame, as you can see in figure 76.
The louvered frames are fitted into openings on two sides
and on the back of the cooler through which the air is
drawn by the fan. The louvers serve a double purpose:
they help to distribute the air uniformly over the entire
area of the water evaporating pads, and they prevent water
from wetting the area surrounding the cooler.
18. Spray units. Spray units (sometimes called
 Figure 73. Weirs.
air washer units) are made in sizes ranging from 3500
c.f.m. through 12,000 c.f.m. They are larger in
dimension and weigh considerably more than the drip
type unit. They are designed to keep the pads free of
excess dust and water solids for a longer period of
operating time than are the drip type units. They use
sprays to wet and contin-
Figure 74. Waterflow adjustment.
94
Figure 75. Water makeup valve and standpipe.
uously wash down the inlet side of the filter pads and
partially saturate the incoming air by direct contact as the
air passes through the sprays.
19. There are two main types of spray designs used
by manufacturers, with essentially the same results.
These are the "spray nozzle" and the "rotating disk"
(sometimes called slinger), shown in figures 77 and 78.
Both spray type units consist of the following principal
components: piping; water collecting pan with makeup
float valve and drain; recirculating water pump;
evaporative filter and eliminator pads; sprays, either
nozzle or spray disk; and a motor-driven blower-all
assembled in a self-contained weatherproof cabinet.
20. The piping system consists of the supply line and
piping to the spray nozzle. The collecting pan forms a
part of the bottom of the evaporative cooler cabinet,
which contains the float-actuated water makeup valve and
drain. Since the float controls the water valve, it also
controls the level of the water in the collecting pan. The
spray disk, or wheel, assembly of the evaporative cooler
supplies a continuous sheet of atomized water over the air
inlet face of the evaporative filter pad. The spray disk
collecting pan is located below and in front of the center
of the filter pad. The water in the collecting pan is
supplied to the disk, or wheel, by a water pump similar to
those used on drip type units. The centrifugal action of
the rotating disk distributes the water evenly in all
directions in a vertical plane so that the resulting curtain
of spray water falling over the entire inlet face of the
evaporative filter pads washes down the air inlet side of
the pads continuously.
21. The automatic flush valve consists of an
electrically operated solenoid valve and an electric timer
combined in one unit. This valve flushes the water from
the water collecting pan regularly and automatically. This
action helps to keep the
 Figure 76. Breakdown of side panel.

Figure 77. Spray nozzle evaporative cooler.

95

Figure 78. Rotating disc evaporative cooler.
collecting pan clean. The solenoid valve is operated by
means of a coil of wire wound on a soft iron spool which
forms an electric magnet. When the current flows
through the coil, the valve stem is lifted to open the valve.
When current is cut off, the valve is closed either by
gravity or by a spring. The operating solenoid part of the
valve is completely enclosed. The water drain is
controlled by a plunger, and a diaphragm isolates the
working mechanism of the valve from the water. The
valve assembly is also provided with an overflow
connection and a manual operating lever to completely
drain the water collecting pan.
22. The electric timer regulates the flushing action of
the solenoid valve. It consists of a 1-hour electric
timeclock which is adjustable from 0 to 2 1/2 minutes
drain time. The settling of the drain time will depend on
the dirt content of the air entering the cooler, the salt
content of the water, and the resistance in the waste
plumbing.
23. The spray nozzle does the same things as a spray
disk. Nozzles are usually mounted in both a vertical and a
horizontal position: the vertical nozzles are used for
washing (down the evaporative filter pads, and the
horizontal nozzles for forming a curtain of spray water
over the entire air inlet area. Water is supplied to the
nozzles through the piping system by a centrifugal pump
of large capacity and heavy-duty construction, mounted in
the water collecting pan. Figure 79 illustrates this type of
water pump which is completely sealed. All recirculating
96
water pumps have a screen of sonic type to prevent
particles of dirt and foreign matter from getting into the
water piping system.
24. Evaporative filter pads and eliminator pads are
usually made of fibers of various materials and are
supported by angle frames and heavy wire mesh.
Normally, spray type evaporative coolers use a specially
treated hygroscopic spun glass for filter pads. This
material assists in holding the fibers in place and helps the
water adhere to the surface. The evaporative filter pads
form the water evaporating surface. The eliminator pads
remove the moisture from the cooler air after it leaves the
evaporative filter pads and prevent waterdrops from being
carried over into the fan and motor of the cooler unit.
25. Blower fans, known also as centrifugal fans, are
used on spray type units. The fan and the motor which
drives it are both equipped with grooved type pulleys and
are connected with V-belts. The fan has a self-aligning,
self-oiling bearing on each side of the impeller wheel.
Blower fans are designed and rated for air delivery
against 1/4 -inch water gauge static pressure resistance at
the discharge outlet of the unit. If the static pressure is
greater than 1/4 inch, water gauge efficiency will be lost.
Blower fans, depending on size, are normally used to
supply air through a duct system.
26. Rotary-Drum Evaporative Units. As the name
implies, the rotary-drum evaporative cooling unit uses a
rotating drum, powered by a reduction gear and motor.
Figure 80 illustrates a partly dissembled rotary-drum unit.
Other principal components are the exterior air-filter unit,
the rotor housing, the water tank and the float-actuated
water makeup valve, an automatic flush valve, and a
motor-driven fan or blower. All of these components are
mounted in a metal weatherproof cabinet. The rotary-
drum type evaporative coolers are usually made in sizes
ranging from 2500
Figure 70. Sealed water pump.
 Figure 80. Breakdown of rotary-drum evaporative cooler.
through 6000 c.f.m. Blowers and motors are designed the
same as for the drip type evaporative cooler units.
27. The rotor, which is driven by an electric motor at
an approximate speed of 1 1/2 r.p.m., is cylindrical and
consists of alternate layers of corrugated and flat screen
wound on a drum. It revolves in the rotor housing, the
lower portion being constantly wet by its immersion in
the water tank of the housing. When in operation, the
rotor continuously exposes an evenly wetted surface to
the incoming air. The rotor housing contains the
revolving rotor and supports the rotor bearings and the
electric gear motor. The lower portion of the rotor
housing forms the water tank. The float-actuated water
makeup valve controls the water level in the tank.
97
28. The automatic flush valve empties the water
from the tank automatically. This action, which helps to
keep the rotor and water tank clean, is repeated regularly
by an electrically operated solenoid valve. The operating
solenoid of the valve is completely enclosed. The water
drain is controlled by a plunger, and a diaphragm isolates
the working mechanism of the valve from the water. The
valve assembly is provided with an overflow connection.
A manually operated valve is also provided to completely
drain the water tank.
29. The action of the solenoid valve is regulated by
an electric timer, a 1-hour electric timeclock with contacts
that open and close according to the time limit for which
the timer is designed. The setting of the drain time,
usually adjustable
from 0 to 2 1/2 minutes, is dependent on the amount of
dirt in the air that enters the cooler, the salt content of the
water, and the resistance in the waste or drain plumbing.
30. The filters of the rotary-drum type evaporative
cooler, called air filters, are usually of the impregnated,
washable, metal type. The filter unit is located on the air
intake side, where the air can be cleaned as it enters the
cooler.
31. Slinger Type Evaporative Units. The slinger
type unit may be constructed as a double unit. The metal
weatherproof cabinet may contain two sets of the
principal components, such as two sets of spray wheel
assemblies. The blower, or fan, of the slinger type
evaporative cooler is the same as on the rotary-drum unit-
a motor-driven centrifugal blower. It is driven by a V-
belt connecting the blower and motor by means of
grooved pulleys. The blower which is used to supply air
through the duct system is designed and rated for air
delivery against V4 -inch water gauge static pressure
resistance at the discharge outlet. It has two self-aligning,
self-oiling bearings, one on each side of the blower wheel.
The electric motor operating the blower is mounted high
in the metal cabinet to protect it from too much moisture.
32. The electric motor operating the spray wheel is
scaled in a waterproof assembly with water-seal packing
around the shaft to the spray wheel. The spray wheel
picks up water from the collecting pan and distributes it in
all directions in a vertical plane by the centrifugal action
of the rotating spray wheel. This action supplies a
continuous sheet of atomized water which is sprayed over
the air inlet side of the evaporative filter pad. As the air
passes through the water, dust and dirt are removed and
the air is partially cooled. This continuous sheet of
atomized water also continually washes the dirt from the
pad. The water collecting pan, which is located below
and in front of the evaporative filter pad, forms a part of
the bottom of the evaporative cooler cabinet. A float-
actuated water makeup valve, which controls the level of
water, is contained in the collecting pan.
33. The automatic flush valve assembly consists of
the flush valve, which flushes the water from the water
collecting pan regularly and automatically; solenoid
valve; and timer. The timer is electric and has an
adjustable drain-time setting which regulates the flow of
current to the solenoid valve. The solenoid valve operates
the drain valve. This assembly is very similar to the flush
valve assembly used with the rotary-drum type
evaporative cooler.
34. The evaporative and eliminator pads are usually
made of various washable materials supported by angle
frames and heavy wire mesh. The fibers are impregnated
98
with a hygroscopic material which not only helps to hold
the fibers in place but also treats the fibers so that water
will adhere to their surface. The evaporative filter pads
form the water filter and evaporating surface, and the
eliminator pads remove moisture from the cooled air. The
eliminator pads also prevent small drops of water trapped
in the air from being carried over into the fan and motor
of the blower compartment.
35. The cabinets for slinger type evaporative coolers
are usually constructed the same as those for other large
type evaporative coolers. Heavy-gauge galvanized steel
is used to enclose the entire unit. The sides are removable
to provide access to the interior.
25. Installation Procedures
1. The size and style of the unit determine the
location and the type of structure required to support it.
2. Locations. Units mounted in building windows
are of the small, propeller fan and blower types. These
are light in weight and will not do damage to the building
structure.
3. The large, heavy, blower type units must be
mounted on self-supporting platforms adjacent to, but
independent of, the building. In some cases--the air
washer type unit, for instance--it may be more economical
to mount the unit on a concrete platform.
4. The dimensions and operating weight of the
cooler should be determined before starting construction
of the supporting structure or mounting platform. A
walkway with guard rails round the cooler will give you a
safe working area. Each platform should also have a
ladder, built as part of the structure.
5. Never mount cooler units on the building roof.
Each unit must be mounted on the platform so that it is
rigid and level. In some cases this may require shims and
the bolting down of the unit. Every cooler manufacturer
furnishes mounting and installation instructions with each
type of unit. You should understand these instructions
before installing the cooler.
6. Connections. The various connections required
for evaporative coolers must be installed as specified for
each cooler. Check the instructions and see that the
proper size pipe, valves, switches, wire, and fuse boxes
are installed. Only in this way can you be sure that the
equipment will give the expected service.
7. Water supply and drain. The small, window
type evaporative cooler normally uses 1/4-inch copper
tubing to carry the water supply. A 1/4-inch fitting is
located on the side of the sillcock valve which is installed
on any ordinary 1/4-inch outside water valve (garden
hose).
 8. Large units must have a water supply line of at
least 3/4-inch pipe or tubing. A globe shutoff valve is
installed in the supply line on the inlet side to the unit.
Coolers using a water solenoid valve instead of a
recirculating pump should have a water strainer installed
on the inlet side of the solenoid valve. A water faucet
with a hose bibb should be installed in the supply line
near each cooler. This is to be used in washing down the
interior of evaporative coolers immediately after heavy
duststorms or when maintenance service is being done.
9. The water drain or was system for evaporative
coolers should be at least 1 1/4 inches in diameter to
reduce drain stoppage. The drain system should be
connected to the sewer or to a street drainage system. In
freezing areas the water supply system should be
insulated against freezing, or the unit may be installed to
permit the complete draining of the system.
10. Electric connection. Small propeller units
(window type) are usually connected by inserting the
electric cord plug into a convenient outlet. Thus they can
be placed in or out of operation by a toggle switch on the
front of the unit.
11. The larger units should be equipped with their
own fuses. Sometimes this may require a separate main
switch and fuse box, depending on the power
requirements of the unit. Pushbutton stations or toggle
switches are used to start and stop equipment operation.
Other units may require two separate switches, one for the
water recirculating pump motor and one for the blower
motor, hooked in series with one of the motor leads. This
allows the unit to be used for ventilation. The larger units
usually require magnetic starters and sometimes have
pilot lights or other devices to indicate when and what
part of the cooling unit is in operation. All switches,
controls, pilot lights, and Indicators should be mounted on
a control panel located in a convenient place. Each large
evaporative cooler should have a disconnect switch
mounted inside the unit to permit maintenance personnel
to control the unit operation while performing
maintenance service.
12. Air Distribution and Supply Ducts. Duct work
for evaporative cooling systems is designed and installed
in the same manner as that refrigerative air-conditioning
systems. There must be a properly sized supply duct and
adequate exhaust outlets.
13. Supply ducts. The supply duct enters the
building below the roof bearing plate direct from a unit
which is mounted on a structure platform. The duct must
be installed without cutting any structural members of the
building. A slide damper of air stop should be provided
for winter closure of the duct system.
99
14. When practical, corridor space should be used as
a plenum for air distribution ducts. The plenum must be
airtight except for supply outlet grilles. Air supply branch
ducts to rooms or spaces a located to provide an even
distribution of air. Branch ducts and multiple air outlets
from the main duct usually have dampers or splitters to
balance the flow of air. When the system is checked and
adjustments are made, the dampers or splitter should be
locked in place so that unauthorized persons cannot
readjust them. Directional flow vanes are usually
installed on the supply outlet so that air may be directed
where required. Do not use wire mesh screens on supply
outlets; they provide no means of directing the flow of air.
15. Exhaust outlets. To have proper cool air
circulation throughout the various spaces and rooms of a
building, each room must have a proper size exhaust
outlet leading to the outside of the building. Exhaust
outlets should have louvers or adjustable vents for
regulating the circulation of air. Exhaust fans may be
installed to insure positive air circulation through spaces
with high temperatures, such as messhalls and areas
around ranges.
16. If windows are used as exhaust outlets, they
should be raised to a fixed position. Window stops
should be installed to prevent personnel from raising
windows in excess of 4 inches. Not less than 2 square
feet of louvered exhaust openings should be provided for
each 1000 cubic feet of air delivered to a room or space
when such exhaust openings are used in lieu of raised
windows. All doors should be kept dosed to maintain a
balance of the airflow throughout the conditioned space.
17. Automatic Controls. Automatic controls are
not essential but are convenient. When automatic
thermostat and humidity controls are used, they should be
checked for proper operation and also should be adjusted,
set, and locked in position to prevent readjustment by the
using organization.
18. A thermostat is used to prevent the temperature
from going below a predetermined value. The thermostat
controls the operation of the blower and water pump by
starting and stopping them when the temperature in the
cooled area is above or below the predetermined
thermostat setting (usually 80° F.).
19. In some areas the evaporative cooler will have a
humidistat to control the humidity of the space being
cooled. The humidistat when used, controls the starting
and stopping of the water pump whenever the relative
humidity in the space being cooled is below or above the
predetermined humidistat setting (usually 55 percent).
Usually these controls are not used together. In case they
are, the thermostat is usually connected to operate the
blower and the humidistat to control the water pump. In
any case, they are connected to permit a constant supply
of air by continuous operation of the blower, thus turning
the unit into a straight mechanical ventilation system
when atmospheric conditions prevent the unit from
functioning as an evaporative cooler.
20. Startup Checks and Adjustments. The
successful functioning of evaporative air coolers depends
directly upon the manner in which they are operated.
Normally, the using organization is responsible only for
starting and stopping evaporative air cooling units and
systems. The personnel of the using organization must be
instructed thoroughly in the operation of electrical
switches, water valves, and other controls. They are
cautioned not to start the blowers prior to starting the
water pumps after long shutdown periods.
21. Startup Procedures. When a new or inactive
evaporative air cooling unit is to be placed in service, you
should perform the startup services to prepare the
equipment for operation. Before starting the equipment,
you must inspect all parts, accessories, and units to see
that they are secure and correctly adjusted. Seasonal
startup is scheduled well ahead of the time the equipment
is to be used. This allows ample time for inspection and
startup services. During initial startup procedures, all
supply outlets, vanes, dampers, and splitters should be
opened for normal airflow. Moist rags should be placed
over the supply air outlets into each space being air-
conditioned to catch the dust and construction dirt before
it is discharged into the space where occupants are on
duty.
22. The ratings of motor overload protection devices
should be checked against the motor nameplate ampere
ratings. If the devices are oversize or undersize, thermal
elements of the proper size should be installed.
23. An ammeter should be connected to the blower
motor circuit prior to starting the motor. Starting and
running currents should be recorded when the blower is
first operated, with all pads and filters dry and in place. If
the running current is equal to or less than the overload
rating of the motor, then the motor will not be overloaded
under final load conditions.
24. Testing the unit with clean, dry pads assures you
that the unit can be operated subsequently without water
for ventilating purposes, since pads are always in place
when the unit is operating. If the running current is in
excess of the motor overload rating, you must determine
the cause. In many cases, overload is due to excessive fan
speed. Correct this before continuing the operation of the
motor. The fan speed should be reduced by adjusting the
variable-pitch motor pulley or by reducing the size of the
100
motor pulley. Where this is impractical, the blower
pulley size should be increased. You should use pulleys
of the correct size rather than attempt to cut down the
original ones. An ammeter should be used to check the
starting and running currents of the pump motor after the
water collecting tank has been filled and the pump first
operated. If the running current is in excess of the motor
overload rating, determine the cause and correct it before
continuing the operation of the pump.
25. During the initial operation of the unit with water
on the pads or sprays, air delivery in the supply ducts
should be determined by a velometer or other velocity-
indicating instrument. Take readings at a sufficient
number of cross-sectional spots in the same section of the
supply duct so that you can arrive at an average velocity
reading. Multiply the average velocity by the square-foot,
cross-sectional area of the duct. This computation will
give the quantity of airflow in cubic feet per minute. If
the rate of air delivery approximates the designed capacity
of the system, the unit should be continued in operation.
If the rate of air delivery is considerably in excess of
design capacity, reduce the fan speed. In such a case, the
fan motor is usually overloaded and the velocity of the air
through the water evaporating pads is excessive. If this is
the case, drops of water may be carried over into the fan
compartment and cause shorting of electrical circuits,
motor "burnouts," rapid deterioration of belts, and
excessive rust and corrosion. After balancing air
distribution to all spaces by the use of velocity indicating
instruments, lock all dampers, splitters, and directional
flow vanes in their final position in such a manner that
tampering or readjustment is impossible except by the
maintenance personnel. Units which operate at
efficiencies below 80 percent require adjustment to
improve their performance.
26. Shutdown Services. When evaporative air
cooling equipment is to remain idle for long periods of
time, you must perform the preventive maintenance
shutdown services. This service protects the equipment,
conserves critical materials, and prepares the equipment
for minimum startup service. All parts, accessories, and
equipment are inspected to insure proper servicing for
seasonal shutdown or standby condition.
27. The shutdown service for evaporative air cooling
equipment depends upon its condition and the method of
storage. Usually the coolers are drained and washed out
with water under pressure. If they are to remain attached
to the building, they should be protected from the weather
by some type of cover. Normally these coolers should be
removed from the building, stored in a dry place, and
overhauled during the winter season. This procedure puts
the coolers in good
condition for the next season's run. Having been
overhauled, they should give very little trouble during the
cooling season.
26. Preventive Maintenance and Inspections
1. Definite procedures for the preventive
maintenance of refrigerating and air-conditioning
equipment are necessary for efficient operation. The
objectives of preventive maintenance are as follows: to
prevent breakdown, to insure proper maintenance, to
provide immediate and adequate minor repairs and avoid
major repairs, to control maintenance costs, to establish
specific personnel assignments, and to develop minimum
but adequate maintenance records and data.
2. Well-planned inspections and up-to-date and
correct records are required for a successful preventive
TABLE 1
101
maintenance program. Inspection is a key phase of
preventive maintenance. It is a simple fact that when
minor deficiencies are overlooked, they can cause major
breakdowns in the future. This eventually defeats any
preventive maintenance program. The responsibility of
detection is the duty of all personnel assigned to
preventive maintenance.
3. Servicing Components. Table 1 contains
instructions which will serve as guide procedures for
inspecting and servicing the components of evaporative
air cooling equipment. It may be necessary to supplement
these instructions and procedures with the manufacturer's
instructions where the equipment is not standardized in
design.
 TABLE 1 Cont'd

4. Major Repairs. Major repairs and renovation of 1. Agree. Disagree. Evaporative cooling removes
evaporative air cooling units should be done during the heat from the air to evaporate the water. (Sec.
winter every year. At post where there are a great many 24, Par. 1)
units to maintain, the shop space should be sufficient to
permit proper repair of the units. Smaller units can be
removed from their platforms and taken into the shop as
self-contained units. Since large units are not readily
movable, their component parts should be removed to the 2. With an evaporative cooler, the air can be cooled
shop. All units should be dismantled every year, to its __________________ temperature. (Sec.
thoroughly overhauled, cleaned, and painted to prevent 24, Par. 3)
rust. It is best that fans be dismantled and wheels and
scrolls cleaned and painted. Both inside and outside
casings, pad frames, eliminators, water makeup pans, and
metal structural parts should be cleaned and painted. Pads 3. List the following cities in order of the best
should be replaced as required. The best practice is to see environment for evaporative cooling:
that the water distributing system and the spray pump are New York, New York.
dismantled and inspected for cleanliness or excessive New Orleans, Louisiana.
impeller wear. Badly worn impellers should be replaced. Dallas, Texas.
All bearings on the fans, pumps, and motors must be Phoenix, Arizona.
cleaned, checked for wear, and replaced when necessary. (Sec. 24, Par. 5)
All the ball bearings should be repacked with grease and
the sleeve bearings lubricated with oil or grease as
necessary. It is approved practice that units, when
repaired, be replaced on their stands and their air intake 4. What would be the most probable cause of low
louvers suitably covered to prevent the pads and the water supply to the distributor in an evaporative
equipment from becoming dust laden. cooler? (Sec. 24, Par. 11)

Review Exercises

NOTE: The following exercise are study aids. Write
your answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other note on the
chapter content. Immediately check your answers with
the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your answers
for grading.
5. Which type of evaporative cooler would you
install in a dusty area? (Sec. 24, Par. 18)
6. On spray type evaporative coolers that utilize a
flush valve, what controls the frequency of
operation? (Sec. 24, Par. 22)

102
 7. What maintenance Is required when water
droplets are being blown into the room from a
spray type evaporative cooler? (Sec. 24, Par.
24)
8. A small evaporative cooler is connected to a
building using duct work. The duct work
contains four elbows and a diffuser. What may
happen to the evaporative cooler? (Sec. 24, Par.
25)
9. Which evaporative cooler would require a heavy
structure to support it, the 3000 c.f.m. drip type
or 3000 c.f.m. rotary-drum type? (Sec. 25, Par.
1)
10. The drain on an evaporative cooler is plugging
up regularly. How can you correct this
condition? (Sec. 25, Par. 9)
11. A new evaporative cooler, drip type, is installed
in the messhall. Two switches are included with
the unit. What function could these two switches
serve and how are they connected? (Sec. 25,
Par. 11)
12. You have just installed an evaporative cooler in a
room. What size exhaust opening should be
provided to allow proper cool air circulation?
(Sec. 25, Par. 15)
103
13. A complaint is submitted to the refrigeration
shop about excessive noise from the evaporative
cooler. You find that the window opposite the
cooler is open 2" and the cooler is rated at 4500
c.f.m. The window measures 2 1/2' x 5'. How
can you correct the complaint? (Sec. 25, Par.
16)
14. What precaution should you give to the user after
you have checked the cooler for season
operation? (Sec. 25, Par. 20)
15. The blower motor on an evaporative cooler has
burned out. How could this have been
prevented? (Sec. 25, Par. 22)
16. How can you reduce the speed of the blower in
an evaporative cooler? (Sec. 25, Par. 24)
17. How many c.f.m. is being delivered from a 12"
x 24" duct when the average velometer reading is
50 f.p.m.? (Sec. 25, Par. 25)
18. What service must you perform on the troughs
and weirs of a drip type evaporative cooler?
(Sec. 26, Par. 3)
19. How is the water distribution system cleaned?
(Sec. 26, Par. 3)
20. What size feeler gauge is used to adjust the axial
clearance of the blower wheel? (Sec. 26, Par. 3)
CHAPTER 8
Mechanical Ventilation
HAVE YOU EVER waved a paper in front of your face
on a warm day? This is one form of ventilation system.
The air moving across your face helped the moisture
(sweat) evaporate. This evaporation process removed
heat from your body so that you felt a cooling sensation.
2. You will study various ventilation systems and
their application. There are many factors which must be
considered when you install a ventilation system. These
factors are discussed in this chapter.
27. Ventilation and Distribution
1. When ventilating a room or building, the factors
to consider are the tightness of construction, the number
of occupants, and the kind of work being done.
Whenever human beings work in close quarters, the
gaseous products from respiration, the odors from
perspiration, and the heat radiated from the body should
be removed. All of these byproducts of human activity
tend to reduce human efficiency.
2. Proper air distribution is essential in a ventilating
system. The system not only should deliver a definite
amount of air to a room but also should distribute it
evenly. If this is not done, the occupants will be
uncomfortable from drafts, stuffiness, and temperature
differences between the floor and ceiling.
3. For instance, in comfort ventilation, a corner or
spot near a window will be noticeably hotter or cooler
than the rest of the room. Since individual comfort is, in
this case, the main purpose of ventilation, you are really
interested only in distributing the air over the floor area of
a room to a height of about 7 feet. Complete air
distribution is more important when removing fumes and
vapors from a building or room. Poor air distribution
causes gas fumes and vapors to remain in various areas of
the building and creates an explosion hazard. In all cases
where air is exhausted from a space, replacement air must
be supplied.
4. Air Distribution Standards. Air from fans and
duets is delivered to a room through grilles. The purpose
of a grille is to distribute the air evenly and silently,
without creating drafts.
104
5. So that the people will not have a feeling of
stuffiness, there should be a slight movement of air at all
times. An air movement of 25 to 35 feet per minute
(f.p.m.) is most satisfactory, but air motions of 20 to 50
f.p.m. will usually prove acceptable.
6. Grille manufacturers normally rate their grilles
as follows:
a. Quantity of air in cubic feet per minute (c.f.m.).
b. Outlet velocity in f.p.m.
c. Nominal grille size.
d. Blow of air in feet. (By "blow" we mean the
horizontal and vertical distance a stream of air travels
from the grille until it slows to a maximum velocity of 50
f.p.m.; see fig. 81.)
e. Drop of air in feet. (By "drop" we mean the
vertical distance the lower edge of a horizontal projected
airstream drops between the grille and the end of the
blow.)
7. Air Distribution Limiting Factors. A few of
the air distribution limiting factors are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
8. Blow. The blow at a grille must be sufficient to
produce satisfactory conditions throughout the
conditioned area. Overblowing results in drafts and
underblowing may cause improper air mixing. If cooling
air is being supplied, the cool air may drop too fast to
permit proper mixing with the warmer room air.
Experience has shown that the blow should be about
three-fourths of the distance toward an outside wall or
window. This distance should be modified if the room
height or height of a beam is such that the drop will cause
a draft over the people inside.
9. Drop. Place the grilles so that the airstream at
the end of the blow is not less than 6 feet above the floor
level. However, the airstream should not touch the
ceiling as this may cause a dirt streak on the ceiling.
10. Air motion. To achieve desirable air motion in a
building or a room without exceeding velocity limits is
one of the more critical air

Figure 81. Blow and drop.
distribution problems. Some of the factors which are apt
to cause the motion of the air to exceed desirable limits
are: (1) excessive air discharge velocities, (2) high
number of air changes per hour, (3) premature drop of
cold air into the conditioned space, and (4) overblowing
of the air.
11. Temperature differential. Temperature
differential is an important factor affecting grille
performance. An air differential of 5° requires little
concern, but a differential of 50° requires considerable
care in the proper location and selection of grilles.
12. Dirt. Although the supply air may have been
carefully filtered, it still contains small dust particles
which will settle on ceilings and walls. A good rule is to
locate the grille at least two widths below the ceiling and
make sure that the air does not shoot up. and hit the
ceiling during the blow.
13. Noise. Grille noise is usually caused by the air
discharge velocity and the grille size. To insure quiet
operation, make sure that the manufacturer's
recommendations are not exceeded and that air
distribution over the grille is fairly even.
14. The next subject we will discuss is ventilating
fans. We will learn how to select a specific fan for a
particular application.
28. Ventilation Fans
1. The devices used to produce airflow are referred
to as fans, blowers, exhausters, and propellers.
2. Types of Fans. The fans used with ventilating
systems are divided into two groups, radial-flow and
axial-flow.
3. Radial-flow fans. Radial-flow fans-more
popularly called centrifugal, blower, or squirrel-cage-are
used when a considerable amount of duct work is
involved. The principal feature which distinguishes one
type of centrifugal fan from another is the curvature of the
blades. The main types are the forward curved blade, the
105
radial blade, and the backward curved blade. The tip of
the forward curved blade inclines in the direction of
rotation, while the radial blade is straight, and the tip of
the backward curved blade inclines in a direction opposite
to the rotation. The performance characteristics of each
fan depends, of course, on its type. For a given output,
the forward curved blade is used for relatively low speed
operation. The radial blade is used for average speed
operation, while the backward curved blade is used for
relatively, high speed operation.
4. Axial-flow fans. The axial-flow fan is one in
which the air flows in line with the impeller axis, within a
cylinder or ring. These fans are divided into various
types. Among the more popular types are: the propeller,
tube-axial, and vane-axial.
5. The old design of propeller fan, which consists
of a propeller wheel within a mounted ring or plate, will
not handle air against high resistance. It is not suited for a
system with ducts, grilles, filters, etc. However, the
propeller fan can be used to remove air from areas to the
outside atmosphere without a duct.
6. Recently, fan manufacturers have developed a
special type of propeller fan which can move large
volumes of air against considerable frictional resistance.
This fan has a large hub and short adjustable blades. It is
highly efficient, but operates at high speeds. This high
speed operation causes noise. therefore it should be used
only in applications 'where noise presents no problem.
7. The tube-axial fan consists of an axial-flow
wheel within a cylinder. It is normally used against
appreciable frictional resistance.
8. The vane-axial fan is similar to the tube axial
type. It consists of an axial-flow fan within a cylinder,
with guide vanes before or after the fan. The purpose of
the guide vanes is to increase its efficiency. A fan of this
type is more often used against moderate frictional
resistance.
9. Fan Capacity. The most important factor to
consider when selecting a fan for a specific job is the
proper capacity. Too often the fan is selected on the basis
of diameter only. However, to determine the fan capacity
you must calculate the c.f.m. and the static pressure.
After you calculate the c.f.m. and static pressure, select
the fan on the basis of efficiency, noise, cost, and physical
size. You can estimate fan efficiency by dividing the
power output by the power input. Total efficiencies range
from 50 to 65 percent in small propeller fans to nearly 80
percent in centrifugal fans. Fan manufacturers publish
data which will aid you in selecting the correct fan size.
The noise level of the fan is an important factor which
must be considered before selection. Office
buildings require quieter operating fans than do industrial
shops.
10. Computing fan capacity is quite simple. You
must know what size fan will make a given number of air
changes in a room in an hour. Once you know the c.f.m.
of air needed, you can select the fan capable of delivering
that amount. Multiplying the dimensions (length X width
X height) of a room by the air changes required per hour
will give you the total quantity of air to be moved per
hour. Stating this as an equation, we can say:
Q = CV
60
where Q = quantity of air per minute (c.f.m.)
C = air changes per hour
V = volume of room in cubic feet
60 = minutes/hour
11. Now suppose you want to find the fan capacity
for a room requiring 12 air changes per hour. Suppose the
room is 100 feet by 25 feet by 14 feet. Substituting in the
formula,
Q = 12 X 100 X 25 X 14 = 420,000 = 7,000 c.f.m.
60 60
Therefore the fan capacity must be 7,000 c.f.m.
12. Fan Motors. Ventilating fans are usually driven
by electric motors. Small fans, especially those which are
operated at high speeds, are normally connected directly
to the motor shaft. Large fans and those which operate at
lower speeds are connected to motors through pulleys.
13. When you select a fan motor, it should be one
size larger than is required for normal load conditions.
This is necessary because larger volumes of air may be
required.
14. Some type of thermal switch should be provided
in the air inlet duct to break the circuit to the motor in the
event of a fire. Thermal switches of this type are usually
set to open the motor circuit whenever the inlet air
exceeds 135° F. Electric fan motors should also have
manual electric switches so that you can control the
operation of the motors when servicing them.
29. Air Ducts
1. Air ducts are pipes used to carry and distribute
fresh air or exhaust air from a building or room. Ducts
are usually constructed of galvanized sheet steel. Two
types of ducts are round and rectangular. Round ducts
require less metal to carry the same amount of air, but
rectangular ducts are used in most installations because of
space considerations.
2. The correct size of ducts to be installed may be
determined by using various charts and formulas procured
from manufacturers of air-conditioning equipment.
However, for all practical purposes, it should be the same
size as the outlet opening of the fan assembly.
106
3. Friction Losses in Ducts. When air flows
through a duct, it loses some of its pressure because of
friction. The greater the amount of air flowing through a
duct of a given size, the greater is the friction loss.
Furthermore, the power needed to deliver a certain
amount of air increases rapidly as the size of the duct
decreases. For this reason, ducts should be of sufficient
size to keep friction losses to a minimum. Friction losses
are usually computed by the use of formulas; however,
charts procured from manufacturers may be used.
4. To measure the air velocity through a duct or
grille, the ventilating system must be in operation.
Several different instruments may be used to measure this
velocity. These include the "Alnor" velometer and the
anemometer. The "Alnor" velometer is the one most
commonly used. It is a convenient instrument for spot
readings and is adaptable to many uses. For example, it
measures velocities within an enclosure or duct, and at
grilles. It is sufficiently accurate for all practical
purposes. The anemometer is a propeller or revolving
vane instrument which' is connected through a gear train
to a set of recording dials. The dials indicate the linear
feet of air passing the instrument in a unit length of time
(feet per minute).
5. Duct Fire Dampers. Fire dampen are used as
safety devices to shut off the airflow in supply and
exhaust ducts in case of fire. To automatically shut off
the air, ducts may be equipped with dampers and fuse
links. These should be provided when recommended by
the National Board of Fire Underwriters.
6. Now that we have the air flowing through the
duct, we must furnish some sort of outlet for it. This will
be the subject for our next discussion.
30. Air Outlets
1. Air supply outlets are either of the wall or ceiling
types. A number of different kinds of each have been
developed. The type and kind required will depend upon
the air distribution system you are using and the physical
layout of the room or building.
2. Wall Outlets. Wall outlets are classified
according to the type of openings. They are as follows:
(1) perforated grilles, (2) vaned grilles, (3) registers, (4)
slotted outlets, (5) ejector nozzles, and (6) wall diffusers.
3. Perforated grilles. Perforated grilles have a
small vane ratio and are not adjustable. They are
generally used where .the direction of the airflow is not
controlled. Perforated grilles may also be used as return
grilles.
4. Vaned grilles. Vaned grilles are either of the
fixed or adjustable types. They may be used for wall,
floor, and baseboard applications. The fixed type is used
where the direction of the airflow
is not controlled, while the adjustable type is used where
the proper control of the air is essential. Vaned grilles are
widely used, since they may be installed either vertically
or horizontally. This permits a wide selection of grilles to
meet particular requirements.
5. Registers. Perforated grilles designed with
dampers or an arrangement of adjustable louvers are
called registers. These units have a poor air outlet
distribution and, for this reason, have only a limited use.
6. Slotted outlets. These outlets may be procured in
a number of different designs, perforated, slotted, or a
combination of both. They are used frequently in a long
narrow room with a low ceiling. However, the air
quantity and distribution must be carefully planned;
changes after installation are difficult. The blow for these
outlets is less than for other types, therefore they can be
used where obstructions might prevent proper distribution
by other grilles.
7. Ejector nozzles. Ejector nozzles consist of a
pressure reduction box, sound reduction box, and diffuser.
Ejector nozzles give a long blow. They are used in places
where cooking, drying, freezing, etc., are in process.
Because of noise limitations, they are not used where
comfort is the primary objective.
8. Wall diffusers. The design of wall diffusers is
similar to ceiling outlet diffusers, which we will discuss
next.
9. Ceiling Outlets. Ceiling outlets most commonly
used are of three types. These are as follows: (1) plaques,
(2) ceiling diffusers, and (3) perforated ceilings and
panels.
10. Plaques. Plaque outlets are of simple design.
The plaque is a flat surface, such as a thin piece of board
or metal, constructed an inch or two below the opening.
The air hits the board or plate and flows through the
opening between the plate and the ceiling and outward
into the room. The plaque outlet is not widely used
because the flow of air is difficult to control.
11. Ceiling diffusers. Ceiling diffusers are either
round or rectangular shaped and are installed flush with
the ceiling, or parallel and below the ceiling.
Performance of the different types varies according to the
principle used. Some have no internal induction, but
hasten external induction by supplying air in multiple
layers. Others have internal induction and distribute air
over an entire half sphere.
12. Perforated ceiling and panels. In these types of
outlets, the air is diffused through perforations. These
panels are neat in appearance and maintain a low rate of
air movement.
13. We'll discuss the location of these outlets and
grilles in the next section.
107
31. Location of Supply and Return Grilles
1. A room having air supply grilles without return
grilles must have some type of opening into a corridor or
adjoining room. This opening is required so that air can
leave the conditioned room. If 3000 c.f.m. of air is
continually supplied to a room, 3000 c.f.m. must
somehow leave the room. Some of the air passes out
through cracks or around the windows or doors if the
room has no return air register. This leakage, however, is
normally not sufficient; and a relief opening is needed to
insure that the air has a free exit path. The relief opening
acts in much the same way as any opening in a
recirculation air duct, except that no fan is moving the air
through it.
2. The term "envelope" is defined as the outer
boundary of an airstream. The envelope of a supply grille
is a sharp beam similar to a beam from a searchlight.
Some air from the stream discharged by the grille leaves
the envelope and mixes with the adjacent room air,
causing eddy currents and air motion in the air next to the
envelope. The location of the return outlets may affect
the pattern of the supply-air envelope in the plan and
elevation pattern.
3. Supply-air envelopes, as they appear in a plan
view, are determined by the type of grille selected.
Different manufacturers offer grilles having different plan
view standard envelope patterns. The plan view envelope
is ordinarily called the deflection of the grille. Standard
deflections are available from manufacturers. Grilles are
also available with vertical vanes or bars adjustable either
individually or in groups of five or six vanes. With such
grilles, adjustments may be made in the field after
installation to obtain any deflection desired. Fixed
deflection grilles cannot be tampered with and
consequently lack the flexibility of the adjustable type.
Figure 82 illustrates an elevation (side view) of a room
having a high air-supply outlet and a low return opening.
This arrangement insures that the conditioned air will be
blown across the room above the breathing level, will
drop to the floor at the opposite wall, and will be slowly
drawn across the room at the breathing level to the return
register. Figure 83 illustrates an incorrect location for a
return outlet. It shows that the air in half the room would
have little motion. If occupants were near the return
grille, they would be covered with a blanket of cold air.
The cold air would not have an opportunity to mix with
the warm room air.
4. Sometimes fresh air must be supplied from
outlets located in the ceiling. Figure 84 illustrates an
arrangement where the air supply grille is located in the
middle of the ceiling with a low return opening located in
the wall. This layout is satisfactory because the air will
he blown
 Figure 82. High supply outlet and low return.
across the room above the breathing level of the occupant.
5. Figure 85 shows a common method of supplying
and returning air from one grille. This arrangement with
the air supply grille and return opening built into' the
same supply duct is unusual and not often used. It is
interesting, however, to note the airflow pattern. The
apparent "dead spot" near the floor is of little importance.
32. Ventilating Equipment Components and
Installation
1. When installing a ventilating system, you must
consider several factors. First of all, for comfort, a certain
number of air changes an hour are needed. This number
varies according to the temperature and humidity of the
region as well as the purpose for which the building or
room is intended. For instance, in setting up a ventilating
system for a large messhall, you must remember that the
ventilating problems for the kitchen will differ from those
for the main dining room, even though the two are part of
the same building. Because of the purpose of the room,
removing heat, moisture, and odors are your main concern
in the kitchen, while in the dining room your biggest item
is supplying the proper amount of air for the number of
occupants. Moreover, in planning you must consider the
temperature extremes
Figure 83. Incorrect installation of high supply outlet
and low return.
108
Figure 84. Ceiling supply outlet and return
at floor level.
and the humidity of the region. For example, generally
speaking you can set up fairly comfortable surroundings
by supplying an air change of 8 to 10 times an hour.
However, during hot weather, 20 to 30 complete air
changes are desirable in northern climates; and as many
as 60 may be needed in southern regions.
2. Obviously you cannot rigidly follow a set
pattern, since each installation will carry its own
particular problems. However, each manufacturer has
certain specifications for the installation of his particular
ventilating equipment. These specifications may vary
from those of other manufacturers. Also, the installation
of identical equipment may vary due to location, source of
power, local installation procedures, codes, regulations,
etc.
3. When installing a ventilating system, you should
consult text books, ventilation guides and manuals, and
manufacturer's data and catalogs. These will be
especially helpful when you are determining the quantity
of air that must be removed to carry away gases, fumes,
dirt, heat, vapors, and other undesirable foreign matter.
Re-
Figure 85. Supplying and returning air with one fixture.
member, also, that you must comply with the safety
practices of the National Safety Council and the Fire
Underwriter's Board.
4. Removal of Heat, Odors, and Gases. The most
common method used to remove heat, odors, and gases is
by operation of propeller fans. The installation of fans in
the attic will draw outside air into the building through the
windows, doors, and other openings and discharge the
contaminated air through the attic to the atmosphere.
Satisfactory ventilating effects are usually obtained by
providing approximately 60 air changes per hour. The
accepted procedure is to install one or two large capacity
fans instead of many small ones. Where a single fan is
used, it should be installed as near to the center of the
room as possible. In cases where many fans are used, the
total volume of air to be moved should be divided among
the fans in relation to their capacity. For instance, if four
exhaust fans are required to ventilate a rectangular
building, they should be installed in a manner to permit
each fan to ventilate one-fourth of the building.
5. The following paragraphs discuss various
standards used for different applications.
6. Attics. Vertical and horizontal fans are
frequently used to ventilate attics. These units draw
outside air into the building through windows, doors, and
other openings and discharge it through the attic to the
outside.
7. Dishwashing spaces. Dishwashing spaces, when
constructed as a separate room, should be provided with
an exhaust ventilation capable of producing 90 air
changes per hour. The capacity of the fan should be
based on the floor space measured to the bottom of the
hood. If the dishwashing machine without a hood is
installed in a separate room, not less than 60 air changes
per hour should be provided for the entire room.
8. Kitchens. The ventilating equipment installed in
large kitchens should be capable of supplying 20 air
changes per hour. Horizontal exhaust fans are generally
used in kitchens and are normally placed at ceiling level.
Exhaust openings at the outside of the wall should be
provided with louvers to keep out the weather. A bird
screen (an ordinary window screen) should be placed
between the fan and louvers to keep out birds and insects.
9. Kitchen ranges or deep fryers should be
equipped with ventilating hoods. The effectiveness of
these hoods depends upon exhausting large quantities of
air in order to remove the vapors. These hoods should
extend approximately 1 foot beyond the outside edges of
the equipment they serve. The bottom tip of the hood is
usually 6h feet to 7 feet above the floor. Hoods and
exhaust ducts are usually constructed of galvanized sheet
or cement asbestos board. A double canopy hood is
109
constructed with an inner shell which forms an air
passage between the shell and the hood. The air inlet
extends completely around the perimeter of the hood and
has a 2- to 3-inch space between the bottom tip of the
hood and the inner shell. Inner shells have openings at
the top for exhaust air from the center of the hood area.
The fan selected for a single canopy hood should have a
capacity of 200 c.f.m. per linear foot of hood perimeter,
while the fan for a double canopy hood should have a
capacity of 150 c.f.m. per linear foot.
10. Round ducts are normally used with hoods.
They extend from the hood, through the ceiling and roof,
and terminate with a weatherproof cap. The vertical
propeller fan is normally used in this application.
11. Fan guards must be installed on all fans to
protect personnel from accidental contact. Kitchen
exhaust hoods and ducts should be installed at least 18
inches away from the stove. Most kitchen range hoods
have grease filters. These filters should be cleaned
weekly to reduce fire hazard. Fans and duct work should
have a sufficient number of access doors to permit easy
cleaning.
12. Dining area. The ventilating equipment
installed in messhalls should be capable of 10 air changes
per hour. The fans generally used are of the propeller
type. They are installed in the wall at ceiling level. The
exhaust openings should be equipped with bird screens.
Either wood or metal louvers should be installed over the
openings to keep out the weather. Automatic louvers are
preferable.
13. Laundries. The ventilating equipment installed
in laundries should be capable of 30 air changes per hour.
14. Barracks. The ventilating equipment installed in
barracks should be capable of supplying fresh air at a rate
of 15 c.f.m. for each occupant.
15. Offices. The ventilating equipment installed in
offices and other similar spaces should be. capable of
delivering 10 c.f.m. per person.
16. Theaters and chapels. In windowless or
crowded enclosures (theaters and chapels) 10 c.f.m. per
occupant is required. Another method of calculating this
requirement is to provide 2 c.f.m. for each square foot of
floor area.
17. Removal of Hazardous Fumes and Vapors.
The removal of hazardous fumes and vapors from
buildings or spaces is accomplished by the use of special
explosion proof or spark proof ventilating fans and
motors. Fans and motors of this type are entirely
enclosed so that any electrical sparks from either unit
cannot cause an explosion. The maximum conveying
velocities for hazardous fumes and vapors are
approximately 2000 f.p.m.
 18. When installing a system for removing
hazardous fumes and gases you must take care to locate
the exhaust fans so that the fumes and vapors are
positively removed and do not create a dangerous
situation by remaining in the building. Some hazardous
fumes and vapors are lighter than air, while others are
heavier. Consequently, the specific gravity of each
hazardous gas determines the location of the fan.
Following are a number of gases and their specific
gravity:
Type Gas Formula Specific Gravity
Acetylene C2H2 0.90
Ammonia NH3 0.59
Butane C4H10 2.01
Carbon dioxide CO2 1.527
Carbon monoxide CO 0.967
Chlorine C12 2.49
Hydrochloric acid HC1 1.26
Nitric oxide NO 0939
Sulphur dioxide SO2 2.263
19. If the specific gravity of the gas is less than one,
the gas is lighter than air and will rise to the ceiling. If
the specific gravity is more than one, the gas is heavier
than air and sinks to the floor. The exhaust fan should
always be placed so that it removes the air as fast as the
vapor is released. Some of the buildings and rooms in
which hazardous fumes and vapors are generated are
garages, paint shops, refrigeration shops, battery shops,
etc.
20. Garages. In garages where toxic and explosive
gases cannot be ventilated by gravity, forced ventilation
must be used. The system should be capable of supplying
or exhausting a minimum of 1 c.f.m./square feet of floor
space. Carbon monoxide produced from the incomplete
burning of gasoline is lighter than air. For this reason, the
exhaust fans used to remove this gas must be installed at
least 7 feet above the floor. Gasoline vapors must also be
removed. Since these vapors are heavier than air, they
must be exhausted at floor level.
21. Paint shops. Paint shops should be provided
with both supply and exhaust ventilation that are capable
of producing 20 air changes per hour. Horizontal
propeller fans are generally used and installed in the wall
at a height of approximately 7 feet.
22. In paint shops and paint spray booths the
electrical circuits which operate the exhaust fan and the
air compressor should be interconnected so that the
compressor can run only when the exhaust fan is
operating. Such a safety measure lessens the probability
of personnel being overcome by paint fumes. It is also
desirable for the ventilating system to operate for a short
time after painting operations have ceased.
110
23. When installing an exhaust system for a paint
shop or paint booth, some means must be provided to
filter the particles of paint out of the air as it is forced
through the exhaust grille and out of the building.
24. To filter out paint particles from the exhaust air,
various types of filters and louvers may be installed at the
grille. If the paint shop is located in an isolated area, less
rigid precautions need be taken.
25. Removal of Foreign Particles. Many shops
need an exhaust system with & collector to gather up and
hold material that might clutter up the area. With this
system, the airflow must be sufficient to catch the dust,
chips, metal filings, etc., as they are produced. Air ducts
or exhaust pipes carry these materials through the
exhauster to the collector. If the collector is not used, the
system must be designed so that the exhaust will not
contaminate the fresh air which is reentering the building.
26. A local exhaust system consists essentially of
four parts: (1) hoods or partial enclosures, (2) air ducts,
(3) a collector, and (4) an exhauster. Data pertaining to
the quantity of air that must be removed in order to
control hazards or nuisances is available, as well as
information on the necessary entrance velocities to hoods
having different sizes and shapes.
27. The size of air ducts depends on the amount of
air to be moved and on minimum and maximum air
velocities. The minimum velocity must be strong enough
to keep particles from settling in the ducts, while the
maximum velocity is limited by noise. If quiet operation
is necessary, the velocity should not exceed 1200 f.p.m.
In carpentry or machine shops the system must pull air
over the article being worked on and must carry off the
dust or chips. The air velocity for this application
depends on the weight and size of the dust particles or
chips. Fine, dry dust requires a velocity of approximately
3000 f.p.m., while larger particles, heavy loads, and moist
materials require air velocities up to 6000 f.p.m.
28. Fans are the most common type of exhauster.
Propeller type fans prove satisfactory in low velocity
systems; but the centrifugal type fan is necessary for a
high resistance, high velocity system.
29. Vertical Discharge Ventilating System. A
vertical discharge ventilating system, shown in figure 86,
is designed with a vertical discharge propeller fan. The
complete system is mounted on the ceiling joists in the
attic of the building to be ventilated. With this
arrangement, air is drawn into the building through the
doors, windows, and other openings, then circulated
through the building and finally exhausted through the fan
into the attic. From the attic the air is forced out into the
atmosphere through a ridge ventilator. Instead of ridge
ventilators, gables, roof monitors, cupolas, and other
similar openings may be used.
 Figure 86. Vertical discharge ventilating tan.
Doors between the rooms on this system must remain
open or be louvered so that the air can circulate
throughout the building. By looking at figure 86, you will
notice that a bird screen is installed at the, exhaust
opening of the ridge ventilator and another screen is
installed over the air intake opening in the ceiling.
30. This ventilating system is also equipped with a
batten door which, when closed, stops airflow through the
attic. The construction of the fan crate is also shown in
this installation. It is designed with a fan shroud, which
makes the operation of the fan more efficient.
31. Sleeve bearing fans and motors without thrust
bearings should not be used in conjunction with vertic2a
111
discharge ventilating systems. Fans and motors used in
vertical discharge systems must be equipped with thrust
type ball bearings.
32. Vertical Discharge Ventilating Supply
System. Buildings or rooms with high internal heat
loads, such as auditoriums, classrooms, and laundries,
frequently use a vertical discharge ventilating supply
system. In this system, large propeller type supply fans
mounted from the ceiling blow the air down over the
occupants. Air should be drawn in from the outside
through louvered
 Figure 87. Horizontal discharge fan.
monitors to the fan. Then, after passing over the
occupants, the air can be vented to the outside through
windows and doors.
33. Horizontal Discharge Ventilating System.
Horizontal discharge ventilating systems are usually
installed in the outside wall of a building or in a roof
monitor, as shown in figure 87. Louvers which open and
close automatically are generally installed in the outside
wall. In a ventilating system of this type the air is drawn
through the building in the same manner as with vertical
discharge fans previously discussed. However, the air is
not pushed through the attic openings as in the case of
vertical discharge fans. Instead, it is pulled through by
suction and then forced through the opening into the
atmosphere.
34. Louvers. Louvers are generally used when
installing horizontal discharge exhaust fans in roof
monitors or roof gables. They can also be used to
weatherproof horizontal exhaust openings. Fixed wooden
louvers, unless properly made, may restrict air movement
or give insufficient protection against bad weather. Wood
louvers set in the frame at a 60° angle and spaced so that
2 inches of the opening is left between the crosspieces
will keep out the rain. Figure 88 shows the major
dimensions and capacities of louver panels constructed
from l-inch wood stock.
35. For structural reasons, do not construct louver
lengths to exceed 5 feet. If the capacity requires greater
length, use multiple sections.
36. Automatic louvers for use with horizontal
discharge ventilating systems can be procured from fan
manufacturers. Various methods are used to open and
close them. They may be actuated by an electric solenoid
or a motor. When the fan is installed next to the louver
panel, the louvers are actuated by air pressure. Air
112
pressure produced by the fan forces the louvers open,
which are hinged at the top of the louver frame. When
the fan stops, the force of gravity closes them. The
installation of metal louvers is simple. They are attached
to the exhaust opening by wood or sheet metal screws.
37. Fans. Fans installed in ceilings or roof must be
installed without cutting any structural members of the
building. Ceiling and roof construction must be
strengthened to support the additional weight. Access
doors to attics or fan enclosures must be provided -for
inspection and maintenance purposes. You must use
unpainted canvas or other flexible material to connect
ducts to fan outlets or inlets.
38. Fan drive motors should be protected by either
built-in or external thermal overload devices. A thermal
switch may be installed in the inlet airstream of a fan for
the purpose of stopping the fan in case of fire. These
switches are usually set to open the circuit to the fan drive
motor when the inlet air exceeds 135° F.
39. Filters. Air filters should be installed in all
supply ventilating systems where dust or other foreign
matter may be harmful to the activities conducted in the
ventilated space. Special conditions may require the use
of absorbents or electrical precipitators. Filters or dust
collectors may be required on exhaust systems in special
uses where the fan discharge would create an
objectionable condition in the immediate vicinity or area.
40. Ducts. Dusts used for ventilation are usually
constructed of galvanized sheet steel. Their construction
should be as smooth as possible where the air passes over
the inner surfaces. Ducts should be airtight and rigidly
attached to reduce vibration.
41. When installing ducts for ventilating purposes,
follow these suggested rules:
 Figure 88. Wood louver details.

a. Use smooth duct materials to decrease air

friction. 33. Inspection and Maintenance of Mechanical
b. Avoid sharp turns. Ventilating Equipment
c. Pipe the air as directly as possible to the required 1. The primary reason for inspections and
location. maintenance is to let us determine the operating
d. When a duct must be altered to go through an
opening or between structural members of a building,
make the change as slight as possible.

113
condition of an item of equipment and :to correct any
discrepancy which may be found. -These services should
be performed on equipment at periodic intervals
according to an inspection and maintenance schedule.
You must maintain inspection and maintenance records
for all of the ventilating equipment. Inspections and
maintenance services should be scheduled to permit only
a minimum of interference with the using organization.
2. Major repairs of ventilating equipment should be
done during the winter season or when the equipment is
not in use. Regular inspections show us when certain
items of equipment are in need of major repairs.
3. Inspections and Maintenance Services.
Definite procedures for inspection and maintenance
services of ventilating systems are necessary if we are to
have efficient and safe operation. The following
paragraphs discuss these services in general. The
instructions given here should serve as a guide for
inspecting and maintaining all mechanical ventilating
equipment. It may be necessary to supplement these
procedures with the manufacturer's instructions, since the
equipment is not standardized in design and may require
slightly different maintenance. Whenever warranted, tile
frequencies of inspections and maintenance services
should be adjusted to meet local operating conditions.
4. Fan Assembly. Fans should be inspected
periodically for proper operation, lubrication, and
cleanliness. Fan blades must be properly aligned and free
to rotate within their housings. The pulleys on the fan
shaft and the motor shaft can be checked for alignment by
using a straightedge. Loose pulleys must be tightened.
5. You must replace all defective fan blades. Dirty
fan blades will cause vibration; therefore they must be
cleaned. Fan blades may be cleaned by using a suitable
cleaning solvent or detergent and clean rags. After you
do the cleaning, you must tighten all bolts, nuts, and
screws on the fan assembly.
6. The axial clearance of each centrifugal fan must
be checked to insure that the fan wheel is not binding in
the scroll. The axial clearance may be adjusted by
relocating the position of the shaft thrust collar. After
final adjustment, the total axial motion should be
approximately 1/32 of an inch. Also after final
adjustment, lock the thrust collar in place with the thrust
collar setscrew. Worn thrust washers must be replaced.
7. Inspect and lubricate fan drives in accordance
with manufacturer's instructions. If the drive unit for the
fan has a direct flexible connection, inspect the couplings
periodically for wear and alignment.
8. The inspection and lubrication of fan bearings,
especially of continuously operated fans, should be
performed at regular intervals. The shaft sleeve bearings
114
of fans are lubricated with oil, while ball bearings are
packed with grease. The fan grease cups require filling
once each year. Over lubrication will cause oil to drip
from the bearing, which will result in unsightly
collections of oil and dirt.
9. Each fan should be disassembled and inspected
for defects yearly. Clean the fan shaft bearings and check
each bearing for wear. Replace any bearings which are
unserviceable. Clean and paint the interior and exterior of
the fan housing, the fan wheel, and similar items with rust
resistive paint. Care should be taken when working on
fan wheels, as they are statically and dynamically
balanced.
10. Lubrication of motor sleeve bearings. Lubricate
motor sleeve type bearings to the proper level, preferably
when the motors are at a stand-still rather than when they
are running. This procedure will prevent any false oil
level indication. The oil level should be observed for a
few seconds to determine that it is at the proper level.
Use a good grade of oil to lubricate sleeve type bearings.
11. Cleaning ball bearings. Motors equipped with
ball bearings and which operate at 1800 revolutions per
minute and lower should be cleaned and lubricated yearly.
Motors operating above 1800 r.p.m. should be
disassembled every 6 months. The bearings should be
cleaned with approved solvent and repacked with new
grease. You must be sure that no dirt and grit enter the
bearing chambers. If the motor is provided with self-
sealed prelubricated ball bearings, the manufacturer's
recommendations should be followed for cleaning and
relubricating procedures.
12. Cleaning sleeve type bearings. Before cleaning
the bearings, you must drain the oil from the bearing
chambers. Then flush the bearing chamber with an
approved solvent, allow sufficient time for the bearing to
dry, and refill the chamber with clean oil.
13. Duct Maintenance. Inspect duct periodically
for air leaks, cleanliness, and structural condition. Repair
or replace the defective ducts or duct connections.
Remove all accumulations of foreign matter on the
interior of the ducts. If applicable, inspect sound
absorbing and insulating material on the interior of the
ducts to determine that the materials are insulated
securely and adequately. Inspect the duct hangers and
supports and repair or replace as necessary.
14. All ducts should be cleaned annually. Protective
paints should be applied to the air ducts to protect them
from corrosion. One of the more effective protective
coatings is red lead paint. Apply three coats of paint. The
first coat should be a rust resistive type such as red lead
paint;
the second coat should also be a rust resistive paint but
tinted to the desired color. Finally a chlorinated rubber-
base paint is used for the finish coat, particularly where
the presence of highly corrosive gases would injure
standard paints.
15. Hood Maintenance. Inspect all the hoods for
the following conditions: broken or cracked surfaces, poor
connections to exhaust ducts, and accumulations of
material such as dust, dirt, or grease. Repair or replace
any defective hoods. Remove all accumulations of
foreign matter by washing the hoods with hot water,
steam, or an approved solvent You must include some
measurement of relative airflow through the hoods. Static
pressure or hood suction measurements will prove useful
during this check if data is available on air volumes and
pressures at the time the exhaust system was installed. A
marked reduction in air suction can be traced to one or
more of the following conditions: (1) reduced
performance of the exhaust fan due to belt slippage or an
accumulation of material on the fan wheel or in the fan
housing, (2) incorrect direction of rotation of the exhaust
fan, (3) reduced airflow caused by defective exhaust
piping, and (4) losses in suction due to additional exhaust
points being added to the system. Clean and/or paint
hoods as necessary.
16. Filter Maintenance. When filters become dirty
and clogged, they increase the resistance to the passage of
the airstream and thus reduce the efficiency of the system.
Therefore, filters should be inspected and cleaned or
replaced periodically. The frequency of inspection and
cleaning will depend on the- type of system in which the
filter is installed and on the type of filter. Usually, filters
should be cleaned or renewed at least every 2 or 3
months. However, if the ventilating system is used
moderately, the cleaning or renewal operation may be
reduced to once during a full season. Under dusty
conditions the filters may require cleaning or renewal
weekly.
17. Viscous impingement filters. Viscous
impingement filters, throw-away type, should be
discarded when they become dirty. However, certain
types of viscous impingement filters are designed to be
cleaned and reused. Cleaning may be accomplished by
using hot water, steam, or a cleaning solution that will
remove the adhesive coating. After the filters are washed,
they should be dried. To recoat the filters, dip them in an
adhesive bath long enough to coat all of the surfaces.
Then remove the filters and allow them to drain for
approximately 10 to 12 hours. You should use the
adhesive coating recommended by the manufacturer.
18. Special filter cleaning equipment, such as
washers and oilers, may be used to recondition these
115
filters. Dirty filter are placed into a three-stage washing
machine. The first operation removes loose dust and dirt
by ordinary washing. Next, the filters are washed by a
hot alkaline solution under pressure. After the filters are
washed in the alkaline solution they are rinsed with clear
water. The filters are now drained, dried, and immersed
in a high-temperature filter adhesive bath. After the
filters are removed from the adhesive bath, they are
placed in a centrifuge where excessive adhesive liquids
are removed. The reconditioned filters are then installed
in a ventilating system or stored in special storage racks.
19. Grease filters. Grease filters are cleaned in hot soapy
water, or by spraying them with hot water. Use a pressure
of approximately 20 pounds per square inch and direct the
spray at the outlet side of the filter. After the filter is
washed, place it in a vertical position and allow it to
drain.
20. Electrical precipitators. Electrical precipitators
may be cleaned in place manually with a brush or
automatically by washing the plates with hot water
sprayed from fixed or moving nozzles. Precipitators
which may be washed in place are provided with drains to
carry away the waste water. Before any cleaning
operation is performed, you must turn off the electricity.
It is best to follow the manufacturer's instructions to
determine the exact method of cleaning and the frequency
of cleaning electrical precipitators.
21. V-Belts. Inspect V-belts for breaks, evidence of
wear, and proper tension. A belt is tensioned properly, if
it has a deflection of 1/2 inch midway between the
pulleys. If a belt is too loose it will slip; while an
excessively tight belt will cause increased loads and
premature bearing wear. Multiple V-belts must have the
same tension; otherwise the tighter belt will carry most of
the load and wear out sooner.
22. The recommended procedure for V-belt
replacement is (1) loosen the motor at its base and shift it
closer to the fan, (2) place the belt on the motor pulley,
(3) slip it over the fan pulley, (4) align the pulleys and
belt, (5) adjust the belt tension, and (6) tighten the motor
mounting bolts in the V-groove of pulleys. V-belts must
fit; otherwise rapid wear, noise, and slipping will result.
23. Multiple V-belts are furnished in matched sets
by manufacturers to insure uniformity of length and
tension. If a V-belt in a multiple V-belt set needs to be
replaced, be sure to replace the entire set, even when
some of the old belts seem to be in good condition.
24. Louver Maintenance. Inspect louver
assemblies periodically to determine that they are intact
and that they control the airflow properly. Replace or
repair any loose or defective louvers. Wooden louver
assemblies should be painted ap-
proximately once each year. Check the freedom of
movement of automatic louvers and correct any
deficiencies. Place winter enclosures in position at the
beginning of the winter season and remove them at the
beginning of the summer season.
7. What type of grille should you select for an air
outlet located in the floor and the airflow must be
controlled ? (Sec. 30, Pars. 2-7)

Review Exercises 8. Which wall outlet is used for long narrow

rooms? (Sec. 30, Par. 6)
NOTE: The following exercises are study aids. Write
your answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers 9. What determines the pattern of the supply air
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your envelopes? (Sec. 31, Par. 3)
answers for grading.

1. When is it important that complete air

distribution be accomplished? (Sec. 27, Par. 3) 10. List several factors that must be considered when
preparing to install a ventilating system. (Sec.
32, Pars. 1-3)

2. What are two ways you could reduce excessive

grille noise? (Sec. 27, Par. 13) 11. Where should you install a fan in a room that
contains carbon dioxide? (Sec. 32, Pars. 18 and
19)

3. Which type of fan is normally used in a

ventilating system with considerable duct work? 12. What safety measure could you add when
(Sec. 28, Par. 3) installing an exhaust fan in a paint spray booth?
(Sec. 32, Par. 22)

4. You are to select a fan for a room requiring 30 13. What factors determine the desired air velocity in
air changes per hour. The size of the room is 14 a ventilating exhaust system? (Sec. 32, Pars. 26-
feet by 60 feet by 60 feet. What must the fan 28)
capacity be? (Sec. 28, Pars. 10 and 11)

14. What would result from poorly constructed fixed

wooden louvers? (Sec. 32, Pars. 34)
5. If you needed to reduce the friction loss of an air
duct, would you increase or decrease the size of
the duct? (Sec. 29, Par. 3)
15. When is it necessary to install filters in the
exhaust system? (Sec. 32, Par. 39)

6. Why are duct fire dampers used in mechanical

ventilation systems? (Sec. 28, Par. 5)

116
16. Dirt on the fan blades will have what effect on 18. What determines the frequency of cleaning an air
the fan operation ? (Sec. 33, Par. 5) filter? (Sec. 33, Par. 16)

17. What will result from the overlubrication of fan 19. What will excessively tight fan belts cause? (Sec.
motors and other ventilating equipment? (Sec. 33, Par. 21)
33, Par. 8)

117
CHAPTER 9
Heat Pumps
AT THE conclusion of this chapter you will know what
heat pumps are and will understand their operating
principles. We will also discuss the different types of
heat pumps, their sources and sinks, heat storage, and
pump components.
34. Performance
1. The operating principle of the heat pump is that
of the heat-power thermodynamic cycle governing the
conversion of mechanical energy to heat. It is derived
from the Second Law of Thermodynamics (Carnot's
Principle). The law states that the efficiency of a
thermodynamic engine is proportional to the amount of
heat transferred from the source of heat to the condenser;
and that heat passes only from a warmer to a colder body.
However, Carnot's formula for figuring the coefficient of
performance (COP) cannot be applied to an actual system.
It is used only on an ideal compressor, with an ideal
refrigerant.
2. "Coefficient of performance (COP) " is a term
used to express the ratio of output to input. We use the
term "coefficient" because in a refrigeration system the
performance will be greater than 100 percent. A simple
formula to express this is:
COP = output
input
The actual coefficient of performance is the ratio of
refrigeration effect to the actual work input. The work
input is figured in brake horsepower of the compressor.
Actual COP = refrigeration effect
b.hp. X 2545
Using this formula on a refrigeration system, we must
know the rated capacity of the compressor in B.t.u.'s
(refrigeration effect) and the brake horsepower. The 2545
is a constant used to convert b.hp. into B.t.u.'s. For
example, you have a compressor rated at 500,000
B.t.u.'s/hr. It is using R-12 in a 46° F. evaporator that has
a 12° F. superheat. The compressor’s discharge pressure
corresponds to 110° F. Under these conditions the brake
horsepower is 42. You would figure the actual COP as
follows:
118
Actual COP = 500,000 = 500,000 = 4.67 to 1
42 X 2545 106,890
In this actual situation we have put in 106,890 B.t.u.'s and
received 500,000 B.t.u.'s of refrigeration effect, a ratio of
more than 4 1/2 to 1.
3. In figuring the coefficient of performance of a
heat pump, we must include the heat equivalent of the
compressor. Thus we use the following formula:
Heat pump COP = refrigeration effect + work input
work input
= refrigeration effect + b.hp. X 2545
b.hp. x 2545
We shall use the same rating of 500,000 B.t.u.'s/hr. If all
the other conditions are the same as in the previous
problem, the b.hp. will be 42. We can find the ratio by
the following method:
Heat pump COP = 500,000 + 42 X 2545
42 X 2545
= 500,000 + 106,890
106,890
= 606,890
106,890
= 5.67 to 1
The input of 1 B.t.u. has given us a higher output on the
heat pump cycle.
4. The heating coefficient of performance (COP) of
an installed heat pump is the ratio of useful heating effect
to the heat equivalent of the total energy required to
operate the system. If total energy input of all auxiliaries
such as fans and pumps is not included, it should be so
stated.
5. Now we'll compare the economy of a heat pump
to an electrical resistance heater. We will use a 50,000-
B.u/hr. electrical resistance heater in our example.
3410 B.t.u./hr. = 1kw.-hr. (Kw.-hr. = kilowatt-hour)
50,00 B.t.u./hr. = 14.6 kw.-hr.
3410 B.t.u./hr.
6. At 3 cents per kw.-hr., the heat load would cost
14.6 X .03 = $.438/hr. = $.438 X 24 or
$10.50/day. The monthly electric bill would be $315.00.
7. Actually, the cost is much less than this, as the
heat load of a house averages much less than 50,000
B.t.u./hr. At this point we will introduce a new term--
'"degree day." Degree day is a unit based upon
temperature difference and time. It is used in estimating
fuel consumption and in specifying the nominal heating
load of a building during winter months. For any 1 day,
when the mean temperature is less than 65° F., there
exists as many degree days as there are Fahrenheit
degrees difference in temperature between the mean
temperature for the day and 65° F. The average or mean
temperature in our example is 35° F. over a 9-month
period. We will assume that we have 10,000 degree days.
The heat load for 50,000 B.t.u./hr./70° F. temperature
difference house would be: 50,000 or 714 B.t.u./
70
degree F./hr. The heat load for 24 hours would be: 714 X
24 = 17.136 B.t.u./degree day; 17,136
3410
= 5.02 kw.-hr./degree day. 5.02 X .03 X 10,000 =
$1506/seasonal cost for heating by electrical resistance.
8. The heat pump reduces this cost considerably
because it uses electricity only to drive the compressor.
The refrigeration cycle permits the condenser to release
three or four times as much heat as it takes in electrical
energy to drive the compressor. This coefficient of
performance means that 1 kw.-hr. of electrical energy
driving the compressor can release not 3410 B.t.u./hr., but
3410 X 3 or 10,230 B.t.u./hr.
9. You can increase the efficiency further by using
a warmer heat source than the outside air. Some heat
sources you might use are well water, lake water, or earth.
If you could find a well furnishing 60° F. water, the
coefficient of performance would be 4 or 5 and this factor
would bring the cost of operation close to that of the oil or
gas heating system.
10. The term "performance factor" is similar to
coefficient of performance but is used when referring to
values based on an extended period of performance. The
Figure 89. Types of heat pumps.
period of time covered would be given when using this
term. If supplemental heat is involved, its effect should
Figure 89,A, shows the refrigerant flow. You will notice
also be specified.
that two expansion valves, two check valves, and a
changeover valve are used to control the direction of
35. Types of Heat Pumps
refrigerant flow. The changeover valve (A), which
1. Heat pumps a classified according to the type of
receives a signal from a room thermostat, controls the
heat source and sink, heating and cooling distribution
function of the two heat exchanger coils.' The flow, when
fluids, thermodynamic cycle, building structure, and size
cooling is desired, is indicated with the plain arrow.
and configuration. We will discuss the more common
Expansion valve C will act as the metering device for coil
types (shown in fig. 89) in the following paragraphs.
F and check valve D will allow the hot liquid refrigerant
2. Air-to-Air (Refrigerant Changeover). This is
to pass into the receiver. When heating is desired
the more common type heat pump system.
(determined by the thermostat), the indoor coil F must
take on the function of a condenser

119
and the outdoor coil G, the evaporator. Expansion valve
B will act as the metering device and check valve E will
allow flow to the receiver.
3. In small units, the expansion and check valves
may be replaced with a capillary tube. A few installations
have been made in which the forced convection indoor
coil has been replaced by a radiant panel.
4. Air-to-Air (Air Changeover). The heat pump
circuit shown in figure 89,B, is the air-to-air (air
changeover) type. Changeover is accomplished with
dampers which control the flow of air across the two heat
exchanger coils. Figure 89,B, shows the system when
heating is desired. The indoor air is passing through
damper A, over coil I, and out damper E, while the
outdoor air is passing through damper C, over coil J, and
out damper G. During the cooling cycle, dampers A, C,
E, and G are closed and dampers B, D, F, and H are open?
This arrangement permits outdoor air to pass through
damper B, over coil I, and out damper F. The indoor air
will now pass through damper D, over coil J, and out
damper H.
5. The dampers may be electrically or
pneumatically operated.
6. Water-to-Air (Refrigerant Changeover). This
heat pump is illustrated in figure 89,C. The water-to-air
heat pump uses water as a heat source and sink, and uses
air to transmit heat to or from the conditioned space. The
operation is similar to the air-to-air type (refrigerant
changeover).
7. During the cooling cycle, the refrigerant passes
through the changeover valve A to heat exchanger G.
Check valve D will permit flow to the receiver, and
expansion valve C will meter the flow to the coil F.
When heating is desired, the changeover valve A will
divert the refrigerant flow to coil F. Check valve E will
allow refrigerant to pass to the receiver, and expansion
valve B will meter the flow of refrigerant to heat
exchanger G.
8. The coefficient of performance for this type heat
pump is higher than the air-to-air types.
9. Earth-to-Air (Refrigerant Changeover).
Earth-to-air heat pumps employ direct expansion of the
refrigerant in an embedded coil, as illustrated in figure
89,D. They may also be of the indirect type which we've
discussed under the water-to-air type.
10. The operation of this system is identical to the
air-to-air (refrigerant changeover) type except that the
outdoor coil is embedded in the ground.
11. Water-to-Water (Water Changeover). This
type heat pump uses water for the heat source and sink for
both heating and cooling operation. Changeover may be
accomplished in the refrigerant circuit, but in many
120
installations it is more convenient to perform the
changeover with valves, as illustrated in figure 89,E.
12. Valves A, B, C, and D are controlled by a room
or space thermostat. When the thermostat senses that
cooling is needed, valve (A) will allow the water to pass
through the condenser and discharge it out valve D. The
return water will flow through valve (B) to the chiller and
back to the supply through valve (D).
13. During the heat cycle, the valves will be
positioned to permit water to pass through valve A to the
chiller and then discharge through valve C. The return
water will flow through valve B to the condenser. From
the condenser it will flow through valve D to the supply
inlet of the coil.
14. An earth-to-air heat pump (not shown in fig. 89)
may be like the earth-to-air type shown, except for the
substitution of a refrigerant-water heat exchanger for the
finned coil shown on the indoor side. It may also take a
form similar to the water-to-water system when a
secondary-fluid ground coil is used.
15. Some heat pumps which use earth as the heat
source and sink are essentially of the water-to-air type.
An antifreeze solution is pumped through a loop
comprised of a pipe coil embedded in the earth and the
chiller-condenser.
16. Other types of heat pumps, other than those
listed, are possible. An example is one which uses solar
energy as a source of heat. Its refrigerant circuit may
resemble the water-to-air, air-to-air, or other types,
depending on the form of solar collector and the means of
heating and cooling distribution which is employed.
17. Another variation is the use of more than one
heat source. Some heat pumps have utilized air as the
primary heat source, but are changed over to extract heat
from another source (water earth, etc.) during peak load
periods. When solar energy is used, another source must
be used during periods of insufficient solar radiation.
36. Heat Sources and Sinks
1. The more practical choice of heat source and
sink for a particular application will be influenced
primarily by geographic location, climatic conditions,
initial cost, availability, and type of structure. A more
detailed discussion of design and selection factors for
each heat source and sink follows.
2. Air. Outdoor air offers a universal heat source
and heat sink medium for the heat pump. Extended-
surface forced convection heat exchanger coils are
employed to transfer the heat between the refrigerant and
air. These surfaces are as much as twice the size of the
indoor coil surface. The volume of outdoor air handled is
also greater in about the same proportion. The
temperature dif-
 Figure 90. Heat Pump component performance characteristics.
ference, during heating, between the outdoor air and the
refrigerant is approximately 10°-25° F.
3. Selection. The two factors that you must
consider when selecting a heat pump are the variation in
outdoor air temperature and the formation of frost. As the
outdoor temperature decreases, the capacity of the heat
pump (during heating operation). also decreases.
Selecting a heat pump for a specific air temperature is
more critical than for a fuel-fired system. Care must be
exercised to size the equipment for as low a balance point
as is practically possible for heating without having
excessive and unnecessary cooling capacity during the
summer periods.
4. The procedure for finding this balance point
(outdoor temperature at which the capacity matches the
heating requirements) will be discussed in the following
paragraphs.
5. The performance characteristics of a heat pump
system can be estimated by evaluating and individual
121
components. Figure 90 illustrates the data that
manufacturers make available with their heat pump.
6. The conditions of system balance can be
established by the following procedure:
a. Choose a combination of evaporator refrigerant
temperature Tr and condensing temperature Tc.
b. Determine the compressor refrigerating effect
from performance curves similar to those shown in figure
90,A.
c. Determine the compressor power input (Pc) in
kilowatts, as illustrated in figure 90,B.
d. Determine the condenser capacity from
Qe = Qe + 3413 Pc - Qce
where
Qc = condenser capacity (B.t.u./hr.)
Qc = compressor refrigeration effect (evaporator
capacity)(B.t.u./hr.)
Qce = heat loss from compressor to surrounding
air (B.t.u./hr.)
Pc = power input (kw)
 10. We've just. discussed one of the factors that you
must consider when selecting a heat pump; now we'll
discuss the other-frost formation.
11. When the surface temperature of an outdoor air
coil is 32° F. or lower, frost will form. The accumulation
of frost will tend to reduce heat transfer, which reduces
the capacity of the system. Research has shown that with
a nominal amount of frost deposit, the heat transfer
capacity of the coil is not substantially affected. The
nominal amount is 2.5 pounds/square feet of coil face
surface. The number of defrosting operations required
will be influenced by the (1) climate, (2) air-coil design,
and (3) hours of operation.
12. Experience has shown that little or no defrosting
is required with temperatures below 20° F. and below 60
percent relative humidity. However, under very humid
Figure 91. Heat pump system balance. conditions; when small suspended water droplets may be
present in the air, the rate of defrost may be three times as
e. Plot Qc obtained from step d on a chart similar to great as you would predict, using psychrometric theory.
90,C. 13. Coil construction. The air-source heat pump
f. Select other condensing temperatures in uses the extended or fin type coil. The external surface of
combination with the original evaporator temperature the tube is known as the primary, and the fin surface is
from step a and repeat steps b-e as necessary to determine called the secondary. The primary surface consists of
the condenser capacity at which the system balances. tubes which may be staggered, or placed in line with
Points A and B on figure 91 represent the results of these respect to the heat flow. The staggered arrangement is
calculations. Two points will normally be sufficient to preferred because it obtains a higher heat transfer value.
determine the balancing condenser capacity. 14. A more important factor in the performance of
g. Select other evaporator temperatures and repeat extended surface coil is the bond between the tube and fin
steps a-f. A firm contact between the tube
h. For each evaporator find the corresponding heat
source temperature (Ta) from a chart similar to 90,D.
7. Once the conditions of system balance are
known, it is relatively easy to establish the heating
performance characteristics. The net heating effect may
consist of condenser heat, or depending upon the system
design, may also include heat losses from the compressor,
motor, and refrigerant subcooler coil (if used).
8. For a heat pump which employs a constant
temperature heat source, a few computations will
generally establish the balancing conditions for Tr and Tc.
A heat pump which uses a variable heat source such as air
requires a wide range of Tr to establish balancing
conditions.
9. Figure 92 shows the performance characteristics
of a typical heat pump determined either from actual
system tests or from an analytical procedure such as we've
discussed. Heating and cooling loads for typical
residence are also shown in figure 92. If the balance point
is above the heating design temperature (Td), then Figure 92. Heat pump operating characteristics.
supplemental heat will be required, as. shown by the
shaded area in figure 92.

122
 a. The duty requPb4 and de capacity needed to
maintain balance with other system components.
b. Temperature of entering air (D.B. and W.B.).
c. Available cooling media and operating
temperatures.
d. Space and size limitations.
e. C.f.m. limitations.
f. Allowable frictional resistances in air circuit and
cooling media piping system.
g. Characteristics of individual coil designs.
h. Installation requirements.-type of automatic
control etc.
i. Coil air face velocity.
18. Coil ratings are based on a uniform face velocity.
Airflow interference, caused by air entrance at odd angles
or by blocking a portion of the coil face, will affect
performance. To maintain the rated performance of the
coil, it is necessary that the air quantity (c.f.m.) be
adjusted while the system is operated and kept at this
value.
19. You'll find that the more common causes of
airflow reduction are (1) dirty filters, (2) dirty coils, and
(3) frost accumulation on the coil. You will avoid these
difficulties if you implement a good preventive
maintenance program.
20. In the selection of coils, sufficient surface area
must be installed to transfer the total heat load from the
air to the cooling media-refrigerant. This transfer must
occur under the required temperature conditions and
maximum flow rates of both air and refrigerant. The coil
total heat capacity must be in balance with the capacity of
Figure 93. Condensing media flow.
related equipment, such as the compressor. Therefore, in
making coil selections you will have to consult
and fin will insure free heat transfer from the fin to the
manufacturer's rating tables or the manufacturer's local
tube.
representative.
15. Most coils are constructed of aluminum fins and
21. Heat transfer and airflow resistance. The rate of
copper tubes, but copper fins on copper tubes are also
heat transfer from the air to the refrigerant is affected by
used. Fin spacing varies from 8 to 14 per inch. The fin
three resistances. These three resistances are:
spacing will be determined by the (1) duty to be
(1) From the air to the surface of the tube -
performed, (2) possibility of lint accumulation, and (3)
usually external surface or air-film resistance.
consideration of frost accumulation.
(2) The resistance to the conduction of heat
16. Coil flow arrangements. In air-cooling coils the
through the fin and tube metal.
air usually flows at right angles to the tubes. In a one-row
(3) The resistance to the flow of heat between
coil the direction of airflow would be at right angles to the
the internal surface of the metal and the fluid in the tube.
tube, but in multiple-row coils the airflow may be
22. The metal to heat conduction and the internal
circuited, as shown in figure 93. Most dry expansion
tube surface resistances are comparably low. The
coils use the counterflow circuit to secure the advantage
resistance that you would be more interested in is the
of the highest possible mean temperature difference.
external surface or air-film resistance. You may
Crossflow is also used, but is difficult to control because
overcome this resistance by extending the coil surface by
of the problem of equal parallel circuit loading.
means of fins.
17. Coil selection. The various factors you must
23. The transfer of sensible heat between the cooling
consider when selection a coil are:
medium and the airstream is influenced by

123
 (1) The temperature difference.
(2) The design and surface arrangement of the
coil.
(3) The velocity and character of the airstream.
(4) The velocity and character of the medium in
the tubes.
24. Water. Water is considered to be an ideal heat
source subject to the considerations listed below:
(1) City water--availability, high operating
expense, scale formation on coils, and low temperature
during the winter season.
(2) Well water-availability, original cost of
drilling the well, composition of water (calcium,
magnesium), and the life of the well (dry up).
(3) Surface water-availability, and it may
contain chlorides and micro-organisms (algae).
(4) Waste water-availability temperature, and it
is very difficult to mass produce this type heat pump.
25. City water is not a good heat source because of
its nonavailability and its high operating cost. Well water
is particularly attractive from the standpoint of its
relatively high and nearly constant temperature (50° F. in
northern areas and 60° F. or higher in the south). You
can obtain information on well water availability,
temperature, and chemical and physical analysis from
local U.S. Geological Survey offices. These offices are
located in most major cities.
26. Utilization of water during cooling operation
follows the conventional practice with water-cooled
condensers. Water-refrigerant heat exchangers generally
take the form of either shell-and-coil or shell-and-tube
type direct-expansion water coolers. These heat
exchangers are circuited to permit usage of the shell-and-
coil or shell-and-tube as a refrigerant condenser during
the heating cycle and as a refrigerant evaporator during
the cooling cycle.
27. Earth. Heat transfer through buried coils has
not been used extensively because of high installation
cost, ground area requirements, and the uncertainty of
predicting performance.
28. Compositions of soil vary quite widely (wet clay
to sand) and affect the thermal properties and overall
performance.
29. Earth coils, usually arranged horizontally, are
submerged 3 to 6 feet below the surface. A lower depth
may be preferred but excavation cost requires a
compromise. The mean ground temperature for a specific
area generally follows the mean annual climatic
temperature.
37. Heat Storage
124
1. The use of heat storage can improve the
performance of a heat pump. Installations of heat pumps
with heat storage have been made in large buildings.
2. We'll all have to agree that all materials possess
the property of heat storage. The structural materials of a
building are always in the process either of absorbing heat
from or delivering heat to the interior space. This effect is
more pronounced in cooling operation where greater air
temperature variation is tolerated. Heat storage tends to
reduce the rate of temperature change and helps in some
measure to reduce the peak load requirements.
3. A heat pump, with heat storage capabilities, can
serve not only to reduce the size of a heat pump necessary
for a given load but also to provide a more desirable
electric load. This may be done by shifting part of the
load to the time of day when the cost of power is least.
Power is the cheapest during off-peak time. The electric
hot water heater is a common example of such a heat
storage application.
4. There are two types of heat storage systems that
have been employed: (1) sensible heat storage systems,
and (2) latent heat storage systems. The latter is actually
a combination of the two. Heat storage, in the heat pump
system, may be utilized on the high side when heat is
available at a temperature suitable for direct heating. It is
used on the low side as an intermittent heat source at
temperatures lower than the heated space.
38. Heat Pump Components
1. The components used in heat pumps and the
practices followed bear a direct relationship to the air
conditioner discussed earlier in this volume. In this
section we will discuss the component peculiar to this
system-the reversing or change-over valve. Our
discussion will cover the operation and application of the
valve.
2. Operation. The 4-way reversing valve is
operated by a solenoid pilot 3-way valve which actuates
the piston-operated main valve (reversing valve). The
pilot valve may be a separate component or an internal
part of the main valve. The pilot valve directs the
actuating pressures-compressor discharge and suction-to
the top of the main valve piston. Figures 94,A, and 94,B,
illustrates a heat pump system, during both heating (B)
and cooling (A) cycles, using a typical 4-way reversing
valve. You can see that the main valve is externally
operated by a solenoid pilot 3-way valve: There are also
two thermostatic expansion valves and two check valves
used in the system.
3. Now we'll cover the cooling cycle (fig. 94,A).
The pilot valve is energized, thus allowing compressor
suction pressure to the top of the main valve piston. This
causes the main piston
Figure 94. Heat pump system with 4-way reversing valve, solenoid pilot 3-way valve,
two thermostatic expansion valves, and two check valves.

125
to rise. With the main valve piston in this position, the
compressor discharge follows path D to C, while the
suction gas (from the evaporator to the compressor)
follows path E to S.
4. During the heating cycle, shown in figure 94,B,
the pilot valve is deenergized. This allows the
compressor discharge pressure to be admitted to the top of
the main valve piston and to move the piston down. In
this position the compressor discharge gas follows path D
to E, and the evaporator return pressure from C to S.
5. We can summarize our discussion of the two
cycles by stating that by energizing and deenergizing the
pilot valve, the direction of refrigerant flow is reversed.
We can also conclude that the main valve piston is held in
position by the pressure drop across the closed valve
poppets.
6. Application. We've already covered one
application of the reversing valve; now we'll discuss two
more. They are shown in figures 95 and 96. Figure 95
shows a system with one 4-way reversing valve, one
solenoid pilot 3-way valve, one thermostatic expansion
valve, and four check valves. The system shown in figure
96 uses a 3-way reversing valve, a 4-way reversing valve,
a solenoid pilot 3-way valve, and two thermostatic
expansion valves. This system allows refrigerant to flow
in one direction in the heat exchanger coils, while the
other systems allow flow in either direction.
7. It is imperative in the system shown in figure 96
to provide positive free draining of the liquid refrigerant
into the top of the receiver from the bottom of the coil
when the coil is used as a condenser. In addition, it may
be necessary to allow for drainage of liquid refrigerant
from the condenser before reversing the 4-way valve. If
caution is not taken, the liquid refrigerant can enter the
compressor and cause serious damage.
126
8. When a water cooled condenser is used in the
system, it is necessary to add additional control devices to
protect it against freezeup. Freezeup may occur during
the heating cycle because the condenser is used as a heat
source (evaporator). Two methods of protection are
shown in figures 97 and 98.
9. Figure 97 shows a system using an evaporator
pressure regulator (EPR), connected to the condenser.
The EPR is used to prevent freezeup of the water flowing
through the condenser during the heat cycle. When the
system is returned to the cooling cycle, the EPR valve
must be bypassed by a check valve which will allow the
hot gas to flow to the condenser. A solenoid water valve
must be used to bypass the condenser water regulating
valve during the heat cycle. This will permit a full flow
of water through the condenser.
10. A constant pressure liquid expansion valve is
used in the system shown in figure 98. It feeds liquid
refrigerant to the condenser when it is used as an
evaporator during the heat cycle. The valve must be
adjusted to prevent the suction pressure from falling
below the pressure corresponding to the refrigerant
saturation temperature 33° F. during the heat cycle. This
valve must be bypassed with a check valve which will
permit the condensed liquid refrigerant to flow to the
receiver during the cooling cycle. In addition, the
connection to the receiver, to which the valve is
connected, must have a dip tube (quill) to insure an
adequate supply of liquid refrigerant to the valve. A
solenoid water valve must be- used to bypass the
condenser water regulating valve when the condenser
serves as an evaporator. This is done to insure complete
evaporation of all of the refrigerant being fed by the
constant pressure liquid expansion valve. Liquid
refrigerant must never be allowed to return to the
compressor.
Figure 93. Heat pump system with 4-way reversing valve, solenoid pilot 3-way valve,
thermostatic expansion valve, and four check valves.

127
Figure 96. Heat pump system with 3-way reversing valve, 4-way reversing valve, solenoid
pilot 3-way valve, and two thermostatic expansion valves.

128
Figure 97. Reverse cycle for defrosting using a 4-way reversing valve and an evaporator
pressure regulating valve.

129
Figure 98. Reverse cycle for defrosting using a 4-way reversing valve and a constant
pressure liquid expansion valve.

130
 Review Exercises
NOTE: The following exercises are study aids.
Write your answers in pencil in the space provided after
each exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes
on the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
1. What is the COP of a refrigeration cycle when
the refrigeration effect is 300,000 B.t.u.’s and the
brake horsepower is 40? (Sec. 34, Par. 2)
2. How much would it cost to operate a 100,000
B.t.u./hr. electrical resistance hear for 1 day?
The cost of electricity is 2 a kilowatt-hour. (Sec.
34, Pars. 5 and 6)
3. How many degree days would you have if the
average temperature for a 90-day period is 5° F.?
(Sec. 34, Par. 7)
4. Why is a hat pump less expensive to operate than
an electric resistance heater? (Sec. 34, Par. 8)
5. Which type of heating system is the cheapest to
operate, the air-to-air heat pump or an oil fired
heating system? (Sec. 34, Par. 9)
6. How many expansion devices does an air-to-air
(refrigerant changeover) heat pump have? (Sec.
35, Par. 2)
131
7. What is the maximum temperature of the
refrigerant during the heating cycle when the
outside temperature is 50 F.? (Sec. 36, Par. 2)
8. Why is outdoor temperature an important factor
in selecting a heat pump? (Sec. 36, Pars. 3-9)
9. Will 40 pounds of frost substantially affect a 5' x
4' coil? (Sec. 36, Par. 11)
10. How many fins does a 4-foot coil contain? (Sec.
36, Par. 15)
11. What are the most common causes of airflow
reduction? (Sec. 36, Par. 19)
12. Why isn't city water considered a good heat
source? (Sec. 36, Par. 24)
13. Which water source is considered the best heat
source? Why? (Sec. 36, Par. 25)
14. Why is heat storage beneficial to a heat pump?
(Sec. 37, Par. 2)
15. The heat pump is operating as an air conditioner.
The room temperature falls below the thermostat
setting, but the unit will not reverse its cycle.
Which component has most likely
malfunctioned? (Sec. 38, Par. 2)
16. What occurs when the pilot valve is energized? 18. How can you prevent freezeup of a water-cooled
(Sec. 38, Par. 3) condenser during the heat cycle? (Sec. 38, Pars.
9 and 10)

17. An open in the pilot valve solenoid will cause

the heat pump to operate on the cycle. (Sec. 38,
Par. 4)

132
 Answers to Review Exercises
CHAPTER 1 400 X 3 = 1200 watts
1200 watts = 12 kilowatts
1. The factor that determines the type of filter design you 12 X .025 = .30
would use is the degree of cleanliness required for the (Sec. 3, Par. 22)
conditioned area. (Sec. 1, Par. 6) 18. To evaporate 9 pounds of water, 9450 B.t.u.'s must be
2. The filter arrangement used in a duct system having a added to the water. 1050 X 9 = 9450 B.t.u.'s. (Sec. 3,
velocity of 500 f.p.m. is with the filtering medium placed Par. 28)
on edge. (Sec. 1, Par. 10) 19. Adding moisture to the air with an atomizer humidifier
3. When the pressure drop through a duct system is 2 p.s.i.g. will not affect the wet-bulb temperature. (Sec. 3, Par.
the filters are dirty. (Sec. 1, Par. 13) 28)
4. The traveling media filter requires the least amount of 20. A humidistat can be used to control a valve in the
attention because the media roll usually lasts 3 months. compressed air line. As more air is allowed to pass
(Sec. 1, Par. 17) through the line, more moisture will escape into the air.
5. The type of filter you should install is a moving curtain (Sec. 3, Par. 32).
filter because it is considered to be fail safe. When the 21. The maximum efficiency of the impact humidifier as
media runs out, an indication it given and the circuit to compared to the atomizer type is 50 percent. The
the filter motor opens. (Sec. 1, Par. 19) atomizer uses 100 percent of the water supplied to it,
6. The surface area of a dry filter may be increased by while the impact uses 20 to 50 percent. (Sec. 3, Par. 37)
pleating the filtering medium. (Sec. 1, Par. 22) 22. The rate of airflow is important because more evaporation
7. The initial resistance of the filter is higher than the will occur in a given period of time with an increase in
resistance at which the fan will operate. This condition c.f.m. (Sec. 3, Par. 38)
will cause the motor to overheat. (Sec. 1, Par. 26) 23. 100 B.t.u.'s added to a forced-evaporation humidifier per
8. An ionizing filter handling 3800 c.f.m. of air will hour with an airflow rate of 20 pounds of dry air per hour
consume 97 watts. (Sec. 1, Par. 31) will add 5 B.t.u.'s to each pound of dry air. (Sec. 3, Par.
9. The cost of filter operation for 1 hour is $.17 40)
97 X 60 = 5820 watts 24. To correct this condition-water droplets leaving the
5820 watts = 5.82 kilowatts washer-you could install a bypass duct and allow a
5.82 X $ .03 = $.175 velocity of 500 f.p.m. to pass through the washer. (Sec.
(Sec. 1, Par. 31 and Question 8) 3, Par. 44)
10. A dry-bulb temperature of 50° F. and a dewpoint 25. The pressure has increased because the eliminator plates
temperature of 50° F. is 100 percent relative humidity. have become plugged. This condition can be prevented
This high humidity will impair the dielectric properties of by installing flooding nozzles in the air washer. (Sec. 3,
the filter. (Sec. 1, Par. 36) Par. 44)
11. The most probable cause of an odor in an air-conditioning
system is a wet, dirty cooling coil. (Sec. 2, Par. 2) CHAPTER 2
12. Air at 70° F. and 100 percent humidity is saturated. (Sec.
3, Par. 4) 1. On a centigrade the thermometer 15.5° is equivalent to
13. 2000 c.f.m. can be handled effectively by a 5-ton cooling 60° on a Fahrenheit thermometer:
coil. (Sec. 3, Par. 7) C = 5 (60 - 32);C = 5 x 28 ; C = 140;
14. The quality of a liquid absorbent is controlled by the 9 9 1 9
automatic regulation of cooling waterflow through a C = 15.55°
cooling coil in the absorbent sump. (Sec. 3, Par. 12) (Sec. 4, Par. 4)
15. The air temperature should be within 1° to 5° of the 2. On a Fahrenheit thermometer 104° is equivalent to 40° on
absorbent temperature. To lower the temperature a centigrade thermometer.
differential, more contact surface should be added or the F= 9 X 40 + 32; F = 360
absorbent temperature should be lowered. (Sec. 3, Par. 5 5
14) + 32; F = 72 + 32; F = 104°.
16. The adsorption efficiency of a dynamic dehumidifier with (Sec. 4, Par. 4)
an entering moisture content of 25 grains and an adsorbed 3. It would require 3.8 B.t.u.’s to raise the temperature of 8
moisture content of 20 grains is 80 percent, or 20 = 4 = pounds of cast iron 4°. (B.t.u. = 0.119 X 8 X 4. B.t.u. =
.8 = 80 0.119 X 32, B.t.u. = 3.8) (Sec. 4, Par. 6)
25 5 4. The term applied to the sum of sensible heat and latent
percent. (Sec. 3, Par. 21) heat is "total heat" (Sec. 4 Par. 8)
17. The economy of desorption is 1200 watts and the cost it $
.30.

133
 5. The dry-bulb thermometer will always indicate a higher 9. The most probable cause of a 55° F. temperature
temperature than the wet-bulb thermometer except when reduction is moisture in the insulation around the pipe.
the air is saturated; then they will both indicate the same. The evaporation of the moisture will cause a heat loss.
(Sec. 4, Pars. 10 and 11) (Sec. 9, Par. 18)
6. After whirling a sling psychrometer with the wet-bulb 10. When you insulate a valve in a 2-inch pipeline the
thermometer wick dry, the psychrometer thermometers insulation should be the same thickness as the pipe. The
would read the same. (Sec. 4, Par. 11; Sec. 5, Par. 3) insulation usually consists entirely of insulating cement.
7. The difference in the dry-bulb thermometer reading and (Sec. 9, Par. 20)
wet-bulb thermometer reading will become greater as the 11. The solar radiation through a 20' x 40' brick Wall with a
relative humidity decreased. (Sec. 4, Par. 11; and Sec. 30° F. differential is
5, Par. 3) Q = UA (t1 – T0)
8. In order to determine the relative humidity, the dry-bulb Q = .34 x 800 (30)
and wet-bulb temperatures must be known. (Sec. 5, Par. Q = 272 x 30
3) Q = 8160 B.t.u./hr.
9. Distilled water should be used to set the wick of a wet- (Sec. 10, Pars. 10 and 13)
bulb thermometer to help prevent the clogging of the 12. The gross area of the wall is 120 square feet. The
wick. (Sec. 5, Par. 6) window area is 16 square feet.
10. If the total pressure of an air-conditioning system remains Glass = 1.13 X 16 X 22 = 397.76 B.t.u./hr.
constant and the air ducts become partially clogged, the Brick = 120 - 16 = 104 sq. ft.
static pressure will increase to over-come the added 104 X .34 X 22 = 777.48 B.t.u./hr.
resistance and the velocity pressure will decrease. (Sec. Total heat gain = 397.76 + 777.48 = 1175.24
6, Pars. 8-11) B.t.u./hr.
11. If the total airflow pressure is equal to 20 inches of water (Sec. 10, Par. 13)
and the static pressure is equal to 4 inches of water, the 13. Human load will give off the most latent heat gain. (Sec.
velocity pressure is equal to the total pressure minus the 10, Par. 13)
static pressure or 16 inches of water. (Sec. 6, Par. 11) 14. To find the total cooling load, you must add 10 percent to
12. Yes, it is possible to determine static pressure with a the sensible load.
velometer. The velometer indicates the velocity pressure Total load = 42,156 + 4,215.6 + 8,750 = 55,121.6
which you would subtract from the total pressure to get B.t.u.
the static pressure. (Sec. 6, Pars. 11 and 19) (Sec. 10, Par. 14)
15. 57,150 B.t.u. (sensible)
CHAPTER 3 5,715 B.t.u. (safety factor)
9,170 B.t.u. (latent)
1. In calculating the wall area you must subtract 16” from 72,035
the length to find the inside wall area. The ceiling sits on 72,035 total heat load.
top of the wall so that the height measurement is not 12,000 B.t.u. per ton of refrigeration.
affected. The wall area is 126.67 square feet. 72,035
10' = 120" height 12,000 = approximately 6 tons.
14'= 168" length (Sec. 10, Par. 14)
168"- 16"= 152"
120" X 152" = 18240 square inches CHAPTER 4
18240 ÷ 144 = 126.67 square feet
(Sec. 7, Par. 2) 1. Before you plug in an air-conditioning unit you should
2. You should tell the user to draw the drapes to help read the nameplate to check the power requirements of
eliminate solar heat gain and to start the unit earlier so the air conditioner. (Sec. 11 , Par. 5)
that it wouldn't work against a peak load condition. (Sec. 2. When the round third prong is removed from an air-
7, Pars. 5-8) conditioning unit plug an ungrounded condition will
3. The heat load from occupants will affect humidity the exist. When the air-conditioning unit is not grounded, a
most. (Sec. 7, Par. 11) possible electrical shock hazard also exists. (Sec. 11,
4. To remove the heat which is causing abnormal unit Pars. 9, 10, and 16)
operation, you should ventilate the area. (Sec. 8, Pars. 4 3. It is not permissible to connect a 9.5-ampere rated air-
and 6) conditioner to a 15-ampere circuit when other equipment
5. The efficiency that would be lost is 85 - 75 or 10 percent. are using the same circuit. The total load of the air
(Sec. 8. Par. 9) conditioner shall not exceed 50 percent of the current
6. Cork should be used to insulate a 40° F. storage room, rating of the circuit if the circuit feeds other equipment.
because this particular application is not considered a fire (Sec. II, Par. 12)
hazard area. (Sec. 9, Par. 5) 4. If you are to replace an air-conditioner compressor motor
7. You should insulate the strainer with an asbestos pad or that has burned out due to excessive overload, you should
blanket to facilitate the cleaning of the strainer. (Sec. 9, also replace the motor overload protector. If the overload
Par. 8) protector was operating correctly, the motor would not
8. You should use fibrous glass dabs, because they have a have burned out from an overload. (Sec. 11, Pars. 24 and
low moisture-absorbing quality and offer no attraction to 25)
insects, vermin, fungus growth, or fire. (Sec. 9, Par. 14)

134
 5. As the room air passes through the evaporator its heat is 21.
absorbed by the refrigerant. (Sec. 11, Par. 28)
6. The refrigerant gas temperature is raised at the
compressor above the outside air temperature. (Sec. 11,
Par. 29)
7. The air filter, evaporator coils, and condenser coils will
collect dirt and thus restrict airflow which will result in
reduced air-conditioning unit output. (Sec. 11 Par. 32) 1.
8. Before you check a capacitor with an ohmmeter you
should discharge the capacitor. (Sec. 11, Par. 44) 2.
9. If the ohmmeter indicates zero (no continuity) when you
check an overload protector. the protector is defective 3.
and should be replaced. (Sec. 11, Par. 46)
10. A low wattage draw is an indication of a low refrigerant 4.
charge. (Sec. 11, Par. 51)
11. The two major causes of poor performance of an air
conditioner are dirty filters and low voltage. (Sec. 11, 5.
Par. 62)
12. When using superheated steam to clean a condenser, be 6.
sure that the temperature of the seam is not above the
melting point of any of the materials from which the 7.
condenser is constructed. (Sec. 12, Par. 7)
13. When mixing water and acid, always add the acid to the 8.
water. If water is added to the acid, rapid heating will
occur which will cause the acid to spew from the 9.
container. (Sec. 12, Par. 12)
14. If the water bleed tube of the evaporative condenser
should become clogged, the formation of scale will 10.
increase. The bleeding off of some of the recirculated
water and replenishing it with makeup water will 11.
decrease the amount of solids suspended in the cooling
water. (Sec. 12, Pars. 18 and 19)
15. Two of the conditions that would prevent the compressor 12.
from unloading are; a broken spring in the hydraulic
cylinder which moves the floating piston when the oil 13.
pressure is relieved or the oil pressure is not released
from the valving mechanism hydraulic cylinder. There 14.
are several causes that would prevent the release of the oil
pressure. Some of these causes are: defective pressure-
sensing device, broken mechanism that opens the bleed 15.
orifice (item 9 in fig. 18), and a clogged bleed orifice
(items 9 and 10 in fig. 18). (Sec. 12, Pars. 31-39)
16. The pan of the capacity control actuator that regulates the 16.
oil pressure to the compressor cylinder unloader
mechanisms is the valving mechanism. (Sec. 12, Par.
31)
17. Spring pressure in the cylinder unloader mechanism will
hold the compressor suction valves open. (Sec. 12, Par.
39) 17.
18. The compressor must be loaded before adjusting the
unloader system. (Sec. 12, Par. 41) 18.
19. Before you install a solenoid valve, check the valve data
plate for the power requirements and the arrow on the
valve body for direction of liquid flow thru the valve.
(Sec. 12, Par. 49)
20. Before you install a new solenoid valve in place of a
burned out one, you should find the cause for the burned
out coil. You should check the voltage of the power
source and the power requirements of the valve. Another
possible cause could be high ambient temperatures. Sec.
12. Par. 50
135
The two methods of varying the volume of the air
handled by an air conditioning system are by the use of
dampen or by varying the speed of the fans. (Sec. 12,
Par. 56)
CHAPTER 5
Bypass dampeners are used to regulate airflow from
return ducts. (Sec. 13, Par. 2)
One probable cause of erratic damper operation is binding
blades. (Sec. 13, Par. 7)
The forward blade fan is most commonly used in a duct
system. (Sec. 14, Par. 2)
The propeller, or disc, type fan should be installed in an
area requiring large amounts of exhaust air. (Sec. 14, Par.
3)
The axial adjustment of the blower wheel is accomplished
by relocating the shaft thrust collar. (Sec. 14, Par. 9)
Cooling coils are made of copper or aluminum because
these metals readily conduct heat. (Sec. 15, Par. 1)
A 2-foot coil would contain 144 fins-24 X 6 = 144. (Sec.
15, Par. 2)
You would straighten the fins with a special fin comb.
(Sec. 15, Par. 4)
Brine solution is used in a system that requires a low
temperature for dehumidification purposes. (Sec. 16, Par.
1)
The type of pressure loss caused by an elbow in the duct
is dynamic loss. (Sec. 17, Par. 2)
The velocity reduction method of duct sizing is not used
because it does not take any account of the relative
pressure losses in various branches. (Sec. 17, Par. 4)
A system with a velocity rating of 2400 f.p.m. is
considered a high-velocity system. (Sec. 17, Par. 6)
Duct joints are sealed with compound, tape, or by
welding or soldering. (Sec. 17, Par. 9)
The type of duct materials you would use when corrosive
fumes are to be handled are copper, stain less steel, monel
lead-coated or lead. (Sec. 17, Par. 12)
When air flows from a small chamber toward a large
area, the air tends to flow in a straight line. (Sec. 17, Par.
16)
The loss of cooling effect of a 12-sq. ft. duct having a
differential of 10° and a U-factor of 1.14 is 136.8 B.t.u/hr.
Q = UA (t1 – t0)
Q = 1.14 x 12 x 10.
Q = 136 B.t.u./hr.
(Sec. 17, Par. 18)
Most duct air leakage occurs at transverse seams located
against a wall or ceiling. (Sec. 17, Par. 22)
The amount of air required when the sensible hit load is
49000 B.t.u./hr. and the temperature change is 15° F. is
3025 c. f. m.
c.f.m. = 49000
1.08 X 15
c.f.m. = 49000
16.2
c.f.m. = 3025
(Sec. 17, Par. 25)
 19. You can check the vertical flow from a grille by using a
lighted match, a warm thermometer, or alcohol on your
arm. (Sec. 17, Par. 34)
20. The horizontal airflow pattern is controlled by the rear
frets of the grille. (Sec. 17. Par. 34)
21. The baseboard type of diffuser is the hardest to use for
balancing because it has few adjustments. (Sec. 17, Par.
38)
CHAPTER 6
1. The thermostatic expansion valve uses the vapor-tension
principle in its operation. (Sec. 18, Par. 6)
2. The control response a motor control uses is two-position.
(Sec. 19, Par. 2)
3. To set a LPC for a wider differential you would turn the
adjusting screw so that more force is exerted upon the
bar. (Sec. 19, Par. 5)
4. The compressor will cut off at 25 p.s.i.
4 0 p.s.i. - 15 p.s.i. = 25 p.s.i.
(Sec. 19, Par. 9)
5. Since the system uses an automatic expansion valve, a
low-pressure motor control cannot be used to control
compressor cycling. You must install a thermostatic
motor control and adjust it to the desired cutout and cut-in
temperatures. (Sec. 19, Par. 10)
6. A broken feeler bulb on a thermostat will give the sale
indication as a filed ice bin. (Sec. 19, Pars. 12-15)
7. The air conditioner is not running because the kinked
feeler bulb acts as if a loss .of power element charge and
will not close the contacts in the TMC. To correct this
condition, you must replace the power element or the
entire TMC. (Sec. 19. Par. 20)
8. Snap action and mercury switches are used to prevent
control failure due to arcing when the circuit is open or
closed. (Sec. 20, Par. 2)
9. A direct short is indicated when the ohmmeter reads zero
ohms resistance. (Sec. 20, Par. 7)
10. The mode of electric control you would use to operate a
refrigeration unit is two-position because the unit requires
on-off operation. (Sec. 20, Par. 13)
11. The control point would be at any point between the two
extremes because the control cycles the louvers between
the extremes and is never satisfied. (Sec. 20, Par. 18)
12. The timed two-position control responds to gradual
changes in the controlled variable, while the simple two-
position control responds to one of two extremes. (Sec.
20, Par. 24)
13. A heater is used to slow down the action of the bimetal
element. (Sec. 20, Pars. 31 and 32)
14. You should install a proportional response control
because system offset is minimized. (Sec. 20, Pars. 35-
37)
15. Since lag time is not a problem, a simple two-position
control, series 20, can be used. It is cheaper, easier to
maintain and calibrate, and safer because it operates at
low voltages. (Sec. 20, Par. 41)
16. The change in variable causes a bellows to expand and
make a circuit to the starting winding of the motor. The
motor is energized and begins to rotate clockwise. After
136
it has rotated 180°, a cam operated switch will break the
circuit and stop the motor (Sec. 20, Pars. 43-46)
17. The series 40 control action is similar to a single-pole
single-throw switch. (Sec. 20, Par. 49)
18. No, you can't substitute it with anything but a series 60
floating motor because it is revertible and the two
position is not. (Sec. 20, Par. 55)
19. You cannot substitute a series 20 motor with a series 60
because the 20 operates on low voltage, while the 60 uses
line voltage. (Sec. 20, Par. 58)
20. The amount of current flowing through the relay will
affect the position of the contact blade between the two
motor contacts which, in turn, controls the position of the
controlled device. (Sec. 20, Pars. 66-68)
21. The series 90 motor will stop running when the balancing
relay is balanced. (Sec. 20, Par. 73)
22. The most probable cause of a damper remaining closed
when the control calls for it to be open is loose locknut on
the linkage to the damper shaft (Sec. 20, Pars. 79 and
80)
23. The main difference between a series 90 humidity control
system and a series 90 temperature control system is the
sensing device which operates the controller wiper. (Sec.
20, Par. 18)
24. The humidistat is wired into the blue wire of the right
circuit. (Sec. 20, Par. 93)
25. When one belt in a set breaks. you must replace the
complete set because the remainder of the belts are
stretched and the new belt will not have the proper
tension. (Sec. 21, Par. 3)
26. A compressor losing efficiency is usually caused by
defective air cleaner. (Sec. 21, Par. 4)
27. When the first stage is operating at normal and the
second-stage pressure is zero, the pressure relief valve is
stuck open. (Sec. 21, Par. 8)
28. Before you start a newly installed compressor, you must
check the oil level in the compressor crankcase (Sec. 21,
Par, 15)
29. If you replace the standard head gasket with a thin head
gasket, the compressor will probably knock (Sec. 21,
Par. 21)
30. Supply-air lines are lines connecting the controllers to the
air source, and the control air lines connect the controllers
to the controlled device. (Sec. 22, Par. 1)
31. You must allow a 1 1/2-inch pitch for a 12-foot supply-
air header, 1/8 inch per foot of header.
3 inches. 1/4 inch per foot. (Sec. 22, Par. 4)
32. The amount of moisture present in the air determine the
frequency of draining the filters. (Sec. 22, Par. 8)
33. You would install a reverse acting controller so that a
decrease in temperature will cause an increase in air
pressure to the valve. (Sec. 22. Par. 17)
34. You clean the contact points on a thermostat by drawing a
piece of hard-finish paper between then (Sec. 22, Par.
23)
35. Under normal conditions, a humidistat will control the
humidity within 1 percent R.H. of the set point (Sec. 22,
Pat. 25)
36. Hygrometers are the controllers used to measure, record,
and control humidity. (Sec. 22, Par. 27)
37. The spring in the piston type damper operator usually
functions between 5 and 10 p.s.i.g. At 3 p.s.i.g. the
damper should be at its normal position. (Sec. 22, Par.
34)
38. The spring attached to the operator stem determines the
operating range of the positioner. (Sec. 22, Par. 39)
39. When you overhauled the operator you probably kinked
the diaphragm, which would cause erratic operation of
the damper operator (Sec. 22, Par. 43)
40. To correct a skipping pen, you must bend the pen arm
slightly toward the chart. The pen should rest on the
chart lightly. (Sec. 22, Par. 48)
41. A condensate loop should be installed on a pressure
transmitter when it is used to measure the pressure of a
hot, moist atmosphere. (Sec. 22, Par. 57)
42. The dried ink may be cleaned from the pen by washing it
in warm water. (Sec. 22. Par. 64)
43. The fire protection control has malfunctioned or was
activated and shut the system down. You should check
the fire protection control, then reset it. (Sec. 22, Pars.
73, 75, and 76)
44. You can check the operation of an airflow detector by
blocking off a section of the filters or by closing a damper
before the air reaches the instrument. (Sec. 22, Par. 82)
45. A graphic panel is an asset because you can monitor and
control the entire system from one central location. (Sec.
23, Par. 1)
46. On graphic panels, chill water temperature is always
indicated and recorded. (Sec. 23, Par. 2)
47. When a green coded component on the graphic panel is
malfunctioning you are having trouble with the
condensing water system. (Sec. 23, Par. 4)
CHAPTER 7
1. Disagree. Evaporative cooling changes sensible heat to
latent heat but doesn't affect the wet-bulb temperature
(total heat). (Sec. 24, Par. 1)
2. With an evaporative cooler, the air can be cooled to its
wet-bulb temperature. (Sec. 24, Par. 3)
3. Phoenix, Arizona, is first because it has a high average
dry-bulb temperature and low wet-bulb temperature.
Dallas, Texas follows second and New York is third.
New Orleans is fourth because its average dry-bulb
temperature is in the middle 90's and the wet-bulb
temperature in the mid 80,s. (Sec. 24, Par. 5)
4. The most probable cause of low water supply to the
distributor in an evaporative cooler is a plugged pump
intake screen. (Sec. 24, Par. 11)
5. The spray type evaporative cooler should be-installed in a
dusty area because it keeps the pads free of dust for a
longer period of time. (Sec. 24, Par. 18)
6. An electric timer controls the frequency of operation of
the flush valve on spray type evaporative coolers. (Sec.
24, Par. 22)
7. The eliminator pads must be placed when water droplets
are carried in the air to the conditioned area. (Sec. 24,
Par. 24)
137
8. Since centrifugal fans are rated for a delivery against 1/4-
inch water gauge static pressure, nothing would happen
unless the pressure exceeded ¼ inch. If it exceeded 1/4
inch the cooler would lose efficiency. (Sec. 24, Par. 25)
9. The 3,000 c.f.m. rotary drum would require a heavy
structure because of its sis and weight. (Sec. 25, Par. 1)
10. The drain should be 1 1/4 inch in diameter to reduce
stoppage. If stoppage occurs with a larger drain you must
flush, the cooler sump more often. (Sec. 25, Par. 9)
11. The function of the two switches is to cont the operation
of the recirculating pump motor and the blower or fan
motor. They are connected in series with one of the
motor leads. This procedure allows the cooler to be used
as a ventilation system. (Sec. 25, Par. 11)
12. You must provide an opening large enough to exhaust all
the air brought into the area by the evaporative cooler.
The size of the opening is obtained from the cooler
manufacturer or data books. (Sec. 25, Par. 15)
13. The exhaust opening is not sufficient (less than 1 square
foot) and is causing noise. You must allow 9 sq. ft. of
louvered exhaust for a 4500 c.f.m. evaporative cooler.
(Sec. 25, Par. 16)
14. You should caution the user not to start the blower before
the water pump. (Sec. 25, Par. 20)
15. The burned-out motor could have been prevented by
installing a motor overload protective device in series
with the motor lead. (Sec. 25, Par. 22)
16. You can reduce the spied by adjusting the motor pulley or
by reducing the size of the motor pulley? (Sec. 25, Par.
24)
17. 100 c.f.m. is delivered from a 12” X 24” duct with a
velocity reading of 50 f.p.m.
12” X 24” = 288 sq. in.
288 sq. in. = 2 sq. ft.
50 X 2 = 100 c.f.m.
(Sec. 25, Par. 25)
18. The service that you must accomplish on troughs and
weirs of a drip type evaporative cooler is cleaning,
painting, or replacement. (Sec. 26, Par. 3)
19. The water distribution system is cleaned by flushing it
with a 10 percent solution of muriatic acid. (Sec. 26, Par.
3) 20. The axial clearance of the blower wheel is 1/32”
To adjust the clearance you would use a .030 feeter gauge
because 1/32” = .0313. (Sec. 26, Par. 3)
CHAPTER 8
1. Complete air distribution is important when hazardous
vapors and fumes may exist in an area such as a battery
shop. (Sec. 27, Par. 3)
2. The two ways you could reduce grille noise are: change
the size of the grille or reduce the air discharge velocity.
(Sec. 27, Par. 13)
3. The radial-flow fan is normally used in a ventilating
system which has considerable duct work. (Sec. 28, Par.
3)
4. The fan capacity must be at least 1,260 c.f.m. for a room
14 feet by 60 feet requiring 30
 air changes per hour. To find what capacity fan is needed 1. COP = 300,000
use the formula 40 X 2545
Q = CV ; Q = 30 X 60 X 60 X 14 ; Q = 75600 = 300,000
60 60 60 101,800
Q= 1,260 c.f.m. = 2.94 to 1
(Sec. 28, Pars. 10 and 11) (Sec. 34, Par. 2)
5. To reduce air duct friction loss you would increase the 2. 100,000 B.t.u./hr. = 29.2 kw.-hr
duct size. (Sec. 29, Par. 3) 29.2 X .02 = $.584 per hour
6. Duct fire dampers are used to automatically shut off fans .584 X 24= $14.02 per day.
and ducts in event of a fire. (Sec. 29, Par. 5) (Sec. 34, Pars. 5 and 6)
7. The type of grille that should be used in a flood air outlet 3. You would have 5400 degree days.
which requires controlled airflow is a vaned grille. (Sec. 65 - 5 = 60 degree days per day.
30, Pars. 2-7) 60 X 90 = 5400 degree days.
8. Slotted outlets are used for long narrow rooms. (Sec. 30, (Sec. 34, Par. 7)
Par. 6) 4. The heat pump is cheaper to operate because it uses
9. The pattern of the supply air envelope is determined by electricity only to drive the compressor. The refrigeration
the air outlet grille. (Sec. 31, Par. 3) releases more heat per watt consumed. (Sec. 34, Par. 8)
10. Several of the factors that must be considered when 5. The oil-fired heating system is cheaper than the air-to-air
preparing to install a ventilating system are: the purpose heat pump. (Sec. 34, Par. 9)
of the building or room to be ventilated, the temperature 6. The air-to-air (refrigerant changeover) heat pump has two
and humidity of the region; the size of the building or expansion devices. (Sec. 35, Par. 2)
room, the number of occupants, and local and national 7. The maximum temperature of the refrigerant when the
codes and regulations. (Sec. 32, Pars. 1-3) outside temperature is 50° F. is 75° F. (Sec. 36, Par. 2)
11. In a room that contains carbon dioxide the fan should be 8. Outdoor temperature is an important factor because a
located close to the floor. The specific gravity of carbon balance point above the design temperature would require
dioxide is 1.527 which is heavier than air; so it will settle supplemental heating which is not economical. (Sec. 36,
to the floor. (Sec. 32, Pars. 18 and 19) Pars. 3-9)
12. When installing an exhaust fan in a paint shop or paint 9. 40 pounds of frost on a 5-feet x 4-feet coil will not
spray booth, the electrical circuit for the fan and air substantially affect the coil because the nominal amount it
compressor should be interconnected. This will insure could hold is 50 pounds. (Sec. 36, Par. 11)
that the fan is operating when spray painting is being 10. A 4-foot coil can contain 384 to 672 fins. (Sec. 36, Par.
done. (Sec. 32, Par. 22) 15)
13. The factors that determine the desired exhaust air velocity 11. The most common causes of airflow reduction are dirty
are: what is to be exhausted, amount to be exhausted, and filter, dirty coils, and frost accumulation on the coil.
the desired noise level. (Sec. 32, Pars. 26-28) (Sec. 36, Par. 19)
14. Poorly constructed fixed wooden louvers would result in 12. City water is not considered a good heat source because
restriction of airflow and insufficient protection against of its poor availability and high operating cost. (Sec. 36,
bad weather. (Sec. 32, Par. 34) Par. 24)
15. Filters should be installed in the exhaust system when the 13. Well water is considered the best heat source because of
discharge would create an objectionable condition in the its relatively constant temperature. (Sec. 36, Par. 25)
immediate area. (Sec. 32, Par. 39) 14. Heat storage is beneficial to a heat pump because it tends
16. Dirt on the fan blades will unbalance the fan and cause to reduce the rate of temperature change and helps to
fan vibration during operation. (Sec. 33, Par. 5) reduce peak load requirements. (Sec. 37, Par. 2)
17. Overlubrication of fan motors and other ventilating 15. The solenoid pilot 3-way valve has probably
equipment will result in collections of oil and dirt which malfunctioned when the unit will not reverse its cycle.
could restrict airflow, cause motors to overheat, and (Sec. 38, Par. 2)
present a fire hazard. (Sec. 33, Par. 8) 16. When the pilot valve is energized, suction pressure is
18. The frequency of cleaning an air filter depends on the allowed to pass to the top of the main valve piston. This
following: type of system in which the filter is installed, will cause the piston to rise, allowing the compressor
how much the system is used, and weather conditions. discharge to pas to the condenser. (Sec. 38, Par. 3)
(See. 33, Par. 16) 17. An open in the pilot valve solenoid will cause the heat
19. Excessively tight fan belts will cause an increase in the pump to operate on the heat cycle. (Sec. 38, Par. 4)
fan motor load and premature bearing wear. (Sec. 33, 18. To prevent freeze-up of a water-cooled condenser during
Par. 21) the heat cycle, you should install an evaporator pressure
regulator or a constant pressure liquid expansion valve on
CHAPTER 9 the condenser. (Sec. 38, Pars. 9 and 10)

138
SUBCOURSE EDITION
OD1750 A

REFRIGERATION AND AIR

CONDITIONING IV
(EQUIPMENT COOLING)
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING IV
(EQUIPMENT COOLING)

Subcourse OD1750
Edition A

United States Army Combined Arms Support Command

Fort Lee, VA 23801-1809
14 Credit Hours

INTRODUCTION

This subcourse is the last of four subcourses devoted to basic instruction in refrigeration and air conditioning.

The scope of this subcourse takes in unit components of the absorption system, including their functions and
maintenance; water treatment methods and their relationship to centrifugal systems; centrifugal water pumps and electronic
control systems, including the relationship of amplifier, bridge and discriminator circuits to electronic controls.

The subcourse consists of three lessons.

Lesson 1. Direct Expansion and Absorption System.

2. Centrifugal Systems and Water Treatment.

3. Centrifugal Water Pumps and Electronic Control Systems.

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both men and women are included.
 CONTENTS
Page

Preface.................................................................................................................................................................. ii

Acknowledgment.................................................................................................................................................. iii

Lesson 1
Chapter

1 Direct Expansion Systems ................................................................................................................................... 1

2 Absorption Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 26

Lesson 2
Chapter

3 Centrifugal Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 46

4 Water Treatment .................................................................................................................................................. 77

Lesson 3
Chapter

5 Centrifugal Water Pumps) .................................................................................................................................... 96

6 Fundamentals of Electronic Controls ................................................................................................................... 103

7 Electronic Control Systems ................................................................................................................................. 132

Answers to Review Exercises............................................................................................................................... 139

The passing score for ACCP material is 70%.

 Preface

YOU HAVE studied the fundamentals and commercial refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. This final volume deals
with another phase of your career ladder-equipment cooling. Since the principles of equipment cooling are common to all
refrigeration systems, your mastery of the subject should be easy. All of the systems covered in this volume can be applied to
commercial refrigeration and air conditioning.

To qualify you in equipment cooling, we will present the following systems in this volume:

(1) Direct expansion

(2) Absorption
(3) Centrifugal
(4) Water treatment
(5) Centrifugal water pumps
(6) Fundamentals of electronic controls
(7) Electronic control

Keep this memorandum for your own use.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Acknowledgment is made to the following companies for the use of copyright material in this CDC: Honeywell,
Incorporated, Minneapolis, Minnesota; Carrier Air Conditioning Company, Carrier Parkway, Syracuse, New York; Terry
Steam Turbine Company, Hartford, Connecticut; Koppers Company, Incorporated, Baltimore, Maryland

iii

Direct Expansion Systems
JUST WHAT DO we mean when we say "direct
expansion"? In the dictionary we find that the word
"direct" means an unbroken connection or a straight
bearing of one upon or toward another; "expansion"
relates to the act or process of expanding or growing (in
size or volume). Now we can see that a direct expansion
system for equipment cooling is one in which the
controlled variable comes in direct contact with the single
refrigerant source, thereby causing the liquid refrigerant
to boil and expand. The centrifugal and absorption
systems differ in that that they us a secondary refrigerant-
water or brine-to cool the variable.
2. We will cover various components peculiar to
large direct expansion systems, normally of 20 tons or
more in capacity. Remember, the window- and floor-
mounted air-conditioning units are also considered direct
expansion systems. Before we discuss the installation of
a semihermetic condensing unit-the most commonly used
unit for direct expansion systems-we will cover the
various coils that are used in a direct expansion system.
The application of the water-cooled semihermetic
condensing unit will concern us in the second section, and
we will conclude the chapter with system servicing and
troubleshooting.
1. Coil Operation
1. There are three coils used in the typical system.
From the outside in, the coil sequence is: (1) preheat, (2)
direct expansion (D/X), and (3) reheat. We will discuss
the application of these coils, their use and control, and
the valves and dampers which control the flow of water
and air.
2. Preheat Coil. You must consider three things
before installing a preheat coil in an equipment cooling
system. These are:
(1) Is preheat necessary?
(2) Will the coil be subjected to subfreezing
temperature?
(3) What size preheat coils are needed?
3. After you have determined a need, provided for
freezing temperatures, and correctly sized the coil, you
1
CHAPTER 1
are ready to install the coil. The next problem is where to
install it. The preheat coil is installed in the outside air
duct, before the mixing of outside and return air. Now we
are ready to discuss a few applications of a preheat coil.
4. Thermostatically controlled water or steam
valve. Figure 1 shows a system that uses a narrow range
temperature controller. The temperature of the incoming
air is sensed by the thermostat feeler bulb. The
thermostat is calibrated to modulate the valve open when
the temperature is 35° F.
5. The damper on the face of the preheat coil closes
when the fan is turned off and opens when it is turned on.
This damper is normally closed when the fan is off or if
the fan fails to operate. This prevents preheat coil
freezeup.
6. Thermostatically controlled face and bypass
dampers. The mixed air temperature remains relatively
constant until the outside air temperature exceeds the
desired mixed air temperature. The use of the face and
bypass damper, illustrated in figure 2, makes it possible to
control mixed air temperature without endangering the
preheat coil. The damper is controlled by a temperature
controller in the mixed air duct while the preheat coil is
controlled by a valve which is modulated by a narrow
range temperature controller in the outside air duct. The
face and bypass damper will close and the return air opens
when the supply fan is turned off.
7. D/X Coil. In equipment cooling systems, the
D/X coil is located after the preheat coil. It serves two
primary functions-cooling and dehumidification.
8. Simple on-off control. The compressor is
controlled by a space thermostat in an on-off manner.
Figure 3 shows a system using this type of control. This
system is best suited for use on small compressors and
where large variations in temperature and humidity are
not objectionable.
 Figure 1. Control of preheat with outdoor air
thermostat.
9. The differential adjustment on the thermostat
should be set relatively wide to prevent short cycling
under light load conditions. The control circuit is
connected to the load side of the fan starter so that turning
on the fan energizes the control systems.
10. Two-speed compressor. Figure 4 shows a typical
two-speed compressor installation. A two-stage
thermostat (space) cycles the compressor between low
speed and off during light load conditions and cycles the
unit between high and low speed during heavier loads.
The thermostat also shuts off the compressor if the space
temperature falls below the set point.
11. The humidistat cycles the compressor from low
to high speed when space humidity rises above the high
limit set point. It can do this when the compressor is on
low speed. This system is best suited for use on
reasonably small compressors where large swings in
temperature and relative humidity can be tolerated.
12. Solenoid valve installation. Figure 5 shows a
system which uses a space thermostat to operate a
solenoid valve and a nonrestarting relay. The
Figure 2. Preheat control with bypass and return air
dampers.
2
Figure 3. On-off compressor control.
two-position thermostat opens the refrigerant solenoid
valve when the space temperature rises and closes it when
the temperature drops below the set point. This control
action will cause large swings in temperature and relative
humidity. The nonrestarting relay prevents short cycling
of the compressor during the off cycle. It allows the
compressor to pump down before it cycles "off."
13. Multiple D/X coil solenoid valves. The system
shown in figure 6 is similar to that previously discussed
(fig. 5) except that it now has two D/X coils and two
solenoid valves. The two-stage space thermostat operates
D/X coil 1 in an on-off manner when the cooling load is
light. It also holds the valve to coil 1 open and operates
the valve to coil 2 in an on-off manner during heavy load
conditions. The nonrestarting relay functions the same as
the one in figure 5.
14. The supply fan starter circuit must be energized,
in both applications, before the control circuit to the
solenoid valves can be completed.
15. Two-position control and modulating control of
a face and bypass damper. This system uses a face and
bypass damper (shown in fig. 7) to bypass air around the
D/X coil during light load conditions. The space
thermostat opens the refrigerant solenoid valve when the
face damper opens to a position representing a minimum
cooling
Figure 4. Two-speed compressor control.
 Figure 7. Two-position control of a D/X coil solenoid
Figure 5. On-off control with a solenoid valve.
valve and modulating control of a face and bypass
damper.
load. It also modulates the face and bypass dampers to
mix the cooled air with the bypassed air as necessary to
space temperature falls below the set point temperature,
maintain the correct space temperature. A capacity
and opens the D/X coil solenoid valve when the
controlled compressor must be used if short cycling,
temperature is above the set point. A two-position
under light load conditions, is to be avoided.
humidistat is provided to open the cooling coil solenoid
16. It is necessary to adjust the face damper so that it
valve when the space relative humidity exceeds the set
does not close completely. This will help prevent coil
point of the controller. When a humid condition exists,
frosting under light load conditions. The control circuit to
the humidistat will override the thermostat. The
the solenoid valve is wired in series with the supply fan
thermostat senses the reduced air temperature and opens
motor. When the fan is shut off, the solenoid valve will
the reheat coil solenoid valve which will lower the
close.
relative humidity. The D/X coil solenoid valve will close
17. Two-position control and modulating control of
when the supply fan is shut off.
a return air bypass damper. This system, shown in figure
20. Control of dehumidification with a face and
8, is similar to the system we have just discussed. The
bypass damper. We discussed the use of face and bypass
only difference is that we bypass return air instead of
dampers when we discussed D/X coils. Now we will
mixed air under light load conditions.
apply this damper system to humidity control, as shown in
18. Reheat Coil. The reheat coil is used to heat the
figure 10. A space humidity controller is used to open the
air after it has passed through the D/X coil. It expands the
D/X coil valve when a predetermined minimum
air, thus lowering the relative humidity. A D/X coil and
dehumidification load is reached. It also modulates the
reheat coil are used to control humidity.
face and bypass damper to provide the mixture of
19. Simple two-position control. Figure 9 shows a
dehumidified and bypass air necessary to maintain space
system which uses a space thermostat to control a reheat
relative humidity.
coil and a D/X coil. It opens the solenoid valve to the
21. The space thermostat modulates the reheat coil
heating coil when the
valve as needed to maintain space temperature. If the
space humidity drops below the set

Figure 6. On-off control of multiple D/X coil solenoid

Figure 8. Two-position control of a D/X coil solenoid
valves.
valve and modulating control of a return air bypass
damper.

3
Figure 9. Dehumidification control in a two-position D/X
system.
point of the humidity controller, and the space
temperature rises because the discharge air is too warm to
cool the space, the thermostat will open the D/X coil
valve and modulate the face and bypass damper to lower
the space temperature. The reheat coil must be controlled
by a modulated valve so that the thermostat can position
the valve within its range. This will prevent large swings
in temperature and relative humidity. This system also
provides a method of closing the D/X coil valve when the
supply fan is shut off.
22. Control of dehumidification with a return air
bypass system. Figure 11 shows a system which uses a
return air bypass damper to control airflow across the D/X
coil for dehumidification. The space humidistat opens the
D/X coil valve when a predetermined minimum cooling
load is reached and positions the bypass damper to
maintain space relative humidity.
23. The space thermostat acts in a way that is similar
to that of the thermostat in figure 10. The control circuit
to the D/X coil valve is connected to the supply fan so
that the valve will close when the fan is shut off. This
arrangement helps prevent coil frosting and reheat coil
freezeup.
Figure 10. Dehumidification control in a D/X face and
bypass system.
4
Figure 11. Dehumidification control in a D/X return air
bypass system.
24. We have discussed the three coils that you will
find in a typical equipment cooling system. Now we will
discuss a complete system which maintains temperature,
relative humidity, and air changes.
25. Typical D/X Equipment Cooling System.
Figure 12 shows a system which may be used to condition
air for electronic equipment operation. Thermostat T1
senses outdoor (incoming) air and modulates the preheat
coil valve to the full open position when the temperature
falls below the controller set point. A further drop in
temperature will cause the thermostat T1 to modulate the
outside and exhaust air dampers shut and the return air
damper open.
26. The space thermostat (T2) operates the reheat
coil valve as necessary to maintain a predetermined space
temperature. The space thermostat (T2) will modulate the
cooling coil valve when the space humidity is within the
tolerance of the humidistat. The space humidistat opens
the cooling coil valve when a minimum cooling load is
sensed. It has prime control of this valve. The outside
and exhaust air dampers are fitted with a stop so that they
will not completely close. This procedure allows for the
correct amount of air changes per hour.
27. There are many other direct expansion systems.
The blueprints for your installation will help you to better
understand the operation of your system. Most of the
system components are similar to those previously
discussed.
2. Application of Water-Cooled Condensing Units
1. Water-cooled semihermetic condensing units are
rated in accordance with ARI Standards with water
entering the condenser at 75°F.
2. Condensing units are available for different
temperature ranges. We are interested in the "high
temperature" unit, as it is used for air conditioning
 Figure 12. Typical D/X equipment cooling system.
or other applications requiring a +25°F. to +50°F suction
temperature.
3. A medium temperature unit (-10° F. to +25° F.)
should not be selected or equipment cooling applications
where the compressor would be subjected to high suction
pressure over extended shutdown periods. This would
result in motor overload and stopping when the cooling
load is peak. To prevent this possibility, the proper unit
must be selected considering the highest suction pressure
the unit will be subjected to for more than a brief period
of time.
4. Compressor Protection. During shutdown,
refrigerant may condense in the compressor crank-case
and be absorbed by the lubricating oil. The best
protection against excessive accumulation of liquid
refrigerant is the automatic pump-down control. The
compressor must start from a low-pressure switch
(suction pressure) at all times. Figure 19 (in Section 3)
shows a recommended control wiring diagram that
incorporates an automatic pump-down control. When the
pressure in the crankcase rises, the compressor will cycle
on. It will run until the pressure drops to the low-pressure
switch cutoff setting.
5. In systems where the refrigerant-oil ratio is 2:1
or less, automatic pump-down control may be omitted. It
may also be omitted on systems where the evaporator is
always 40° or more below the compressor ambient
temperature. However, the use of an automatic pump-
down control is definitely preferable whenever possible.
6. Water Supply. Water-cooled condensing units
should have adequate water supply and disposal facilities.
Selection of water-cooled units must be based on the
maximum water temperature and the quantity of water
5
which is available to the unit. Now that you have selected
the proper equipment, let's discuss the installation of
equipment.
3. Installation
1. Before you start installing the unit you must
consider space requirements, equipment ventilation,
vibration, and the electrical requirements.
2. The dimensions for the condensing unit are
given in the manufacturer's tables. You must allow
additional room for component removal, such as the
compressor or dehydrator. The suction and discharge
compressor service valves, along with the compressor oil
sight glass, must be readily accessible to facilitate
maintenance and troubleshooting. The space must be
warmer than the refrigerated space to prevent refrigerant
from condensing in the compressor crankcase during
extended shutdown periods. Water-cooled units must be
adequately protected from freezeup. Some method of
drainage must be provided if the unit is to be shut down
during the winter months.
3. Install the unit where the floor is strong enough
to support it. It is not necessary to install it on a special
foundation, because most of the vibration is absorbed by
the compressor mounting springs. On critical installations
(e.g., hospitals and communication centers) it may be
desirable to inclose the unit in an equipment room to
prevent direct transmission of sound to occupied spaces.
Place the unit where it will not be damaged by traffic or
flooding. It may be necessary to cage or elevate the unit.
4. The next step in installing a unit is to
 Figure 13. Three phase wiring diagram for a semihermetic condensing unit.
inspect the shipment for loss or damage. You must report
any loss or damage to your supervisor immediately.
Refer to ASA-B9.1-1953, American Standards
Association's "Mechanical Refrigeration Safety Code"
when you install the unit.
5. Before installing the unit, check the electric
service to insure that it is adequate. The voltage at the
motor terminals must not vary more than plus or minus 10
percent of the rated nameplate voltage requirement.
Phase unbalance for three-phase units must not exceed 2
percent. Where an unbalance exists, you must connect
the two lines with the higher amperages through the
switch heater elements. Figure 13 shows a typical wiring
diagram for a semihermetic condensing unit.
6. A table of wire size requirements is provided
with the manufacturer's installation handbook. For
instance a 220-volt three-phase condensing unit requiring
8 amperes at full load must be wired with number 8 wire
6
if the length the run is 300 feet. However, number 14
wire can be used if the run is limited to 10 feet.
7. Piping and Accessories. The liquid and suction
lines are usually constructed of soft copper tubing. To
help absorb vibrations, loop or sweep the two lines near
the condensing unit. Use a vibration isolation type
hanger, show in figure 14, to fasten the tubing on walls or
supports.
8. Shutoff valves. The suction and discharge
shutoff valves (service valves) are of the back-seating
type and have gauge ports. Frontseating the valve closes
the refrigerant line and opens the gauge port to the
pressure in the compressor.
9. Backseating the valve shuts off pressure to the
gauge port. To attach a gauge or charging line to the
gauge port, backseat the valve to prevent escape of
refrigerant.
 the system. Charge the system with dry nitrogen or
carbon dioxide (40 p.s.i.g.) and check all the joints with a
soap solution. Release the pressure and repair any leaks
that may have been found. After the leaks have been
repaired, charge the system with the recommended
refrigerant to 10 p.s.i.g. Add enough dry nitrogen or
carbon dioxide to build the pressure to 150 p.s.i.g. and
leak test with a halide leak detector. Purge the system and
repair all leaky joints that you may have found. Do not
allow the compressor to build up pressure since
overheating and damage may result. Do not use oxygen
to build up pressure!
16. Dehydrating the System. Moisture in the
system causes oil sludge and corrosion. It is likely to
freeze up the expansion valve during operation. The best
Figure 14. Vibration isolation type hanger. means of dehydration is evacuation with a pump
especially built for this purpose. The condensing unit is
10. Use a square ratchet or box-end wrench (1/4- dehydrated at the factory and is given a partial or holding
inch) to open and close the valve. Do not use pliers or an charge. Leave all the service valves on the condensing
adjustable wrench since they are likely to round the valve unit closed until the piping and accessories have been
stem. Do not use excessive force to turn the stem. If it dehydrated. Do not install a strainer-dehydrator until the
turns hard, loosen the packing gland nut. If the valve piping is complete and the system is ready for evacuation.
sticks on its seat, a sharp rap on the wrench will usually
break it free.
11. Liquid line solenoid valve. Many manufacturers
use this type of valve on their units to prevent damage to
the compressor which would result from flooding of the
crankcase with refrigerant during shutdown. This type of
valve also provides a compressor pump-down feature on
many units. The valve is installed in the liquid refrigerant
line directly ahead of the expansion valve. It must be
installed in a vertical position and wired as shown in the
wiring diagram (fig. 13).
12. Liquid line sight glass. The liquid line sight
glass is installed between the dehydrator and expansion
valve. You should locate the sight glass so that it is
convenient to place a light behind the glass when you are
observing the liquid for a proper charge.
13. Water regulating valves. Install the water
regulating valve with the capillary down and the arrow on
the valve body in the direction of water-flow. Backseat
the liquid line shutoff valve and connect the capillary of
the water regulating valve of the 1/4-inch flare connection
on the liquid line shutoff valve. Open the shutoff valve
one turn from the backseated position. This allows
refrigerant pressure to reach the water regulating valve
and still leaves the liquid line open.
14. Water-cooled condenser connections. When city
water is used as the condensing media, the condenser
circuits are normally connected in series. When cooling
tower water is used for condensing, the condenser circuits
are connected in parallel. See figure 15 for correct
Figure 15. Condenser connections.
condenser water connections.
15. Leak Testing the System. After all the
components have been installed, you are ready to leak test

7

Figure 16. Vacuum indicator.
17. Make the following preparations before
dehydrating the system:
(1) Obtain a vacuum pump that will produce a
vacuum of 2 inches Hg absolute. Do not use the
compressor as a vacuum pump since this may cause
serious damage to the compressor.
(2) Obtain a vacuum indicator similar to that shown
in figure 16. These indicators are available through
manufacturers' service departments.
(3) Keep the ambient temperature above 60° F. to
speed the evaporation of moisture.
18. Description and use of the vacuum indicator.
The vacuum indicator consists of a wet bulb thermometer
in an insulated glass tube containing distilled water. Part
of the tube is exposed so that the thermometer can be read
and the water level checked. When the indicator is
connected to the vacuum pump suction line, the
thermometer reads the temperature of the water in the
tube. The temperature is related to the absolute pressure
in the tube. Figure 17 gives the absolute pressures
corresponding to various temperatures. To determine the
vacuum in inches of mercury, subtract the absolute
pressure from the barometer reading.
8
19. Handle the vacuum indicator with care. It must
be vacuum-tight to give a true reading. The top seal of
the indicator is not designed to support a long run of
connecting tubes. Fasten the tubes to supports to prevent
damage to the indicator. Use only distilled water in the
indicator and be sure the wick is clean. Oil or dirt on the
wick causes erroneous readings.
20. To prevent loss of oil from the vacuum pump
and contamination of the indicator, you must install
shutoff valves in the suction line at the vacuum pump and
the vacuum indicator. When shutting off the pump, close
the indicator valve and pump valve, and then turn off the
pump. Now we are ready to dehydrate the system.
21. Procedure for dehydrating the system. Connect
the pump and vacuum indicator to the system. Put a
jumper line between the high and low side so that the
pump will draw a vacuum on all portions of the system.
Open the compressor shutoff valves and start the vacuum
pump. Open the indicator shutoff valve occasionally and
take a reading. Keep the valve open for at least 3 minutes
for each reading. You must keep the indicator valve
closed at all other times to decrease the amount of water
the pump must handle and to hasten dehydration. When
the pressure drops to a value corresponding to the vapor
pressure of the water in the indicator, the temperature will
start to drop.
22. In the example illustrated in figure 18, the
ambient temperature and the temperature of the water in
the indicator is 60° F. Starting at 60° F., and 0 time, the
temperature of the indicator water remains at 60° F. until
the pressure in the system is pulled down to the pressure
corresponding to the saturation temperature of the water
(60° F.). Point A in figure 18 shows the temperature
saturation point. At this point the moisture in the system
begins to boil. The temperature drops slowly until the
free moisture is removed. Point A to Point B illustrates
the time required for free moisture evaporization. After
the free moisture is removed, the
Figure 17. Temperature-pressure relationship.
 Figure 18. Dehydration pulldown curve.
absorbed moisture is removed, point B to point C.
Dehydration is completed at point C, provided the
ambient temperature stays at 60° F. or higher. If the
ambient temperature falls below 60° F., the moisture will
form ice before moisture removal is complete.
23. You should continue the dehydrating procedure
until the vacuum indicator shows a reading of 35° F.
Looking back at figure 17, you will find that a 35° F.
reading corresponds to a pressure of 0.204 inch Hg
absolute. This procedure may take several hours, and
many times it is advantageous to run the vacuum pump all
night. After evacuation, turn off the indicator valve (if
open) and the pump suction shutoff valve, and break the
vacuum with the recommended refrigerant. Disconnect
the pump and vacuum indicator.
24. Charging the System. The refrigerant may be
charged into the low side of the system as a gas or into the
high side as a liquid. We will discuss both methods of
charging in this section.
25. To charge into the low side as a gas, backseat the
compressor suction and discharge valves and connect
your gauge and manifold to the appropriate compressor
gauge connections The next step is to connect a
refrigerant drum to the middle manifold hose. Open the
drum valve and purge the hoses, gauges, and manifold.
Then tighten all the hose connection. Turn the suction
shutoff valves a couple of turns from the backseat
position and open the drum valve as far as possible.
Remember, keep the refrigerant drum in an upright
9
position to prevent liquid refrigerant from entering the
compressor. You can now turn the compressor discharge
shutoff valve about one-fourth to one-half turn from the
backseat position so that compressor discharge pressure
can be read at the manifold discharge pressure gauge.
26. Before you start the compressor you must
check the following items:
(1) Proper oil level in the compressor sight glass
(one-third to two-thirds full).
(2) Main water supply valve (water-cooled
condenser).
(3) Liquid line valve. Valve stem should be
positioned two turns from its backseat to allow pressure to
be applied to the water regulating valve.
(4) Main power disconnect switch (ON position).
27. After you have started the compressor you must
check the following items:
(1) Correct oil pressure.
(2) Water regulating valve adjustment.
(3) Control settings.
(4) Oil level in the compressor crankcase.
28. Check the refrigerant charge frequently while
charging by observing the liquid line sight glass. The
refrigerant charge is sufficient when flashing (bubbles)
disappears. If the pressure within the drum, during
charging, drops to the level of the suction pressure, all the
remaining refrigerant in the drum may be removed by
frontseating the compressor suction shutoff valve.
This procedure will cause a vacuum to be pulled on the
refrigerant drum.
29. When the system is sufficiently charged, close
the refrigerant drum valve and backseat the compressor
suction and discharge shutoff valves. Disconnect the
charging lines from the compressor gauge ports and
connect the lines from the dual pressurestat to the
charging lines and "crack" the valves off their backseat.
30. Liquid charging into the high side can be done
by either of two methods. One method is to charge into
the liquid line with the compressor running. The other
method is to charge directly into the systems liquid
receiver. Since charging liquid into the receiver is much
faster, systems containing more than 100 pounds of
refrigerant are usually charged this way. Let us discuss
both methods in detail.
31. Systems to be charged into the liquid line first
must have a charging port installed in the liquid line.
Then use the following procedure:
(1) Close king valve.
(2) Connect inverted drum to charging port.
(3) Open drum service valve.
(4) Purge air from charging lines.
(5) Operate unit until fully charged.
(6) Reopen king valve; this system is now in
operation.
32. Charging liquid into the receiver is performed
according to the following general procedure:
(1) Turn off electrical power to unit.
(2) Connect the inverted and elevated refrigerant
drum to the receiver charging valve.
(3) Open drum service valve.
(4) Purge air from charging line.
(5) Open the charging valve.
(6) Several minutes are required to transfer a drum
of refrigerant in this manner; the transfer time can be
shortened by heating the drum (do not use flame).
(7) When sufficient charge has been transferred into
the system, power can be turned on.
(8) By checking the pressure gauges and the sight
glass, you can determine when the system is fully
charged. To maintain the efficiency of the machinery you
have installed, you must service and troubleshoot it.
33. Checking Operation. When you are starting a
newly installed compressor, be on the alert for any sign of
trouble.
34. The high-pressure setting of the dual
pressurestat, shown in figure 19, should not require a
change; however, the low-pressure setting will probably
require adjustment, depending upon the evaporator
temperature. Check the high-pressure cutout by throttling
10
the condenser water. This will allow the head pressure to
rise gradually. The cut-out and cut-in pressures should be
within 10 to 15 pounds of the values outlined in the
manufacturer’s handbooks. If they are not, the
pressurestat would be readjusted. You can check the low-
pressure settings by frontseating the compressor shutoff
valve or the liquid line shutoff valve. The cut-in and cut-
out point may be adjusted if it is necessary.
35. The units are shipped with "full" oil charges. Do
not assume that the charge is sufficient. Stop the unit,
without pump-down, after 15 or 20 minutes of operating
time and immediately recheck the oil level in the
compressor sight glass. The oil level must be one-third to
two-thirds of the way up on the sight glass. You can
check oil pump pressure by looking at the oil pressure
relief valve through the sight glass during compressor
operation. Pressure is adequate if oil is being discharged
from the relief valve.
36. Adjust the water regulating valve to the most
economical head pressure for the locality. Normally, this
is 120 to 140 p.s.i.g. for R-12 and 200 to 230 for R-22.
4. Servicing and Troubleshooting
1. We have covered several service techniques in
the previous section that relate to installation, including
leak testing, dehydrating, and charging into the low side
as a gas and into the high side with liquid. We shall now
go further into servicing as it relates to disassembly,
inspection, and reassembly of individual components. By
means of tables at the end of this chapter, you will then
focus on troubleshooting techniques.
2. Servicing. Servicing direct expansion systems
embodies a wide range of related topics, from removing
the refrigerant charge and testing for leaking valves to
terminal assembly and testing capacitors and relays.
3. Removing Refrigerant. The refrigerant charge
can be removed by connecting a refrigerant drum to the
gauge port of the liquid line shutoff valve. Turn the stem
two turns off its backseat and run the unit. Most of the
refrigerant can be removed in this manner. The remainder
may be removed by placing the drum in a bucket of ice or
by slowly releasing it to the atmosphere.
4. Pump-down procedure. If possible, you should
allow the compressor to run until it is warm before
pumping it down. Then pump the system down as
follows:
(1) Close (frontseat) the liquid line shutoff valve on
the condenser.
(2) Hold the pressurestat switch closed so that the
unit will not trip off on low pressure.
(3) Run the compressor until the compound
 Figure 19. Single-phase wiring diagram for a semihermetic condensing unit.
gauge (registering low side pressure) registers 2 p.s.i.g.
(4) Stop the compressor and watch the gauge. If the
pressure rises, pump down again. Repeat the operation
until the pressure remains at 2 p.s.i.g.
(5) Frontseat the compressor discharge and suction
shutoff valves.
11
(6) If the compressor is to be left pumped down for
any period, tag the disconnect switch to prevent
accidental starting of the unit.
5. If the compressor is the only component to be
removed, pumping down the crankcase will be sufficient.
This may be done by front-seating the suction shutoff
valve and completing steps (1)-(5) listed under pump-
down procedure.
You must stop the compressor several times during pump-
down to prevent excessive foaming of the oil as the
refrigerant boils out since the foaming oil may be pumped
from the crankcase.
6. Breaking refrigerant connections. When it
becomes necessary to open a charged system, the
component or line to be removed or opened should be
pumped down or evacuated to 2 p.s.i.g. You must allow
enough time for all adjacent parts to warm to room
temperature before you break the connection. This
prevents moisture from condensing on the inside of the
system.
7. After the component has warmed to room
temperature, you are ready to break the connection and
make the necessary repairs.
8. Cleaning the expansion valve strainer. To clean
the expansion valve strainer, you must close the liquid
line shutoff valve and pump down the system to 2 p.s.i.g.
Disconnect the valve and plug the tube ends. Remove the
screen and clean it with a recommended cleaning solvent.
After the screen is clean and dry, reinstall it in the valve
and connect the valve in the system. Purge the lines and
valves; then open (two turns off the backseat) the liquid
line shutoff valve.
9. Cleaning suction strainers. Most suction
strainers are located in the suction manifold on the
compressor. Pump down the compressor to 2 p.s.i.g. and
frontseat the discharge shutoff valve. At this point, you
must check the manufacturer’s handbook to locate the
strainer. Remove and clean it with solvent. After the
strainer drys, replace it, purge the compressor, and start
the unit. Figure 20 shows two different types of strainers,
basket and disc, and their location in the compressor
motor.
10. Purging noncondensable gases.
Noncondensable gases (air) collect in the condenser
(water-cooled) above the refrigerant. The presence of
these gases cause excessive power consumption, a rise in
leaving water temperature, and high compressor discharge
pressure.
11. To purge these gases from the system, stop the
compressor for 15 to 20 minutes. Then open the purge
cock (if available) or loosen a connection at the highest
point of the condenser for a few seconds. After purging is
completed, close the purge cock (or tighten the
connection) and run the compressor. If the discharge
pressure is still high, repeat the procedure until the
discharge pressure returns to normal.
12. Adding oil. Add only the recommended oil
listed in the manufacturer's handbook. The oil should be
taken directly from a sealed container. Do not use oil that
12
has been exposed to the atmosphere because it may
contain some absorbed moisture.
13. To add oil, pump down the compressor to 2
p.s.i.g. Remove the oil filter plug (if available) or
disconnect the pressurestat connection on the suction
manifold. Insert a funnel and pour in the oil. Hold the oil
container close to the funnel to minimize contact with the
air. The correct amount of oil needed can be estimated by
observing the oil sight glass (one-third to two-thirds full).
After sufficient oil is added, connect the pressurestat or
replace the oil filler plug, purge the compressor, and start
the unit.
14. Removing oil. To remove excess oil from the
crankcase, pump down the compressor to 2 p.s.i.g.
Loosen the oil plug (if available), allowing the pressure to
escape slowly. Then use a hand suction pump to remove
the desired amount of oil. If a filler plug is not available,
loosen the bottom plate or drain plug. Retighten the plate
or plug when the oil assumes a safe level in the crankcase
one-third to two-thirds full. Purge and start the
compressor.
15. Testing for leaking valves. Leaky compressor
valves will cause a serious reduction in the capacity of the
system. Install a manifold and gauge set. Start the
compressor and allow it to run until it is warm; then
frontseat the suction shutoff valve. Pump down the
compressor to 2 p.s.i.g. Stop the compressor and quickly
frontseat the discharge shutoff valve. Observe the suction
and discharge gauges. If a discharge valve is leaking, the
pressures will equalize rapidly. The maximum allowable
discharge pressure drop is 3 p.s.i.g. per minute.
16. There is no simple method of testing suction
valves. If there is an indicated loss of capacity and the
discharge valves check properly, you must remove the
head and valve plate and check the valves physically.
17. Disassembly, inspection, and reassembly of
valve plates. Pump down the compressor to 2 p.s.i.g. and
remove the compressor head capscrews. Tap the head
with a wooden or plastic mallet to free it if it is stuck and
remove the cylinder head.
18. Remove the discharge valves and valve stops as
shown in figure 21. Free the valve plate from the dowel
pins and cylinder deck. Many valve plates have tapped
holes. The capscrews are screwed into them and function
as jacking screws. Now you can remove the suction
valves from the dowel pin. Figure 22 shows the suction
valve and suction valve positioning spring. Inspect the
valve seats and valves. If the valve seats look worn or
damaged, replace the valve plate assembly (fig. 21).
19. It is preferable to install new valves with a new
valve plate. If new valves are not available, turn the old
valves over and install them
 Figure 20. Suction strainers
with the unworn seat toward the valve seat. If the valve
seats and valves are not noticeably worn, it is still good
practice to turn the discharge valves; otherwise they may
not seat properly.
20. The suction valves are doweled and may be
reinstalled as they were originally. You must never
interchange valves. Be careful when replacing the suction
valves. The positioning springs must be placed on the
dowels first. Place them with their ends toward the
cylinder deck and the middle bowed upward.
21. Worn valves may be reconditioned by lapping
them, using a fine scouring powder and a piece of glass.
13
Mix refrigerant oil with the powder to form a liquid paste.
Then move the valve in a figure 8 motion over the paste
and glass. After the valve is reconditioned, clean and
reinstall it.
22. Use new valve plate and cylinder head gasket
when you install the valve plate and cylinder head.
23. Disassembly, inspection and assembly of the oil
pump and bearing head. Remove the oil pump cover,
shown in figure 23. This will free the oil feed guide
retainer spring and the oil feed guide. Then remove the
oil pump drive segment.

Figure 21. Valve plate assembly.
24. After you remove the bearing head you can
remove the plunger snaprings which hold the plunger,
plunger spring, and guide spring in the pump plunger
cylinder. Snapring or jeweler's needle-nose pliers are
recommended for removing the shapings.
Figure 22. Suction valve positioning spring.
14
25. Push the pump rotor out of the bearing head by
pressing against the bearing side of the rotor. The rotor
retaining ring will come out with the rotor. Installing a
new pump and bearing head is the only positive way of
eliminating oil pump trouble. However, if the cause of
the trouble is determined, replacement parts are available
for almost all compressors.
26. The first step in installing the oil pump and
bearing head is to install the rotor retaining ring in the
ring groove of the rotor, with the chamfered edge toward
the compressor. Compress the retaining spring and insert
the pump rotor into the bearing head.
27. The plungers (flat ends in), plunger springs,
spring guides, and snaprings are installed in the plunger
cylinders. Compress the snaprings and force them into
their grooves. Place a new bearing head gasket and the
bearing head into position and bolt them to the crankcase.
Install the drive segment. Be careful not to forget the
lockwashers (shown in fig. 23). Insert the oil feed guide
with the large diameter inward. Place the guide spring so
that it fits over the
 Figure 23. Compressor breakdown.
small diameter of the oil feed guide; then install a new
pump cover gasket and pump cover.
28. Disassembly, inspection, and assembly of the
eccentric shaft and pistons. Remove the oil pump and
bearing head previously described. Remove the motor
end cover, being careful not to damage the motor
windings. Do not allow the cover to drop off. You must
support it and lift it off horizontally until it clears the
motor windings. Remove the bottom plate and block the
eccentric so that it will not turn. Remove the equalizer
tube and lock screw assembly from the motor end of the
15
shaft. Look at figure 23 for the location of these
components.
29. Pull the rotor out, using a hook through the holes
on the rotor. Do not hammer on the motor end of the
shaft or rotor since this may cause the eccentric straps or
connecting rods to bend.
30. Remove the bolts holding the counterweights
and eccentric strap shields onto the eccentric shaft. (Refer
to fig. 24 during these procedures.) Remove the eccentric
strap side shields and the pump end counterweight
through the
 Figure 24. Removing counterweights and eccentric strap shields.
bearing head opening. The motor end counterweight will
hang on the eccentric shaft until the shaft is removed.
Pull the eccentric shaft through the bearing head opening.
Rotate the shaft, tapping it lightly to prevent the eccentric
straps from jamming. Guide the straps off the shaft by
hand. The eccentric straps and pistons are removed
through the bottom plate opening.
16
31. The piston pin is locked in place with a lockring.
The pin can be removed by tapping lightly on the
chamfered end of the pin (the end not having a lockring).
32. Examine the parts to see that they are not worn
beyond the limits given in the manufacturer's handbook.
To reassemble, follow the disassembly instructions in
reverse order.
33. Terminal assembly. Refer to figure 25 for the
relative positions of the parts. The washers
 Figure 25. Terminal block breakdown.
are usually color coded and slightly different in size.
Assemble them as shown.
34. The terminal mounting plate assembly is
originally installed with a small space left between the
outer terminal block and the surface of the mounting
plate. This provides further tightening of the terminal
bushing in case of a leak. To stop a leak, tighten the
terminal block capscrews only enough to stop the leakage
17
of gas. Do not tighten the capscrews so that the terminal
block is flush with the mounting plate. If further
tightening will cause this situation, the terminal assembly
must be replaced.
35. To replace the assembly, pump down the
compressor to 2 p.s.i.g. and remove the assembly. Install
the new assembly, using the recommended
torque on the capscrews (1.5 ft. lbs.); purge and start the
compressor. Avoid excess torque since terminal block
and components are generally constructed of plastic or
bakelite.
36. Testing capacitors and relay. The starting
capacitor used in single-phase units is wired as shown in
figure 19. Capacitors are connected in series with one
power lead to the motor starting winding. These
capacitors may fail because of a short or open circuit. If
they are short circuited, the starting current draw will be
excessive. The compressor may not start and will cause
fuses to blow because of the increased load. If it is
connected in a circuit feeding lights, the lights will dim.
A humming sound from the compressor motor indicates
improper phasing between the starting and running
windings caused by an open-circuited capacitor. To
check starting capacitors, replace them with good
capacitors and observe the operation of the unit.
37. The running capacitors are connected across the
running and starting terminals of the compressor. If short
circuited, they will allow an excessive current to pass to
the start winding continuously. The compressor may not
start. If it does, it will be cut off by the motor over-load
switch. If they are open, the compressor will operate, but
will draw more power than normal when running and will
stall on heavy loads. To test for open-circuited
capacitors, an ammeter should be connected in series with
one power lead. With good running capacitors, the
current requirement will be less than it is when the
capacitor is disconnected. An open capacitor will cause
no change in current draw when it is disconnected.
38. The relay is the potential or voltage type. The
contacts are normally closed when there is no power to
the unit and open approximately one-fifth of a second
after power is applied. The operation of the relay
magnetic coil is governed by the voltage through its
windings. Upon starting, the counter EMF of the motor
builds up, causing a rise in voltage through the relay coil.
As the voltage across the coil rises, the magnetic
attraction of the relay arm overcomes the spring tension.
This causes the arm to move and force the relay contacts
open. The starting capacitors, which are in series with the
starting winding when the relay contacts are closed, are
disconnected from the circuit.
39. If the relay fails with the contacts open, the
starting capacitors will not be energized. The compressor
motor will hum but will not start. After the power has
been on for 5 to 20 seconds, the overload relay will cut
off the power to the compressor motor.
40. To check the relay for contacts that fail to close,
put a jumper across the relay contacts and turn on the
18
power. If the unit starts with the jumper, but will not start
without it, you must replace the relay.
41. When the relay fails with the contacts closed, the
starting capacitors will continue to be energized after the
compressor has come up to speed. The compressor will
start but will run with a loud grinding hum. The overload
relay will shut the compressor off after the compressor
has run for a short time due to the extra load of the start
winding. This type of relay failure can cause damage to
the motor windings and the running capacitor.
42. A visual inspection will determine if relay
contacts fail to open. Remove the relay cover and
observe its operation. If it does not open after the power
has been applied for a few moments, you must replace the
relay.
43. Oil safety switch. Many units have oil safety
switches which protect the compressor from low or no oil
pressure. This control has two circuits-heater and control.
44. This switch measures the difference between oil
pump discharge pressure and crankcase pressure. If the
net oil pressure drops below the permissible limits, the
differential pressure switch energizes the heater circuit
which will cause the bimetal switch in the control circuit
to open in approximately 1 minute. Low oil pressure may
result from the loss of oil, oil pump failure, worn
bearings, or excessive refrigerant in the oil. Figure 26
shows a typical oil pressure safety switch.
45. The differential pressure switch is factory
calibrated to open when the oil pump discharge pressure
is 18 p.s.i.g. greater than the crankcase pressure. It will
close when the difference is 11 p.s.i.g. Its adjustment
should not be attempted
Figure 26. Oil pressure safety switch.
in the field. If the differential pressure switch functions
properly and the compressor continues to run after 1
minute, the time-delay heater circuit is defective and the
oil pressure safety switch should be replaced. The switch
should be checked monthly for correct operation.
46. Troubleshooting. One of your most important
responsibilities is the troubleshooting and correction of
malfunctions of these systems. Throughout this chapter
we have given basic principles of D/X systems. Using
this knowledge and the information that we have provided
in tables 1 through 10, you should have little trouble in
achieving the desired skill levels.

TABLE 1

TABLE 2

TABLE 3

19
TABLE 4

TABLE 5

TABLE 6

TABLE 7

20
 TABLE 8

TABLE 9

TABLE 10

Review Exercises 2. After you have inspected a thermostatically

controlled steam preheat coil, you find that the
The following exercises are study aids. Write your valve is closed and the outside temperature is 33°
answers in pencil in the space provided after each F. What is the most probable malfunction, if
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on any? (Sec. 1, Par. 4)
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
3. What two functions does a D/X coil serve? (Sec.
1. There are three things which must be considered 1, Par. 7)
before installing a preheat coil. Name them.
(Sec. 1, Par. 2)

4. What has occurred when a compressor using

simple on-off control short cycles? (Sec. 1, Par.
9)

21
5. What function does the humidistat serve on a
two-speed compressor installation? (Sec. 1, Par.
11)
6. Why is a nonrestarting relay installed in a
solenoid (D/X coil) valve installation? (Sec. 1,
Par. 12)
7. A service call is received from Building 1020
with a complaint of no air conditioning. The
system uses two D/X coils and two solenoid
valves. Which component should you check
before troubleshooting the solenoid valve control
circuit? (Sec. 1, Par. 14)
8. What type compressor must be used when two-
position control of a D/X coil and modulating
control of a face and bypass damper are
employed to control air temperature? (Sec. 1,
Par. 15)
9. The most probable cause of low supply air
temperature and high humidity in an equipment
cooling system ____________. (Sec. 1, Par. 18)
10. How are large swings in relative humidity
prevented when face and bypass dampers are
used to control dehumidification? (Sec. 1, Par.
20)
11. Which control has prime control of the D/X coil
if a space thermostat and humidistat are installed
in the system? (Sec. 1, Par. 26)
22
12. Answering a service call, what conclusion would
you make from these symptoms?
(1) The suction pressure is high.
(2) The cooling load is at its peak.
(3) The motor is short cycling on its over load
protector. (Sec. 2, Par. 3)
13. What would occur if you installed a medium
temperature unit for a 40° F suction temperature
application? (Sec. 2, Par. 3)
14. What could cause the compressor on an air
conditioner to start when the thermostat
controlling the liquid solenoid valve is satisfied?
Why? (Sec. 2, Par. 4, and fig. 19)
15. When may the automatic pump-down feature be
omitted? (Sec. 2, Par. 5)
16. Name the four factors you should consider
before you install a D/X system. (Sec. 3, Par. 1)
17. How can you correct the following situation?
Refrigerant is condensing in the compressor
crankcase. (Sec. 3, Par. 2)
18. Is it necessary to install a condensing unit on a
special foundation? Why? (Sec. 3, Par. 3)
19. What is the minimum and maximum voltages 27. Why is it important to keep the ambient
that can be supplied to a 220-volt unit? (Sec. 3, temperature above 60° F. when you are
Par. 5) dehydrating a system with a vacuum pump?
(Sec. 3, Par. 17)

20. How much phase unbalance is tolerable between 28. What pressure corresponds to a vacuum indicator
phases of a three-phase installation? (Sec. 3, Par. reading of 45° F.? (Sec. 3, Par. 18, and fig. 17)
5)

29. Why are shutoff valves installed in the vacuum

21. During gauge installation, in which position is pump suction line? (Sec. 3, Par. 20)
the shutoff valve set and why? (Sec. 3, Par. 9)

30. The type of moisture that is first removed from a

refrigeration system is _____________ moisture.
22. Where would you install a liquid line sight glass (Sec. 3, Par. 22)
in the system? (Sec. 3, Par. 12)

31. Why do you have to backseat the suction and

discharge shutoff valves before you connect the
23. When city water is used as the condensing gauge manifold? (Sec. 3, Par. 25)
medium, the condenser circuits are connected in
______________. (Sec. 3, Par. 14)

32. What four items must be checked before you

start a newly installed compressor? (Sec. 3, Par.
26)
24. When cooling tower water is used, the condenser
circuits are connected in _________________.
(Sec. 3, Par. 14)
33. How does frontseating the suction shutoff valve
affect the low-pressure control? (Sec. 3, Par. 34)

25. Which types of gases may be used to pressurize

the system for leak testing? (Sec. 3, Par. 15)
34. Why do you place the refrigerant cylinder in ice
when you want to evacuate all the refrigerant
from a system? (Sec. 4, Par. 3)

26. After you have disassembled a compressor, you

find an excessive amount of sludge in the
crankcase. What caused this sludge? (Sec 3, 35. Why is a partial pressure, 2 p.s.i.g., allowed to
Par. 16) remain in the system after pumpdown? (Sec. 4,
Par. 4)

23
36. Why should you allow sufficient time for a
component to warm to room temperature before
removing it from the system? (Sec. 4, Par. 6)
37. The two types of suction strainers are
_______________ and ________________ (Sec.
4, Par. 9)
38. Where do noncondensable gases collect in a
water-cooled refrigerating system? (Sec. 4, Par.
10)
39. What condition most probably exists when the
following symptoms are indicated?
(1) Excessive amperage draw.
(2) The condenser water temperature is normal.
(3) The discharge temperature, felt by hand at
the compressor discharge line, is above
normal. (Sec. 4, Par. 10)
40. What would a discharge pressure drop of 10
p.s.i.g. per minute with the discharge shutoff
valve frontseated indicate? (Sec. 4, Par. 15)
41. How are valve plates removed from cylinder
decks? (Sec. 4, Par. 18)
24
42. What is the emergency procedure that you can
use to recondition worn compressor valves?
(Sec. 4, Par. 21)
43. How is the oil feed guide installed? (Sec. 4, Par.
27)
44. Why should you use a hook device rather than a
hammer to remove the rotor? (Sec. 4, Par. 29)
45. (Agree)(Disagree) The terminal block is
tightened flush with the mounting plate. (Sec. 4,
Par. 34)
46. The amount of torque required when tightening
the capscrews on a terminal block is
_______________. (Sec. 4, Par. 35)
47. The following complaint concerning an
inoperative air conditioner is submitted to the
shop: the air conditioner keeps blowing fuses
when it tries to start. After troubleshooting the
unit you find that the starting current draw is
above normal. Which component should you
check and what should you check it for (Sec. 4,
Par. 36)
48. What will cause a humming sound from the
compressor motor? (Sec. 4, Par. 36)
49. The contacts of the starting relay are normally
_________________. (Sec. 4, Par. 38)
50. What causes the contacts of the starting relay to 57. A loose feeler bulb for a thermostatic expansion
open? (Sec. 4, Par. 38) valve will cause an abnormally cold suction line.
Why is the line cold? (Sec. 4, table 5)

51. Which type of relay failure can cause damage to

the motor windings? (Sec. 4, Par. 41)
58. A hissing expansion valve indicates
_____________________. (Sec. 4, table 6)

52. The two circuits that make up the oil safety

switch are _______________ and
______________. (Sec. 4, Par. 43)
59. Too much superheat will cause
____________________. (Sec. 4, table 6)

53. The pressure which cause the oil safety switch to

operate are ________________ and
________________ (Sec. 4, Par. 44)
60. During a routine inspection, you find the water-
cooled condenser exceptionally hot. What are
the most probable faults and how should you
54. (Agree)(Disagree) The differential pressure correct them? (Sec. 4, table 7)
switch in the oil safety switch will open when
the pressure differential drops. (Sec. 4, Par. 45)

61. A low suction pressure and loss of system

55. What can cause an inoperative motor starter? capacity indicates __________________. (Sec.
(Sec. 4, table 1) 4, table 10)

56. What should you suspect when the dehydrator is

frosted and the suction pressure is below 62. How would you correct this fault: A capacity
normal? (Sec. 4, table 2) controlled compressor short cycling? (Sec. 4,
table 10)

25
CHAPTER 2

Absorption Systems

HOW ABSURD IT is to use water as a refrigerant; vaporizes, the water vapor travels from the evaporator to
yet absorption systems do. You know that this can be the absorber, where it is absorbed into the salt solution.
done only under specific conditions. Within a deep The evaporator pump, shown in item 2 of figure 28,
vacuum, water will boil (vaporize) at a very low circulates water from the evaporator tank to a spray
temperature. For example, when a vacuum of 29.99 header to wet the surface of the coil. The cooling effect
inches is obtained, the water will boil at approximately of the spray boiling at approximately 40° F. on the coil
40° Fahrenheit. Hence, vacuum is the key to absorption surface chills the water inside the coil, and this chilled
air conditioning. water is
2. The absorption system is one of the simplest of
all types of automatic air-conditioning systems. Though
this machine has few moving parts, it has an immense
cooling capacity. We shall discuss in this chapter
terminology, identification, and function of unit
components; starting and operating procedures; and
maintenance of the absorption system.

5. Terminology, Identification, and Function of Units

1. The complete absorption refrigeration unit
contains a generator, a condenser, an absorber, and an
evaporator. The condenser and generator are combined in
the upper shell of the machine, while the evaporator and
absorber are combined in the lower shell, as shown in
figure 27.
2. The heat exchanger, purge unit, solution pump,
and evaporating pump are mounted between the support
legs of the unit. The purge unit is used to remove
noncondensables from the machine. The capacity control
valve controls the water leaving the condenser. This
valve is controlled thermostatically by a remote bulb
placed in the chilled water line.
3. Figure 28 is a simple block diagram of the
absorption refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant used is
common tap water and the absorbent is a special salt,
lithium bromide.
4. To understand the operation of the refrigeration
cycle, consider two self-contained vessels: one containing
the salt solution (absorber) and the other (evaporator)
containing water, joined together as shown in item 1 of
figure 28. Ordinary table salt absorbs water vapor when it
is exposed to damp weather. The salt solution in the
absorber has a much greater ability to absorb the water
vapor from the evaporator. The water in the evaporator
Figure 27. Absorption unit components.
boiling at a low temperature does the same job as
refrigerants R-12, R-13, and R-22. As the water

26
 from the generator to preheat the diluted solution. This
raises the overall efficiency because less heat will be
required to bring the diluted solution to a boil.
Condensing water, which is circulated through the coils of
the absorber and the condenser, removes waste heat from
the unit. By comparing figure 29 with figure 27, you will
get a better understanding of the relation between basic
operating principles and an actual installation.
6. Controls. Figure 30 illustrates a typical control
panel for an absorption refrigeration unit. The purpose of
each control listed in this figure is described in the
following paragraphs. Turning the off-run-start switch (1)
the START position energizes the electric pneumatic
switch (2), which activates the control system of the
absorption machine. Supply air pressure of 15 p.s.i.g. (3)
passes to the chilled water thermostat (4), then to the
concentration limit thermostat (5), and finally to the
capacity control valve (7).
7. The chilled water thermostat (4) is a direct acting
control with a 7° F. differential. For every degree change
in the chilled water temperature, there is approximately a
2-pound change in its branch line air pressure. Its thermal
element is located in the leaving chilled water line. As
the leaving chilled water temperature drops below the
control setting of the thermostat, the supply air pressure
(3) is throttled, causing the capacity control valve (7) to
throttle the condenser water quantity. With a constant
load on the machine, the capacity control valve throttles
just enough condensing water to balance the load.
8. The concentration limit thermostat (5) is a direct
acting bleed type control, with the thermal element
located in the vapor condensate well. Its purpose is to
prevent the solution from concentrating beyond the point
Figure 28. Absorption refrigeration cycle.
where solidification results. At startup, the capacity
control valve (7) is closed and remains closed until the
circulated in a closed cycle to the cooling coils. This
vapor condensate well temperature rises above the control
refrigeration effect is known as flash cooling.
point of the concentration limit thermostat. As it does, the
5. In reference to item 3 of figure 28, note the
thermostat begins to throttle the air bleeding to the
addition of the generator and accessory equipment. These
atmosphere, thus raising the branch line pressure (6) and
components are necessary for continuous and efficient
opening the capacity control valve. This control valve on
operation. The salt solution would become diluted and
some absorption models may be controlled electrically
the action stopped if it were not for the regeneration of the
instead of pneumatically.
salt solution. To keep the salt solution in the absorber at
9. Safety controls. Two safety controls are usually
its proper strength so that it will have the ability to absorb
used in the control systems. They are the chilled water
water, the salt solution is pumped to a generator where
safety thermostat and the solution pressurestat. In moist
heat is used to raise its temperature and boil off the excess
instances, any malfunction occurring during operation is
water. The salt concentrate is then returned to the
immediately reflected by a rise in the chilled water
absorber to continue its cycle. The water that is boiled off
temperature. The thermal element of the chilled water
from the salt solution in the generator is condensed in the
safety
condenser and returned to the evaporator as shown in item
4 of figure 28. The heat exchanger uses a hot solution

27
 Figure 29. Absorption refrigeration cycle.

thermostat is located in the chilled water line leaving the
machine. The control point is set approximately 10° F.
above the design leaving chilled water temperature. A
temperature rise above the control point shuts off the air
supply. All control lines are then bled and the system is
shut down. When the off-run-start switch is in the
START position, this control is bypassed. The switch
should not be placed in the RUN position until after you
obtain a chilled water temperature below the control
setting.
10. The solution pressurestat located in the

28
 Figure 30. Control panel.
discharge line of the solution pump is set to cut in on a
rising pressure at 40 p.s.i.g. and cut out on a falling
pressure at 30 p.s.i.g. If for any reason the discharge
pressure falls below the control point, the system will be
shut down in the same manner as described above.
11. Special control. Special chilled water controllers
may be installed in the field for special applications.
These controls are used to maintain the chilled water
temperatures within a plus or minus 2° F. Explosion-
proof controls and motor are installed for special
applications. Refer to the manufacturer's manual on the
operation and maintenance of these controls and motors.
12. Thermometers. Thermometers are installed in
several locations in the system. Below is a general listing
of thermometer locations and their purposes:
(1) Chilled water piping to indicate the entering
chilled water temperature.
(2) Chilled water pump suction piping to indicate
leaving chilled water temperature.
29
(3) Condensing water piping entering the absorber
section.
(4) Condensing water piping leaving the absorber
section. For proper temperature measurements, the
thermometer is located in the generator bypass line.
(5) Condensing water piping leaving the condenser
section.
(6) Condensing water piping to indicate the total
condensing water temperature to the cooling tower or
drain.
13. Pressure Gauges. Pressure gauges are installed
in several locations in the system. The following is a
general listing of gauge locations:
(1) Purge water line after the strainer and before the
purge water jet.
(2) Purge water line after the jet.
(3) Steam line before the generator section.
(4) Discharge line from the chilled water pump.
 (5) Discharge line from the condenser water pump.
14. Water Seals. Older models of absorption
machines require mechanical seals on the solution and
evaporator pumps. However, the newer machines have
hermetically sealed pumps that eliminate the need for
mechanical seals. The older models require external
water seals; therefore, it is necessary to supply a water
seal tank to maintain water on the seals for lubrication
purposes and so that water rather than air leaks into the
machine in case the seals break or leak.
15. The water seal tank has a float control to limit
the quantity of water to the seals when the machine is in
operation. The operator must open the manual valve
supplying the seal water tank before startup and must
close the manual valve on shutdown. This is the standard
method of control. The alternate method is one where a
check valve is installed in the supply line to the tank, as
well as an antisyphon vacuum breaker. When the
machine is shut down a visual check can be made to
determine the condition of the seal and to prevent a large
quantity of water from leaking into the machine if the seal
is worn or cracked. If mechanical seals have to be
replaced, the manufacturer's instructions must be carefully
followed in order to do the job correctly and prevent the
new seals from leaking. During operation, the evaporator
pump makes up for the water lost by a seal; but during
shutdown, it is possible to lose a large amount of water
from the tank if a large leak exists. Therefore, leaky seals
must be replaced immediately. Having learned the
importance of water seals in the absorption system, we
can now discuss the starting procedures.
6. Starting Procedures
1. Some absorption systems are completely
automatic and can be started by simply pushing a start
button, while in other systems the machine is automatic
but the auxiliary equipment is manually operated. The
type of startup determines the starting procedure.
Therefore, each starting procedure is outlined separately,
and the machine operator can perform the starting
operations applicable to the type of startup required.
Even though some systems are automatic, it would be
advisable to check the system as described below before
starting the unit.
2. Daily Startup. Use the following steps in
performing a normal startup.
(1) Check vacuum in machine (see Maintenance,
Section 8).
(2) Check mechanical seals for leakage (see
Maintenance, Section 8).
30
(3) Check water level in evaporator sight glass.
(4) Check absorber section for presence of water.
(5) Start condensing water pump.
(6) Check temperature of condensing water going to
machine. Do not start cooling tower fan until the
condenser water it has warmed up to the recommended
setting.
(7) Start the purge unit.
• Push start button on the purge control panel.
• Open purge steam supply valve.
• Check the standpipe for water seal circulation
before starting the pumps.
(8) Start the chilled water pump and open the valves
to insure circulation through the evaporator tubes and air-
conditioning equipment.
(9) Start the refrigerant pump and open the valve in
the refrigerant pump discharge line.
(10) Start the purging machine. Open the absorber
purge valve located in the purge line to the absorber. The
generator purge valve located in the purge line between
the absorber and generator must be open.
(11) Wait until the machine is completely purged.
There will be a substantial drop in the leaving chilled
water temperature when the machine is completely
purged. If the leaving chilled water temperature does not
drop and there are no leaks in the machine, then the steam
jets should be cleaned.
(12) Open the main steam valve to the machine.
(13) Check steam pressure supply to see that it is
within the proper range.
(14) Place the control panel switch in the START
position.
(15) Check the main air supply pressure gauge to
insure that 15 p.s.i.g. is supplied to the control panel.
(16) Start solution pump. Be sure the strong solution
return valve is open at all times.
(17) When the leaving chilled water temperature has
dropped below the safety thermostat setting, move the
control panel switch from START to RUN.
3. Startup After Standby Shutdown. This
procedure is basically the same as for daily startup. There
are, however, additional preparation steps that must first
be performed in order to put the machine in operational
condition for startup. In order to prepare the machine for
startup, the nitrogen with which the machine has been
charged must be removed and a vacuum pulled on the
machine. This is done by operating the purge unit until
the machine has been purged of nitrogen and a
satisfactory vacuum reading attained.
 4. Startup After Extended Shutdown: This
procedure is basically the same as for daily startup except
for the additional preparation steps that must first be
performed to put the machine in operational condition for
startup. The preparations necessary after extended
shutdown are similar to an initial startup of a new
machine. The complete system must be prepared for
operation in these steps:
(1) Check all drains that should be closed in the
chilled water and condensing water circuits.
(2) Fill the condensing water circuit.
(3) Start the purge unit to remove all air and nitrogen
from the machine.
(4) Fill the primary and secondary chilled water
circuits.
(5) Purge the chilled water circuit of air.
• Start the chilled water pump.
• Open the diaphragm valve in the chilled water
pump discharge line.
• Open the diaphragm valve in the chilled water
return line to the machine and continue purging until the
recommended vacuum is obtained.
(6) Purge the refrigerant circuit. Do not start the
refrigerant pump until chilled water is circulating through
the evaporator tubes.
• Start the refrigerant pump.
• Open the valve in the refrigerant pump discharge
line and allow the refrigerant to circulate until the
recommended vacuum is obtained on the machine.
(7) Shut down the purge unit.
(8) Shut down the primary chilled water circuit.
• Close the diaphragm valve in the primary chilled
water pump discharge line.
• Shut off the primary chilled water pump. The
machine is now in operational order and ready for instant
startup. The procedures for daily startup should now be
followed to place the machine in operation.
7. Operating Procedures
1. You must make periodic checks on the machine
while it is in operation and keep a daily operating log.
Compare observations with the following recommended
operating conditions and make any necessary
adjustments.
2. Evaporator, Absorber, and Generator Levels.
As an operator you will have to visually check the sight
glasses on the evaporator, absorber, and generator.
3. Evaporator sight glass water level. The normal
operating evaporator tank water level is approximately 1
inch above the horizontal centerline. At a high level, the
chilled water may spill over the evaporator tank into the
solution in the absorber, causing a loss of operating
31
efficiency. A low level will cause the chilled water pump
to cavitate (surge).
4. Solution level in absorber. Normal operating
level is approximately one-third of the absorber sight
glass at full load operation. At partial load operation, the
solution level will vary between one-third and two-thirds
of the sight glass. The solution level may require
adjustment when the leaving chilled water temperature is
changed, which is done by manually adjusting the chilled
water thermostat. If the setting is lowered, the solution
level will drop and solution must be added. If the setting
is raised, the solution level will rise and solution must be
removed from the machine. Operating instructions for the
specific machine should be followed in adjusting the
solution level.
5. Solution boiling level in generator. The solution
boiling level is set at initial startup of the machine and
should not vary during operation. The boiling level can
be checked by looking into the mirror near the generator
bull's-eye. A light should be visible at all times. If the
light is obscured, the boiling level is too high and should
be adjusted. A temporary measure is to adjust the
solution flow by throttling the generator flow valve in the
line to the generator. For more detailed procedures,
consult the service bulletin for your machine on how to
check high boiling.
6. Purging. Proper purging is necessary to obtain
and maintain a vacuum on an absorption system.
7. Purge operation. Water pressure, steam
pressure, and water temperature must be within
recommended limits to insure satisfactory operation. The
steam supplied to the jets must be dry. Operate the jets
with the bleed petcock open at all times. When jets are
operating properly, the first stage will run hot, the second
stage warm or cool. When air is being handled, the
second stage will tend to get hot. Wet steam will cause
the first stage diffuser to run cold. If too wet, the purge
system will not operate. Check the circulation of seal
water through the seal chambers. If water is circulating
through the seal chambers, there will be an overflow of
water from the standpipe. If the purge unit stops because
of salinity indicator operation, you must immediately
close the machine purge valve. Shut off the steam supply
to the steam jets and open the reset switch to shut off the
alarm. If lithium bromide should pass into the purge
water tank, the water should be drained and the tank
flushed; also flush the steam jets and condenser. Clean
water can be introduced in the pressure tap between the
purge valve and the first stage of the purge unit. Resume
normal operation by filling
 Figure 31. Jet purge unit.
the tank, bleeding the pump, and closing the reset switch.
8. Jet purge. On some systems, the jet purge,
shown in figure 31, has been adapted to the unit. It is
entirely automatic and provides a source of very low
pressure which is capable of removing noncondensables
from the machine when required. Since noncondensables
travel from high-pressure regions to low-pressure regions-
generator, condenser, evaporator, absorber--the purge
suction tube is located in the lower section of the
32
absorber. The jet purge system is made up of the
following components:
(1) Purge tank (12-gallon capacity).
(2) Purge pump (submersible).
(3) Jet evacuator (operates on the venturi principle).
(4) Purge valve (usually operated by a hydromotor).
(5) Adjustable drip tube (keeps solution in purge
tank at 53 percent).
 (6) Purge cooling coil (keeps purge solution at a low
temperature).
(7) Four-probe level controller (shortest probe and
longest probe are safety controls).
(8) Generator purge line (allows purging of the
generator during operation).
(9) Purge control switches (auto-manual, auto-off
located in the control panel or center).
(10) Purge alarm light (in control panel or center to
indicate high or low level). Proper purging of the system
is useless unless you maintain the recommended
maximum steam pressure.
9. Machine Supply Steam Pressure. The
maximum steam pressure at the generator should never
exceed the manufacturer's specifications. Excessive
steam pressures may cause the solution to solidify and
make it necessary to shut down the machine.
10. Solution Solidification. Excessive steam
pressure is not the only possible cause of solution
solidification. Entering condensing water at too low a
temperature, an excessive air leak, improperly adjusted
controls, or power failure shutting the machine off so that
it cannot go through a dilution cycle may also cause this
difficulty. Solidification will cause the machine to stop,
but there will be no permanent damage to the machine.
After the solution is desolidified, the machine may be
placed back in operation, but the cause of the difficulty
should be corrected.
11. A steam desolidification line is encased in the
solution heat exchanger of the machine. The procedure
for desolidification outlined below should be followed
step by step:
(1) Close the absorber purge valve and the purge
steam supply valve. This will isolate the machine from
the purge unit and prevent air from entering the machine.
(2) Shut off the condensing water pump but leave
the main steam supply valve open. This allows the
solution to heat without vapor being condensed in the
condenser.
(3) Open the manual dilution valve which will allow
chilled water to enter the solution circuit and dilute the
solution.
(4) Open the steam supply valve and steam
condensate return valve in the desolidification line.
(5) Start the solution pump and pump the solution up
to the generator; close the generator flow valve. Allow
the solution to heat up in the generator; then open the
generator flow valve and allow the solution to drain back
to the absorber. As it begins to liquefy, the solution will
start to flow. This process may have to be repeated
several times before the solution has liquefied enough to
permit the circulation.
33
(6) Put the machine back into operation by starting
the condensing water pump and purge unit.
(7) The reason for solidification should be
determined and corrected.
You have completed desolidification and have the
absorption system operating properly. Let us now discuss
shutdown procedures.
12. Shutdowns. Each shutdown--daily, standby,
and extended-requires proper “off” sequencing of the
system components to avoid damage to the machine and
to keep the lithium bromide from solidifying.
13. Daily shutdowns. To stop a completely
automatic system you must push the stop button. This
will automatically close the capacity control valve and
purge valve. All other components will operate for
approximately 7 minutes after this short period, the
machine will shut down automatically. The following
procedure is recommended for daily shutdown on
automatic machines with manual auxiliaries:
(1) Move the start switch to the OFF position.
(2) Shut down the purge unit.
• Close the absorber purge valve.
• Close the purge steam supply valve.
• Push the stop button on the purge control panel
to stop the purge pump.
(3) Dilute the solution sufficiently to prevent
solidification during shutdown.
• Open the manual dilution valve for the proper
length of time. The time will range from approximately 2
to 5 minutes and must be determined by experience for
each machine.
• Close the manual dilution valve after the proper
interval. This valve must not be left unattended during
the dilution period since too long an interval will weaken
the solution and lengthen the recovery period when the
machine is placed back in operation.
(4) Shut down the refrigerant and chilled water
circuit
• Shut down the refrigerant water pump.
• Close the valve in the refrigerant pump discharge
line.
• Shut down the secondary chilled water pump.
(5) Shut down the condensing water circuit.
• Shut down the condensing water pump.
• Shut down other auxiliaries in this system such
as cooling tower, cooling tower fan, and auxiliary valves.
(6) Close the main steam supply valve to shut off the
steam to the machine.
(7) Shut down the solution pump. After the solution
has drained from the generator back to
the absorber, the solution circuit will be ready for startup.
It is not necessary to close either of the solution valves.
14. Standby shutdown. This type of shutdown is
used at an installation where it is not necessary to use the
machine for cooling at irregular intervals during the
winter or off-cooling seasons. This procedure does not
apply if freeing temperatures are expected in the machine
room. The procedure is the same for daily shutdown
except for the following two steps:
(1) Dilution should be sufficient to insure that
solidification of the solution will not take place at the
lowest temperatures expected in the machine room.
(2) The final step in the procedure is to charge the
machine with nitrogen.
• Connect the nitrogen tank to the nitrogen
charging valve. On some systems, the alcohol charging
valve is used as the connection for charging nitrogen into
the system.
• Set the pressure-reducing valve on the nitrogen
tank to 18 p.s.i.g. This is the maximum allowable
pressure that may be used on the machine. Higher
pressures will cause leakage at the pump seals.
• Open the nitrogen valve on the nitrogen tank and
allow the nitrogen to enter the machine. Observe the
pressure on the solution pump discharge gauge. When
this gauge reads 3 to 5 p.s.i.g., close the nitrogen valve
and remove the nitrogen charging line.
15. Extended shutdown. When the machine is to be
placed out of service for an extended length of time, as
during the winter, there are many special services which
may be required to protect the equipment from freezing
temperatures. The procedures are the same as for daily
shutdown except for the following additional services:
(1) The solution must be diluted enough to insure
against solidification at the lowest expected temperatures
in the machine room. To do this, put the machine through
three dilution cycles before it is shut down.
(2) Store the solution in the generator by closing the
strong valve and running the solution pump until the
solution is pumped from the absorber into the generator.
Then close the diluted solution valve before shutting off
the solution pump.
(3) The machine is charged with nitrogen to prevent
air from getting into the machine as outlined in the
procedure for standby shutdown.
(4) Drain all the chilled water from the machine and
other equipment. Leave all the drains open: except the
one from the machine proper.
(5) Drain all the condensing water from the machine
and other equipment and leave the drains open.
34
(6) Drain the water from the purge condenser shell
by opening the drain connection on the bottom of the
purge condenser.
(7) Drain all the water from the purge condenser coil
by removing the tubing between the water jet piping and
purge condenser coil.
(8) Drain all the water out of the seal tank by
opening the drain connection in the bottom of the water
seal tank.
(9) Drain all the water out of the water sea lines and
the pump seal chambers by opening the petcock located in
the line in the bottom of the pump seal chambers.
(10) Drain all the steam traps and steam drop legs.
16. Most maintenance is performed while the system
is shut down. Let us now discuss maintenance of
absorption air-conditioning systems.
8. Maintenance
1. The maintenance procedures listed in this section
are carried out at time intervals listed in the
manufacturers' service manuals. We will not set any time
interval because it varies with equipment models, and
your particular SOP will outline this information. We
will discuss annual maintenance because most
manufacturers' handbooks list the same tasks to be
performed at that time.
2. Checking Vacuum. Before starting the
machine, you should check it to see if air has leaked into
the unit while it was shut down. Open the valve in the
line from the absorber to the manometer and determine
the pressure in the machine. Figure 32 illustrates a
manometer reading. Take the temperature of the machine
room and locate the corresponding pressure on the chart
in figure 33. If the pressure reading in the machine is
more than 0.1 inch of mercury higher than the pressure
located on the curve, then there is air in the machine.
This should be noted on the daily log sheet. If the
condition recurs on the next two or three startups, the
machine should be shut down as soon as possible and
tested for leaks. Air leakage will cause corrosion inside
the machine, and over a period of time will result in
serious trouble and shorten the life of the equipment.
3. Checking Mechanical Pump Seals. The
mechanical pump seals, as shown in figure 34, should be
checked for leakage before starting the machine. Close
the petcocks in the water lines to the pump seal chambers.
Observe the readings of the compound pressure gauges in
the water lines between the petcock and the pump seal
chambers. If the gauge shows a vacuum, this is

Figure 32. Absorber manometer.
an indication of a leaking seal. If only a small amount of
seal water has been lost, the leak is small and the machine
may be placed in operation; but the seal should be
replaced at the first opportunity. If a large amount of seal
water has been lost, then the seal should be replaced
before the unit is put into operation.
4. Flushing Seal Chamber. Flushing the seal
chamber is recommended for lengthening the life of the
seals. Approximately 15 minutes after the machine is
stated and the solution has concentrated, drain
approximately 1 quart of water out of each seal chamber
by use of drain petcocks located on each chamber. This is
necessary to prevent the buildup of solution concentration
in the chamber by the solution that may leak past the seal
faces. Make sure that the drain water is replaced, since
continually draining water would result in a loss of
evaporator water.
5. Checking Water in Evaporator Sight Glass.
Before starting the machine, the water level in the
evaporator sight glass should be checked. If the water
level is the same as when the machine was shut down, the
condition indicates that there is no leakage. If the level is
higher, then chilled water has leaked back into the
machine. The machine should not be started under these
conditions, since it is possible to lose the solution charge.
Consult the instructions for the machine to cover this
situation.
6. Checking Absorber for Presence of Water.
Turn on the light at the absorber bull's-eye. Look into the
absorber section through the inspection hole opposite the
light. No water should be visible. If water is visible it
35
has leaked into the section from the chilled water or seal
water system. Under these conditions, the machine
should not be started since it is possible to lose the
solution charge. Consult the instructions for the machine
to cover this situation.
7. Adding Octyl Alcohol to Solution. Once a
week, about 6 ounces of octyl alcohol should be added to
the solution circuit while the machine is running. This
cleans the outside of the tubes in the generator and
absorber and improves their efficiency in transferring
heat. The procedure is as follows:
(1) Pour about 8 ounces of octyl alcohol in a glass
container.
(2) Hold the container under the alcohol charging
connection as shown in figure 35. The end of the
charging connection must be kept close to the bottom to
prevent air from entering the machine.
(3) Slowly open the charging valve and observe the
alcohol level as it is drawn into the machine. Close the
valve quickly so that the level of liquid remains above the
end of intake tube to prevent air from entering the
machine.
8. If the alcohol is drawn rapidly into the charging
connection, it indicates that the conical strainer and
solution spray header are clean. A progressive decrease
in the rate at which alcohol is drawn shows that these
units are becoming clogged. If alcohol is not drawn into
the charging connection, it is an indication that the conical
strainer is clogged. In this case, the conical strainer
should be removed and cleaned at the next shutdown. If
the condition still persists, it will be necessary to remove
and clean the solution spray header.
9. Cleaning Purge Steam Jet. This is an
important part of the maintenance since the purge unit
must be kept in good operating condition to maintain
efficiency of the machine. The following procedures will
apply to both single- and two-stage steam jets:
(1) Check to be sure that the absorber purge valve
(item 1 in fig. 36) is closed.
(2) Close the purge steam supply valve (item 2).
(3) Remove the steam jet cap.
(4) Use a piece of thin wire through the top of the
steam jet to loosen any dirt in the nozzle.
(5) Open the purge steam supply valve to blow out
loosened dirt and then close the valve.
(6) Replace the steam jet cap.
10. Checking Evaporator Water Circuit for
Lithium Bromide. While the quantity of solution does
not formally change, a high boiling level in the generator
may force solution into the evaporator water circuit. A
solution test kit must be
Figure 33. Pressure and temperature curve.

Figure 34. Seal water system.

36

Figure 35. Octyl alcohol charging.
used to detect and measure the percentage of lithium
bromide in the evaporator water. The test kit contains
three bottles labeled No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3. No. 1
contains an indicator solution, No. 2 contains silver
nitrate, and No. 3 is a standard solution of lithium
bromide. The test kit is used as follows:
(1) Place ten drops of evaporator water sample from
the system into a clean bottle.
(2) Add three drops of No. 1 to the sample.
(3) Count the number of drops of No. 2 solution
necessary to turn the sample a permanent red. Record the
number of drops of No. 2 used.
(4) Place ten drops of the standard solution, No. 3, in
a clean bottle.
(5) Add three drops of No. 1 solution.
(6) Count the number of drops of No. 2 necessary to
give a permanent red. Record the number of drops.
11. The standard sample of lithium bromide is a
1-percent solution. By comparing the number of drops of
solution No. 2 required to turn the

Figure 36. Steam jet purge.

37

Figure 37. Manual dilution.
evaporator water sample red with the number of drops
required to turn the standard red, the percentage of lithium
bromide can be determined. If the evaporator water
sample requires less of No. 2 than the standard, then it
contains less than 1 percent of lithium bromide. If the test
shows the lithium bromide content of the evaporator
water to be greater than 1 percent, it should be reclaimed.
12. Reclaiming Solution. The lithium bromide is
reclaimed by passing evaporator water into the solution
circuit while the machine is in operation. The length of
time required for reclamation will be determined by the
amount of salt in the evaporator water circuit. The
capacity of the machine will be partly reduced during this
period. The process should be continued until the test
shows less than one-half of 1 percent. The procedure for
reclaiming solution is as follows:
(1) Crack the manual dilution valve, item A in figure
37, and feed water slowly into the solution circuit.
(2) Check the boiling level through the generator
bull's-eye sight glass. If the light cannot be seen, the
boiling level is too high. Bring the boiling level down by
slightly closing the dilution valve until the light can be
seen.
(3) Continue the process until the test shows less
than one-half of 1 percent. This may take anywhere from
a few hours to several days, depending on the amount of
salt in the evaporator water circuit.
13. Annual Maintenance. Before annual
maintenance is started, the machine should be shut down
and charged with nitrogen as outlined in the procedure for
extended shutdown. The following paragraphs are
arranged in the same sequence as the work would
normally be performed.
38
14. Cleaning lithium bromide solution. To clean the
lithium bromide solution, it must be removed from the
machine as follows:
(1) Open the valves in the solution line to and from
the generator; this will drain the solution into the absorber
section.
(2) Attach a suitable rubber hose to the discharge
connection of the solution pump.
(3) Close the valves in the solution to and from the
generator and close the valve in the vapor condensate
return line. This isolates the generator from the absorber.
(4) Start the solution pump and pump the solution
into drums. The pump should shut off automatically
when the absorber is empty.
(5) Remove the plug in the solution inductor to drain
the piping below the absorber.
NOTE: The solution in the drums should be allowed
to stand for 2 or 3 days to allow the dirt to settle.
15. Cleaning absorber sight glass. The bull's-eye
sight, evaporator tank sight and absorber reflex glasses
should be carefully removed and cleaned. Cracked
glasses or those with collected foreign matter that cannot
be cleaned should be replaced. New gaskets should be
used when the glasses are reinstalled.
16. Cleaning solution strainer. The procedure for
removing and cleaning the conical solution strainer is as
follows:
(1) Remove the nuts holding the solution supply
header.
(2) Remove the nuts and bolts in the flange
connection to the solution piping.
(3) Remove the solution supply header. Figure 38
illustrates the solution supply header.
(4) Remove the bolts holding the blank flange on the
solution supply header.
(5) Carefully remove the strainer and clean it by
flushing it with water.
(6) Replace the strainer and use a new gasket under
the blank flange. Be sure that the flange faces are clean
so that the flange will seal properly when bolted back in
place. Do not replace the supply header until the spray
header has been removed and cleaned.
17. Cleaning solution spray header. If the supply
header has not been removed, proceed with
Figure 38. Solution supply header.

Figure 39. Solution sprayheader.
steps (1), (2), and (3) in the preceding paragraph. When
this has been done, remove the solution spray header,
being extremely careful that the spray nozzles do not
strike the sides of the opening. Clean it by flushing. Any
nozzles that are not clear should have the nozzle cap
removed and cleaned individually. The old gasket
material should be thoroughly removed from the spray
header and a new gasket used when it is ready for
reassembly. A solution spray header is shown in figure
39.
18. To install the spray header, slide it back through
the opening until it is 2 inches from the far end. Remove
the plug from the absorber at the end opposite to the
header opening. Insert a rod through this hole and lift the
end of the spray header so as to guide it through the last
couple of inches into its proper position. Install the
supply header, using a new gasket. Replace the plug in
the far end of the absorber.
19. Cleaning chilled water spray header. The
chilled water spray header is removed and cleaned by the
same procedure as just outlined. However, even more
care must be exercised in handling this header since it is
possible not only to damage the nozzles but, if the header
is allowed to tip, the eliminator plates may be bent. These
are thin plates like the fins in an automobile radiator
which when bent will lose their effectiveness. Clean off
the old gasket material and install a new gasket before
replacing the header on the machine. A plug must be
removed from the opposite end as before so that a guide
rod can be used on the far end of the header.
20. Cleaning primary purge connections on
absorber. Clean the primary purge connections on the
absorber by removing the plugs in the T connections at
the primary purge line and cleaning the line with a wire or
nylon brush. Only a small amount of water should be
used to wash out this area. Replace the plugs after the
cleaning operation is completed.
21. Inspection of vacuum type valves. All vacuum
type valves should have their bonnets removed and the
diaphragms checked for cracks or signs of wear which
might indicate a future failure. Following is a list of the
different vacuum type valves used in an absorption
system:
39
Purge valves
Solution valve
Manual dilution valve
Chilled water makeup valve
Vapor condensate return valve
Absorber manometer valve
Solution charging valve
Chilled water valves
22. Although proper service will cause some
diaphragms to last longer, it is considered good
maintenance practice to replace all diaphragms every 2
years. This helps to prevent a breakdown or an
interruption of service during the cooling seasons.
23. Checking generator sight glasses. The generator
overflow sight glass and the generator bull's-eye sight
glasses should be removed and cleaned. Glasses that are
damaged should be replaced. New gaskets should always
be used when the glasses are reinstalled.
24. Cleaning water seal system. The entire water
seal system should be inspected and cleaned according to
the following procedure:
(1) Open the drain connections on the bottom of the
water seal tank and drain the water.
(2) Open the petcocks on the bottom of the pump
seal chambers and drain the water from the lines and
chambers.
(3) Disconnect the water seal lines between the
water seal tank and the pump seal chambers and clean
them by reverse flushing with water. Use compressed air
to blow out the lines after flushing.
(4) Inspect and clean all the pipe connections.
(5) Clean the purge tank and flush it to remove the
loosened dirt.
(6) Reinstall the water seal lines.
25. Cleaning absorber and condenser tubes. The
absorber and condenser tubes should be cleaned at least
once a year. More frequent cleaning may be necessary as
indicated by a steady rise in vapor condensate temperature
during the season. A steady decrease in temperature of
the condensing water leaving the machine may also
indicate scaling. This condition may be further confirmed
by inspection of the thermometer well in the condenser
water line leaving the machine. The presence of scale
here is associated with scaling in the tubes. Cleaning
should be done as follows:
(1) Remove both headers from the absorber and
condenser.
(2) Inspect the tubes to determine the type of scale.
(3) Soft scale may be removed by cleaning with a
nylon bristle brush. Metal brushes of any kind which
might scratch the surface must never be used. Hard scale
which cannot be removed
with a brush will require treatment with suitable
chemicals.
26. Cleaning condensing water system. The
procedures for cleaning the condensing water system of
an absorption refrigeration system are similar to the
procedures used to clean the condensing water systems on
compression refrigeration systems.
27. Cleaning salinity indicator. The salinity
indicator should be removed and the electrodes cleaned of
accumulated deposits.
28. Vacuum Testing Machine for Leaks. After
completing the maintenance work, the machine should
next be tested for leaks according to the following
procedures.
(1) Close all valves except the vapor condensate
valve which must be left open.
(2) Start the water jet on the purge unit and open the
absorber purge valve and the evacuation valve. Operate
the purge unit until a vacuum of at least 25 inches of
mercury is read on the manometer. Record this reading.
(3) Shut down water jet and close the valves.
(4) Check the manometer vacuum 24 hours later.
The maximum allowable loss is one-tenth of an inch of
mercury in 24 hours. If the loss is within limits, then
charge the machine with solution. A machine that does
not meet the vacuum requirements must be tested for
leaks with a halide leak detector.
29. Halide Leak Detector Test. The procedures for
testing with the halide leak detector are as follows:
(1) Make sure that all valves are closed except the
vapor condensate valve.
(2) Charge the machine with Refrigerant-12 to a
pressure of 5 p.s.i.g. Use the refrigerant type charging
valve on the absorber. Read the charging pressure in the
machine on the solution pump pressure gauge.
(3) After charging with Refrigerant-12, the machine
should be further charged to 18 p.s.i.g. with nitrogen,
using the procedure previously given under Extended
shutdown.
(4) Test the machine for leaks with a halide leak
detector. Stop all the leaks that are found.
(5) Perform another vacuum test to determine that
the machine is now satisfactory.
30. Charging the Machine. After maintenance is
completed and the machine passes a satisfactory vacuum
test, the machine should be charged with solution. The
machine must be kept charged with solution at all times
except while maintenance is being done. Storage drums
used to hold the solution should be moved as little as
possible so as not to disturb dirt which
Figure 40. Solution charging.
has settled to the bottom. Figure 40 illustrates the method
of solution charging.
(1) Start the water jet on the purge unit and open the
purge valve on the absorber.
(2) Continue purging until a vacuum reading of 25
inches of mercury is obtained on the manometer. Close
the valves and shut off the jet when the vacuum is
satisfactory.
(3) Connect the hose to the solution charging valve
and place the other end of the hose into the drum of
solution. Do not let the hose touch the bottom of the
drum since this would draw up dirt that had settled there.
(4) Open the solution charging valve and allow the
solution to enter the machine.
(5) After all of the solution has been transferred into
the machine, close the solution valve in the line from the
generator and open the solution valve in the line to the
generator.
(6) Start the solution pump which will pump all the
solution up to the generator. When the pump shuts off,
close the valve in the line to the generator. This last step
is necessary because all of the solution should be stored in
the generator.
(7) If the machine is to remain out of service, then it
should be charged with nitrogen as previously outlined.
31. Troubleshooting. Troubleshooting and
correction are two of your most important duties. We
have discussed the operation and service that you perform
on absorption systems. This information, coupled with
that in tables 1-18, should give you the knowledge you
need to carry out your assigned tasks.

40
TABLE 11

TABLE 12

TABLE 13

41
TABLE 14

TABLE 15

TABLE 16

TABLE 17

TABLE 18

42
 Review Exercises
The following exercises are study aids. Write your
answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
1. While you are performing your hourly check of
the absorption system, you notice that the
condenser waterflow has dropped off and that the
system is operating at a reduced capacity. What
component should you troubleshoot and where is
the component located? (Sec. 5, Par. 2)
2. The refrigerant used in this system is
_____________________ and the absorbent is
______________. (Sec. 5, Par. 3)
3. What will occur within the system when heat is
not supplied to the generator? (Sec. 5, Par. 5)
4. (Agree)(Disagree) The heat exchanger heats the
strong solution. (Sec. 5, Par. 5)
5. During a routine inspection you find that the
supply air pressure to the chill water thermostat
is 3 p.s.i.g. What component is affected? How
does this component affect the operation of the
system? (Sec. 5, Pars. 6 and 7)
6. A 2° chilled water temperature change will cause
the branch line pressure to change
_____________ p.s.i.g. (Sec. 5, Par. 7)
43
7. What will occur if the feeler bulb of the
concentration limit thermostat is broken? (Sec.
5, Par. 8)
8. The plant operator submits the following
complaint:
(1) The chill water temperature is 57° F. (The
design temperature is 45° F.)
(2) The off-run-start switch is in the RUN
position.
(3) The solution pump is off and the last
discharge pressure reading was 36 p.s.i.g.
What has occurred within the system to cause a
shutdown? How do you restart the unit? (Sec. 5,
Pars. 9 and 10)
9. Why are the solution and chilled water pumps
equipped with mechanical seals? (Sec. 5, Par.
14)
10. (Agree)(Disagree) The float control in the
solution pump water seal tank controls makeup
water to the tank automatically. (Sec. 5, Par. 15)
11. The primary difference between daily startup and
startup after standby shutdown is that
__________________. (Sec. 6, Par. 3)
12. The evaporator pump is surging. What caused
this surging? (Sec. 7, Par. 3)
13. A solution level in the absorber of two-thirds 22. Why should you flush the seal chamber after
(Sec. 7, Par. 4) startup? (Sec. 8, Par. 4)

14. When is the solution boiling level in the 23. An increased water level in the evaporator after
generator set? (Sec. 7, Par. 5) shutdown indicates that __________________.
(Sec. 8, Par. 5)

15. What will occur when air is being handled by the

purge unit? (Sec. 7, Par. 7) 24. Why is octyl alcohol added to the solution?
(Sec. 8, Par. 7)

16. Excessive steam pressure will cause

_____________________. (Sec. 7, Par. 9)
17. Where would you connect the nitrogen tank if
the system did not have a nitrogen charging
valve? (Sec. 7, Par. 14)
25. How would you correct the following
malfunction? The octyl alcohol charging valve
is open but the alcohol is not being drawn into
the machine. What would you do if this situation
occurred frequently? (Sec. 8, Par. 8)

26. The following complaint has been received at

your shop. The steam jet purge unit on an
18. To dilute the solution for extended shutdown, absorption system is operating but is not purging
you must put the system through air that is present in the absorber. What is the
______________ dilution cycles. (Sec. 7, Par. most probable cause and how would you correct
15) it? (Sec. 8, Par. 9)

19. How can you determine whether air has leaked 27. Bottle number 2 in the solution test set contains
in the machine during shutdown? (Sec. 8, Par. 2) _______________. (Sec. 8, Par. 10)

20. Air will cause the insides of the machine to (Sec. 28. How many drops of indicator solution do you
8, Par. 2) add to the solution sample? (Sec. 8, Par. 10)

21. How do you check a mechanical pump seal for 29. The standard sample (bottle No. 3) is a
leaks? (Sec. 8, Par. 3) ________________ percent solution. (Sec. 8,
Par 11)

44
30. During an evaporator water solution test, more
silver nitrate was needed to turn the sample red
than the standard solution. What does this
indicate? How is this situation remedied? (Sec.
8, Pars. 10 and 11)
31. What determines the length of time needed to
reclaim the evaporator water? (Sec. 8, Par. 12)
32. How long does it take for the dirt in the solution
to settle out when the solution is placed in
drums? (Sec. 8, Par. 14)
33. How is the conical strainer cleaned? (Sec. 8,
Par. 16)
34. How is the purge connection on the absorber
cleaned? (Sec. 8, Par. 20)
35. (Agree)(Disagree) The diaphragm is a vacuum
type valve should be replaced yearly. (Sec. 8,
Par. 22)
45
36. The operating log shows a steady increase in
vapor condensate temperature. What
maintenance is required? (Sec. 8, Par. 25)
37. How is soft scale removed from condenser
tubes? (Sec. 8, Par. 25)
38. What is the maximum allowable vacuum loss
during a vacuum leak test? (Sec. 8, Par. 28)
39. Which refrigerant is added to the system to
perform a halide leak test? (Sec. 8, Par. 29)
40. List at least three possible causes of lithium
bromide solidification at startup. (Sec. 8, table
11)
41. How can you make sure that a seal is leaking?
(Sec. 8, table 12)
CHAPTER 3
Centrifugal Systems
FEW PEOPLE realize the importance of the refrigeration
specialist in this age of aerospace weapons systems. For
them, refrigeration has nothing to do with launching a
missile and reaching the moon. However, we know that
without control of the environment of a launch complex
the military goals of defense and space conquest would
never be achieved.
2. The centrifugal refrigeration system is often used
in such weapons systems as Titan, Bomarc, and SAGE.
In this chapter we will discuss the operation of this
system, the complete refrigeration cycle, each component
of the unit, and the general maintenance requirements.
9. Refrigeration Cycle
1. The centrifugal system uses the same general
type of compression refrigeration cycle used on other
mechanical systems. Its features are:
• A centrifugal compressor of two or more stages.
• A low-pressure refrigerant known as Refrigerant-
11. Approximately 1200 pounds of refrigerant are
required for fully charging a centrifugal machine.
2. An economizer in the liquid return from the
condenser to the evaporator acts as the expansion device.
You can compare the economizer to the high side float
(metering device) used on older model refrigerators. The
use of this piece of equipment reduces the horsepower
required per ton of refrigeration cycle. This increase in
efficiency is made possible by using a multistage
turbocompressor and piping the flash gas to the second
stage.
3. A schematic of the centrifugal cycle is shown in
figure 41. We will begin the cycle at the evaporator. The
chilled water flowing through the tubes is warmer than
the refrigerant in the shell surrounding the tubes, and heat
flows from the chilled water to the refrigerant. This heat
evaporates the refrigerant at a temperature corresponding
to the pressure in the evaporator.
4. The refrigerant vapors are drawn from the
evaporator shell into the suction inlet of the compressor.
46
The suction vapors are partially compressed by the first-
stage impeller and join the flash gas vapor coming from
the economizer at the second-stage impeller inlet. The
refrigerant gas discharged by the compressor condenses
on the outside of the condenser tubes by giving up heat
through the condenser tubes to the cooler condenser
water. The condensing temperature corresponds to the
operating pressure in the condenser.
5. The liquefied refrigerant drains from the
condenser shell down through an inside conduit into the
condenser float chamber. The rising refrigerant level in
this chamber opens the float valve and allows the liquid to
pass into the economizer chamber. The pressure in the
economizer chamber is approximately halfway between
the condensing and evaporating pressures: consequently,
enough of the warm liquid refrigerant evaporates to cool
the remainder to the lower temperature corresponding to
the lower pressure in the economizer chamber. This
evaporation takes place by rapid "flashing" into gas as the
liquid refrigerant passes through the float valve and the
conduit leading into the economizer chamber. The
flashed vapors pass through eliminator baffles and a
conduit to the suction side of the second stage of the
compressor.
6. The cooled liquid then flows into the economizer
float chamber located below the condenser float chamber.
The rising level in the economizer float chamber opens
the float valve and allows the liquid refrigerant to pass
into the bottom of the cooler. Since the evaporator
pressure is lower than the economizer pressure, some of
the liquid is evaporated (flashed) to cool the remainder to
the operating temperature of the evaporator. These
vapors pass up through the liquid refrigerant to the
compressor suction. The remaining liquid serves as a
reserve for the refrigerant continually being evaporated by
the chilled water. The cycle is thus complete.
7. Now that you understand the complete
refrigeration
 Figure 41. Centrifugal cycle.

cycle, let us study the compressor in more detail.

10. Centrifugal Compressor

Figure 42. Compressor cutaway.
1. A cutaway view of the compressor is shown in
figure 42. The easiest way to understand centrifugal
compressor operation is to think of a centrifugal fan. Like
the fan, the compressor takes in gas at the end (in line
with the shaft) and whirls it at a high speed. The high-
velocity gas leaving the impellers is converted to a
pressure greater than the inlet. At normal speed, with
R-11, the suction temperature is 65° F. below the
temperature of condensation. At maximum speed, the
compressor will produce a suction temperature of
approximately 85° F. below the condensing temperature
of R-11. Changing the speed of the compressor varies the
suction temperature.
2. The compressor casing and the various stationary
passages inside the compressor shaft are made of hard
steel with keyways provided for each impeller. The
impellers are of the built-up type. The hub disc and cover
are machined steel forgings. The blading is sheet steel
formed to curve backward with respect to the direction of
rotation and is riveted to the hubs and covers. After
assembly, the wheels are given a hot-dipped lead coating
to reduce corrosion damage. The rotor

47

Figure 43. Bearing assembly.
assembly, consisting of the shaft and impellers, runs in
two sleeve type bearings.
3. In figure 43 a thermometer is inserted in top of
each bearing cover (1) for indicating temperature. Each
bearing also has two large oil rings (2) to insure
lubrication. The upper and lower bearing liners (3) are
held in place by the upper and lower bearing retainers (4).
4. Brass labyrinths (5) between stages and at the
ends of the casing restrict the flow of gas between stages
and between the compressor casing and bearing
chambers.
5. In operation, the pressure differential across each
impeller produces an axial thrust toward the suction end
of the compressor. This thrust is supported by a
"kingsbury" thrust bearing at the suction end of the shaft.
6. Compressor Lubricating System. The entire
oiling system is housed within the compressor casing and
the oil is circulated through cored opening, drilled pages,
and fixed copper fines. This eliminates all of the usual
external lines and their danger of possible rupture,
damage, or leakage. All of the oil for the lubricating
system is circulated by a helical gear pump, shown in
figure 44, which is submerged in the oil reservoir. The
simple, positive drive insures ample oil for pressure
lubricating and cooling all journal bearings, thrust
bearings, and seal surfaces. The reservoir which houses
the oil pump is an integral part of the compressor casing
and is accessible through a cover plate on the end of the
compressor. Circulating water cooling coils are fitted to
the cover plate to maintain proper oil temperature.
7. In general, the lubricating system (shown
schematically in fig. 45) consists of the gear type oil
pump, driven from the main compressor shaft and
supplying oil through various connections and passages
for the thrust bearing, the two shaft bearings, the oil pump
worm gear drive, and for the shaft seal-with the necessary
gauges and control valves to permit the system to operate
automatically.
8. The oil pressure or feed circuits are as follows,
according to figure 45:
• When the compressor starts, the pump (1) starts
to circulate oil, which is supplied first entirely to the
thrust bearing (3).
• After passing through the thrust bearing, the
oiling system divides into two paths known as "A" circuit
and "B" circuit.
9. In the first path, the oil flows through the strainer
(29) and the proper orifices to the pump gear (2) and to
the rear shaft journal bearing (4). Since the thrust, rear
journal bearing, and worm drive for the oil pump are all
located above the oil pump chamber, the return oil merely
drops back into the pump chamber from these parts.
10. In the second path, oil flows through the check
valve (5) and filter (7) to actuate the shaft seal (8) and
supply the front shaft journal bearing (9). Since part of
the oil passes out through the front of the seal to
atmospheric pressure, various valves are required in the
supply lines as well as in the lines returning oil to the
pump chamber. The check valve (5) does not open during
compressor startup until the pump pressure reaches 8
p.s.i.g. After the valve (5) opens, the flow of oil is as
described previously. If the seal oil reservoir (6) is not
full, a small part of the oil passes through the orifice (28)
to fill the reservoir. Oil under pressure to the seal
Figure 44. Compressor oil pump.

48
 Figure 45. Compressor oil system schematic.
expands the seal bellows to move the stationary seal back
against its stop, allowing the oil to pass through the seal in
two directions: (1) inside the compressor and (2) to the
atmospheric side of the shaft seal.
11. The oil passing to the compressor (vacuum) side
of the seal flows to the front journal bearing (9), through
two small holes in the inner floating seal ring (12) -which
is located in the seal housing--to prevent unnecessary
flow of oil from the vacuum side of the seal. The bearing
overflow drops to the bottom of the bearing chamber (10),
draining back to the oil pump chamber through the proper
passage in the manifold (18).
12. The oil passing to the atmosphere is restricted by
floating rings between the stationary seal and rotating seal
hubs and between the housing cover and the rotating seal
hub. Most of it passes directly to the atmospheric float
chamber (13). The water-jacketed seal housing cover
(11) cools this oil and minimizes the refrigerant loss from
it. A small amount of oil passes the seal rings and is
returned to the atmospheric float chamber (13) through a
connection (30). From the float chamber, the oil goes
49
through the automatic oil stop valve (16), up to the
bearing chamber (10), and returns through the manifold to
the oil pump chamber along with the oil overflow from
the front bearing. Oil returns from the atmospheric float
chamber since the pressure in the bearing chamber is
always below atmospheric. This pressure, being
equalized with the compressor suction through the rear
shaft labyrinth, is always a vacuum during operation.
From the bearing chamber, the oil flows by gravity
through the manifold (18), to the oil pump chamber. The
automatic stop valve (16) is provided to prevent flow of
refrigerant vapor from the machine in case the pressure
inside the machine during shutdown rises above
atmospheric. The valve is set to open at approximately 8
pounds and is actuated by an oil pressure line taken from
the oil pump discharge and, therefore, opens immediately
after the compressor is started. Valve 16 also prevents
outside air from entering the machine when the machine
pressure is below atmospheric. This valve is necessary
because the atmospheric float valve (14) is designed for
level control only and is not a stop valve. Valve 17 is
 Figure 46. Compressor oil heater.
the oil pressure regulator. It is actuated by pressure "back
of seal" through line 15 and controls oil pressure by
returning excess oil back to the oil pump chamber.
13. Oil pressure gauges 22 and 23 on the control
panel indicate the seal oil reservoir pressure and the
pressure back of seal respectively. When the seal oil
reservoir is full, gauge 22 indicates the pressure on the
seal bellows. Gauge 23 indicates the pressure in the space
between the seal and the inner floating ring or back of
seal pressure which controls valve 17.
14. The air vent and vacuum breaker (27) admits
atmospheric pressure during shutdown to the seal oil
reservoir to maintain a head of oil on the seal. It operates
as a gravity check valve.
Figure 47. Shaft seal assembly.
50
The oil heater (31) heats the oil during shutdown to
prevent excessive absorption of refrigerant by the oil. A
flow switch located in the water supply to the oil cooler
manifold automatically turns the heater on when the water
supply is shut off by hand, and cuts the heater off when
the water is turned on. A schematic diagram of the oil
heater is shown in figure 46. The oil cooler (19) cools the
oil as it is returned to the pump chamber during operation.
Bearing thermometers 24 and 25 indicate the temperature
of the shaft bearings. Oil rings 20 and 21--also shown in
figure 45-bring additional oil from the bearing wells to
the shaft. Relief valve 26 in the oil pump discharge line
relieves any unusually high pressure that may occur
accidentally, and thus protects the system against any
damage.
15. Compressor Shaft Seal. A shaft seal is
provided where the shaft extends through the compressor
casing. The seal assembly is shown in figure 47.
16. The seal is formed between a ring, called the
rotating scaling seat which is fitted against a shoulder on
the shaft, and stationary sealing seat which is attached to
the seal housing through a flexible member or bellows
assembly. The contact faces on these seal seats are
carefully machined and ground to make a vacuum-tight
joint when in contact. A spring called the seal spring
moves the stationary seal seat into contact with the
rotating seal seat to make the proper seal when the
compressor is shut down. A floating ring is located
between the hub of the stationary sealing seat and the hub
of the rotating sealing seat. A seal oil reservoir and filter
chamber is attached to the compressor housing above the
seal to provide oil to maintain a head of oil to the seal
surfaces
 Figure 48. Diagram of compressor seal end.
during shutdown periods. The shaft seal consists of two
highly polished metal surfaces which are held tightly
together by a spring during shutdown, but are separated
by a film of oil under pressure during operation. The
positive supply of oil from the oil pump during operation
and from the seal reservoir during shutdown prevents any
inward leakage of air or outward leakage of refrigerant.
In addition, the low oil pressure safety control will
automatically stop the compressor if the oil pressure to
the seal falls below a safe minimum. Figure 48 shows a
cutaway diagram of the seal installed on the seal end of
the compressor.
17. Lubricant. A high-grade turbine oil, such as
DTE heavy medium or approved equal, is the type of oil
recommended for centrifugal compressor usage. To be
sure of specifications on grade and type of oil to use, it is
51
advisable to refer to the manufacturer's maintenance
manual.
18. If a machine is to be started for the first time or if
all the oil has been drained from the unit, the following
lubrication procedures are recommended:
• The machine pressure must be atmospheric.
• Remove the cover on the front bearing at the
coupling end of the compressor and pour 1 gallon of oil
into the front bearing level.
• Fill the seal oil pressure chamber by removing
the cover.
• Remove the cover from the rear bearing and pour
oil into the chamber until the indicated height is reached
as recommended on the pump chamber plate.
• Fill the atmospheric float chamber through
the connection on the side of the chamber until oil shows
in the sight glass.
• Pour a small amount of oil into the thrust bearing
housing by removing the strainer cap and pouring oil into
the strainer.
Under normal operating conditions, the following
lubrication procedures are recommended:
• Replace the oil filter regularly, depending on the
length of operation and the condition of the filter.
• If at any time some oil is withdrawn from the
machine, replace with new oil.
• Clean and inspect the strainer in the thrust
bearing at least once a year. Replace the complete oil
charge at least once a year.
• After shutdown periods of more than a month,
remove the bearing covers and add 1 quart of oil to each
bearing well before starting.
19. To drain the oil system, allow the machine to
warm up until the temperature is approximately 75° F.
The machine must be at atmospheric pressure. Drain the
pump chamber by removing the drain plug. Replace the
plug, then drain the atmospheric float chamber in the
same manner. By draining these two chambers,
practically all of the oil is removed. The oil left in the
bearing wells and seal reservoir is useful for keeping the
bearing in satisfactory condition and as a sealing oil.
20. CAUTIONS: To keep the machine in the best
operating condition, the following cautions must be
observed:
• The electric heater in the oil pump chamber must
be turned on during shutdown periods and must be turned
off when the cooling water is turned on.
• Do not overcharge the system with oil. The oil
level will fall as the oil is circulated through the system;
but under normal operation, the oil level will increase
approximately 7 percent in volume as the refrigerant
becomes absorbed in it. The oil level in the machine will
be approximately one-half glass.
• Oil can be added to the filling connection on the
side of the atmospheric float chamber only while the
machine is in operation and the atmospheric return valve
is open.
21. Now that you have a proper knowledge of
compressor operation, let's discuss the type of drive for
the compressor.
11. Compressor Gear Drive
1. The gear drive is a separate component mounted
between the compressor and electric motor. The gears are
speed increasers required to obtain the proper compressor
speed through the use of standard speed motors. The
gears are of the double helical type, properly balanced for
smooth operation, and pressure lubricated. The gear
52
wheel and pinion are inclosed in an oiltight case, split at
the horizontal centerline. Lubrication is from the gear
type oil pump. The unit has an oil level sight glass, a
pressure gauge, and an externally mounted oil strainer and
oil cooler. A diagram illustrating the gear parts is shown
in figure 49.
2. Lubrication. A good gear oil must be used for
the lubrication of high-speed gears. The oil must be kept
clean by filtering, and filters changed as often as possible.
The temperature of the oil should be kept within the range
of 130° F. to 180° F. Water cooling should be used
whenever necessary to keep the temperature within these
limits.
3. Type of Oil. The best grade of oil to use on a
gear depends on journal speeds, tooth speeds, and
clearances. In general, it is better to use an oil too heavy
than one too light. The gears will be somewhat warmer,
but the heavier oil will take care of higher temperature if
it is not more than a few degrees. The heavier oil is rated
at 400 to 580 seconds Saybolt viscosity at 100° F.
4. Water Cooling of Gears. The gears are water
cooled by circulating water through water jackets cast in
the ends of the gear casing or by means of either an
internal or an external oil cooler. This system is
connected to a supply of cool, clean water, at a minimum
pressure of 5 pounds. A regulating device must be
installed in the water supply line. The discharge line
should have free outlet without valves to avoid possibility
of excessive pressures on the system. Piping must be
arranged so that all the water can be drained or blown out
of the water jackets or cooler if the unit is to be subjected
to freezing temperatures.
5. Inspection. Inspect to see that both the driving
and driven machines are in line. If you are not sure that
alignment is correct, check this point with gauges. Try
out the water cooling system to see if it is functioning
properly. When starting, see that you have sufficient oil
in the gear casing and that the oil pump gives required
pressure (4 to 8 pounds). When the temperature of the oil
in the casing reaches 100° F. to 110° F., turn on the water
cooling system. Add sufficient oil from time to time in
order to maintain the proper oil level. Never allow the
gear wheel to dip into the oil.
6. Regular cleaning of the lubrication system and
tests of the lubricant are essential. Clean the strainer at
least once a week and more often if necessary. The
manufacturer recommends that the gear case should be
drained and be completely cleaned out every 2 to 3
months. Refill with new filtered oil. Between oil
changes, samples of oil
 Figure 49. Gear drive components.
should be drawn off and the oil checked. If water is
present, the water should be drawn off. If there is a
considerable amount of water in the oil, remove all oil
and separate the water from the oil before it is used again.
7. Repair. All working parts of the gear drive are
easily accessible for inspection and repair except the oil
pump. If you should have to dismantle the gears, you
must take precautions to prevent any damage to gear
teeth. The slightest bruise will result in noisy operation.
When the gears are removed, place them on a clean cloth
placed on a board and block them so that they cannot roll
off. Cover the gears with a cloth to protect them from
dust and dirt.
53
8. Bearing shells, oil slingers, etc., are marked and
should be returned to their proper places. Gaskets are
used between the oil pump bracket and oil pump and
under handhole covers. All parts must be clean before
reassembly. Make sure that no metal burrs or cloth lint is
present on any part of the unit. Coat faces of flanges with
shellac before bolting them together. A thin coat of
shellac on the bearing supports will prevent oil leaks at
these points. Before final replacement of the cover, make
a careful inspection to see that all parts are properly
placed and secured.
9. Worn bearings must be replaced immediately
because they will cause the gears to wear. Bearings are
interchangeable, and when new bearings
are installed the gears are restored to their original center
distance and alignment. It is not recommended to
rebabbit bearings, for the heat required to rebabbit the
bearings will cause some distortion of the bearing shell.
Do not renew or scrape one bearing alone, but always
renew or scrape in pairs; this will help eliminate tooth
misalignment. Do not adjust bearing clearances by
planing the joint, thereby bringing the halves closer
together, since trouble will result.
10. The oil pump is a geared type. During assembly,
care must be taken to see that the paper gasket between
the pump body and bracket is of the proper thickness. A
gasket that is too thick will reduce the capacity and cause
failure in oil pressure, while a too thin gasket will cause
an excessive load to be thrown on the gears, resulting in
wear and destruction of the gears. Writing paper makes a
good gasket when shellacked in place. Never use a
rubber gasket on any oil joint. "Cinch" fittings are used
on all pipes connected to the oil pump bracket; use this
type on all replacements. Threaded fittings may cause the
bracket to be pulled out of line, causing noisy operation
and wear on gears. Couplings should not be driven on or
off the gear or pinion shafts, since hammering is liable to
injure both surfaces. Provisions have been made for using
a jacking device for putting on or removing couplings
from shafts.
11. Gear tooth contact and wear should be uniformly
distributed over the entire length of both gear and pinion
helixes. If heavier wear is noted on any portion of the
helixes or any part of the tooth face, it may indicate
improper setting of the gear casing, misalignment of
connecting shafts, vibration, excessive or irregular wear
on the bearings, or poor lubricant. Should gear teeth
become damaged during inspection or operation, remove
burrs by use of a fine file or oil stone. Never use these
tools to correct the tooth contour. Misalignment, poor
lubrication, and vibration can cause pitting of tooth
surfaces or flaking of metal in certain areas of the gear. If
this happens, check alignment and remove all steel
particles. Check the manufacturer's maintenance manual
for specific maintenance procedures and instructions.
12. You now understand the drive system for the
compressor, but we must learn how the drive is coupled to
the motor and the compressor.
12. Couplings
1. The couplings used to connect the motor to the
speed-increasing gears and from the gears to the
compressors are self-alining coupling. They are of the
flexible geared type, consisting of two externally geared
hubs that are pressed on and
54
Figure 50. Mounting coupling on shaft.
geared to the shaft. These hubs are inclosed by a two-
piece externally geared floating cover which functions as
a single unit when the halves are bolted together. The
cover is supported on the hub teeth during operation. A
spacer or spool piece is used with the cover for the
compressor coupling. The hub teeth and cover teeth are
engaged around the complete circumference, and the
cover and shafts revolve as one unit. The cover and each
shaft is free to move independently of each other within
the limits of the coupling, thus providing for reasonable
angular and parallel misalignment as well as end float.
The amount of misalignment that the coupling will handle
without excessive stressing varies with the size of the
coupling. In all cases, the coupling should be treated as a
joint that will take care of only small misalignments.
2. Installation and Alignment Procedures or
Coupling. Figure 50 illustrates the method used to mount
each half coupling on the shaft. In reference to figure 50,
place the sleeve over the shaft end and lubricate the
surface of the shaft. Expand the hub with heat, using hot
oil, steam, or open flame. When using a flame, do not
apply the flame to the hub teeth. Use two long bolts in
the puller holes to handle the war coupling. Locate the
hub on the shaft with the face of the hub flush with the
shaft end. Install the key with a tight fit on the sides and a
slight clearance between the top of the key and the hub.
3. Check the angular alignment, as shown in figures
51 and 52. For normal hub separation, as shown in figure
51, use a feeler gauge at five points 90° apart. Recheck
the angular alignment as discussed above. Figure 53
shows how to check the offset alignment by the sight
method. Figure 54 illustrates the method for checking
alignment by the instrument method. This method
 Figure 51. Checking angular alignment
(normal separation).
is recommended by the manufacturer. Fasten or clamp
the indicator bracket on one hub with the dial indicator
button contacting the alignment surface of the opposite
hub. Rotate the shaft on which the indicator is attached to
the hub, and take readings at four point, 90° apart. Move
either machine until readings are identical. Reverse the
indicator to the opposite hub and check. Recheck the
angular alignment as discussed before.
4. Figure 55 illustrates the method for checking
offset alignment with wide hub separation. Use the dial
indicator as discussed in checking offset alignment by the
instrument method, then check the angular alignment as
discussed before.
5. In checking for angular and offset alignment
Figure 52. Checking angular alignment
(wide separation).
55
Figure 53. Checking offset alignment (sight method).
on the floating shaft arrangement, it is possible to correct
both angular and offset misalignment in one operation. In
reference to figure 56, position units to be coupled with
the correct shaft separation. Install and assemble the
coupling. Clamp the indicator bar to the flange of one
coupling with the indicator button resting on the floating
shaft approximately 12 inches from the teeth centerline of
this coupling. Rotate the units, taking readings at four
points, 90° apart. Move either machine until the readings
are identical.
6. After checking and setting the offset and angular
alignment, insert the gasket as shown in figure 57.
Inspect to insure the gasket is not torn or damaged. Clean
the coupling flanges and insert the gasket between the
flanges, making sure to position the O-ring in the groove.
Figure 58
Figure 54. Checking offset alignment
(instrument method).

Figure 55. Checking offset alignment
(wide hub separation).
illustrates the method of positioning gaskets between each
set of flanges for spacer and floating shaft type coupling.
Assemble the coupling as shown in figure 59. Keep the
bolt holes in both flanges and gasket in line. Insert the
body fitting bolts and nuts and tighten the bolts and nuts
with wrenches no larger than the one furnished with the
coupling until the flanges are drawn together. Using an
oversize wrench on the heads of nuts and bolts may round
their heads or strip the threads.
7. Lubricate the coupling as illustrated in figure 60.
Remove both lubricating plugs and apply the quantity and
type of lubricant as specified by the manufacturer's
instruction data sheet. If grease is used, positioning of the
lubrication holes is not necessary. When a fluid lubricant
is used, it is recommended that the lubricating holes be
positioned approximately 45° from the vertical to prevent
loss of lubricant. A good oil lubricant no lighter than 150
seconds Saybolt Universal (SSU)
Figure 56. Checking angular and offset alignment.
56
Figure 57. Gasket insert.
or heavier than 1000 SSU at 210° F. can be used. Before
replacing the lubrication plugs, check the copper ring
gaskets to make sure they are in position and are
undamaged. Tighten plugs with the wrench furnished
with coupling as shown in figure 61.
8. The coupling must be well lubricated at all
times. The couplings that use oil collector rings in the
end of the cover can be lubricated while stopped or
running. The compressor should not be started until the
coupling has been checked for proper amount of oil. Oil
will overflow the oiling ring with the coupling at rest
when enough oil has been added. Other types of
couplings may have sleeves attached by a gasket to the
hubs with no oiling ring. The manufacturer will give
specifications as to the amount of oil required to fill this
unit. Unless a large amount of oil is lost from the
gasketed type, it is only necessary to check the amount of
oil in the coupling twice a
Figure 58. Insertion of both gaskets.
 Figure 59. Assembling the coupling.
year by draining and refilling with the correct amount.
9. Check of Coupling Alignment on Operating
Machine. In checking the alignment of an operating
centrifugal unit, proceed as follows: Make sure the
machine has operated long enough to bring the
compressor gear and motor up to operating temperatures.
Then stop the machine and disconnect both couplings,
and with straightedge and feelers check the hubs. Check
the compressor coupling for parallelism, vertically and
horizontally, noticing how much it will be necessary to
move the gear, vertically or horizontally, to bring the
coupling within 0.002 inch tolerance for alignment. Then
check the coupling for angularity by use of feelers to
insure that the faces of the hubs are spaced equally apart
at the top and bottom. To secure this alignment for
angularity, it is necessary to shift the gear at one end
either
Figure 60. Coupling lubrication.
57
Figure 61. Tightening the coupling plug.
vertically or horizontally. Caution must be used so that
the parallel alignment is not disturbed. Recheck the
parallel alignment to make sure that it is within its
tolerance. After the coupling has been aligned, assemble
the coupling. Now that we have reassembled the
coupling, we shall study the drive motor and controls.
13. Drive Motor and Controls
1. The motor furnished with a centrifugal machine
is an a.c. electric motor, three-phase, 60 cycle. The motor
will be a general-purpose type with a normal starting
torque, adjustable speed wound rotor and sleeve bearings.
For wound rotor motors, the controller consists of three
component parts:
• Primary circuit breaker panel
• Secondary drum control panel
• Secondary resistor grids
2. The primary circuit breaker is the main starting
device used to connect the motor to the power supply.
Air breakers are supplied for the lower voltages and oil
breakers for 1000 volts. This breaker is a part of the
control for the motor and should be preceded by an
isolating switch. The breaker provides line protection
(short circuit and ground fault) according to the rating of
the size of breaker and is equipped with thermal over-load
relays for motor running protection set at 115 percent of
motor rating. Undervoltage protection and line ammeter
also form a part of the primary panel.
3. The secondary drum control is used to adjust the
amount of resistance in the slipring circuit of the motor
and is used to accelerate and regulate the speed of the
motor. A resistor, which is an energy dissipating unit, is
used with the drum to provide speed regulation. The
maximum amount
 Figure 62. Cross section of the condenser.
of energy turned into heat in the resistor amounts to 15
percent of the motor rating. In mounting the resistor,
allow for free air circulation by clearance on all sides and
at the top.
4. Manual starting of the machine at the motor
location assures you complete supervision of the unit.
Interlocking wiring connections between drum controller
and circuit breaker makes it necessary to return the drum
to full low-speed position (all resistance in) before the
breaker can be closed. The oil pressure switch is
bypassed when holding the start button closed. Releasing
the start button before the oil pressure switch closes will
cause the breaker to trip out-hence a false start. Very
large size air breakers are electrically operated but
manually controlled by start-stop pushbuttons on the
panel. The drum controller lever must always be moved
to the OFF position before pressing the start button.
58
5. The motor, controlled by various automatic and
manual controls propels the compressor. The compressor
in turn pumps the refrigerant through the system's
condenser, cooler, and economizer.
14. Condenser, Cooler, and Economizer
1. The condenser is a shell and tube type similar in
construction to the cooler. The primary function of the
condenser is to receive the hot refrigerant gas from the
compressor and condense it to a liquid. A secondary
function of the condenser is to collect and concentrate
noncondensable gases so that they may be removed by the
purge recovery system. The top portion of the condenser
is baffled, as shown in figure 62. This baffle incloses a
portion of the first water pass. The noncondensables rise
to the top portion of the condenser because they are
lighter than
 Figure 63. Condenser diagram.
refrigerant vapors and because it is the coolest portion of
the condenser.
2. A perforated baffle or distribution plate, as
shown in figure 62, is installed along the tube bundle to
prevent direct impact of the compressor discharge on the
tubes. The baffle also serves to distribute the gas
throughout the length of the condenser. The condensed
refrigerant leaves the condenser through a bottom
connection at one end and flows it the condenser float trap
chamber into the economizer chamber. The water boxes
of all condensers are designed for a maximum working
pressure of 200 p.s.i.g. The water box, item 1 in figure
63, is provided with the necessary division plates to give
the required flow. Water box covers, items 2 and 3 in
figure 63, may be removed without disturbing any
refrigerant joint since the tube sheets are welded into the
condenser and flange. Vent and drain openings are
provided in the water circuit. The condenser is connected
to the compressor and the cooler shell with expansion
joints to allow for differences in expansion between them.
Figure 63 is a side view of the condenser.
3. Condenser. The following procedures should be
followed in cleaning condenser tubes:
(1) Shut off the main line inlet and outlet valves.
(2) Drain water from condenser through the water
box drain valve. Open the vent cock in the gauge line or
remove the gauge to help draining.
(3) Remove all nuts from the water box covers,
leaving two on loosely for safety.
(4) Using special threaded jacking bolts, force the
cover away from the flanges. As soon as the covers are
loose from the gaskets, secure a rope to the rigging bolt in
the cover and suspend from overhead. Remove the last
two nuts and place on the floor.
59
(5) Scrape both the cover and the matching flange
free of any gasket material, items 4, 5, and 6 in figure 63.
(6) Remove the water box division plate by sliding it
out from its grooves. Caution should be used in removing
this plate; it is made of cast iron. Penetrating oil may be
used to help remove the plate.
(7) Use a nylon brush or equal type on the end of a
long rod. Clean each tube with a scrubbing motion and
flush each tube after the brushing has been completed.
CAUTION: Do not permit tubes to be exposed to air
long enough to dry before cleaning since dry sludge is
more difficult to remove.
(8) Replace the division plate after first shellacking
the required round rubber gasket in the two grooves.
(9) Replace the water box covers after first putting
graphite on both sides of each gasket, since this prevents
sticking of the gaskets to the flanges. CAUTION: Care
must be taken with the water box cover on the water box
end to see that the division plate matches up the rib to the
flanges.
(10) Tighten all nuts evenly.
(11) Close the drain and gauge cock.
(12) Open the main line water valve and fill the tubes
with water. Operate the pump, if possible, to check for
leaktight joints.
4. Cooler. The cooler is of horizontal shell and tube
construction with fixed tube sheets. The shell is low
carbon steel plate rolled to shape and electrically welded.
The cooler and condenser both have corrosion-resistant
cast iron water boxes. They are designed to permit
complete inspection without breaking the main pipe
joints. Full-size separate cover plates give access to all
tubes for easy cleaning. The cooler water boxes are
designed for maximum 200 pounds working pressure.
They are provided with cast iron division plates
 Figure 64. Cross section of cooler.
to give the required water pass flow. Both the cooler and
condenser have tube sheets of cupro-nickel, welded to the
shell flange. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion.
5. The tubes in the cooler are copper tubes with an
extended surface. The belled ends are rolled into
concentric grooves in the holes of the tube sheets. Tube
ends are rolled into the tube sheets and expanded into
internal support sheets. The normal refrigerant charge in
the cooler covers only about 50 percent of the tube
bundle. However, during operation, the violent boiling of
the refrigerant usually covers the tube bundle. The cooler
is equipped with multibend, nonferrous eliminator plates
above the tube bundle which remove the liquid droplets
from the vapor stream and prevent carryover of liquid
refrigerant particles into the compressor suction.
Inspection covers are provided in the ends of the cooler to
permit access to the eliminators. Figure 64 is a cross-
section diagram of the cooler.
60
6. A rupture valve with a 15-pound bunting disc is
provided on the cooler, and a 15-p.s.i.g. pop safety valve
is screwed into a flange above the rupture disc. These
items are strictly for safety, because it is highly
improbable that a pressure greater than 5 to 8 p.s.i.g. will
ever be attained without purposely blocking off the
compressor suction opening.
7. An expansion thermometer indicates the
temperature of the refrigerant within the cooler during
operation. A sight glass is provided to observe the
charging and operating refrigerant level. A charging
valve with connections is located on the side of the cooler
for adding or removing refrigerant. The connection is
piped to the bottom of the cooler so that complete
drainage of refrigerant is possible. A refrigerant drain to
the atmosphere is also located near the charging
connection and expansion thermometer.
8. A small chamber is welded to the cooler shell at
a point opposite the economizer and above
the tube bundle. A continuous supply of liquid from the
condenser float chamber is brought to the expansion
chamber while the machine is running. The bulb of the
refrigerant thermometer and the refrigerant safety
thermostat bulb are inserted in this expansion chamber for
measuring refrigerant temperature.
9. Cleaning. Depending on local operating
conditions, the tubes of the evaporator should be cleaned
at least once a year. Cleaning schedules should be
outlined in the standard operating procedures. You will
be required to make frequent checks of the chilled water
temperatures in the evaporator. If these temperature
readings at full load operation begin to vary from the
designed temperatures, fouling of the tube surfaces is
beginning. Cleaning is required if leaving chilled water
temperature cannot be maintained.
10. Repair. Retubing is about the only major repair
that is done on the evaporator (cooler). This work should
be done by a manufacturer's representative.
11. Cooler and Condenser Checkpoints. You
must check the cooler and condenser for proper
refrigerant level and make sure that the tubes in the cooler
and condenser are in efficient operating condition. The
correct refrigerant charging level is indicated by a cross
wire on the sight glass. The machine must be shut down
to get an accurate reading on the sight glass. For efficient
operation, the refrigerant level must not be lower than
one-half of an inch below the cross wire; a refrigerant
level above this reference line indicates an over-charge.
Overcharging is caused by the addition of too much
refrigerant. When this condition exists, the overcharged
refrigerant must be removed.
12. If the machine has been in operation for long
periods of time, the refrigerant level will drop due to
refrigerant loss. When this condition exists, additional
refrigerant must be added to the system to bring the
refrigerant level up to its proper height as indicated on the
cross wire. Observe all cautions and do not overcharge
the cooler.
13. A method of determining if the tube bundle of
either the cooler or condenser is operating efficiently is to
observe the relation between the change in temperature of
the condenser water or brine and the refrigerant
temperature. In most cases, the brine or condenser
waterflow is held constant. Under such conditions, the
temperature change of chilled and condenser water is a
direct indication of the load. As the load increases, the
temperature difference between the leaving chilled water
or condenser cooling water and the refrigerant increases.
A close check should be made of the temperature
differences at full load when the machine is first operated,
and a comparison made from time to time during
61
operation. During constant operation over long periods of
time, the cooler and condenser tubes may become dirty or
scaled and the temperature difference between leaving
water or brine will increase. If the increase in
temperature is approximately 2° or 3° at full load, the
tubes should be cleaned.
14. Read the condenser pressure gauge when taking
readings of the temperature difference between leaving
condenser water and condensing temperature. Before
taking readings, make sure the condenser is completely
free of air. The purge unit should be operated for at least
24 hours before readings are taken.
15. Economizer. A complete explanation of the
function of the economizer was given under the
refrigeration cycle. The economizer is located in the
cooler shell at the opposite end from the compressor
suction connection and above the tube bundle.
16. The economizer is a chamber with the necessary
passages and float valves, connected by an internal
conduit passing longitudinally through the cooler gas
space to the compressor second-stage inlet. This
connection maintains a pressure in the economizer
chamber that is intermediate (about 0 p.s.i.g.) between the
cooler and condenser pressures and carries away the
vapors generated in the chamber. Before entering the
conduit, the economizer vapors pass through eliminator
baffles to extract any free liquid refrigerant and drain it
back into the chamber. (Item 9 of fig. 64 is a front view
of the economizer chamber.)
17. There are two floats in separate chambers on the
front end of the economizer. The top or condenser float
valve keeps the condenser drained of refrigerant and
admits the refrigerant from the condenser into the
economizer chamber. The bottom, or economizer, float
valve returns the liquid to the cooler.
18. This system is also equipped with another fine
feature to assure smoother operation. Let's discuss the hot
gas bypass system.
15. Hot Gas Bypass
1. The automatic hot gas bypass is used to prevent
the compressor from surging at low loads. In case of low
load conditions, hot gas is bypassed directly from the
condenser through the cooler to the suction side of the
compressor. The hot gas supplements the small volume
of gas that is being evaporated in the evaporator due to
low load conditions. Surging generally occurs at light
load, and the actual surge point will vary with different
compressors. In most instances, it usually develops at
some point well below 50 percent capacity. If the leaving
chilled water is held at a constant

Figure 65. Hot gas bypass.
temperature, the returning chilled water temperature
becomes an indication of the load. This temperature is
used to control the hot gas bypass. A thermostat, set in
the returning chilled water, operates to bleed air off the
branch line serving the hot gas bypass valve. The
thermostat is set to start opening the bypass valve slightly
before the compressor hits its surge point. Figure 65
illustrates components and location of the hot gas bypass
line.
2. A liquid line injection system is provided in the
hot gas bypass system to desuperheat the gas by
vaporization in the bypass line before it enters the
compressor suction. If the gas is not desuperheated, the
compressor will overheat. The automatic liquid injection
system components consist of a pair of flanges in the hot
gas line, an orifice, a liquid line from the condenser to one
of the flanges, and a liquid line strainer with two shutoff
valves.
3. The automatic valve shown in figure 65 is
normally closed. When this valve is closed, there is no
flow of gas through the orifice. The pressure at point M,
just below the orifice, is the same as the condenser
pressure; therefore, no liquid will flow through the liquid
line. When the occasion arises for the need of hot gas, the
valve is opened automatically and a pressure drop will
exist across the orifice. The amount of pressure drop is a
direct function in determining the rate of gasflow through
the orifice. The larger the flow of hot gas through the
bypass and orifice, the lower the pressure at point M will
become in relation to the condenser pressure, and the
greater will be the pressure differential to force
desuperheating liquid through the liquid line. As the
amount of hot bypass gas is increased or decreased by the
opening or closing of the valve, the amount of
62
desuperheating liquid forced through the liquid line is
automatically increased or decreased.
4. The two shutoff valves in the liquid line are
normally left wide open and are closed only to service the
liquid line components. The special flange (located near
the orifice) is installed at a slightly higher level than the
surface of the liquid lying in the bottom of the condenser.
When no hot gas is flowing through the bypass, no
unbalance will exist in the liquid line. Therefore, the
liquid will not flow and collect in the gas pipe above the
automatic valve. This prevents the danger of getting a
“slug” of liquid through the hot gas bypass line whenever
the valve is opened. It also provides a means of
distributing the liquid into the hot gas stream as evenly
and as finely as possible. The flange is constructed with a
deep concentric groove in one face for even distribution
of the liquid.
5. How are undesirables such as water and air
expelled from this system? The purge unit will do this
important task for us.
16. Purge Unit
1. The presence of even a small amount of water in
a refrigeration system must be avoided at all times;
otherwise excessive corrosion of various parts of the
system may occur. Any appreciable amount of water is
caused by a leak from one of the water circuits. Since the
pressure within a portion of the centrifugal refrigeration
system is less than atmospheric, the possibility exists that
air may enter the system. Since air contains water vapor;
a small amount of water will enter whenever air enters.
2. The function of the purge system is to remove
water vapor and air from the refrigeration system and to
recover refrigerant vapors which are mixed with these
gases. The air is automatically purged to the atmosphere.
The refrigerant is condensed and automatically returned
to the cooler as a liquid. Water, if present, is trapped in a
compartment of the purge separator unit from which it
can be drained manually. Thus the purge and recovery
system maintains the highest possible refrigerating
efficiency.
3. Components. The following discussion of the
component items of the purge system is referenced to
figure 66.
• Stop valve--on main condenser, item 1. This
valve is always open except during repairs.
• Pressure-reducing valve--in suction line, item 2,
to regulate the compressor suction pressure.
• Stop valve--in suction line, item 3, located in the
end of the purge unit casing. This valve is to be open
when the purge unit is in operation and closed at all other
times.
• Pressure gauge--this gauge, item 4, indicates
Figure 66. Purge unit schematic.

63
the pressure on the oil reservoir. NOTE: Before adding
oil, at item 23, be sure the pressure is at zero.
• Compressor, item 5--to be operated continuously
when the centrifugal compressor is operating, and before
starting the machine as required by the presence of air.
• High-pressure cutout switch, item 7--connected
to the compressor discharge. Adjusted to stop the
compressor if the purge condenser pressure increases to
about 110 p.s.i.g. because of some abnormal condition.
The switch closes again automatically on the reduction of
pressure to about 75 p.s.i.g.
• Auxiliary oil reservoir, item 8--this reservoir
serves as a chamber to relieve the refrigerant from the
compressor crankcase and also to contain extra oil for the
compressor. The refrigerant vapor, which flashes from
the compressor crankcase, passes up through the reservoir
and into the compressor suction line. The free space
above the oil level separates the oil from the refrigerant
vapor before the vapor goes into the suction side of the
purge compressor. The oil storage capacity of the
reservoir is slightly larger than the operating charge of oil
required by the compressor.
• Sight glass, item 9--for oil level in the
compressor and auxiliary oil reservoir, located in front of
casing.
• Compressor discharge line, item 10.
• Condenser, item 11--cooled by air from a fan on
compressor motor. It liquefies most of the refrigerant and
water vapor contained in the mixture delivered by the
compressor.
• Evacuator chamber, item 12--for separation of
air, refrigerant, and water. Chamber can be easily taken
apart for inspection and repairs.
• Baffle, item 13--allows the condensate to settle
and air to separate for purging. This is the delivery point
for the mixture of air, water (if any), and liquid refrigerant
from condenser.
• Weir and trap, item 14--located in the center of
evacuation chamber. Since the water is lighter than liquid
refrigerant the water is trapped above the liquid
refrigerant in the upper compartment. Only refrigerant
liquid can pass to the lower compartment.
• Float valve, item 15--a high-pressure float valve,
opening when the liquid level rises, allows the gas
pressure to force the liquid refrigerant into the
economizer.
• Equalizer tube, item 16--to equalize the vapor
pressure between the upper and lower compartments.
• Two sight glasses, items 17 and 17A--on lower
liquid compartment, visible at the end of the casing.
These glasses show refrigerant level in the separator.
• Sight glass, item 18--on upper compartment to
indicate the presence of water.
64
• Stop valve at the end of casing, item 19--permits
water to be drained from the upper compartment. The
valve is marked "Water Drain" and is closed except when
draining water.
• Automatic relief valve, item 20--to purge air to
the atmosphere.
• Stop valve marked “Refrigerant Return" in the
return liquid refrigerant line, item 21-located at the end of
the casing. Open only when purge is operating.
• Stop valve, item 22--on economizer in the return
refrigerant connection. Open at all times except when
machine is shut down for a long period or being tested.
• Plug in oil filling connection of reservoir, item
23--pressure in the system must be balanced with the
atmospheric pressure to add oil through this fitting.
• Cap, item 24--or draining oil from the
compressor crankcase and oil reservoir. Oil may also be
added through this connection (not shown in fig. 66) if (1)
a packless refrigerant valve is installed in place of cap at
the connection and (2) the purge compressor is operated
in a vacuum.
• Connections between auxiliary reservoir and
compressor crankcase, item 25.
• Motor and belt--not shown in figure 66.
• Wiring diagram inside the casing.
• Casing that completely incloses the purge
recovery unit and is removable to provide a means to
work on components.
• Plugged tee after pressure-reducing valve on line
from condenser, item 26.
• Capped tee on line leading to cooler, item 27.
• Temporary connector pipe from water drain from
separator to liquid refrigerant line to cooler, item 28.
4. Purge Recovery Operation. The purge
recovery operation is automatic once the purge switch is
turned on and the four valves listed below and referred to
in figure 66 are opened:
(1) Stop valve on main condenser
(2) Stop valve in suction line
(3) Stop valve in the return liquid refrigerant line
(4) Stop valve on economizer in return refrigerant
connection
5. If there should be an air leakage in the system,
operation of the purge unit will remove this air. It is
recommended that you stop the purge unit at intervals and
shut off valves (1) an (4) listed above to check for leaks in
the system. A tight machine will not collect air no matter
how long the purge unit is shut off. Presence of air in the
system is shown by an increase in head
 Figure 67. Suction and relief pressure.
pressure in the condenser. The pressure can develop
suddenly or gradually during machine operation. By
checking the difference between leaving condenser water
temperature and the temperature on the condenser gauge,
you can determine the presence of air. A sudden increase
between these temperatures may be caused by air. In
some instances, a sudden increase in cooler pressure over
the pressure corresponding to cooler temperatures during
operation may be caused by air leakage.
6. Small air leakages are very difficult to
determine. It may take one or more days to detect an air
leakage in the machine. A leak that shows up
immediately or within a few hours is large and must be
found and repaired immediately. Air pressure built up in
the condenser is released to the atmosphere by the purge
air relief valve. Excessive air leakage into the machine
will cause the relief valve to pop off continuously,
resulting in a large amount of refrigerant discharged to the
atmosphere.
7. Refrigerant loss depends on operational
conditions; therefore, these conditions have a determining
effect on the amount of refrigerant lost. You should
maintain a careful log on refrigerant charged and the
shutdown level in the cooler. In this manner, you can
determine the time a leak develops and the amount of
refrigerant lost, find the cause, and correct the trouble.
8. Moisture removal by the purge recovery unit is
just as important as air removal. The moisture may enter
the machine by humidity in the air that can leak into the
machine or by a brine or water leak in the cooler or
condenser. If there are no water leaks, the amount of
water collected by the purge unit will be small (1 ounce
per day) under normal operating conditions. If large
amounts of water are collected by the purge unit (one-half
pint per day), the machine must be checked for leaky
tubes. Water can be removed more rapidly when the
machine is stopped than when operating. If the machine
is collecting a large amount of moisture. It is advisable to
65
run the purge unit a short time after the machine is
stopped and before it is started. Running the purge unit
before the machine is started will help to reduce purging
time after the machine is started.
9. The pressure-reducing valve (2), shown in figure
66, is adjusted to produce a suction pressure on the purge
recovery unit and will not allow condensation in the
suction line. If condensation does occur, the condensate
will collect in the crankcase of the purge unit compressor,
causing a foaming and excessive oil loss. The table in
figure 67 can be used as a guide for setting the pressure-
reducing valve. If the pressure-reducing valve is wide
open, there will be a pressure drop of a few pounds across
the valve and the suction pressure cannot be adjusted
higher than a few pounds below the machine condensing
pressure.
10. Purge Unit Maintenance. After repairs or
before charging, it is necessary to remove large quantities
of air from the machine. This can be done by discharging
the air from the water removal valve (item 19, fig. 66).
Caution must be observed in the removal of air, since
there is some danger of refrigerant being discharged with
the air and being wasted to atmosphere.
11. If the normal delivery of refrigerant is
interrupted, it is usually caused by the stop valve (item 21,
fig. 66) being closed or because the float valve is not
operating. This malfunction is indicated by a liquid rise
in the upper sight glass. Immediate action must be taken
to correct this trouble. If the liquid is not visible in the
lower glass, the float valve is failing to close properly.
12. Water or moisture in the system will collect on
the top of the refrigerant in the evacuation chamber. If
any water does collect, it can be seen through the upper
sight glass and should be drained. In most normal
operating machines, the water collection is small; but if a
large amount of water collects quite regularly, a leak in
the condenser or cooler has most likely occurred and must
be located and corrected immediately.
 Figure 68. Control panel electrical diagram.
13. The purge unit compressor and centrifugal
compressor use the same type and grade of oil. Oil can be
added to purge the compressor by closing stop valves
(items 3 and 21, fig. 66), removing plug (23) in the top of
the oil sight glass, and adding oil. Oil can be drained by
removing the oil plug (24, fig. 66). The oil level can be
checked by a showing of oil at any point in the oil sight
glass while the compressor is running or shut down. The
level of oil will fluctuate accordingly. The oil level
should be checked daily.
14. Other components that must be closely checked
in the purge recovery unit are as follows:
• Belt tension.
• Relief valve for rightness when closed to prevent
loss of refrigerant.
• Condenser clean and free from air obstruction
• High-pressure cutout which shuts down if
condenser pressure reaches 110 pounds.
15. CAUTION: The high-pressure cutout remakes
contact automatically to startoff the purge recovery unit
on 75 pounds. Single-phase motors have a built-in
thermal overload to stop the motor on overload. It
automatically resets itself to start the motor in a few
minutes.
16. The system is running and purged. Let us now
study our safety controls:
66
17. Safety Controls
1. Safety controls are provided to stop the
centrifugal machine under any hazardous condition.
Figure 68 illustrates the electrical wiring diagram. All the
controls are mounted on a control panel. The safety
controls are as follows:
• Low water temperature cutout
• High condenser pressure cutout
• Low refrigerant temperature cutout
• Low oil pressure cutout
2. All of the safety controls except the low oil
pressure cutout are manual reset instruments. Each safety
instrument operates a relay switch which has one
normally open and one normally closed contactor. When
a safety instrument is in the safe position, the
corresponding relay is energized and the current is passed
through the closed contactor to a pilot light which lights
to indicate a safe operating condition. Should an unsafe
condition exist, a safety control will deenergize the
corresponding relay and the normally open contactor will
open to deenergize the pilot light; the normally closed
contactor will then close to energize the circuit breaker
trip circuit.
When the circuit breaker trip circuit is energized, the
circuit breaker trips open and stops the compressor motor.
The pilot light will not go back on until a safe operating
condition exists and the safety cutout has been manually
reset. The oil safety switch operates somewhat
differently. Since the oil pressure is not up to design
conditions until the compressor comes up to speed, the
relay for the oil pressure switch must be bypassed when
the machine is started. The relay for the oil safety switch
is bypassed by a time-delay relay, which keeps the trip
circuit open until the compressor is up to speed. After a
predetermined time interval, the time-delay relay closes
the trip circuit at the circuit breaker and the oil safety
switch serves its function. If the oil pressure does not
build up before the time-delay relay closes, the trip circuit
will be energized and the machine will stop.
3. The low oil pressure cuts out at 6 pounds and in
at 12 pounds. The high condenser pressure cuts out at 15
pounds and in at 8 pounds. The low refrigerant and
temperature cutout is set after operation in accordance to
the job requirement. Generally, these controls should be
set to cut out at 32° F. and to cut in at approximately 35°
F. The low water temperature cutout should be set to cut
out at 38° F. and to cut in at 43° F.
4. There are other safety controls built into the
circuit breaker which are not part of the control panel, and
reference should be made to the circuit breaker operating
instructions for details of these controls. Such items as
overload protection and undervoltage protection will be
covered therein.
5. In addition to the pilot lights mentioned, a pilot
light for the purge high-pressure cutout is on the safety
control panel. The high-pressure cutout, which serves to
protect the purge recovery compressor from high head
pressure, is located in the purge recovery unit. When the
high-pressure cutout functions on high head pressure, the
pilot light on the control panel is lighted.
6. One or more machines at each installation are
provided with two sets of starting equipment. One set is
an operating controller and the other a standby controller.
In order that the machine safety controls can operate the
controlling breaker, a rotary selector switch is provided
on the safety control panel. By means of the rotary
selector switch, the machine safety controls can operate
either of the controlling circuit breakers. Safety controls
are used for safe operation of the system, but operating
controls affect the capacity.
67
18. Operating Controls
1. The three methods of controlling the capacity
output of a centrifugal machine are listed below:
• Controlling the speed of the compressor
• Throttling the suction of the compressor
• Increasing the discharge pressure of the
compressor.
2. The three methods given are listed in order of
their efficiency. At partial loads, the power requirements
will be least if the compressor speed is reduced, not quite
as low if the suction is throttled, and highest if the
condenser water is throttled to increase the discharge
pressure.
3. Where the compressor is driven by a variable-
speed motor, motor speed and compressor speed are
controlled by varying the resistance in the rotor circuit of
the motor by means of a secondary controller.
4. Damper Control. Throttling the suction of the
compressor is obtained by means of a throttling damper
built into the cooler suction flange. By throttling the
compressor suction, the pressure differential through
which the compressor must handle the refrigerant vapor is
increased. Suction damper control requires somewhat
more power at partial loads than at variable-speed control.
The increase in power consumption is overbalanced by
the increased effectiveness in maintaining a nonsurging
operation at lower loads. For this reason, the machines
are equipped with dampers, even though the main control
is variable speed. Suction damper control modulation is
effected by means of a temperature controller that sends
air pressure signals to the suction damper motor in
response to temperature changes of chilled water leaving
the cooler.
5. Condenser Water Control. By throttling the
condenser water, the condenser pressure is increased,
thereby increasing the pressure differential on the
compressor and reducing its capacity. The occasion may
arise where the variable-speed control cannot be adjusted
low enough to meet operating conditions. In such a case,
the condenser water may be throttled and the compressor
speed requirement brought up into the range of speed
control.
6. Speed control and suction damper control are
combined to control the temperature of the chilled water
leaving the cooler. The suction damper modulates to
control the leaving chilled water temperature on each
balanced speed step. As the refrigeration load decreases,
the suction damper will gradually close in response to
decreasing air pressure in the branch line from the suction
damper controller. As the suction damper approaches the
closed position, a light on the
control panel will indicate that the motor speed should be
decreased to the next balanced step. The converse is true
if the refrigeration load increases.
7. The lights for indicating a speed change are
energized by mercury type pressure controls that sense
branch air pressure from the suction chamber controller.
The controller that energizes the "speed decrease" light
also closes the light circuit on decreasing branch air
pressure; the controller that energizes the "speed increase"
light also closes the light circuit on increasing branch air
pressure. The control system drawings give actual
settings for pressure controllers; the final settings should
be determined under actual operating conditions. You
must determine what pressure change corresponds to a
speed change and then adjust the pressure controller
accordingly. Refer to the manufacturer's manual on
details of adjustments. This information on operating
controls will help you better understand the operation of
the entire system.
19. System Operation
1. It is very difficult to give definite instructions in
this text on the operating procedures for a given
installation. Various design factors change the location of
controls, types of controls used, and equipment location,
and will have a definite effect on operational procedures.
Listed below is a general description of startup and
shutdown instruction. It is recommended that you follow
your installation standard operating procedures for
definite operating instructions.
2. Seasonal Starting. Listed below are the
recommended steps that can be used in normal starting:
(1) Check oil levels for motor, gear, coupling,
compressor, and bearing wells.
(2) Allow condenser water to circulate through the
condenser. Be sure to vent air and allow the water to flow
through slowly. This precaution must be observed to
avoid water hammer.
(3) Allow water or brine to circulate through the
cooler. Be sure to vent air and allow the liquid to flow
through slowly. As explained above, this will help in
preventing water hammer.
(4) Make sure that air pressure is present at all air-
operated controls.
(5) Start the purge unit before starting the machine;
this helps in removing air from the machine. Then move
the switch on the front of the casing to the ON position.
The purge recovery unit should be operated at all times
while the machine is operating.
(6) Make sure all safety controls have been reset and
that the control lever is in position No. 1 (all resistance
in).
68
(7) Close the circuit breaker for all safety controls
by pushing the starting switch or button in.
(8) Bring the machine up to 75 percent full load with
all resistance in. Check oil gauges to make sure proper oil
pressure is being developed. If proper oil pressure is not
developed in approximately 10 seconds, the machine will
cut out on low oil pressure.
(9) Open the valve to allow the cooling water to
circulate to the compressor oil cooler, gear or turbine oil
cooler, and seal jacket. The water circulating to the
compressor oil cooler must be kept low enough in
temperature to prevent the highest bearing temperature
from exceeding a temperature of 130° F. Then adjust to
give a temperature from 140° F. to 180° F. The seal
bearing temperature should run approximately 160° F.,
while the thrust bearing temperature is running at
approximately 145° F. under normal operating conditions.
These temperatures should be checked closely until they
maintain a satisfactory point.
(10) After starting, the machine may surge until the
air in the condenser has been removed. During this
surging period, the machine should be run at a high speed;
this helps in the process of purging. The condenser
pressure should not exceed 15 p.s.i.g., and the input
current to motor-driven machines should not run over 100
percent of the full load motor rating. The machine will
steady itself out as soon as all the air has been purged.
After leveling out the motor speed, the damper maybe
adjusted to give the desired coolant temperature. The
motor should be increased slowly, point to point. Do not
proceed to the next speed point until the motor has
obtained a steady speed. Keep a close observation on the
ammeter to make sure that the motor does not become
overloaded.
3. Normal and Emergency Shutdown. Normal
shutdown procedures are performed in the same manner
as emergency shutdown procedures. The following steps
are used in shutting down the centrifugal machine:
(1) Stop the motor by throwing the switch on the
controller.
(2) After the machine has stopped, turn off the water
valve which supplies water to the compressor oil, gear oil
cooler, and seal housing.
(3) Shut down all pumps as required.
4. Shutdown periods may be broken down into two
classes. The two classes are standby and extended
shutdown. Standby shutdown may be machine must be
available for immediate use;
extended shutdown is defined as that period of time
during which the machine is out of service.
5. Standby shutdown. The following checks must
be made during standby shutdown and corrective action
taken:
(1) Maintain proper oil level in the oil reservoir and
in the suction damper stuffing box.
(2) Room temperature must be above freezing.
(3) Machine must be kept free of leaks.
(4) Purge unit must be operated as necessary to keep
the machine pressure below atmospheric pressure.
(5) If the machine pressure builds up in the unit due
to room temperature rather than leakage of air into the
machine, a small quantity of water circulated through the
condenser or cooler will hold the machine pressure below
atmospheric. Periodic operation of the purge unit will
accomplish the same result.
(6) The machine should be operated a few minutes
each week to circulate oil and lower the refrigerant
temperature.
6. Extended shutdown. If the system is free of
leaks and the purge unit holds down the machine pressure,
the following instructions and corrective actions must be
taken in long shutdown periods:
(1) Drain all water from the compressor, gear and
turbine oil cooler, condenser, cooler, seal jacket, pumps,
and piping if freezing temperatures are likely to develop
in the machine room.
(2) It is possible for the oil to become excessively
diluted with refrigerant, causing the oil level in the pump
chamber to rise. This level should not be allowed to rise
into the rear bearing chamber; if this occurs, remove the
entire charge of oil.
7. Logs and Records. A daily operating log is
maintained at each attended plant for a record of observed
temperature readings, waterflow, maintenance performed,
and any unusual conditions which affect an installation
operation. You are held responsible for keeping an
accurate log while on duty. A good log will help you spot
trouble fast. A typical log sheet has spaces for all
important entries, and a carefully kept log will help to
make troubleshooting easier.
8. A master chart of preventive maintenance duties,
each component identified, is usually prepared by the
supervisor and includes daily, weekly, and monthly
maintenance services. The preventive maintenance items
included on the chart are applicable to a specific
installation. The items on the chart must be checked
accordingly. Proper sustained operation is the result of
good maintenance.
69
20. Systems Maintenance
1. It is very difficult to set up a definite
maintenance schedule since so many operational factors
must be considered. You must familiarize yourself with
the operating procedures at your installation and follow
recommendations. We shall discuss the proper
procedures for replacing oil, charging the unit, removing
refrigerant, and troubleshooting.
2. Replacing Oil. The following procedure is used
in the renewal of the oil:
(1) Pressure in the machine should be approximately
1 p.s.i.g.
(2) Drain oil from the bottom of the main oil
reservoir cover.
(3) Remove the main oil reservoir cover and clean
the chamber to remove all impurities.
(4) Replace the main oil reservoir cover and secure
tightly.
(5) Remove the bearing access cover plates.
(6) Lift up the shaft bearing caps by reaching
through the bearing access hole and removing the two
large capscrews.
(7) Fill the bearing approximately three-fourths of
the full charge, allowing the excess oil to flow into the
main oil reservoir.
(8) Replace the bearing cap and secure with
capscrews.
(9) Remove the brass plug from the thrust housing,
and remove the strainer; clean and replace.
(10) Replace the plug and secure.
(11) Drain oil through the plug in back of the seal oil
reservoir.
(12) Remove the cover from the seal oil reservoir.
(13) Remove the filter from the chamber; replace with
a new filter.
(14) Refill the reservoir with oil.
(15) Replace the cover and secure tightly.
(16) Drain the oil through the plug at the bottom of
the atmospheric oil reservoir.
(17) Remove the atmospheric oil filling plug and pour
in fresh oil until the level is halfway in the atmospheric
reservoir sight glass.
(18) Replace the plug and secure tightly.
(19) Operate the purge unit to remove as much air as
possible.
(20) Add oil to the atmospheric float chamber, if main
oil reservoir indicates under-charge after short operation.
3. Charging the Unit. The manufacturer ships the
refrigerant (R-11) in large metal drums which weigh
approximately 200 pounds. At temperatures above 74°
F., the drum will be under pressure. To prevent injury or
loss of refrigerant, never open the drums to the
atmosphere when they are above this temperature.
It is possible to charge refrigerant from an open drum a
60° temperatures, although it is recommended that
leaktight connections be made to the charging valve. The
charging valve is located on the side of the cooler. To
help in the charging procedure, each refrigerant drum has
a special type plug installed on the side of the drum. This
plug is specially engineered for charging purposes. The
charging connection on the drum consists of a 2-inch plug
in which is inserted a smaller 3/4-inch plug. The 3/4-inch
opening inside the drum is covered with a friction cap.
The cap prevents leakage into or out of the drum when the
3/4-inch plug is unscrewed.
4. Refrigerant charging. To charge the machine
with refrigerant, proceed as follows:
(1) The machine must be under a vacuum.
(2) Fit a 3/4-inch nipple into the standard globe
valve and close the valve.
(3) Remove the 3/4-inch plug inserted in the 2-inch
plug from the drum.
(4) Place the valve with the nipple into the opening,
making sure that it is far enough in to push off the cap
inside the drum.
(5) Place the drum in a horizontal position near the
cooler charging valve with the use of a hoist. The drum
should be high enough to allow the refrigerant to flow as
a liquid, by gravity, from the drum into the charging line.
Rotate the drum so that the valve is at the bottom.
(6) Connect the two valves (drum and cooler) with a
copper tube and fittings, making sure all the joints are
leakproof.
(7) Open both valves and allow the refrigerant to
flow into the cooler. Operate the machine to maintain a
vacuum after the initial reduction to zero.
TABLE 19
70
(8) When the drum is empty, close the valve on the
cooler and disconnect the drum. Remove the valve for
use with the next drum. Complete charging of the
machine requires 1200 pounds of refrigerant.
5. Adding refrigerant to bring refrigerant to
standard level. When adding refrigerant, use the same
procedures that we have just discussed. Another method
that can be used to add refrigerant is simply to allow the
refrigerant to be drawn in as a gas. Let the drum rest on
the floor and let the gas escape into the cooler while the
machine is in operation or idle.
6. Removing refrigerant. In removing refrigerant
from the cooler, the following procedure is recommended:
(1) By use of the purge recovery unit, inject air into
the machine until the pressure is 5 pounds gauge.
(2) Connect tubing to the charging valve on the
cooler and allow the refrigerant to discharge into the
refrigerant drum.
(3) Less loss of refrigerant will take place if the
refrigerant is cold. Always allow space in the drum for
refrigerant expansion.
7. Troubleshooting. The steps to be taken in
detecting and correcting improper operation of the
centrifugal machine are outlined in table 19. Use the
proper methods for making these service adjustments,
repairs, and corrections as outlined in this chapter. All
settings, clearances, and adjustments must be made to
manufacture’s specifications. The manufacturer’s
maintenance catalog gives definite clearances,
temperatures, pressure, and positions for adjustment of
component parts. These tolerances must be set as
recommended for efficient operation; carelessness in
these settings can cause extensive damage to the machine.
TABLE 19-continued

71
 TABLE 19-Continued

Review Exercises 1. The refrigerant charge is approximately

___________ pounds. (Sec. 9, Par. 1)
The following exercises are study aids. Write your
answer in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text.

72
2. Which component reduces the horsepower 11. The oil pump is driven from the
requirement per ton of refrigeration? (Sec. 9, _____________________. (Sec. 10, Par. 7)
Par. 2)

12. Which component does the pump lubricate first?

3. (Agree)(Disagree) The refrigerant flows through (Sec. 10, Par. 8)
the tubes in the cooler. (Sec. 9, Par. 3)

13. How is oil returned from the oil pump drive

4. The liquid refrigerant, from the condenser, enters gear? (Sec. 10, Par. 9)
the _______________. (Sec. 9, Par. 5)

14. How is the shaft seal actuated? (Sec. 1, Par. 10)

5. How much pressure is there within the
economizer chamber? (Sec. 9, Par. 5)

15. What purpose do the two holes in the inner

floating seal ring serve? (Sec. 10, Par. 11)
6. The suction gas is taken in by the compressor in
_____________ the shaft. (Sec. 10, Par. 1)

16. The automatic stop valve is set to open at

approximately ________________ pounds.
7. How are the wheels (impellers) protected from (Sec. 10, Par. 12)
corrosion? (Sec. 1, Par. 2)

17. Which oil pressure gauges are mounted on the

8. Each bearing has ______________ large oil control panel? (Sec. 10, Par. 13)
rings. (Sec. 10, Par. 3)

18. How is the oil heater energized during

shutdown? (Sec. 10; Par. 14)
9. What prevents interstage leakage of gas? (Sec.
10, Par. 4)
19. (Agree)(Disagree) During operation the two
polished surfaces of the shaft seal are held
together with a spring. (Sec. 10, Par. 16)
10. Which end of the compressor will axial thrust
affect? (Sec. 10, Par. 5)
20. What type oil is used in centrifugal compressors?
(Sec. 10, Par. 17)

73
21. The compressor gear drive (increases, decreases) 30. The motor furnished with the centrifugal
the motor to compressor speed. (Sec. 11, Par. 1) machine is __________ phase,
_________________ cycle, and has an
________________ rotor. (Sec. 13, Par. 1)

22. The grade of oil to use on a gear depends on

__________, ___________, and
______________.(Sec. 11, Par. 3)
31. The secondary drum control is used to adjust the
amount of resistance in the
___________________ of the motor which
regulates motor ____________________ (Sec.
23. When would you turn on the gear drive cooling 13, Par. 3)
water? (Sec. 11, Par. 5)

32. Which switch is bypassed when the start button

24. Worn bearings in the gear drive will cause is held closed? (Sec. 13, Par. 4)
___________________. (Sec. 11, Par. 9)

33. What is the secondary function of the condenser?

25. Which coupling uses a spool piece? (Sec. 12, (Sec. 14, Par. 1)
Par. 1)

34. What prevents the discharge gas from directly

26. How is the hub expanded when it is to be hitting the condenser tubes? (Sec. 14, Par. 2)
installed on the shaft? (Sec. 12, Par. 2)

35. What precaution would you observe while

27. The angular alignment of a coupling is checked removing the water box cover? (Sec. 14, Par. 3)
with a _________________. (Sec. 12, Par. 3)

36. A burst rupture disc is caused by

28. Which instrument is used to check the offset __________________ (Sec. 14, Par. 6)
alignment of a coupling? (Sec. 12, Par. 4)

37. How can you determine the refrigerant charge of

29. Which type of coupling can be lubricated while the system? (Sec. 14, Par. 11)
the compressor is running? (Sec. 12, Par. 8)

38. What is indicated when the temperature

differential of the refrigerant and chilled water
increases? (Sec. 14, Par. 13)

74
39. ________________ is prevented by the hot gas 48. When are large quantities of air normally purged
bypass. (Sec. 15, Par. 1) from the centrifugal refrigeration system? (Sec.
16, Par. 10)

40. Why is the liquid injector used in the hot gas

bypass? (Sec. 15, Par. 2) 49. When is water drained from the separator unit?
(Sec. 16, Par. 12)

41. What controls the amount of liquid refrigerant

flowing to the hot gas bypass? (Sec. 15, Par. 3)
42. (Agree) (Disagree) The high-pressure control on
the purge unit must be reset manually. (Sec. 16,
Par. 3)
50. The four safety controls that will stop the
centrifugal are _______________, ________,
___________, and _______________. (Sec. 17,
Par. 1)
51. Which safety control does not require manual
resetting? (Sec. 17, Par. 2)

43. Where is the weir and trap located on the purge

unit? (Sec. 16, Par. 3)
52. What is the differential for the high condenser
pressure control? (Sec. 17, Par. 3)

44. High head pressure indicates that

___________________. (Sec. 16, Par. 5)
53. How can you change (switch over) controllers?
(Sec. 17, Par. 6)

45. How is the air pressure in the condenser released

to the atmosphere? (Sec. 16, Par. 6)
54. The most efficient method of controlling the
capacity of the centrifugal is to
____________________. (Sec. 18, Pars. 1 and
46. What amount of water collected by the purge 2)
unit is an indication of leaky tubes? (Sec. 16,
Par. 8)

55. What will occur if you add more resistance to the

rotor circuit of the drive motor? (Sec. 18, Par. 3)
47. When will a pressure drop exist across the
pressure-regulating valve? (Sec. 16, Par. 9)

56. When is suction damper control more effective

than speed control? (Sec. 18, Par. 4)

75
57. What is the position of the drum controller lever 63. What is one of the most probable causes of high
during startup? (Sec. 19, Par. 2) condenser pressure? (Sec. 20, table 19)

58. What will cause the oil level to rise in the pump 64. Surging is caused by _________________,
chamber during an extended shutdown? (Sec. ________________, or ________________.
19, Par. 6) (Sec. 20, table 19)

59. The pressure within the machine during an oil 65. What would occur if the economizer float valve
replacement operation should be approximately stuck? (Sec. 20, table 19)
_______________ p.s.i.g. (Sec. 20, Par. 2)

66. What will cause a low "back of seal" oil pressure

60. (Agree)(Disagree) The 2-inch plug in the and a high seal oil pressure? (Sec. 20, table 19)
refrigerant drum prevents leakage when the 3/4-
inch plug is removed. (Sec. 20, Par. 3)

67. Noisy couplings are caused by

___________________, ________________, or
61. How is refrigerant charged into the system as a _________________. (Sec. 20, table 19)
gas? (Sec. 20, Par. 5)

68. (Agree)(Disagree) A high oil level in the speed

62. How do you pressurize the system to remove gear will cause the gear to overheat. (Sec. 20,
refrigerant? (Sec. 20, Par. 6) table 19)

76

Water Treatment
WATER USED IN air-conditioning systems may create
problems with equipment, such as scale, corrosion, and
organic growths. Scale formation is one of the greatest
problems in air-conditioning systems that have water-
cooled condensers and cooling towers. Corrosion is
always a problem in an open water recirculating system in
which water sprays come in contact with air. The organic
growth we are greatly concerned with is algae or slime.
Since algae thrive on heat and sunlight they will be a
problem in cooling towers. As a refrigeration specialist or
technician you will save the military great sums of money
if you test and treat your equipment water. For example,
if you allowed scale to reach the thickness of a dime in a
water-cooled condenser, it would cut the efficiency of the
machine more than 50 percent.
21. Scale
1. When water is heated or evaporated, insolubles
are deposited on metal surfaces. These deposits usually
occur on the metal in the cooling towers, evaporative
condensers, or inside the pipes and tubes of the condenser
water system which have a recirculating water system.
What causes scale? We can explain it in a simple
formula:
Ca (HCO3) + heat = CaCO3, + CO2 + H2O
Calcium calcium carbon
bicarbonate + heat = carbonate + dioxide + water
In this formula the calcium carbonate is the villain.
Calcium carbonate is the chief scale-forming deposit
found in air-conditioning systems, but magnesium
carbonate and calcium sulfate can also cause some degree
of scaling.
2. Causes of Scale. A rising temperature decreases
the solubility of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate.
This is known as reverse solubility. Sodium compounds
such as table salt (sodium chloride), on the other hand,
have a direct solubility. Suppose you take a glass of
water 80° F. and dissolve table salt into the water. Soon
77
CHAPTER 4
you will saturate the water and no amount of stirring
would cause any more salt to go into solution. But if you
heat the water to 100° F., more salt can be dissolved into
the solution. This dissolving action is known as direct
solubility. But if you reaccomplish these steps using
calcium saturates instead of table salt, you would see
more solids precipitate out of the solution as the heat is
increased. This action is suitably called reverse solubility
and occurs in a water-cooled condenser cooling tower.
3. You will find that scale will form on heat
transfer surfaces when you use water containing even a
small amount of hardness. The pH value of the water
determines if the hard water will cause scale or corrosion.
The pH scale is from 0 to 14. Neutral water has a pH
value of 7.0. Any reading under 7.0 is acid, while a
reading above 7.0 is base or alkaline.
4. Let us compare pH to temperature. A
thermometer measures the temperature of a solution,
while pH measures the intensity of acid or base in a
solution. As you know, pH means potential hydrogen.
When a hydrogen atom has lost its electron (H+), it
becomes a positive hydrogen ion. When a great many of
these hydrogen atoms make this change, the solution will
become highly acid and attack metals. When the
hydrogen atom gains electrons, the solution will be base
and have a pH value from 7.1 to 14. A base solution
contains more hydroxyl ions (OH-). Scale will form when
a base solution is exposed to a temperature rise, providing
the hardness is 200 parts per million or higher. Notice the
recommended pH for cooling towers in figure 69.
5. You will find that it is very important to test for
solids in the water because solid content (hardness)
determines the amount of scale formation. Hardness is
the amount of calcium and magnesium compounds in
solution in the water. Water containing 200 p.p.m.
hardness and a pH indication of 9 or above will enhance
the formation of scale. To avoid scale in cooling towers,
you must control hardness. The maximum p.p.m.
standards for cooling towers are
 titration directly measures the soap-consuming capacity of
a water. You will study this test in the following
paragraphs.

9. To begin the soap hardness test, measure 50

milliliters of the sample water into the hardness testing
bottle. Add the standard soap solution to the water, 0.5
ml. at a time, from the soap burette, shown in figure 70.
Shake bottle vigorously after each application and place it
on its side. If no lather forms, continue adding 0.5-ml.
portions of soap solution to a maximum of 6 ml and place
the bottle on its side. Now you must use the formula
Figure 69. pH scale. below if you have a permanent lather to complete the test.
If a permanent lather does not appear, see para 10.
100 p.p.m. for makeup water and 200 p.p.m. for bleedoff Hardness (p.p.m.)
water. (total number or ml. of standard
= 20 X soap solution required for
6. In cooling towers and evaporative condensers the permanent lather)
water becomes harder due to evaporation. The term used 10. If a permanent lather does not appear after
to compare hardness to the circulating water to the adding 6 ml. of the standard soap solution,
makeup water is cycles of concentration. For example, 2
cycles of concentration indicate that the circulating water
is twice as hard as the makeup water. If the makeup
water contained 100 p.p.m., the circulating water would
contain 200 p.p.m. To avoid this damaging concentration,
you will find it is necessary to limit the cycles of
concentration. Bleedoff is an effective method used for
this purpose. The amount of bleedoff can be calculated
by using the following formula:
Cycles of concentration
= bleedoff hardness (circulating water)
makeup hardness
For example: if the bleedoff (circulating water) is 150
p.p.m. and the makeup is 50 p.p.m., the cycles of
concentration are 3.

7. There are many methods of treating water to

prevent scale. A few of these are:

• Bleedoff-regulate the amount of bleedoff water to

keep the cycles of concentration within tolerance.
• pH adjustment-maintain the pH of the water
between 7 and 9, as near 8 as possible.
• Add polyphosphates-keeps scale forming
compounds in solution.
• Zeolite water softening-exchanges a nonscale
forming element for calcium and magnesium
compounds.

Before we discuss water softening, we will introduce the

soap hardness test.

8. Soap Hardness Test. The soap hardness test is

used to measure total hardness. The presence of calcium
and magnesium salts, and to a lesser degree other
dissolved minerals, constitutes hardness in water.
Hardness can be best determined by soap titration. Soap Figure 70. Soap hardness test equipment.

78
 Figure 71. Accelator.
repeat the test with a new water sample. This time dilute
25 ml. of the sample water with an equal quantity of zero-
hardness water (distilled water). Conduct the test as you
studied previously. When a permanent lather has been
obtained, calculate the hardness as follows:
(total number of ml. of standard
= 40 X soap solution required
permanent lather)
11. Water Softening. Hard waters are potable but
are objectionable because they form scale inside of
plumbing and on metal system components. A temporary
hardness can be caused by magnesium bicarbonate. Hard
water can be softened by two different methods. The first
is the lime-soda process which changes calcium and
magnesium compounds from soluble to insoluble forms
and then removes these insolubles by sedimentation and
filtration. The second and most common is zeolite or
base-exchange process. This process replaces soluble
calcium and magnesium compounds with soluble sodium
compounds.
12. Lime-soda process. Lime-soda process plants
are essentially the same as water filtration plants. Lime
and soda ash are added to raw water; the softening
reaction occurs during mixing and flocculation. The
precipitated calcium and magnesium a removed by
sedimentation and filtration. An additional process,
called recarbonation, which is the introduction of carbon
dioxide gas, is frequently applied immediately prior to
filtration. If the raw water has high turbidity, the turbidity
is partial removed by sedimentation prior to the adding of
the lime and soda.
13. Zeolite process. The zeolite process is usually
used for water which has low turbidity and does not
require filtration. Treatment may be given to the entire
supply at one point. This system is commonly used to
soften water for special uses, such as for the control of
scale. In such cases, the treatment units are located at
points near the equipment requiring treated water.
for
14. Turbidity is a muddy or unclear condition of
water which is caused by suspended silt, clay, sand, or
organic materials such a decaying vegetation or animal
waste. Turbidity can be corrected by sedimentation,
filtration, or traps. In most cases the water supply and
sanitation personnel will supply you with usable, potable
water.
15. Softening devices. Softening devices include
patented equipment such as the Accelator and Spiractor.
The Accelator is also used as a combined flocculation and
sedimentation unit without softening. When this unit is
operated before filtration to treat water with low
suspended solids and low alkalinity, it may be necessary
to add lime or clay to add weight and prevent rising floc.
16. The Accelator, shown in figure 71, is a
suspended solid clarifier. Precipitates which are formed
are kept in motion by a combination of mechanical
agitation and hydraulic flow. Velocity of waterflow
through the system is controlled to keep precipitates in
suspension at a level where water passes through them.
The accumulated
79

Figure 72. Spiractor
precipitate is called the sludge blanket. When the
Accelator is operating properly, the water above the
sludge blanket and flowing over the weirs is clear.
Operation depends on balancing the lift of particles by the
velocity of upward flowing water against the pull of
gravity. When the velocity of the water is gradually
decreased, a point is reached at which the particles are too
heavy to be supported by the velocity of the water.
Continuous treatment builds up the sludge blanket which
is drawn off as required. Operation of the equipment is
covered in detail in the manufacturer’s instruction
manuals.
17. The Spiractor, shown in figure 72, consists of an
inverted conical tank in which the lime-soda softening
reactions take place in the presence of a suspended bed of
granular calcium carbonate. In operation, the tank is
slightly more than half filled with 0.1 to 0.2 millimeter
granules. Hardwater and chemicals enter the bottom of
the unit close to each other. They mix immediately as the
treated stream of water rises through the granular bed
80
with a swirling motion. The upward velocity keeps the
granular material in suspension. As the water rises,
velocity decreases to a point where material is no longer
in suspension. The contact time, 8 to 10 minutes, is
enough to complete softening actions. Softened water is
drawn off from the top of the cone. The size of calcium
carbonate granules increases during the process,
increasing the bulk of granules in the unit. The water
level of the cone is kept down to the desired point by
withdrawing the largest particles from the bottom. New
material must be added, which can be produced by
regrinding and screening the discharged material.
Softened water is usually filtered through a sand filter to
move turbidity. Advantages of the equipment are its
small size, low installation cost, rapid treatment lack of
moving parts and pumping equipment, and elimination of
sludge disposal problems. The unit is most effective
when hardness is predominantly calcium, there is less
than 17 p.p.m. magnesium hardness (expressed as calcium
carbonate), water temperature is about 50° F., and
turbidity is less than 5 p.p.m.
18. Zeolite (ion exchange). Ion exchange is a
chemical operation by which certain minerals that are
ionized or dissociated in solution are exchanged (and thus
removed) for other ions that are contained in a solid
exchange medium, such as a zeolite sandbed. An
example is the exchange of calcium and magnesium, in
solution as hardness in water, for sodium contained in a
sodium zeolite bed. The zeolites used in the process of
ion exchange are insoluble, granular materials. A zeolite
may be classified as follows: glauconite (or green sand),
precipitated synthetic, organic (carbonaceus), synthetic
resin, and clay. Various zeolites are used, depending on
the type of water treatment required. Most zeolites
possess the property cation, or base exchange, but anion
exchangers are also available and may be used when
demineralization of water is required. In the course of
treating water, the capacity of the zeolite bed to exchange
ions is depleted. This depletion requires the bed to be
regenerated by the use of some chemical that contains the
specific ion needed for the exchange. For instance, when
a sodium zeolite is used to soften water by exchanging the
sodium ion for the calcium and magnesium ions of hard
water, the zeolite gradually becomes depleted of the
sodium ion. Thus, it will not take up the calcium and
magnesium ions from the water passing through the bed.
The sodium ion is restored to the zeolite by uniformly
distributing a salt or brine solution on top of the bed and
permitting it to pass evenly down through the bed. The
salt removes the calcium and magnesium taken up by the
bed as soluble chlorides and restores the zeolite to its
original condition. Beds may also be regenerated with
acid, sodium carbonate,
sodium hydroxide, or potassium permanganate,
depending on the type of zeolite being used.
19. In addition to the problem of scale, the
refrigeration man knows that corrosion is a constant
problem. Let us now study corrosion, its causes, its
effects, and its control.
22. Corrosion
1. In the refrigeration/air-conditioning field,
corrosion has long been a problem. Even in the modern
missile complexes, corrosion is prevalent. Corrosion is
very difficult to prevent, but it can be controlled. Before
we can control corrosion, we first must understand what
causes it.
2. The effects of corrosion differ as to the type of
corrosion, such as uniform, pitting, galvanic, erosion-
corrosion, and electrochemical. We must understand
various ways of treating the system to control these types
of corrosion. Corrosion is generally more rapid in liquids
with a low pH factor than in alkaline solutions.
3. Types of Corrosion. An air-conditioning
system may have several types of corrosion in the water
system. Many of these types are undoubtedly familiar to
you.
4. Uniform corrosion. One of the most common
types of corrosion encountered in acid environments is
known as uniform corrosion. This is caused by acids,
such as carbonic, which cause a uniform loss of metal
throughout the condensating water system.
5. Pitting corrosion. Pitting corrosion is a
nonuniform type, the result of a local cell action produced
when a particle, flake, or bubble of gas deposited on a
metal surface. The pitting is a local accelerated attack,
which causes a cavity in the metal but does not affect the
surrounding metal. Oxygen deficiency under such a
deposit sets up an anodic action. This area keeps
producing such action until the penetration finally
weakens the structure and it falls, developing a pinhole
leak.
6. Galvanic corrosion. When dissimilar metals
which are capable of carrying electric current are present
in a solution, galvanic corrosion occurs. This action is
similar to the electroplating process used in industry to
bond or plate dissimilar metals. When two metals similar
to each other are joined together, there is little reaction.
But the coupling of two metals from different groups
causes accelerated corrosion in one of the two metals.
When using large amounts of copper in a system and a
few unions of steel, the steel will corrode at a rapid rate.
In such cases you should install nonferrous metal instead
of steel. Corrosion inhibitors reduce the corrosion rate
but will not eliminate galvanic corrosion.
81
7. Erosion-corrosion. Erosion-corrosion is caused
by suspended matter or air bubbles in a rapidly moving
water. The matter can be fine to coarse sand, depending
on the velocity of the water. Usually the greatest amount
of erosion-corrosion will take place at elbows and U-
bends. Another place where erosion-corrosion takes place
is on the impellers of centrifugal pumps.
8. Good filtration installations will remove grains
of sand and other matter that are large enough to cause
erosion-corrosion. To get rid of air tapped in a system, it
is recommended that hand- or spring-operated bleed
valves be installed in the highest point of the water
system. Purging the water system gets rid of the air
bubbles that enter the system in the makeup water.
9. Electrochemical corrosion. Electrochemical
corrosion occurs when a difference in electrical potential
exists between two parts of a metal in contact with an
electrolyte (water). The difference in potential will cause
electric current to flow. The difference in potential may
be set up by two dissimilar metals, by a difference in
temperature or amount of oxygen, or by the concentration
of the electrolyte at the two points of contact with the
metal. The anode is the point at which the current flow is
from the metal to the electrolyte; it is here that corrosion
occurs. The cathode, which is usually not attached, is the
point of current flow from the electrolyte to the metal.
This action is shown in figure 73.
10. Corrosion Inhibitor. The most common
chemicals used as inhibitors are chromates and
polyphosphates. These inhibitors alone serve only to
decease the rate of corrosion, but if other water treatments
are used in conjunction with them, corrosion may be
nearly stopped.
11. Chromates. Chromates are seldom present n
untreated water; however, they may occur as a result of
industrial waste contamination. The chromates are used
extensively to inhibit corrosion and are effective in the
water air-conditioning systems in concentrations of 200-
500 p.p.m. at a pH of 7.0 to 8.5. Chromates are the most
commonly used corrosion inhibitors in chilled water
systems. For corrosion prevention the most favorable
range is with the pH from 7.5 to 9.5, but scaling becomes
a problem at the higher pH range. Consequently, the pH
should be held near the lower range where corrosion
protection is excellent. Because it is more economical,
sodium bichromate (Na2Cr2O72H2O) is the most
commonly used chromate compound. Sodium chromate
(Na2CrO4) is also used widely.
12. Chromate concentration is stated in p.p.m.
 Figure 73. Causes and effects of corrosion.
Chromates are anodic inhibitors but can intensify pitting
if they are used in insufficient amounts. Field tests must
be performed to be sure the required amount of chromate
is in the water, and to check the pH. Corrosion is greatest
when the pH is between 0 to 4.5.
13. Chromate concentration is tested by color
comparison. The color of the treated water is matched
against a known chromate disc. For example, if the
sample of treated water matches a tube known to contain
200 p.p.m. of chromate, the sample would also contain
200 p.p.m. of chromate.
14. Polyphosphates. Phosphates, particularly the
polyphosphates, are used in cooling water treatment. The
ability to prevent metal loss with polyphosphate treatment
is inferior to the chromate treatment previously discussed.
In addition, pitting is more extensive with
polyphosphates. Unlike chromate, high polyphosphate
concentrations are not practical because of the
precipitation of calcium phosphate.
15. One advantage of using polyphosphates is that
there is no yellow residue such as produced by chromates.
This highly undesirable residue is often deposited on
buildings, automobiles, and surrounding vegetation by the
wind through cooling towers or evaporative condensers,
when the system is treated by chromates. Also,
polyphosphate treatment reduces corrosion products
(sludge and rust) known as tuberculation.
16. A factor limiting the use of polyphosphates in
82
cooling water systems is the reversion of polyphosphates
to orthophosphates. Orthophosphates provide less
protection than polyphosphates, and orthophosphates
react with the calcium content of the water and precipitate
calcium phosphate. This precipitation forms deposits on
heat exchanger surfaces. The reversion of polyphosphates
is increased by long-time retention and high water
temperatures. Bleedoff must be adjusted on the
condenser water system to avid exceeding the solubility
of calcium phosphate.
17. The test used to determine the amount of
polyphosphates in the system is similar the chromate
color comparison test.
18. Corrosion inhibitor feeders. Many times a
simple bag will be used to feed the chemicals into the
water. The chemicals, in pellet or crystal form, are placed
in nylon net bags and hung in the cooling tower sump.
However, chilled water and brine systems require the use
of a pot type feeder similar to the feeder shown in figure
74.
19. The chemical charge is prepared by dissolving
the chemicals in a bucket and then filling the pressure
tank (F) with the solution. Valves B and C are closed,
and valve A is opened to drain the water out of the tank.
After the water is drained, close valve A and open valves
D and E. Then fill tank (F) with the dissolved chemical
solution. Opening valves B and C after you have closed
valves D and E will place the feeder in operation. The
feedwater from the discharge

Figure 74. Pot type feeder.
side of the pump with force the solution into tie suction
side of the pump. Within a few minutes, the solution will
be washed out of the tank. This feeder is nonadjustable.
20. Another type of feeder you may use is the pot
type proportional feeder. This type, similar to the one
shown in figure 74, has an opening to permit charging
with chemicals in briquette or lump form. A portion of
the water to be treated is passed through the tank,
gradually dissolving the chemicals.
21. The degree of proportionality is questionable at
times, because there is little control over the solution rate
of the briquettes or the chemical incorporated in them.
Although this system is classified as proportional, it
cannot be used where accuracy of feed is required. It is
used successfully in our application because we have a
large range in p.p.m. to control-for example, 250-300
p.p.m. chromate.
22. Now that we have studied corrosion and
corrosion control, let’s discuss algae.
23. Algae
1. Algae are slimy living growth of one-celled
animals and plants. They may be brought by birds or high
83
winds. Algae thrive in cooling towers and evaporative
condensers, where there is abundance of sunlight and high
temperatures to carry on their life’s processes. Algae
formations will plug nozzles and prevent proper
distribution of water, thus causing high condensing
pressures and reduced system efficiency. In relation to
the larger subject of algae, we will study residual chlorine
tests, chlorine demand tests, pH determination, pH
adjustment, chlorine disinfectants, hypochlorination, and
chlorination control.
2. Residual Chlorine Test. The growth of algae is
controlled by chlorination. The residual chlorine test is
the test that we make to determine the quantity of
available chlorine remaining in the water after satisfaction
of the chlorine demand has occurred. Orthotolidine is the
solution used in making the residual chlorine test. This
solution reacts with the residual chlorine, taking on a
color which is matched against a standard color in the
comparator disc. Readings up to 5 p.p.m. may be read
from the comparator disc. One p.p.m. will control algae
and 1.5 p.p.m. will kill algae.
3. The time required for full development of color by
orthotolidine depends on the temperature and kind of
residual chlorine present. You will find that the color will
develop several times faster when water is at 70° F. than
when it is near the freezing point. For this reason, you
must warm up cold samples quickly after mixing the
sample with orthotolidine. Simply holding the sample
tube in your hand is sufficient.
4. For samples containing only free chlorine,
maximum color appears almost instantly and begins to
fade in a minute. You must take the reading at maximum
color intensity. However, a longer period is required for
full color development of chloramines which may be
present. Since samples containing combined chlorine
develop their color at a rate primarily dependent upon
temperature and to a lesser extent on the quantity of
nitrogenous material present, observe the samples
frequently and use their maximum value.
5. At 70° F. the maximum color develops in about
3 minutes, while at 32° F. it requires 6 minutes. The
maximum color starts to fade after about 1½ minutes.
Therefore, in the orthotolidine-arsenite (OTA) test, the
water temperature should be about 70° F and the sample
read at maximum color and in less than 5 minutes.
Preferably, permit the color to develop in the dark. Read
the sample frequently to insure observation of maximum
color.
6. Use enough chlorine so that the residual
in the finished water after 30 minutes of contact time will
be as follows:
These residuals are effective for water temperatures
ranging from 32° to 77° F. Bactericidal efficiency of
chlorine increases with an increase in water temperature.
7. Two types of residual chlorine have been
mentioned. The first is the free available chlorine which
can be measured by the OTA test. It is valuable because
it kills algae quickly. The second is the combined
available chlorine, produced by the chloramines, a slower
acting type and therefore one which requires a higher
concentration to achieve an equivalent bactericidal effect
in the same contact time.
8. The orthotolidine-arsenite (OTA) test is the
preferable one in determining chlorine residuals since it
permits the measurement of the relative amounts of free
available chlorine, combined available chlorine, and color
caused by interfering substances. The test is best
performed in a laboratory because the accuracy of the
results is dependent upon the quantity of available
chlorine preset, the adherence to time intervals between
the addition of reagents and the temperature of the
sample. With water temperatures above 68° F, the
accuracy decreases, whereas below this temperature, it
increases.
9. The free available chlorine residual subtracted
from the total residual chlorine would equal the combined
available residual. You recall that the combined available
residual is actually that slower acting residual created by
the chloramines which have formed in the water. Since
the OT test measures only the total available chlorine
residual, it impossible to determine the combined
available chlorine residual with this test. With the
orthotolidine test, both the free and combined available
chlorine are measured. If it is desired to determine
whether the residual is present in either the free or
combined form, it is necessary to employ the
orthotolidine-arsenite test.
10. Chlorine Demand Test. The chorine demand of
water is the difference between the quantity of chlorine
applied in water treatment and the total available residual
chlorine present at the end of a specified contact period.
The chlorine demand is dependent upon the amount of
chlorine applied (amount applied is dependent upon the
free available and combined available chlorine), the
nature and the quantity of chlorine-consuming agents
84
present, the pH value, and the temperature of the water.
Remember that the high pH and low temperature retard
disinfection by chlorination. For comparative purposes, it
is imperative that all test conditions be stated, such as
water sample temperature or room temperature.
11. The smallest amount of residual chlorine
considered to be significant is 0.1 mg/1 Cl. Some of the
chlorine-consuming agents in the water are
nonpathogenic, but they contribute to the total chlorine
demand of the water just as other agents do.
12. Chlorine demand in most water is satisfied 10
minutes after the chlorine is added. After the first 10
minutes of chlorination, disinfection continues but at a
diminishing rate. A standard period of 30 minutes of
contact time is used to insure that highly resistant
organisms have been destroyed, provided that a high
enough dosage has been applied.
13. The chlorine demand test is used as a guide in
determining how much chlorine is needed to treat a given
water. Briefly, the test consists of preparing a measured
test dosage of chlorine, adding it to a sample of the water
to be treated, and adding the resultant residual after 30
minutes of contact time. The required dosage is then
computed; it is the chlorine needed to equal the sum of
the demand plus the minimum contact residual.
14. To determine the chlorine demand, calcium
hypochlorite, containing 70 percent available chlorine, is
used for the test. Mix 7.14 grams of calcium hypochlorite
(Ca(OCL)2) with 1000 cc. of the best water available to
produce 5000 p.p.m. chlorine solution. One milliliter of
this standard solution (reagent), when added to 1000 cc.
of the water to be tested, equals 5 p.p.m. chlorine test
dosage. Thus, with 1 milliliter of the reagent equaling 5
p.p.m., any proportionate test dosage may be arrived at by
using one-fifth, 0.2 ml., of the reagent in 1000 cc. of the
water for each p.p.m. of chlorine dosage desired. After
adding a test dosage of a known strength of a 1000-cc.
sample of the water to be tested (5 p.p.m., or 1 ml. of the
reagent is normally used), wait 30 minutes and run a
chlorine residual test. You subtract the chlorine residual
from the test dosage to obtain the chlorine demand.
15. If you do not obtain a residual after a 30-minute
period, the test is invalid and must be repeated. You
increase the reagent by 5 p.p.m. each time until a residual
is obtained. If, for example, the test were repeated two
times, the results would be recorded as follows:
16 pH Determination. The pH determination
and residual chlorine tests are both made with the color
comparator. Knowing the pH value of water is important
for several reasons. First, the pH value influences the
amounts of chemicals used for coagulation. Second, the
disinfecting action of chlorine (to control algae) is
retarded by a high pH. If pH is above 8.4, the rate of
disinfection decreases sharply. Third, the corrosion rate is
lowest at a pH of 14, increases to a pH of 10, and remains
essentially uniform until a pH of 4.3 is reached, when it
increases rapidly.
17. But, how do you determine the pH value of
water with the comparator? Three indicator solutions are
supplied for making pH determinations with the
comparator. Bromcresol purple green is used for the pH
range from 4.4 to 6.0. Bromthymol blue is used for pH
values from 6.0 to 7.6. Cresol red-thymol blue is used for
pH values from 7.6 t 9.2. Standard color discs covering
each range are supplied with the comparator. Generally,
the bromthymol blue indicator is used first since most pH
values fall within its range. The readings for pH are made
immediately after adding the indicator. You should keep
in mind that clorimetric indicators provide sharp changes
in readings over a short span of the pH range, but once the
end of the range has been reached, little change in color is
noted even though a considerable change in pH takes
place. For this reason readings of 5.8 to 6.0, obtained
when using the bromcresol purple green indicator, should
be checked by taking a reading with bromthymol blue.
Similarly, pH readings of 7.6 to 7.8 on the cresol red-
thymol blue disc should be checked on the bromthymol
blue disc.
18. To determine the pH value, fill the tubes to the
mark with the water sample. Add the indicator solution to
one tube in the amount specified by the manufacturer,
usually 0.5 ml. (10 drops) for a 10-ml. sample tube and
proportionally more for larger tubes. Mix the water and
indicator and place the tube in the comparator.
19. After you place the tube in the comparator, you
match for color and read pH directly. If the color is at
either the upper or lower range of the indicator selected,
repeat the test with the next higher or lower indicator.
20. If a color comparator is not available, methyl
orange and phenolphthalein indicators may be used to
make an approximate pH determination. These indicators
are used primarily for alkalinity determinations, but they
can be used for a rough check of pH values.
21. To determine a low pH that is around 4.3, fill a
test bottle to the 50-ml. mark with a sample of the water
to be tested and add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator.
Observe the test bottle against a white background and
interpret the color thus: pinkish red, pH below 4.3;
yellow, pH above 4.3.
85
22. To determine a high pH that is around 8.3, fill a
test bottle to the 50-ml. mark and add 2 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator. Observe the test bottle against
a white background and interpret thus: pink, pH above
8.3; colorless, pH below 8.3.
23. pH Adjustment. Caustic soda, soda ash, and
sodium hydroxide can be added to water to increase the
pH. The caustic soda or sodium hydroxide treatment uses
a solution feeder to add the chemical. This is the type of
feeder used to chlorinate water for algae control. Soda
ash is added by means of a proportioning pot type feeder.
The amount you would add depends upon the pH of the
water. Test the water frequently while adding these
chemicals and stop the treatment when the desired pH
level is reached.
24. Acids are added to lower the pH. The types used
are sulphuric, phosphoric, and sodium sulfate. They are
added through solution feeders. Add only enough acid to
reduce the pH (alkalinity) to the proper zone. The zone is
usually 7-9 pH, preferably a pH of 8.
25. Chlorine Disinfectants. Chlorine disinfectants
are available in a number of different forms. The two
forms that we will use are calcium and sodium
hypochlorite.
26. Calcium hypochlorite. Calcium hypochlorite,
Ca(OCl)2, is a relatively stable, dry granule or powder in
which the chlorine is readily soluble. It is prepared under
a number of trade names, including HTH, Perchloron, and
Hoodchlor. It is furnished in 3- to 100-pound containers
and has 65 to 70 percent of available chlorine by weight.
Because of its concentrated form and ease of handling,
calcium hypochlorite is preferred over other
hypochlorites.
27. Sodium hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite,
NaOCl, is generally furnished as a solution that is highly
alkaline and therefore reasonably stable. Federal
specifications call for solutions having 5 and 10 percent
available chlorine by weight. Shipping costs limit its use
to areas where it is available locally. It is so furnished as
powder under various names, such as Lobax and HTH-I5.
The powder generally consists of calcium hypochlorite
and soda ash, which react in water to form sodium
hypochlorite.
28. Hypochlorinators. Hypochlorinators, or
solution feeders, introduce chlorine into the water supply
in the form of hypochlorite solution. They are usually
modified positive-displacement piston or diaphragm
mechanical pumps. However, hydraulic displacement
hypochlorinators are also used. Selection of a feeder
depends on local
conditions, space requirements, water pressure conditions,
and supervision available. Fully automatic types are
actuated by pressure differentials produced by orifices,
venturis, valves, meters, or similar devices. They can also
be used to feed chemicals for scale and corrosion control.
Common types of hypochlorinators are described below.
29. Proportioneers Chlor-O-Feeder. The
Proportioneers Chlor-O-Feeder is a positive-displacement
diaphragm type pump with electric drive (fig. 75) or
hydraulic operating head (fig. 76). Maximum capacity of
the most popular type, the heavy-duty midget Chlor-O-
Feeder, is 95 gallons of solution in 24 hours.
30. a. Semiautomatic control. The motor-driven
type may be cross connected with a pump motor for
semiautomatic control. The hydraulic type can be
synchronized with pump operation by means of a solenoid
valve.
31. b. Fully automatic control. Motor-driven types
are made fully automatic by use of a secondary electrical
control circuit actuated by a switch inserted in a disc or
compound-meter gearbox. This switch closes
momentarily each time a definite volume of water passes
through the meter, thus starting the feeder. A timing
element in the secondary circuit shuts off the feeder after
a predetermined number of feeder strokes; the number of
strokes is adjustable. In the hydraulic type, shown in
figure 77, the meter actuates gears in a Treet-O-Control
gearbox which in turn controls operation of a pilot valve
in the water or air supply operating the feeder. The
dosage rate is controlled by waterflow through the meter,
thus automatically proportioning the treatment chemical.
Opening and closing frequency of the valve thus
determines frequency of operation of the Chlor-O-Feeder.
32. Wilson type DES hypochlorinator. The Wilson
type DES hypochlorinator is a constant-rate, manually
adjusted, electric-motor-driven, positive-displacement
reciprocating pump for corrosive liquids, and is shown in
figure 78. Maximum capacity is 120 gallons of solution
per day. This unit is a piston pump with a diaphragm and
oil chamber separating the pumped solution from the
piston to prevent corrosion of working parts.
33. Model S hypochlorinator (manufactured by
Precision Chemical Pump Corporation). The Model S
hypochlorinator, shown in figure 79, is a positive-
displacement diaphragm pump with a manually adjustable
feeding capacity of 3 to 60 gallons per day. A motor-
driven eccentric cam reciprocates the diaphragm,
injecting the solution into the main supply. Use of
chemically resistant plastic and synthetic rubber in critical
parts contributes to long operating life.
86
34. Chlorination Control. To estimate dosage
when no prior record of chlorination exists or where
chlorine demand changes frequently:
(1) Determine chlorine demand, or start chlorine
feed at a low rate and raise feed by small steps; at the
same time make repeated residual tests until a trace is
found. Observe rate of flow treated and rate of chlorine
feed at this point. Chlorine demand then equals dosage
and is determined from the following equation:
(2) Add the minimum p.p.m. required residual to the
p.p.m. demand in order to estimate the p.p.m. dosage
required to obtain a satisfactory residual. Then set
chlorinator rate of feed in accordance with the above
estimated p.p.m dosage. Further upward adjustment after
making residual tests is usually required because the
demand increases as the residual is increased.
35. Rate of feed of hypochlorinators is found from
the loss in volume of gallons of solution by determining
change in depth of solution in its container. Knowing the
solution strength, the pounds of chlorine used can be
calculated:
36. Available chlorine content of the chlorine
compound used must be known in order to calculate the
rate of hypochlorite-solution feed. Available chlorine is
usually marked on the container as a percentage of
weight. Values generally are as follows:
Calcium hypochlorite ........................70 percent
Sodium hypochlorite (liquid) .............10 percent (varies)
(1) To find the actual weight of chlorine compound
to be added, use the equation:
(2) To find the amount of 1-percent dosing solution
needed to treat a given quantity of water with desired
dosage, use the equation:
(3) To prepare various quantities of 1-percent dosing
solution, use the amounts given table 20.
(4) To find the rate of feed of chlorine in gallons per
day, use the equation:
 TABLE 20
(5) To feed the pounds of chlorine compound
needed to prepare dosing solution of a desired strength,
use the equation:
(6) To find the gallons of hypochlorite stock
solution needed to prepare dosing solution of a required
strength, use the equation:
37. CAUTION: Make dosing solutions strong
enough so that the hypochlorinator can be adjusted to feed
one-half its capacity per day or less. Avoid using a
calcium hypochlorite dosing solution stronger than 2
percent, even if it is necessary to set the machine to feed
its full day capacity. If calcium hypochlorite solution
stronger than 2 percent is required when the feed is set a
maximum, small amounts of sodium hexametaphsphate in
the solution will permit maximum concentrations up to 5
percent. Solutions of sodium hypochlorite may be fed in
greater concentrations.
38. Another problem area besides algae is turbid
water, so let’s now study turbidity.
24. Turbidity
1. Turbidity in water is caused by suspended matter
in a finely divided state. Clay, silt, organic matter,
microscopic organisms, and similar materials are
contributing causes of turbidity.
2. While the terms “turbidity” and “suspended
matter” are related, they are not synonymous. Suspended
matter is the amount of material in a water that can be
removed by filtration. Turbidity is a measurement of the
optical obstruction of light that is passed through a water
sample.
3. Turbid makeup water to cooling systems may
87
cause plugging and overheating where solids settle out on
heat exchanger surfaces. Corrosive action is increased
because the deposits hinder the penetration of corrosion
inhibitors. We will cover the Jackson turbidity test and
turbidity treatment.
4. Turbidity Test. The Jackson candle
turbidimeter is the standard instrument used for making
turbidity measurements. It consists of a graduated glass
tube, a standard candle, and a support for the candle and
tube. The glass tube and the candle must be placed in a
vertical position on the support so that the centerline of
the glass tube passes through the centerline of the candle.
The top of the support for the candle should be 7.6
centimeters (3 inches) below the bottom of the tube. The
glass tube must be graduated, preferably to read direct in
turbidities (p.p.m.), and the bottom must be flat and
polished. Most of the tube should be enclosed in a metal
or other suitable case when observations are being made.
The candle support will have a spring or other device to
keep the top of the candle pressed against the top the
support. The candle will be made of beeswax and
spermaceti, gauged to burn within the limits of 114 to 126
grains per hour.
5. Turbidity measurements are based on the depth
of suspension required for the image of the candle flame
to disappear when observed through the suspension. To
insure uniform results, the flame should be kept a constant
size and the same distance below the glass tube. This
requires frequent trimming of the charred portion of the
candle wick and frequent observations to see that the
candle is pushed to the top of its support. Each time
before lighting the candle, remove the charred part of the
wick. Do not keep the candle lit for more than a few
minutes at a time, for the flame has a tendency to increase
in size.
6. The observation is made by pouring the
suspension into the glass tube until the image of the
candle flame just disappears from view. Pour slowly
when the candle becomes only faintly visible. After the
image disappears, remove 1 percent of the suspension
from the tube; this should make the image visible again.
Care should be taken to keep the glass tube clean on both
Figure 75. Proportioneers heavy-duty midget Chlor-O-Feeder.

88
Figure 76. Hydraulically driven hypochlorinator.

Figure 77. Motor-driven hypochlorinator.

89
 Figure 78. Wilson type DES hypochlorinator.
the inside and the outside. The accumulation of soot or
moisture on the bottom of the tube may interfere with the
accuracy of the results. The depth of the liquid is read in
centimeters on the glass tube, and the corresponding
turbidity measurement is recorded in parts per million.
7. Turbidity Treatment. Filtration is the most
common method for removing suspended matter that you
will encounter. Coagulants, flocculators, and
sedimentation basins are also used but are more common
to large water treatment facilities.
8. Sand and anthracite coal are the materials
commonly used as filter media. The depth of the filter
bed can range up to 30 inches, depending upon the type of
filter you will be using. You will find that quartz sand,
silica sand, and anthracite coal are used in most gravity
and pressure type filters.
9. Gravity filters. As the name implies, the flow of
water through the filter is obtained through
Figure 79. Model S hypochlorinator.
90
gravity. These filters are not common to our career field
because coagulants and flocculation are required before
effective filtration can occur.
10. Pressure filers. Pressure filers are more widely
used because they may be placed in the line under
pressure and thus eliminate double piping.
11. Pressure filters may be of the vertical or
horizontal type. The filter shells are steel, cylindrical in
shape; with dished heads. Vertical filters range in
diameter from 1 to 10 feet, with capacities from 2.4
g.p.m. to 235 g.p.m. at a filtering rate of 3 gals/sq.ft/min.
Horizontal filters, 8 feet in diameter, may be 10 to 25 feet
long, with capacities from 210 g.p.m. to 570 g.p.m.
12. Filter operation. When you initially operate, or
operate the filter after backwashing it, you should allow
the filtered water to waste for a few minutes. This
procedure rids the system of possible suspended solids
remaining in the underdrain system after backwashing
and also permits a small amount of suspended matter to
accumulate on the filter bed. As soon as the filter
produces clear water, the unit is placed in normal service.
13. During operation, the suspended matter removed
by the filter accumulates on the surface of the filter. A
loss-of-head gauge indicates when backwashing is
necessary. Backwashing is necessary when the gauge
reads 5 p.s.i.g.
14. Backwashing rates are much higher than
filtration rates because the bed must be expanded and the
suspended matter washed away. This backwashing is
continued for 5 to 10 minutes; then the filter is returned to
service.
15. We have discussed the testing and treatment of
water to be used in our systems. To make
valid tests and prescribe proper treatment, you must
understand the proper methods of water sampling.
25. Sampling
1. Frequent chemical and bacteriological analyses
or tests of raw and treated water are required to plan and
control treatment and to insure a safe and potable water.
Facilities needed for water analysis depend on the type of
supply and treatment. They vary from a simple chlorine
residual and pH comparator to a fully equipped
laboratory. Our discussions here are not concerned with
analysis as such, since the term “analysis” implies that we
completely disassemble water into its elementary
composition. In complete water analysis your required
task is to obtain valid samples to be forwarded to the
proper laboratories. The sampling and testing with which
you personally are concerned are simple and consist only
of routine type tests that can be made in the field or in a
base laboratory with simple chemicals and comparator
equipment.
2. Sampling Methods. Sampling is an extremely
important operation in maintaining quality of water
supply. Unless the water sample is representative, test
results cannot be accurate. You must be very careful to
obtain a sample that is not contaminated by any outside
source, such as dirty hands, dirty faucets, dirty or
unsterilized containers. Do not sabotage the entire
operation before it gets a good start. Follow approved,
correct sampling methods like those outlined here and use
only chemically clean sample containers.
3. Chemical analysis. The following precautions
and actions are necessary when samples for chemical
analysis are taken:
a. Wells. Pump the well until normal draw-down is
reached. Rinse the chemically clean sample container
with the water to be tested and then fill it.
b. Surface supplies. Fill chemically clean raw
water sample containers with water from the pump
discharge only after the pump has operated long enough
to flush the discharge line. Take the water sample from
the pond, lake, or stream with a submerged sampler at the
intake depth and location.
c. Plant. Take samples inside a treatment plant
from channels, pipe taps, or other points where good
mixing is obtained.
d. Tap or distribution system. Let tap water run
long enough to draw the water from the main before
taking samples.
e. Sample for dissolved gas test. Take care to
prevent change in dissolved gas content during sampling.
Flush the line; then attach a rubber hose to the tap and let
91
the water flow until all air is removed from the hose.
Drop the end of the hose to the bottom of a chemically
clean sample bottle and fill gently, withdrawing the hose
as the water rises. Test for dissolved gas immediately.
4. Bacteriological analysis. In obtaining samples
for bacteriological analysis, contamination of the bottle,
stopper, or sample often causes a potable water supply to
be reported as nonpotable. Full compliance with all
precautions listed in the paragraphs below is necessary to
assure a correct analysis.
a. Bottles. Use only sterilized bottles with glass
stoppers. Cover the stopper and the neck of the bottle
with a square of wrapping paper or other guard to protect
against dust and handling. Before sterilizing the sample
bottle to be used to test chlorinated water, place 0.02 to
0.05 gram of sodium thiosulfate, powdered or in solution,
in each bottle to neutralize chlorine residual in sample.
Keep the sterilization temperature under 392° F. to
prevent decomposition of the thiosulfate.
b. Sampling from a tap. After testing for chlorine
residual, close the tap and heat the outlet with an alcohol
or gasoline torch to destroy any contaminating material
that may be on the lip of the faucet. Occasionally, extra
samples may be collected without flaming the faucet to
determine whether certain faucet outlets are
contaminated. Flush the tap long enough to draw water
from the main. Never use a rubber hose or other
temporary attachment when drawing a sample from the
tap. Without removing the protective cover, remove the
bottle stopper and hold both cover and stopper in one
hand. Do not touch the mouth of the bottle or sides of the
stopper. Fill the bottle three-quarters full. Do not rinse
the bottle, since thiosulfate will be lost. Replace the
stopper and fasten the protective cover with the same
care.
c. Sampling from tanks, ponds, lakes, and streams.
When collecting samples from standing water, remove the
stopper as previously described and plunge the bottle,
with the mouth down and hold at about a 45° angle, at
least 3 inches beneath the surface. Tilt the bottle to allow
the air to escape and to fill the bottle. When filling the
bottle, move it in a direction away from the hand holding
it so water that has contacted the hand does not enter the
bottle. After filling, discard a quarter of the water and
replace the stopper.
d. Transporting and storing samples. Biological
changes occur rapidly. Therefore, if the test is to be made
at the installation, perform the test within an hour if
possible or refrigerate it and test within 48 hours. If the
sample is to be tested at a laboratory away from the
installation,
use the fastest means of transportation to get to the 1. What is the main scale-forming compound found
laboratory. in condensing water systems? (Sec 21, Par. 1)

e. Sample data. You must identify each sample.

Note the sampling point, including building number and
street location for sample of distribution system; source of 2. Scale will form when the pH value is _________
water, such as installation water supply; and the date of ________to _________________ and the p.p.m.
collection. is __________________ or higher. (Sec. 21,
Par. 4)
5. Laboratory Methods and Procedures for
Testing. As you were told earlier in this section, analysis
is an involved process beyond the scope of your
responsibility. However, nonstandard testing, either in a 3. What are the cycles of concentration if the
laboratory or in the field, may comprise a part of your makeup water is 100 p.p.m. and the circulating
daily work. Since you are probably going to be working water is 200 p.p.m.? (Sec. 21, Par. 6)
in a base laboratory part of the time, laboratory technique
are required knowledge. Some of the basic rules are
outlined in the following paragraphs.
4. Give four methods of preventing scale. (Sec. 21,
6 Cleanliness. Chemical and bacteriological tests Par. 7)
can easily be invalidated by impurities introduced into the
test by dirty hands, clothing, or equipment. Set up a
regular daily schedule for cleaning laboratory equipment,
furniture, and floors. 5. During the soap hardness test you use 10 ml. of
standard soap solution to obtain a permanent
7. Personal safety. Keep hands away from your lather. What is the hardness of your sample?
mouth or eyes, especially when working with poisonous (Sec. 21, Par. 9)
chemicals or bacteriological cultures. Keep a diluted
solution of lysol or mercuric chloride and a bicarbonate of
soda solution at or near the laboratory sink at all times.
Rinse hands with this solution immediately after washing 6. Which softening process changes calcium and
any bacteriological-culture glassware or acid containers. magnesium from a soluble to an insoluble state?
Then wash thoroughly with soap and water. Never smoke (Sec. 21, Par. 11)
or eat in the laboratory. Drinking from laboratory
glassware may result in serious illness if a contaminated
beaker is used. Do not use laboratory to prepare food or
use incubators or refrigerators to store food. 7. How does the zeolite process soften water? (Sec.
21, Par. 11)
Review Exercises

The following exercises are study aids. Write your

answers in pencil in the space provided after each 8. Why is it necessary to add lime or clay to the
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on Accelator? (Sec. 21, Par. 15)
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your
answers for grading.
9. What factors would limit the use of the
Spiractor? (Sec. 21, Par. 17)

10 What is used to restore the sodium ions in a

zeolite softener? (Sec. 21, Par. 18)

92
11. In what type of liquid is corrosion more rapid? 19. How is the chromate concentration of treated
(Sec. 22, Par. 2) water measured? (Sec. 22, Par. 13)

12. What is the most common type of corrosion in 20. Why shouldn’t high concentrations of
an acid liquid? (Sec. 22, Par. 4) polyphosphates be used? (Sec. 22, Par. 14)

13. Which type of corrosion is characterized by 21. Give two advantages using polyphosphates over
cavities and gradually develops into pinhole chromates. (Sec. 22, Par. 15)
leaks? (Sec. 22, Par. 5)

22. Why must bleedoff be adjusted on condenser

14. If a system contains an abundance of copper and water systems when polyphosphates are used?
a few unions of steel, and the steel unions are (Sec. 22, Par. 16)
corroding at a very high rate, what type of
corrosion is taking place? (Sec. 22, Par. 6)

23. In what two forms may chemical corrosion

inhibitors be that are placed in a nylon net bag,
15. What causes erosion-corrosion and what is used which in turn is placed in a cooling tower? (Sec.
to control this type of corrosion? (Sec. 22, Pars. 22, Par. 18)
7 and 8)

24. What type of corrosion inhibitor feeders are

16. What are the two most common chemical required on chilled water and brine systems?
corrosion inhibitors? (Sec. 22, Par. 10) (Sec. 22, Par. 18)

17. Chromates are most effective in air-conditioning 25. What are the effects of algae on the operation of
water systems when the concentration is an air-conditioning system? (Sec. 23, Par. 1)
_____________ to ___________ and the pH is
____________________. (Sec. 22, Par. 11)

26. How many p.p.m. of chlorine are needed to

eliminate algae growth in a cooling tower? (Sec.
18. What is the most common chromate used and 23, Par. 2)
why? (Sec. 22, Par. 11)

93
27. (Agree)(Disagree) During the performance of the 35. Why is calcium hypochlorite used more often
residual chlorine test, you must heat the sample than sodium hypochlorite? (Sec. 23, Pars. 26
to 70° F. before adding the orthotolidine. (Sec. and 27)
23, Par. 3)

36. Which hypochlorinator would you select if the

28. Why is chlorination an effective method of algae water to be treated required 100 gallons of
control in cooling towers and evaporative chlorine solution per day? Why? (Sec. 23, Par
condensers? (Sec. 23, Par. 6) 32)

29. Why is the orthotolidine-arsenite test preferred to 37. The dosage of chlorine added to the 0.5 million
the orthotolidine test? (Sec. 23, Par. 8) gallons of water, when 20 pounds of chlorine is
added per day, is approximately
______________ p.p.m. (solve to the nearest
p.p.m.). (Sec. 23, Par. 34)
30. What is the combined available chlorine residual
when the free available chlorine residual is 2.5
p.p.m. and the total residual chlorine is 3.25
p.p.m.? (Sec. 23, Par. 9) 38. How many pounds of HTH would you have to
add to treat water which requires 30 pounds of
chlorine? (Solve to the nearest pound). (Sec. 23,
Pars. 35 and 36)
31. Describe the procedure used to perform the
chlorine demand test. (Sec. 23, Pars. 13, 14, and
15)
39. How many gallons of chlorine is added per day
to treat 2 million gallons of water when the
dosage is 1.5 p.p.m. and the strength of the
32. As the result of a pH determination with a color dosing solution is 10 percent? (Sec. 23, Par. 36)
comparator, you have found the pH to be 7.7.
How would you have reached this solution?
(Sec. 23, Pars. 17, 18, and 19)
40. What precautions must be followed while you
are performing the Jackson turbidimeter test?
(Sec. 24, Pars. 4, 5, and 6)
33. After you have added two drops of
phenolphthalein indicator to the sample, the
sample turned pink. The sample is (acid,
alkaline). (Sec. 23, Par. 22) 41. How many gallons of water can be filtered
through a vertical type pressure filter in 1 hour?
The diameter of the filter is 4 feet. (Sec. 24, Par.
11)
34. Which acids are used to lower the pH and how
are they added to the water? (Sec. 23, Par. 24)

94
42. What precautions for taking water samples is 44. How far below the surface of the water in a tank
common to both chemical and bacteriological should you hold the bottle when taking a
analysis? (Sec. 25, Pars. 3 and 4) sample? (Sec. 25, Par. 4,c)

43. How is a bottle sterilized when it is to be used 45. What type of solution should you wash your
for chlorine testing? (Sec. 25, Par. 4, a) hands with after making water tests? (Sec. 25,
Par. 7)

95
CHAPTER 5
Centrifugal Water Pumps
IF YOU SWING a bucket of water around your head, the
water does not spill out because centrifugal force presses
it toward the bottom of the bucket. If a number of
bottomless buckets were whirled around inside a pipe,
and there were only one hole where water could leave the
pipe, each pail would throw out some of its water as it
passed this hole. It would also suck up more water at the
center. This is exactly how the centrifugal pump works.
Instead of buckets, however, a centrifugal pump has
vertical ribs, or vanes, mounted on a revolving disc. The
water takes up the space between the vanes, or ribs. The
disc, as it revolves, forces water through the pump outlet
to the various components the water serves.
2. In this chapter we will study installation,
operation, and maintenance of centrifugal water pumps.
26. Installation
1. The installation of a centrifugal water pump
includes laying a concrete foundation and aligning each
component. The foundation should be sufficiently
substantial to absorb any vibration and to form a
permanent rigid support for the baseplate. Figure 80
shows a foundation and baseplate. This type of concrete
foundation is important in maintaining the alignment of a
directly driven unit. A mixture of 1 part cement, 3 parts
sand, and 6 parts gravel or crushed rock is recommended.
In building the foundation, you should leave the top
approximately 1 inch low to allow for grouting. You
should roughen and clean the top of the foundation before
placing the unit on it. Foundation bolts of the proper size
should be embedded in the concrete before it sets. Use a
template or drawing to locate the bolts. A pipe sleeve
about 2 diameters larger than the bolt is used to allow
movement for the final positioning of the bolts. Place a
washer between the bolthead and the inner surface of the
pipe to hold the bolt in position.
2. Be sure the foundation bolts are long enough to
project through the nuts one-fourth of a inch after
allowance has been made for grouting, for the thickness
96
of the bedplate, and for the thickness of the foundation
bolt nut. We are now ready to install the pump unit.
3. Place wedges at four points, two below the
approximate center of the pump and two below the
approximate center of the motor. Some installations may
require two additional wedges at the middle of the
bedplate. By adjustment of the wedges you can bring the
unit to an approximate level and provide for the proper
distance above the foundation for grouting. By further
adjustment of the wedges you can bring the coupling
halves in reasonable alignment by tightening down the
pump and motor holddown bolts.
4. Check the gap and angular misalignment on the
coupling. The coupling shown in figure 81 is the “spider
insert” type. The normal gap is one-sixteenth of an inch.
The gap is the difference in the space between the
coupling halves and the thickness of the spider insert.
Angular misalignment may be checked by using calipers
at four points on the circumference of the outer ends of
the coupling hubs, at 90° intervals, as shown in figure 81.
5. The unit will be in angular alignment when the
measurements show the ends of the coupling hubs to be
the same distance apart at all four points. Gap and
angular alignment is obtained by loosening the motor
holddown bolts and shifting or shimming the motor as
required. Tighten down the holddown bolts after
adjustments have been made.
6. After the wedges have been adjusted, tighten the
foundation bolts evenly but only finger-tight. Be sure you
maintain the level of the bedplate. Final tightening of the
foundation bolts is done after the grout has set 48 hours.
7. To grout the unit on the foundation, build a
wooden dam around the foundation, as shown in figure
80, and wet the top surface of the concrete thoroughly.
Now force the grout under the bedplate. The grout should
be thin enough to level out under the bedplate, but not so
wet that the cement will separate from the sand and float
 Figure 80. Pump foundation.
to the surface. The recommended mixture for grout is 1
part of Portland cement to 3 parts of sharp sand. The
grout should completely fill the space under the bedplate.
Allow 48 hours for the grout to harden.
8. Alignment. Alignment of the pump and motor
through the flexible coupling is of extreme importance for
double-free mechanical operation. The following steps
must be followed to establish the initial alignment of the
pumping unit:
(1) Tighten the foundation bolts.
(2) Tighten the pump and motor holddown bolts.
(3) Check the gap and angular adjustment as
discussed previously.
Figure 81. Checking angular alignment.
97
(4) Check parallel alignment by laying a
straightedge across both coupling rims at the top, bottom,
and both sides, as shown figure 82. The unit will be in
horizontal parallel alignment when the straightedge rests
evenly on both halves of the coupling at each side. In
some special services a wide differential will prevail
between the operating temperatures the pump and motor.
Adjustment of alignment to satisfy such operating
conditions must be governed by the specific application.
The vertical difference of the shafts should be measured
with a straightedge and feelers. To establish parallel
alignment, thin shim stock is placed under the motor base.
Occasionally, shims may be required under the pump
base.
(5) Remember, alignment in one direction may alter
the alignment in another. Check through each alignment
procedure after making an alignment alteration.
9. The unit should be checked periodically for
alignment. If the unit does not stay in line
Figure 82. Checking parallel alignment.
after being properly installed, the following are possible
causes:
• Settling, seasoning, or springing of the
foundation
• Pipe strains distorting or shifting the pump
• Shifting of the building structure
• Spring of the baseplate
10. Piping. Connect the suction to the suction
opening in the pump casing. Be sure that all suction
connections are airtight. Use a good pipe joint compound
on all threaded joints and airtight, packed unions. Suction
piping smaller than the casing tapping may be used if
necessary. Larger size suction piping than the casing
tapping is not recommended. A strainer should be
installed in suction line to protect the pump from foreign
matter that may be present in the water.
11. The discharge piping is connected to the
discharge threaded opening. This opening is larger than
the suction opening. Smaller size discharge ping may be
used, but the will be a loss of head and capacity.
12. Both pipes must be properly supported so that
there will not be a strain set up. The strain could cause
breakage of the pump casing or misalignment.
13. Now that you have installed the pump you are
ready to check its operation. To check the operation, you
must know the operating characteristics of the pump.
27. Operation
1. This centrifugal pump may be used as a cooling
or chilled water pump. Whichever application it serves,
the method of operation remains the same. The pump
must be filled through the priming opening before it is
started. Prime the pump by removing the priming plug on
top of the pump casing and filling the pump with the
liquid to be pumped. Be sure that all the plugs in the
pump casing are screwed in tightly. Rotate the pump
shaft by hand in the direction of the arrow on the casing to
be sure that it moves freely. The pump is now ready to be
started. Remember, after the pump is started, you must
check to insure that the direction of rotation agrees with
the arrow on the casing.
2. After the pump is up to speed, the priming time
will depend on the size and length of the suction line. If
for any reason the pump is stopped during the priming
period, be sure to check the liquid level in the pump
before restarting it.
3. If a newly installed pump fails to prime, you
must be sure that the following conditions exist:
(1) All the plugs on the pump casing are airtight.
(2) The liquid level of the pump is at least to the
priming level.
98
(3) All suction line joints are airtight.
(4) The motor direction matches the arrow on the
pump casing.
(5) The motor reaches its rated nameplate speed.
(6) Suction strainer is clean.
4. Insufficient pump discharge can be caused by
improper priming, air leaks in the suction line or pump
stuffing box, low motor speed, plugged impeller or
suction opening, wrong direction of rotation, worn
stuffing box packing, and mechanical pump defects.
These faults can also be related to low pump pressure and
excessive power consumption. Proper operation of the
pump is the result of good maintenance policies.
28. Maintenance
1. If the internal components of the pump become
worn, you should replace the entire pump with another of
the same size to insure the same pumping capacity. After
the new pump is installed, it must be aligned as
previously discussed.
2. Stuffing Boxes. In repacking be sure that
sufficient packing is placed back of the lantern ring,
shown in figure 83, so that the liquid for sealing is
brought in at the lantern ring and not at the packing.
3. The piping supplying the sealing liquid should
be tightly fitted so that no air enters. On suction lifts, a
small quantity of air entering the pump at this point may
result in loss of suction. If the liquid being pumped is
dirty, gritty, or acidic, the sealing liquid should be piped
to the stuffing box from a clean source of water. This
procedure will help prevent damage to the packing and
shaft sleeve.
4. Packing should not be pressed too tight, since
this may result in burning the packing and scoring the
shaft sleeve. A stuffing box is not properly packed if
friction in the box is so great that the shaft cannot be
turned by hand.
5. Always remove and replace all of the old
packing. Do not reuse any of the old packing rings. In
placing the new packing each packing ring should be cut
to the proper length so that the ends come together but do
not overlap. The succeeding rings should be placed in the
stuffing box so that the joints of the rings are staggered
180° apart for two-ring packing, 120° for three-ring, and
so on.
6. If the pump is packed with metallic packing and
stored for a great length of time, it may be necessary to
apply leverage to free the rotor. When first starting the
pump, the packing should be slightly loose, without
causing an air leak. If the gland leaks, put some heavy oil
in the stuffing

Figure 83. Cutaway of bearing and stuffing box.
box until the pump works properly. Then gradually
tighten the gland.
7. When stuffing boxes are water sealed, you must
be sure the water seal valves are opened sufficiently to
allow a slight leakage of water. The leakage is piped
away to a sump or sewer. Many pump failures occur
because personnel observe liquid dripping from a gland
and endeavor to stop it by tightening the gland bolts.
Excessive tightening will cause the packing to burn and
also may score the shaft.
8. All general-service pumps are shipped with the
highest grade of soft, square asbestos packing,
impregnated with oil and graphite.
Figure 84. Cutaway of a mechanical seal.
99
9. Mechanical Seals. A mechanical seal is used in
place of a stuffing box. This seal requires no adjustments,
but it may be necessary to replace certain items should
they become scored or broken. Let us discuss dismantling
and assembling the mechanical shaft seal assembly.
10. Dismantling. Back off the gland bolts to free the
gland plates. Then remove the rotating element from the
pump and take off the bearings and shaft nuts. Let us
follow the remaining steps as illustrated in figure 84.
11. Remove the floating seat and sealing washer. Do
not disturb the bellows unless it needs replacement. The
bellows becomes adhered to the sleeve if the seal has been
in use for any length of time and will be damaged if
moved. If it requires replacement, it must be forced off
the sleeve. After the bellows is removed, the remaining
parts-spring, spring holder, retainer shell, and driving
band-may be taken off. If the seal uses a set collar, you
must measure its location on the shaft before removing it
so as to correctly relocate it during assembly.
12. Assembly. In assembling a mechanical seal,
clean up all the parts and lightly oil the surface of the
floating seat and the shaft sleeve. Use light oil-not grease.
13. Make sure that the synthetic rubber seat is tight
against the shoulder of the floating seat with the rounded
outer edge to the rear to facilitate insertion. Push this
assembly firmly into the cavity in the gland plate and seat
it squarely. Do not push on the lapped face of the floating
seat.
14. The next step is to put the spring holder or set
collar in place. If a set collar is used you must locate the
collar in a position on the shaft determined by the
measurement taken during dismantling.
15. Place the remainder of the seal parts on the shaft
as an assembly. When the extended length of the seal
assembly is longer than the undercut portion of the sleeve
or than the distance from the collar to the end of the
sleeve, the spring must be compressed beforehand and
tied
 Figure 85. Flexible coupling.
together with string. The string should be removed after
installation and after partial tightening of the gland bolts.
Be sure there are no burrs on the sleeve that would harm
the bellows. The new bellow is pushed straight on the
sleeve.
16. The casing joint gasket should be cut at least
one-eighth of an inch oversized and trimmed after the
upper half-casing is bolted down.
17. Bearings. The four types of bearings found in
centrifugal pumps are grease-lubricated (1) ball and (2)
roller bearings, (3) oil-lubricated sleeve bearing, and (4)
oil-lubricated ball bearings. The importance of proper
lubrication cannot be overemphasized. The frequency of
lubrication depends upon the conditions of operation.
Overlubrication is the primary cause of overheated
bearings. For average operating conditions it is
recommended that grease be added at intervals of 3 to 6
months.
18. The housing should be kept clean, for foreign
matter will cause the bearing to wear prematurely. When
you clean the bearing, use clean solvent and wipe it with a
clean cloth. Do not use waste to wipe the bearing because
it will leave lint.
19. A regular ball bearing grease must be used. A
number 1 or 2 grease is satisfactory for most chill or
cooling water pump applications. Mineral greases with a
soda soap base are recommended. Greases made from
animal or vegetable oil should not be used because of the
danger of deterioration and the formation of acid. Most
of the leading oil companies have special bearing greases
that are satisfactory. For specific information of lubricant
recommendations you should consult the manufacturer’s
service bulletins.
20. The maximum operating temperature for ball
100
bearings is 180° F. If the temperature rises above 180° F.,
the pump should be shut down and the cause determined.
21. The oil-lubricated ball bearing is filled with a
good grade of filtered mineral oil (SAE 10) of
approximately 150 Saybolt viscosity a 100° F. The oil
should be changed when it becomes dirty, and the bearing
should be cleaned at the same time. The bearing should
be checked for wear frequently. Make sure that the oil
rings are turning freely when the pump is first started.
They are observed through the oil holes in the bearing
caps.
22. The maximum operating temperature for
babbitted sleeve bearings is 150° F. If the bearing
temperature exceeds 150° F, shut down the pump until the
cause is determined and corrected. Before the pump is
started, the bearing should be flushed thoroughly with a
light grade of oil to remove any dirt or foreign matter that
may have accumulated during storage or installation. The
bearing housing should then be filled to the indicated
level with a good grade filtered mineral oil (SAE 10) of
approximately 150 Saybolt viscosity at 100° F.
23. Couplings. We have already discussed the
“spider insert” coupling. Another coupling you will come
in contact with is the “Magic-Grip.”
24. The “Magic Grip” coupling, shown in figure 85,
consists primarily of two cast iron discs and two bushings.
The bushing is split, which allows it to slide easily on the
shaft. The outer diameter of the bushing and the inside
diameter of the coupling are tapered. There a four drilled
recesses in the bushing which accommodate the OFF and
ON positions of the setscrew holes of the coupling. The
recesses in the bushings are offset so that when the
setscrews are tightened the bushing will either draw in on
the taper and
tighten on the shaft or push out of the taper and loosen on 5. How do you check the angular alignment of a
the shaft. “spider” coupling? (Sec. 26, Par. 4)
25. The coupling is not intended to be a universal
joint. It is capable of taking care of minor angular
misalignment, but you must be sure to carefully align the
coupling during installation. 6. How is angular alignment accomplished? (Sec.
26. To install the coupling, slide the bushing on the 26, Par. 5)
pump or motor shaft with the recess holes away from the
pump. Next place the coupling over the bushing. Insert
both setscrews in the ON position and tighten them
alternately until the coupling is tight on the shaft. 7. Explain the procedure used to grout the pump
27. To remove the coupling, remove both setscrews unit on the foundation. (Sec. 26, Par. 7)
from the ON position and insert them in the OFF position.
Turn the setscrews until the coupling is free on the
busing; then loosen the setscrews and remove the
coupling from the bushing. The bushing will now slide 8. How many parts of Portland cement to sharp
off the shaft. sand are used to make grout? (Sec. 26, Par. 7)

Review Exercises

The following exercises are study aids. Write your 9. How long should you allow the grout to harden?
answers in pencil in the space provided after each (Sec. 26, Par. 7)
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the test. Do not submit your
answers for grading. 10. Explain the steps you must follow to establish
the initial alignment of the pumping unit. (Sec.
1. How many pounds of cement would you have to 26, Par. 8)
mix with 12 pounds of sand and 24 pounds of
crushed rock to form the concrete foundation for
a pump? (Sec. 26, Par. 1)
11. Why would alignment be necessary after the unit
has been operating for a period of time? (Sec.
26, Par. 9)
2. Why is a 1-inch space left between the concrete
foundation and the baseplate? (Sec. 26, Par. 1)

12. A _________________ is installed in the suction

line to protect the pump from foreign matter.
3. How large a pipe sleeve would you use with a (Sec. 26, Par. 10)
baseplate bolt measuring three-fourths of an inch
in diameter? (Sec. 26, Par. 1)

13. What will occur if you install a smaller discharge

pipe than the threaded discharge opening in the
4. Where do you place the wedges to level the pump? (Sec. 26. Par. 11)
baseplate? (Sec. 26, Par. 3)

101
14. How is the pump primed? (Sec. 27, Par. 1) 23. Name the four types of bearings commonly
found in centrifugal pumps. (Sec. 28, Par. 17)

15. Explain what you should do after the pump is

primed and before it is stared. (Sec. 27, Par. 1) 24. What occurs when a bearing is lubricated too
often? (Sec. 28, Par. 17)

16. List at least four causes for failure of a newly

installed pump to prime. (Sec. 27, Par. 3) 25. What type of grease is recommended for grease-
lubricated bearings? (Sec. 28, Par. 19)

17. A pump that uses a stuffing box takes liquid in

for sealing at ___________________. (Sec. 28, 26. Why aren’t vegetable and animal greases used to
Par. 2) lubricate pump bearing? (Sec. 2, Par. 19)

18. When is it necessary to pipe water from a clean 27. The maximum operating temperature for grease-
water source to the stuffing box? (Sec. 28, Par. lubricated bearings is __________________.
3) (Sec. 28, Par. 20)

19. Why is exact packing tightening important? 28. The maximum operating temperature for an oil-
(Sec. 28, Par. 4) lubricated babbitted sleeve bearing is
___________________. (Sec. 28, Par. 22)

20. How would you stagger the packing joints in the

stuffing box that uses five rings? (Sec. 28, Par. 29. What are the four drilled recesses in the bushing
5) of a “Magic-Grip” coupling used for? (Sec. 28,
Par. 24)

21. The first step to perform when dismantling a

mechanical seal is to _________________. 30. (Agree)(Disagree) During installation of a
(Sec. 28, Par. 10) “Magic-Grip” coupling, the recessed holes
should be facing the pump. (Sec. 28, Par. 26)

22. Which item shouldn’t you disturb when

dismantling a mechanical pump unless it is to be
replaced? (Sec. 28, Par. 11)

102

Fundamentals of Electronic Controls
A MISSILE STREAKS across the sky. The missile’s
flight is controlled electronically from a command post.
The success of the launch and flight of the “bird” depends
largely upon how well the electronic technicians
performed their tasks.
2. Let us compare the missile launch to an
electronic control system. The missile can be compared
to the controlled variable-humidity, temperature, airflow,
etc. The movable rocket motor is the controlled device.
The controlled device is the component within the system
that receives a signal from the control to compensate for a
change in the variable. Last, but not least, we have the
guidance system. Our controllers thermostats,
humidistats, etc. -perform in much the same way as a
guidance system. A change in the controlled variable will
cause the controller to respond with a corrective signal.
3. In this chapter we will discuss vacuum tubes,
amplification, semiconductors, transistor circuits, bridge
circuits, and discriminator circuits. We will relate
amplifier, bridge, and discriminator circuits to electronic
controls. Electronic controls are becoming popular in the
equipment cooling area of your career field because of
their sensitivity and reaction time.
29. Vacuum Tubes
1. Electricity is based entirely upon the electron
theory--that an electron is a minute, negatively charged
particle. Atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus
around which are grouped a number of electrons. The
physical properties of any atom depend upon the number
of electrons and the size of the nucleus; however, almost
all matter has free electrons. The movement of these free
electrons is known as a current of electricity. If the
movement of electrons is in “one” direction only, this is
direct current. If, however, the source of voltage is
alternated between positive and negative, the movement
of electrons will also alternate; this is alternating current.
103
CHAPTER 6
2. The vacuum tube differs from other electrical
devices in that the electric current does not flow through a
conductor. Instead, it passed through a vacuum inside the
tube. This flow of electrons is only possible if free
electrons are somehow introduced into the vacuum.
Electrons in the evacuated space will be attracted to a
positively charged object within the same space because
the electrons are negatively charged. Likewise, they will
be repelled by another negatively charged object within
the same space. Any movement of electrons under the
influence of attraction or repulsion of charged objects is
the current in a vacuum. The operation of all vacuum
tubes depends upon an available supply of electrons.
Electron emission can be accomplished by several
methods--field, thermionic, photoelectric and
bombardment-but the most important is thermionic
emission.
3. Thermionic Emission. To get an idea of what
occurs during thermionic emission you should visualize
the Christmas sparkler. When you light the sparkler it
burns and sparks in all directions. The filament in a
vacuum tube reacts the same way when heated to a high
temperature. Millions of electrons leave the filament in
all directions and fly off into the surrounding space. The
higher the temperature, within limits, the greater the
number of electrons emitted. The filament in a directly
heated vacuum tube is commonly referred to as a cathode.
Refer to figure 86 for the symbol of a filament in a
vacuum tube with heating sources.
4. The cathode must be heated to a high
temperature before electrons will be given off. However
this does not mean that the heating current must flow
through the actual material that does the emitting. You
can see in figure 87 that the part that does the heating can
be electrically separate from the emitting element. A
cathode that is separate from the filament is an indirectly
heated cathode, whereas an emitting filament is a directly
heated cathode.
5. Much greater electron emission can be
 Figure 86. Thermionic emission.

obtained, at lower temperatures, by coating the cathode
with special compounds. One of these is thoriated
tungsten, or tungsten in which thorium is dissolved.
However, much greater efficiency is achieved in the
oxide-coated cathode, a cathode in which rare-earth
oxides form a coating over a metal base. Usually this
rare-earth oxide coating consists of barium or strontium
oxide. Oxide-coated emitters have a long life and great
emission efficiency.
6. The electrons emitted by the cathode stay in its
immediate vicinity. These form a negatively charged
cloud about the cathode. This cloud, which is called a
space charge, will repel those electrons nearest the
cathode and force them back in on it. In order to use
these electrons, we must put a second element within the
vacuum tube. This second element is called an anode (or
plate), and it gives us our simplest type of vacuum tube,
the diode.
7. Diode Vacuum Tube. Each vacuum tube must
have at least two elements or electrodes: a cathode and an
anode (commonly called a plate). The cathode is an
emitter of electrons and the plate is a collector of
electrons. Both elements are inclosed inside an envelope
of glass or metal. This discussion centers around the
vacuum tube diode from which the air as much possible
has been removed. However, it should be understood that
gaseous diodes do exist. The

Figure 87. Indirectly and directly heated cathodes.

104
 Figure 88. Electron flow in a diode.

term “diode” refers to the number of elements within the
tube envelope (di meaning two) rather than to any specific
application, as shown in figure 88.
8. The operation of the diode depends upon the fact
that if a positive voltage is applied to the plate with
respect to the heated cathode, current will flow through
the tube. When the plate is negative with respect to the
cathode, current will not flow through the tube. Since
current will pass through a vacuum tube in only one
direction, a diode can be used to change a.c. to d.c.
9. Diode as a half-wave rectifier. Experiments
with diode vacuum tubes reveal that the amount of current
which flows from cathode to plate depends upon two
factors: the temperature of the cathode, and the potential
(voltage) between the cathode and the plate. Refer to
figure 89, a diagram of a simple diode rectifier circuit.
10. When an a.c. source is connected to the plate and
cathode such a circuit, one-half of each a.c. cycle will be
positive and the other half will be negative. Therefore,
alternating voltage from the secondary of the transformer
is applied to the diode tube in series with a load resistor,
R. The voltage varies, as is usual with a.c., but current
passes through the tube and R only when the plate is
positive with respect to the cathode. In other words,
current flows only during the half-cycle when the plate
end of the transformer winding is positive. When the
plate is negative, no current will pass.
11. Since the current through the diode flows in one
direction only, it is direct current. This type of diode
rectifier circuit is called a half-

Figure 89. Simple half-wave rectifier circuit.

105
 Figure 90. Output of a half-wave rectifier.

wave rectifier, because it rectifies only during one-half of
the a.c. cycle. As a result, the rectified output will be
pulses of d.c., as shown in figure 90. You can see from
figure 90 that these pulses of direct current are quite
different from pure direct current. It rises from zero to a
maximum and returns to zero during the positive half-
cycle of the alternating current, but does not flow at all
during the negative half-cycle. This type of current is
referred to as pulsating direct current to distinguish it
from pure direct current.
12. In order to change this rectified alternating
current into almost pure direct current, these fluctuations
must be removed. In other words, it is necessary to cut
off the humps at the tops of the half-cycles of current and
fill in the gaps caused by the negative half-cycle of no
current. This process is called “filtering” ‘
13. Look at the complete electrical circuit of figure
91. Filtering is accomplished by connecting capacitors,
choke coils (inductors), and resistors in the proper
manner. If a filter circuit is added to the half-wave
rectifier, a satisfactory degree of filtering can be obtained.
Capacitors C1 and C2 have a small reactance at the a.c.
frequency, and they are connected across the load resistor,
R. These capacitors will become charged during the
positive half-cycles as voltage is applied across the load
resistor. The capacitors will discharge through R and L
during the negative half-cycles, when the tube is not
conducting, thus tending to smooth out, or filter out, the

Figure 91. Filter network added to a half-wave rectifier.

106
 Figure 92. Full-wave rectifier.
pulsating direct current. Such a capacitor is known as a
filter capacitor.
14. Inductor L is a filter choke having high reactance
at the a.c. frequency and a low value of d.c. resistance. It
will oppose any current variations, but will allow direct
current to flow almost unhindered through the circuit. In
order use both alternations of a.c., this circuit must be
converted to a full-wave rectifier.
15. Diode used or full-wave rectification. One
disadvantage of the half-wave rectifier is that no current is
available from the transformer during the negative half-
cycle. Therefore, some of the voltage produced during
the positive half cycle must be used to filter out the
voltage variations. This filtering action reduces the
average voltage output of the circuit. Since the circuit is
conducting only half the time, it is not very efficient.
Consequently, the full-wave rectifier, which rectifies both
half-cycles, was developed for use in the power supply
circuits of modern electronic equipment.
16. In a full-wave rectifier circuit, two diodes may
be used. However, in many applications, the two diodes
are included in one envelope and the tube is referred to as
a duo-diode. A typical example of a full-wave rectifier
circuit is shown in figure 92. In this circuit a duo-diode is
used, and the transformer’s secondary winding has a
center tap. Notice that the center tap current is turned to
ground and then through R and inductor L to the cathode
(filament) of V1. The voltage appearing across X and Y
is 700 volts a.c. The center tap is at zero potential with
350 volts on each side.
17. Point X of the high-voltage winding is connected
to plate P2, and Y is connected to P1. The plates conduct
107
alternately, since at any given instant, one plate is positive
and the other is negative. During one half-cycle, P1 will
be positive with respect to the center tap of the
transformer secondary winding while P2 will be negative.
This means that P1 will be conducting while P2 is
nonconducting.
18. During the other half-cycle, P1, will be negative
and nonconducting while P2 will be positive and
conducting. Therefore, since the two plates take turns in
their operation, one plate is always conducting. Current
flows through the load resistor in the same direction
during both halves of the cycle, which is called full-wave
rectification. The circuit shown in figure 92 is the basis
for all a.c. operated power supplies that furnish d.c.
voltages for electronic equipment. Notice that the heater
voltage for the duo-diode is taken from a special
secondary winding on the transformer.
19. The next tube you will study is the triode. The
triode is used to amplify a signal.
30. Amplification
1. With the invention of the triode vacuum tube, the
amplification of electrical power was introduced.
Technically speaking, amplification means slaving a large
d.c. voltage to a small varying signal voltage to make the
large d.c. voltage have the same wave shape as the signal
voltage. As a result, the wave-shaped d.c. voltage will do
the same kind of work as the signal voltage will do, but in
a larger quantity. After the triode came the tetrode,
pentode, etc., to do a much better job of amplification
than the triode. Amplification by use of the triode and
other multi-element
vacuum tubes will be discussed in this section.
2. Triode Vacuum Tube. In the diode tubes
previously described, current in the plate circuit was
determined by cathode temperature and by the voltage
applied to the plate. A much more sensitive control of the
plate current can be achieved by the use of a third
electrode in the tube. The third electrode (or element),
called a control grid, is usually made in the form of a
spiral or screen of fine wire. It is physically located
between the cathode and plate, and is in a separate
electrical circuit. The term “grid” comes from its early
physical form.
3. The control grid is placed much closer to the
cathode than to the plate, in order to have a greater effect
on the electrons that pass from the cathode to the plate.
Because of its strategic location the grid can control plate
current by variations in its voltage. The operation of a
triode vacuum tube is explained in the following
paragraphs.
4. If a small negative voltage (with respect to the
cathode) is applied to the grid, there is a change in
electron flow within the tube. Since the electrons are
negative charges of electricity, the negative voltage on the
grid will tend to repel the electrons emitted by the
cathode, which tends to prevent them from passing
through the grid on their way to the plate. However, the
plate is highly positive with respect to the cathode and
attracts many of the electrons through the grid. Thus,
many electrons pass through the negative grid and reach
the plate in spite of the opposition offered them by the
negative grid voltage.
5. A small negative voltage on the grid of the
vacuum tube will reduce the electron flow from the
cathode to the plate. As the grid is made more and more
negative, it repels the electrons from the cathode, and this
in turn decreases plate current. When the grid bias
reaches a certain negative value, the positive voltage on
the plate is unable to attract any more electrons and the
plate current decreases to zero. The point at which this
negative voltage stops all plate current is referred to as
cutoff bias for that particular tube.
6. Also, as the grid becomes less and less negative,
the positive plate attracts more electrons and current
increases. However, a point is reached where plate
current does not increase even though the grid bias is
made more positive. This point, which varies with
different types of tubes, is called the saturation level of
vacuum tubes. So you can see that the control grid acts as
a valve controlling plate current. One other thing must be
made clear at this point. If the positive plate voltage is
108
increased, the negative grid voltage must be increased if
you need to limit current through the tube.
7. Control Grid Bias. Grid bias has been defined
as the d.c. voltage (potential) on the grid with respect to
the cathode. It is usually a negative voltage, but in some
cases the grid is operated at a positive potential.
Generally when the term “bias” is used, it is assumed to
be negative. There are three general methods of
providing this bias voltage.
8. The first is fixed bias. Figure 93 shows how the
negative terminal of a battery could be connected to the
control grid of a tube, and the cathode connected to
ground to provide bias. If you say that the bias is 5 volts,
you mean that the grid is 5 volts “negative” with respect
to the cathode. Two methods of obtaining a bias of 5
volts are shown in figure 93. In diagram X the battery is
connected with its negative terminal to the grid, while its
positive terminal and the cathode are grounded. Diagram
Y shows the positive terminal of the battery connected to
the cathode, while its negative terminal and the grid are
grounded. In either case, the grid is 5 volts negative with
respect to the cathode. If the grid and the cathode are at
the same potential, there is no difference in voltage and
the tube is operating at zero bias (diagram Z).
9. The second method of obtaining grid bias is
called cathode bias. The cathode bias method uses a
resistor (Rk) connected in series with the cathode, as
shown in figure 94. As the tube conducts, current is in
such a direction that the end of the resistor nearest the
cathode is positive. The voltage drop across Rk makes the
grid negative with respect to the cathode. This negative
grid bias is obtained from the steady d.c. across Rk. The
amount of grid bias on the triode tube is determined by
the voltage drop (IR) across Rk.
10. Any signal that is fed into the grid will change
the amount of current through the tube, which in turn will
change the grid bias, due to the fact that current also
changes through the cathode resistor. To stabilize this
bias voltage, the cathode resistor is bypassed by a
condenser, C1, that has low resistance compared with the
resistance of Rk. Here’s how this works.
11. As the triode conducts, condenser C1, will
charge. If the tube, due to an input signal, tends to
conduct less, C1, will discharge slightly across RR, and
keep the voltage drop constant. The voltage drop across
the cathode resistor is held almost constant, even though
the signal is continually varying.
12. Our third method of getting grid bias is called
contact potential, or grid-leak bias. This type of bias
depends upon the input signal. Two circuits using contact
potential or grid-leak bias,
 Figure 93. Using a battery to get fixed or zero bias.

are shown figure 95. The action in each case is similar-
that is, when an a.c. signal is applied to the grid, it draws
current on the positive half-cycle. This current flows in
the external circuit between the cathode and the grid.
This current flow will charge condenser C1, as shown by
the dark, heavy lines. One thing to keep in mind at this
time is the ohmic value of the grid resistor. It is very
high, in the order of several hundred thousand ohms.
13. As the signal voltage goes through the negative
half-cycle, the condenser C1, starts discharging. The
control grid cannot discharge through the tube since it is
not an emitter of electrons. The only place to can start
discharging is through the grid resistor, Rg,. This
discharge path is flown by the dotted arrows. A negative
voltage is developed across Rg, which biases the tube.
Since the resistor, Rg, has a very high value (500,000
ohms to several megohms), the condenser only has time
to discharge a small amount before a new cycle begins.
This means that only a very small current flows, or leaks
through. However, because of the large value of Rg, C1

Figure 94. Cathode biasing with a cathode resistor.

109
 Figure 95. Connect potential bias.
will remain continuously charged to some value as long
as a signal is applied.
14. One of the main disadvantages of this type of
bias is the fact that bias is developed only when a signal is
applied to the grid. If the signal is removed for any
reason, the tube conducts very heavily and may be
damaged. This condition can be prevented by using
“combination bias,” which uses both grid-leak bias and
cathode bias. This combination provides the advantages
needed with an added safety precaution in case the signal
is removed.
15. Triode Tube Operation. Since a small voltage
change on the grid causes a large change in plate current,
the triode tube can be used as an amplifier. If a small a.c.
voltage is applied between the cathode and the grid, it will
cause a change in grid bias and thus vary plate current.
This small a.c. voltage between cathode and grid is called
a signal.
16. The large variations in plate current through the
plate load resistor (RL) develops an a.c. voltage
component across the resistor which is many times larger
than the signal voltage. This process is called
amplification and is illustrated in figure 96.
17. The one tube and its associated circuits (the input
and output circuits) is called one stage of amplification or
a one-stage amplifier. A single-stage amplifier might not
produce enough amplification or gain to do a particular
job. To increase the overall gain, the output of one stage
110
may be coupled to the control grid of another stage and
the output amplified again. Look at figure 97 for a two-
stage amplifier. There are various types of couplings.
But generally the idea is to block the d.c. plate voltage of
the preceding stage to keep it off the grid of the following
stage because it would upset the bias of the following
stage. A capacitor is used to couple one stage to another
because a capacitor blocks d.c. or will not let it pass.
18. Tetrode Amplifiers. While a triode is a good
amplifier at low frequencies, it has a fault when used in
circuits having a high frequency. This fault results from
the capacitance effect between the electrodes of the tube
and is known as interelectrode capacitance. The
capacitance which causes the most trouble is between the
plate and the control grid. This capacitance couples the
output circuit to the input circuit of the amplifier stage,
which causes instability and unsatisfactory operation.
19. To correct this fault, another tube was built that
has a grid similar to the control grid placed between the
plate and the control grid as seen in figure 98. This new
grid is connected to a positive potential somewhat lower
than the plate potential. It is also connected to the
cathode through a capacitor. The second grid serves as a
screen between the plate and the control grid and is called
a screen grid. The tube is called a tetrode.
20. Beam Power Tubes. Electron tubes which
handle large amounts of current are known as beam
power amplifiers. Let us compare a voltage
 Figure 96. Triode tube operation.

amplifier with a power amplifier. A voltage amplifier
may draw 10 milliamperes of plate current while a power
amplifier can draw 250 milliamperes of plate current.
The beam power amplifier is more rugged, with larger
elements, and must dissipate heat faster due to the greater
current.
21. In figure 99 a specially constructed tetrode which
has a filament or cathode, control grid, screen grid, and
plate is called a beam power tetrode. To eliminate
secondary emission effect, the screen grid wires lie in the
shadow of the control grid thus forming the space current
into narrow beams. The resulting beams provide the
effect of suppressor grid action, and thus permits the
characteristic curves to be similar to those of a pentode.
22. Because of the amount of electrons in the
negatively charged beam, any secondary electrons emitted
by the plate are returned to the plate. By internally
connecting the beam-forming plates to the cathode, the
concentration of the electrons are

Figure 9. Two-stage amplifier.

111
 Figure 98. Tetrode amplifier circuit.
even higher, causing the beam to act as a suppressor grid
in the pentode.
23. Pentode Amplifiers. The tetrode tube is a better
amplifier than the triode tube, but it also has a fault. A
cold plate does not normally emit electrons. However,
high-velocity electrons, produced by the positive potential
on the screen grid, cause other electrons to be knocked
from the plate. The liberation of these electrons is called
secondary emission. The secondary electrons will be
attracted to the positive screen grid and will reduce the
plate current. To overcome this, a vacuum tube was
designed that contains still another grid. This grid, shown
in figure 100, is called a suppressor grid and is placed
between the plate and the screen grid. A negative
potential is applied to the suppressor grid, and the
negative potential forces the secondary electrons back to
the plate and prevents secondary electrons from reaching
the screen grid. These five-element tubes, or pentodes,
are the highest development of amplifier tubes.
24. Classes of Amplifiers. Amplifiers are divided
into the following classes, based on tube operation or bias
voltage:
Figure 99. Construction of a beam-power tube.
112
• A class A amplifier has plate current or conducts
for 360° of the input signal.
• A class B amplifier conducts for 180° of the
input signal.
• A class AB amplifier is a combination of both
class A and B.
• A class C amplifier has plate current flowing for
approximately 120° of the input signal.
25. Vacuum tubes have several disadvantages -size,
warming up period, etc. Transistors are rapidly replacing
vacuum tubes in electronic controls. To understand
transistors, you must have a good knowledge of
semiconductors.
31. Semiconductors
1. The transistor was discovered in 1948 by the
Bell Laboratories. The name comes from two words,
“transfer” and “resistance.” The transistor is gradually
replacing the vacuum tube and is playing a big part in the
design of all types of electronic equipment. The main
advantages
Figure 100. Pentrode amplifier tube.
 Figure 103. Atoms of semiconductors.

ring. Another name for the outer ring or orbit is the

valence ring. The helium atom and the hydrogen atom
Figure 101. Elements associated with transistors.
are both good conductors of electricity--the hydrogen
atom being the better.
of the transistor over the vacuum tube are that it smaller,
5. Atomic Number. Atoms of different elements
lighter, and more rugged, and operates at lower voltages
are found to have a different number of protons and
than the vacuum tube.
neutrons in their nucleus. The atomic numbers of some of
2. Atomic Structure. Essential to the
the elements are listed in figure 101. Figure 102 shows
understanding of semiconductor operation is the study of
the structure of a hydrogen atom and a helium atom, two
atomic characteristics and the basic structure of the atom.
examples of good conductors. Figure 103 shows the
The atom contains a nucleus composed of protons and
structure of a germanium atom and a silicon atom, which
neutrons. Protons are positively charged particles, while
are examples of a semiconductor.
neutrons are neutral particles.
6. An atom that has only four electrons in its outer
3. The other component of the atom is the electron,
orbit or ring will combine with other atoms whose outer
which is a negatively charged particle. The electrons are
orbits are incomplete. If a number of germanium atoms
arranged in orbits around the nucleus. The orbits, or
are joined together into crystalline form, the process is
rings, are numbered starting with the ring nearest the
called covalent bonding of germanium atoms. Figure 104
nucleus (which is No. 1) and progressing outward.
shows germanium atoms in covalent bonding. Figure 105
4. The maximum number of electrons permitted in
illustrates an atom of germanium and an atom of
each ring is as follows: Ring No. 1, 2 electrons; ring No.
antimony. For simplification, only the nucleus and the
2, 8 electrons; ring No. 3, 18 electrons; ring No. 4, 32
outer rings are shown for each atom. The outer or valence
electrons. The atomic structure of germanium and silicon
ring for the germanium atom contains four electrons,
have 14 and 32 electrons respectively. The 3d ring in
while
silicon and the 4th ring in germanium are incomplete,
having only 4 electrons. These incomplete outer rings are
important to the operation of semiconductor devices. A
good conductor has less than 4 electrons in its outer ring.
A good insulator has more than 4 electrons in its outer
ring. A good semiconductor has 4 electrons in its outer

Figure 102. Structure of atoms. Figure 104. Crystalline germanium.

113
 Figure 105. Typical atoms.
the valence ring for the antimony atom contains five
atoms.
7. If a small amount of antimony is added to
crystalline germanium, the antimony atoms will distribute
themselves throughout the structure of the germanium
crystal.
8. Figure 106 shows that an antimony atom has
gone into covalent bonding with germanium. The
antimony atom in the material donates a free electron and
these free electrons will support current flow through the
material. The antimony is called a donor in that it donates
free electrons. The germanium crystal now becomes an
N-type (negative type) germanium.
9. P-type (positive type) germanium can be
prepared by combining germanium and indium atoms.
Figure 107 shows germanium and indium in covalent
bonding. For every indium atom in the material, there
will be a shortage of one electron that is needed to
complete covalent bonding between the two elements.
This shortage of an electron can be defined as a hole.
This type of material will readily accept an electron to
complete
Figure 106. N-type germanium.
114
Figure 107. P-type germanium.
its covalent bonding and is therefore called acceptor type
material.
10. The hole can be looked upon as a positive type
of current carrier, as compared to the electron which is a
negative type current carrier. The hole can be moved
from atom to atom the same as the electron can be moved
from atom to atom. The hole moves in one direction and
the electron moves in the opposite direction.
11. P-N Junctions. When N-type and P-type
germanium are combined in a single crystal, an unusual
but very important phenomenon occurs at the surface
where contact is made between the two types of
germanium. The contact surface is referred to as a P-N
junction, shown in figure 108.
12. There will be a tendency for the electrons to
gather at the junction in the N-type material and likewise
an attraction for the holes gather at the junction of the P-
type material. These current carriers will not completely
neutralize themselves because movement of electrons and
holes cause negative and positive ions to be produced,
which means an electric field is set up in each type
material that will tend to obstruct the movement of
current carriers through the junction. This obstruction
builds up a barrier that is referred to as a high resistance
or potential hill. This electric field may be referred to as a
potential hill battery since the two materials have acquired
a polarity which opposes the normal movement of the
current carries.
13. Reverse Bias. Figure 109 shows an external
voltage applied to an N-P junction. The positive electrode
of the battery is connected to the N-type material and the
negative electrode is connected to the P-type material.
Since the N-type material has an excess of electrons, the
positive voltage being applied to this material will
 Figure 108. P-N junction.
attract these electrons toward that end of the germanium
crystal. The negative voltage being applied to the P-type
material, which has an excess of positive current-carrying
holes, will attract these holes toward the other end of the
crystal and away from the junction. The ammeter in
figure 109 indicates no current flow. There is no
possibility of recombination at the junction because the
potential hill has been built up to a higher value by the
application of an external voltage. This is called reversed
bias condition or a high-resistance circuit.
14. Forward Bias. The battery can be connected
with the opposite polarity and cause a different condition.
In figure 110 the battery has been reversed, and now the
negative electrode of the battery is connected to the N-
type material. This negative voltage will repel the
electrons in the N-type material toward the junction. The
positive electrode is connected to the P-type material
which will repel the positive holes toward the junction.
With this connection, recombination takes place at the
Figure 109. N-P junction with reverse bias.
115
junction, resulting in current toward the N-P junction.
This method of connecting the battery is known as
forward bias since it encourages current flow.
15. Diode Action. Combining P- and N-type
germanium into a single crystal is the basis of both diode
and transistor action. The P-N junction can be used as a
rectifier because of its ability pass current in one direction
and practically no current in the other. Applying an a.c.
voltage to this junction results in a d.c. output similar to
that produced by a vacuum tube diode. Figure 111 shows
a semiconductor diode rectifying an alternating voltage.
When this P-N junction is biased in the forward direction,
current will flow across the load resistor, RL. When the
junction is biased in the reverse direction, no current will
flow across the load resistor, RL. Forward and reverse
biasing is caused by the a.c. input.
16. Point-Contact Diode. Another type diode is the
point-contact diode, shown in figure 112.
Figure 110. P-N junction with forward bias.

Figure 111. Half-wave rectification.
This diode operates similarly to the P-N junction type. It
consists of a semiconductor (N-type germanium), a metal
base, and a metallic point contact (cat whisker). A fine
beryllium-copper or phosphor-bronze wire is pressed
against the N-type germanium crystal. During the
construction of the diode a relatively high current is
passed through the metallic point contact into the N-type
crystal. This high current causes a small P-type area to be
formed around the point contact. Thus, a P-type and an
N-type germanium are formed in the same crystal. The
operation of this diode is similar to the P-N junction
diode.
17. Transistor Triodes. A review of the operation
of P-N germanium junctions reveals that a P-N junction
biased in the forward direction is equivalent to the low-
resistance element (high current for a given voltage). The
P-N junction biased in the reverse direction is equivalent
to a high-resistance element (low current for a given
voltage). For a given current, the power developed in a
high-resistance element is greater than that developed in a
low-resistance element. (Power is equal to the current
squared multiplied by the resistance value, or simply: P =
I2R.) If a crystal containing two P-N junctions were
prepared, a signal could be introduced into one P-N
junction biased the forward direction (low resistance) and
extracted from the other P-N junction biased in the
reverse direction (high resistance). This biasing produces
a power gain of the signal when developed in the external
circuit. Such a device would transfer the signal current
from a low-resistance circuit to a high-resistance circuit.
18. P-N-P and N-P-N Junction Transistors. The
P-N-P transistor is constructed by placing a narrow strip
of N-type germanium between two relatively long strips
of P-type germanium. And, as the letters indicate, the N-
P-N transistor consists of a narrow strip of P-type
germanium between two relatively long strips of N-type
germanium.
116
19. To form two P-N junctions, three sections of
germanium are required. Figure 113 shows the three
sections separated. When the three sections are combined
a P-N-P transistor is formed, and each section, like each
element in a vacuum tube, has a specific name: emitter,
base, and collector. The base is located between the
emitter and collector, as the grid in a triode vacuum tube
is located between the plate and cathode.
20. Note that when the three sections are combined,
two space charge regions (barriers) occur at the junction
even though there is no application of external voltages,
or fields. This phenomenon is the same as that which
occurs when two sections are combined so as to form a P-
N junction diode.
21. Transistor action requires that one junction be
biased in the forward direction and the second junction be
biased in the reverse direction. Figure 114 shows the first
junction biased in the forward direction. The second
junction is not biased. Note that the space charge region
(barrier) at the first junction is considerably reduced while
the space charge region at the second junction is
unchanged. The condition is identical to that of a P-N
junction diode with forward bias.
22. Figure 114 shows the second junction biased in
the reverse direction. The first junction is not biased.
Note that the space charge region (barrier) at the second
junction increases. Except for minority carriers (not
shown), no current flows across the junction. This
phenomenon is the same as that which occurs when two
sections are combined to form a P-N junction diode with
reverse bias.
23. Figure 115 shows what happens when junctions
are biased simultaneously. Because of the simultaneous
biasing, a large number of holes from the emitter do not
combine with the electrons entering the base from the
emitter-base battery. Many of the holes diffuse through
the base and penetrate the base-collector space charge
Figure 112. Physical construction of a point-contact
diode.
 Figure 113. Two sections of P-type germanium and one section of N-type germanium.
region. In the collector region the holes combine with
electrons that enter the collector from the negative
terminal of the base-collector battery. If holes that enter
the base from the emitter-base junction avoid combination
with electrons entering the base from the battery, the
holes are attracted to the collector by the acceptor atoms
(negative) in the collector and the negative potential of
the base collector battery.
24. To obtain maximum power gain in a transistor,
most of the holes from the emitter must diffuse through
the base region into the collector region. This condition
obtained in practice by making the base region very
narrow compared the emitter and the collector regions. In
practical transistors, approximately 95 percent of the
current from the emitter reaches the collector.
25. By using forward bias on the emitter-to-base
junction there is a relatively low resistance, whereas by
using reverse bias on the collector-to-base junction there
is a relatively high resistance. A typical value for the
emitter-to-base resistance is around 500 ohms, and around
117
500,000 ohms for the collector-to-base resistance. By
Ohms law, voltage is equal to current times resistance;
thus, numerically stated:
26. Although the current gain (95 percent) in this
particular transistor circuit is actually a loss, the ratio of
resistance from emitter to collector more than makes up
for this loss. Also, this same resistance ratio provides a
power gain which makes the transistor adaptable to many
electron circuits.
27. N-P-N Junction Transistors. The theory of
operation of the N-P-N is similar to that of the P-N-P
transistor. However, inspection and comparison of
figures 115 and 116 will reveal two important differences:
• The emitter-to-collector carrier in the P-N-P
transistor is the hole. The emitter-to-collector carrier in
the N-P-N transistor is the electron.
 Figure 114. Forward bias between emitter and base (A) and reverse bias between
base and collector (B)

• The bias voltage polarities are reversed. This
condition is necessitated by the different positional
relationships of the two types of germanium as used in the
two types of transistors.
28. Transistors and Electron Tubes. Some of the
differences and similarities between electron tubes and
transistors are discussed in the following paragraphs.
29. The main current flow in an electron tube is from
cathode to plate (shown in fig. 117). In a junction
transistor, the main current flow is from emitter to
collector. The electron current in the electron tube passes
through a grid. In the transistor, the electron current
passes through the base. The cathode, grid, and plate of
the electron tube are comparable to the emitter, base, and
collector, respectively, of the transistor. Plate current is
determined mainly by grid to cathode voltage, and
collector current is determined mainly by emitter-base
voltage. The electron tube requires heater current to boil
electrons from the cathode. The transistor has no heater.
30. For electron current flow in an electron tube, the
plate is always positive with respect to the cathode. For
current flow in a transistor, the collector may be positive
or negative with respect to the emitter depending on
whether the electrons or holes, respectively, are the emit-
ter-to-collector carriers. For most electron tube

118
 Figure 115. Simultaneous application of forward bias between emitter and base and reverse
bias between base and collector of P-N-P transistor.

applications, grid cathode current does not flow. For
most transistor applications, current flows between
emitter and base. Thus, in these cases, the input
impedance of an electron tube is much higher than its
output impedance and similarly the input impedance of a
transistor is much lower than its output impedance.
31. Transistor Triode Symbols. Figure 118 shows
the symbols used for transistor triodes. In the P-N-P
transistor, the emitter-to-collector current carrier in the
crystal is the hole. For holes to flow internally from
emitter to collector, the collector must be negative with
respect to the emitter. In the external circuit, electrons
flow from emitter (opposite to direction of the emitter
arrow) to collector.
32. In the N-P-N transistor, the emitter-to-collector
current carrier in the crystal is the electron. For electrons
to flow internally from emitter to collector, the collector
must be positive with respect the emitter. In the external
circuit, the electrons flow from the collector to the emitter
(opposite to the direction of the emitter arrow).
33. Point-Contact Transistor. The point-contact
transistor is similar to the point-contact diode except for a
second metallic conductor (cat whisker). These cat
whiskers are mounted relatively close together on the
surface of a germanium crystal (either P- or N-type). A
small area of P- or N-type is formed around these contact
points. These two contacts are the emitter and collector.
The base will be the N- or P-type of which the crystal was
formed. The operation of the point-contact transistor is
similar to the operation of the junction type. Now that
you

Figure 116. Simultaneous application of forward bias between emitter and base and
reverse bias between base and collector of N-P-N transistor.

119
 Figure 117. Structure of a triode vacuum tube and a junction transistor.
have studied transistors you must know how they are
connected into the circuit.
32. Transistor Circuits
1. The circuit types in which transistors may be
used are almost unlimited. However, regardless of the
circuit variations, the transistor will be connected by one
of three basic methods. These are: common base,
common emitter, and common collector. These
connections correspond to the grounded grid, grounded
cathode, and grounded plate respectively.
2. Common Base Circuit. Figure 119 shows a
common base circuit using a triode transistor. A thin
layer of P-type material is sandwiched between two
pellets of N-type material. The layer of P-type material is
the base when the two pellets of N-type material are the
collector and the emitter. The emitter is connected to the
base through a small battery (B1). This battery is
connected with its negative electrode to the N-type
emitter and its positive electrode to the P-type base.
Thus, the emitter-base junction has forward bias on it.
Recombination of the electrons and holes causes base
Figure 118. Transistor symbols.
120
current (Ib) to flow.
3. Battery B2 is connected to produce reverse bias
on the collector-base junction. However, current will
flow in the collector-base circuit. Let’s see why this
current will flow. In this emitter, electrons move toward
the emitter-base junction due to the forward bias on that
junction. Many of the electrons pass through the emitter-
base junction into the base material. At this point the
electrons are under the influence of the strong field
produced by B2. Since the base material is very thin, the
electrons are accelerated into the collector. This results in
collector current (Ic), as shown in figure 119. About 95
percent of the electrons passing through the emitter-base
junction enter the collector circuit. Thus, the base current
(Ib), which is a result of recombination of electrons and
holes, is only 5 percent of the emitter current.
4. Common Emitter Circuit. The circuit that will
be encountered most often is the common emitter circuit
shown in figure 120. Notice that the base is returned to
the emitter and the collector is also returned the emitter.
The base-emitter circuit is biased by a small battery
whose negative electrode is connected to the N-type base
and
 Figure 119. Common base circuit.
The positive electrode to the P-type emitter. This forward
bias results in a base-emitter current of 1 milliampere. In
the collector circuit the battery is placed so as to put
reverse bias on the collector-base junction. The collector
current (Ic) is 20 milliamperes. Since the input is across
the base emitter and the output is across the collector
emitter, there is a current gain of 20. The positive voltage
on the emitter repels its positive holes toward the base
region. Because of their high velocity, and because of the
strong negative field of the collector, the holes will pass
right on through the base material and enter the collector.
Only 5 percent or less of those carriers leaving the emitter
will enter through the circuit. The other 95 percent or
more will enter the collector and constitute collector
current (Ic).
5. Common Collector Circuit. The common
collector circuit in figure 121 operates in much the same
manner as a cathode follower vacuum tube circuit. It has
a high impedance and a low output impedance. It has a
small
Figure 120. Common emitter circuit.
121
power gain but no voltage gain in the circuit. The circuit
is well suited for input and interstage coupling
arrangements.
6. Transistor Amplifiers. Let’s put a signal
voltage into the circuit of figure 122 and trace the electron
flow. A coupling capacitor (C1) is used to couple the
signal into the emitter-base circuit. Rg provides the right
amount of forward bias. When the signal voltage rises in
a positive direction, the emitter will be made less negative
with respect to the base. This difference will result in a
reduction of the forward bias on the emitter-base circuit
and, therefore, a reduction in current flow through the
emitter. Since the emitter current is reduced, the collector
current will likewise be reduced at the same proportion.
As the signal voltage starts increasing in a negative
direction, the emitter will now become more negative
with respect to the base, resulting in increased forward
bias. Increased forward bias
 Figure 121. Common collector circuit.
Figure 122. Common base amplifier.
will result in increased current flow in the emitter and
collector circuits.
7. The signal being applied to the emitter-base
circuit has now been reproduced in the collector circuit.
The signal has been greatly amplified because the current
flowing in the collector circuit is through a high
impedance network. It is also possible to use a P-N-P
type transistor, as shown in figure 123.
Figure 123. Common emitter amplifier.
122
8. The electrical resistance of a semiconductor
junction may vary considerably with its temperature. For
this reason, the performance of a circuit will vary with the
temperature unless the circuit is compensated for
temperature variations. Compensating for temperature
minimizes the effects of temperature on operating bias
currents and will stabilize the d.c. operating conditions of
the transistor. Now let us talk about the circuit that feeds
the signal to the amplifier circuit-the bridge circuit.
33. Bridge Circuits
1. The brain of most electronic controls is a
modified Wheatstone bridge. To understand the bridge
circuit will review the operation of a variable resistor
(potentiometer) first. One of the principal uses of the
potentiometer is to take a voltage from one circuit to use
in another. Figure 124 shows a potentiometer connected
across a power source. The full 24 volts of the source is
dropped between the two ends of the resistor; this means
that 12 volts are being

Figure 124. Potentiometer.
dropped across each half, or 6 volts across each quarter
(1/4). If a voltmeter is connected from one end, and to the
movable wiper, it will read the voltage drop between that
end and the wiper. Note that meter A is reading the
voltage drop across ¼ of the resistance, or 6 volts. Meter
B is reading the voltage drop across the remaining ¾ of
the resistance, or 18 volts. As the wiper is moved
clockwise, the voltage shown on meter A will increase
and B will decrease. Later you will hear the word “pot.”
This is short for potentiometer.
2. Figure 125 shows two resistances connected in
parallel with their wipers connected to a voltmeter. Since
Figure 125. Simple bridge.
123
the two resistances are connected in parallel, the voltage
applied by the battery is equally distributed along each of
the two “pots.” Such a combination of “pots” is called a
bridge. Notice that each wiper is at a positive potential
with respect to point C of 6 volts, and consequently the
voltmeter indication is zero volts. Since no current flows
between the wipers, the bridge is said to be balanced. If
wiper A is moved to the center of the top “pot,” detail A,
it would take off 12 volts; however, wiper B is taking off
6 volts and the meter would read 6 volts, the difference
between 6 and 12. Electrons would flow from B
(negative) through the meter to A (positive in respect to
B). The meter would be deflected to the left 6 volts, so
we can say the bridge is unbalanced to the left. Moving
wiper B toward the positive potential and A toward
negative will cause the bridge to unbalance to the right
because current would flow from A to B, deflecting the
meter to the right, which is demonstrated in detail B of
figure 125.
3. Look at figure 126, a Wheatstone bridge. The
basic operation is the same as the common bridge shown
in figure 125, but it uses only one variable resistor.
4. The variable resistor has a higher resistance
value than the three fixed resistors. When the variable
resistor is centered, it has the same value as the fixed
resistors; the bridge is in balance, for no voltage is
indicated by the meter. Each resistor drops 12 volts.
Detail A of figure 126 shows R4 unbalanced to the left.
Because of its higher resistance, it now drops 18 of the
applied volts, and the remaining 6 volts are dropped by
R1. The difference between 6 and 12 or 12

Figure 126. Wheatstone bridge.
and 18 is across the meter (6 volts). Since current flows
from negative to positive, the flow through the meter is
toward the op of the page. Detail B of figure 126 shows
R4 unbalanced to the right. This drops its value, causing
most of the applied voltage to be dropped across R1 (18
volts). The difference between 12 and 18 (6 volts) is
across the meter, but in this case flowing toward the
bottom of the page (- to +).
5. The Wheatstone bridge can be used on a.c. or
d.c., but if a.c. is used, it requires a phase detector,
discussed later in this chapter. The a.c. Wheatstone
bridge is used with most electronic controls. Note that in
figure 127 the d.c. power source has been replaced with a
transformer and the voltmeter has been replaced with an
Figure 127. A.c. Wheatstone bridge.
124
amplifier. The amplifier simply “builds up” the small
signal from the bridge to operate a relay.
6. T1 (thermostat) now takes the place of R3. The
sensing element is a piece of resistance wire that changes
in value as the temperature changes. An increase in
temperature will cause a proportional increase in
resistance. As you will note in figure 127, at set point of
74° F., the bridge is in balance. The voltage at points C
and D is the same (7.5 volts), and the amplifier will keep
the final control element in its present position until we
have a temperature change. Now let’s assume the control
point changes.
7. When the temperature at T1 is lower than set
point, its resistance is less than 1000 ohms. This lower
resistance causes more than 7.5 volts to be dropped by R2,
which means that point C has a lower voltage than point
D. The amplifier will then take the necessary action to
correct the control point.
8. When the temperature at T1 is higher than set
point, its resistance is more than 1000 ohms, causing less
than 7.5 volts to be dropped across R2. Point C has a
higher voltage than point D. The amplifier will once
again take the necessary corrective action.
9. The resistance of T1 changes 2.2 ohms for each
degree temperature change. This will cause only 0.0085-
volt change between points C and D. For this reason, to
check the bridge circuit, one will have to use an electronic
meter usually called a V.T.V.M. for vacuum tube
voltmeter.
The vacuum tube voltmeter will usually have an ohms
scale as well as ac. and d.c. voltage scales.
10. The V.T.V.M. must be plugged into the lower
line for operation. Usually, there is no provision for
current measurements. Its advantage, however, is an
extremely high input resistance of 11 million ohms (11
meg) or more, as a d.c. voltmeter, resulting in negligible
loading effect. Also resistance ranges up to R X 1000
allow measurements as high as 1000 megohms. The
ohms scale reads from left to right like the volts scale and
is linear without crowding at either end. The adjustments
are as follows:
(1) First, with the meter warmed up for several
minutes on the d.c. volts position of the selector switch,
set the zero adjust to line up the pointer on zero at the left
edge of the scale.
(2) With the leads apart and the selector on ohms,
the ohms adjust is set to line the pointer with maximum
resistance ( ) at the right of the scale.
(3) Set the selector switch to the desired position and
use. The ohms adjust should be set for each individual
range.
11. CAUTION: When checking voltage on
unfamiliar circuits, always start with the highest voltage
scale for your safety as well as protection of the meter.
12. Another circuit that you could use in electronic
controls is the discriminator circuit. It is used in
conjunction with a bridge circuit.
34. Discriminator Circuits
1. The purpose of the discriminator circuit is to
determine the direction in which the bridge is unbalanced
Figure 128. Bridge and amplifier circuit.
125
and take the necessary action to correct the condition.
When the control point moves off set point, the bridge
becomes unbalanced and sends a small signal to the
control grid of the first-stage amplifier, as shown in figure
128.
2. The small a.c. signal imposed on the control grid
of this triode causes it to conduct more when the signal is
positive and less when it is negative. The sine wave in
figure 128 shows the plate voltage at point A. Note that
when the grid is more positive, the tube conducts more
and most of the 300 v.d.c. is dropped across load resistor
R7. When the grid is negative, most of the voltage is
dropped across the tube. The sine wave has been inverted
and is riding a fixed d.c. value of 150 volts.
3. The blocking capacitor C2 passes the amplified
a.c. component to the second stage but blocks the high
voltage d.c. R6 is the bias resistor for the control grid, and
R5 is the bias bleeder to prevent self-bias.
4. Amplifier stages 2, 3, etc., as seen in figure 129,
repeat the process until the signal is strong enough to
drive a power tube or discriminator. At this point the
signal voltage has been amplified to a sufficient level to
drive a power tube.
5. The power amplifier require a higher voltage
driving signal but controls a much larger current. This
current is then used to energize a relay and operates the
final control element. In the discriminator circuit shown
in figure 130, when the signal goes negative, cutoff bias is
reached on the control grid. Also, the tube will conduct
only when the plate is positive. Plate current will
therefore be similar to the output of a half-wave rectifier.
6. Since plate current flows in pulse, capacitor C5 is
connected across the coil of the motor relay. The
capacitor will charge while the plate
 Figure 129. Second- and third-stage amplification.

is conducting and discharge through the coil, holding it
energized during the off cycle. This type control is two
position, and the final control will either be in the fully
open or fully closed position.
7. The bridge supply voltage must come from the
same phase as the discriminator supply, shown in figure
131. Supplying voltage from the same phase insures a
bridge signal that is either in phase or 180° out of phase
with the discriminator supply.
8. The control grid of the discriminator is biased at
cutoff; therefore, it will conduct only when the plate and
the amplified bridge signal are both positive. With the
temperature below set point, as in figure 131, point C will
have the same polarity as point B (the resistance of T1
decreased); and will cause bridge signal to

Figure 130. Discriminator circuit.

126
 Figure 131. Two-position control.
be more positive at the same time the discriminator plate
is positive (solid symbols, +). Current flows through the
relay and also charges capacitor C5. During the next half-
cycle (dotted symbols, +) the signal is negative and the
discriminator plate is negative. No plate current can flow.
Capacitor C5 discharges through the relay which holds it
closed until the next alteration.
9. The valve controlling chill water or brine will
remain closed until the temperature increases. If the
temperature goes above the set point, the grid of the
discriminator will be negative when the plate is positive
and vice versa. No plate current can flow and the valve
opens.
10. For modulating control, illustrated in figure 132,
a modulating motor is used with a balancing
potentiometer. The balancing potentiometer is wired in
series with the thermostat resistor. Its purpose is to bring
the bridge back into balance (no voltage between points C
and D) when a deviation has been corrected. Assuming a
rise in temperature at T1 and the polarity shown by the
solid symbols, point C will be negative. Neither of the
discriminator tubes will conduct because the control grids
127
of both are negative beyond cutoff bias. During the next
alternation (dotted symbols), when the signal is positive,
discriminator number 2 will conduct because its plate is
also positive. Capacitor C6 will charge and relay number
2 will energize, causing the motor to run
counterclockwise; this moves the wiper of the balancing
potentiometer to the right, adding resistance to R1, and
removing resistance from T1 until no signal is applied to
the amplifier. Cutoff bias is reached on the control grids
of the discriminators, capacitor C6 discharges, relay 2
energizes, and the motor stops at its new position.
11. A decrease in temperature at T1, causes a 180°
phase shift from the bridge. This phase shift places the
grid of discriminator tube 1 positive at the same time as
the plate. Relay 1 energizes and the motor runs clockwise
until the bridge is once again balanced.
12. For control of relative humidity, the thermostat is
replaced by a gold leaf humidistat. The principle of
operation is the same; however, you must remember that
moisture sensed by the gold leaf causes the resistance to
change.
 Figure 132. Modulating control.

Review Exercises 4. The electrons flow from the ________________

The following exercises are study aids. Write your to the _________________in a vacuum tube.
answers in pencil in the space provided after each (Sec. 29, Par . 7)
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your
answers. 5. Why does the diode rectify a.c.? (Sec. 29, Par.
8)
1. Explain thermionic emission. (Sec. 29, Par. 3)

6. What factors determine the amount of current

2. How does a directly heated cathode differ from flowing through a diode tube? (Sec. 29, Par. 9)
an indirectly heated cathode? (Sec. 29, Par. 4)

7. The diode will conduct during the ___________

3. Name the elements of a diode vacuum tube. half-cycle of the alternating current. (Sec. 29,
(Sec. 29, Par. 7) Par. 11)

128
 8. How can you filter half-wave rectification with a 17. Why can a triode be used as an amplifier? (Sec.
capacitor? (Sec. 29, Par. 13) 30, Par. 15)

9. What is a duo-diode vacuum tube? (Sec. 2, Par. 18. What is the potential of the screen grid with
16) respect to the cathode in a tetrode vacuum tube?
(Sec. 30, Par. 19)

10. What is the purpose of the control grid in a

vacuum tube? (Sec. 30, Par. 2) 19. How does a power amplifier differ from a triode
amplifier? (Sec. 30, Par. 20)

11. Where, inside the tube, is the control grid

physically located? (Sec. 30, Par. 2)
20. What potential is applied to the suppressor grid
of a pentode tube? (Sec 30, Par. 23)

12. The usual polarity of the grid with respect to the

cathode is ________________. (Sec. 30, Par. 4)
21. What is a valence ring? (Sec. 31, Par. 4)

13. What will happen to the current through a triode

if you make the control grid more negative? 22. A valence ring containing two electrons indicates
(Sec. 30, Par. 5) a good ________________. (Sec. 31, Par. 4)

14. Define grid bias. Cutoff bias. (Sec. 30, Pars. 5 23. How is N-type germanium made? (Sec. 31, Par.
and 7) 8)

15. Name the types of grid bias used on vacuum 24. How does N-type germanium material differ
tubes. (Sec. 30, Pars. 8, 9, and 12) from P-type germanium material? (Sec. 31,
Pars. 8 and 9)

16. What is one disadvantage of contact potential

bias? (Sec. 30, Par. 14) 25. To achieve reverse bias, the positive electrode of
the battery is connected to the _______________
material and the negative to the
________________ material. (Sec. 31, Par. 13)

129
26. Which type of bias encourages current flow?
(Sec. 31, Par. 14)
27. How much power is developed in a circuit
having 100 ohms resistance and an amperage
draw of 5 amps? (Sec. 31, Par. 17)
28. Where is the base of a P-N-P transistor located?
(Sec. 31, Par. 19)
29. How is maximum power gain obtained in a
transistor? (Sec. 31, Par. 24)
30. What components of a vacuum tube are
comparable to the emitter, base, and collector of
a transistor? (Sec. 31, Par. 29)
31. Name the three basic transistor circuits. (Sec.
32, Par. 1)
32. Which transistor circuit has a high impedance
input and a low impedance output? (Sec. 32,
Par. 5)
33. What is the purpose of a coupling capacitor
between stages? (Sec. 32, Par. 6)
34. You are checking the voltage drop across a
potentiometer. The applied voltage is 12 volts
and three-fourths of the resistance is in the
circuit. What is the voltage drop across the
potentiometer? (Sec. 33, Par. 1)
130
35. When is a simple two-resistor bridge balanced?
(Sec. 33, Par. 2)
36. How is the Wheatstone bridge applied to
electronic control? (Sec. 33, Par. 5)
37. What will occur when the temperature at the
thermostat, connected in a Wheatstone bridge,
increases? (Sec. 33, Par. 8)
38. What type of meter is used to check out
electronic controls? Why? (Sec. 33, Par. 9)
39. What is the first step you must take when using a
V.T.V.M.? (Sec. 33, Par. 10)
40. What is the purpose of a discriminator circuit?
(Sec. 34, Par. 1)
41. Explain the function of the blocking capacitor.
(Sec. 34, Par. 3)
42. What has occurred when the signal in the
discriminator circuit goes negative? (Sec. 34,
Par. 5)
43. Why should the bridge supply voltage come
from the same phase as the discriminator supply?
(Sec. 34, Par. 7)
44. When will the discriminator circuit conduct? 45. Why is a balancing potentiometer read with a
(Sec. 34, Par. 8) modulating motor? (Sec. 34, Par. 10)

131
CHAPTER 7
Electronic Control Systems
ELECTRONIC control is here to stay. It has been
approximately 16 years since the control industry first
showed how microvoltages, electronically amplified,
could be used in controlling air-conditioning and
equipment cooling systems. Despite an erroneous but
perfectly human awe in the presence of a revolutionary
form of power, engineers, designers, and building owners
began to apply this new type of control to their systems.
The ordinary serviceman shunned electronic control
because the thought that it was a piece of hardware too
technical to repair. By 1955, over 5000 electronic control
systems were in use, and it had become evident that their
adjustment and maintenance were not more difficult but
actually simpler than those of the more traditional control
systems--pneumatic and electric.
2. In this chapter you will study system
components, applications, and the maintenance performed
on electronic control systems.
35. Components
1. The components discussed in this section are the
humidity sensing element, thermostats, and damper
motor. The control panel will be discussed later in this
chapter. It houses the bridge and amplifier circuits that
we covered in Chapter 6.
2. Humidity Sensing Element. The sensing
element should be located within the duct at a place where
the air is thoroughly mixed and representative of average
conditions. You must be careful not to locate the sensing
element too close to sprays, washers, and heating or
cooling coils. The location should be within 50 feet of the
control panel. All wiring and mounting should be
accomplished as specified by the manufacturer.
3. Thermostats. The thermostats you will study in
this chapter are space, outdoor, and insertion. In addition,
we will also cover thermostat maintenance.
4. Space thermostat. The thermostat should be
mounted where it will be exposed only to typical or
132
average space temperature. You should avoid installing it
on an outside wall or on a wall surface with hot or cold
water pipes or air ducts behind it.
5. In general, try to keep the thermostat out of the
way of traffic, but in a representative portion of the space
being measured. The most desirable location is on an
inside wall, 3 to 5 feet from the outside wall and about 54
inches above the floor.
6. Outdoor thermostat. The sensing element is a
coil of fine wire wound on a plastic bobbin and coated for
protection against dirt and moisture. The thermostat
should be mounted out of the sun (on the north side of the
building or in some other shaded location), above the
snowline, and where it won’t be tampered with.
7. Insertion thermostat. When using this
thermostat as a discharge air controller, you should mount
it far enough downstream from the coil to insure thorough
mixing of the air before its temperature is measured.
When you use it as a return air controller, the thermostat
is mounted where it will sense the average temperature of
the return air from the conditioned space. If you mount it
near a grille, it should be kept out of the airflow from
open doors and windows.
8. To mount the thermostat, use the back of the box
as a template. Mark the four holes to be drilled in the
duct--the center hole and the three mounting holes. The
center hole is used to insert the element.
9. Thermostat maintenance. To check the re-
sistance of the sensing element, you must disconnect one
of the leads at the panel. Place an ohmmeter across the
leads. Remember, allow for the temperature of the
element and accuracy of the meter.
10. A reading considerably less than the total
resistance specified indicates a short, either in the element
or in the leads to the element. If a short is indicated, take
a resistance reading across the thermostat terminals. If
the thermostat is shorted it must be replaced. If the meter
reads more than the total resistance, there is an open
 Figure 133. Damper motor schematic.
circuit. Again, a reading across the thermostat terminals
will locate the trouble.
11. Excessive dirt accumulated on the element will
reduce the sensitivity of the thermostat. Clean the
element with a soft brush or cloth. Be careful not to
damage the resistance element.
12. Damper Motor. The motor may be installed in
any location except where excessive moisture, acid
fumes, or other deteriorating vapors might attack the
metal. The motor shaft should always be mounted
horizontally.
13. The motor comes equipped with one crank arm.
By loosening the screw and nut which clamp the crank
arm to the motor shaft, the crank arm can be removed and
repositioned in any one of the four 90° positions on the
motor shaft. The adjustment screw on the face of the
crank arm provides angular setting of the crank arm in
steps of 22½° throughout any one of the four 90° angles.
You can see by changing the position of the arm on the
square crankshaft and through the means of the
adjustment screw on the hub, the crank arm may be set in
steps of 22½° for any position within a full circle. The
crank arm may be placed on either end of the motor shat.
14. For instructions in the assembly of linkages you
must refer to the instruction sheets packed in the carton
with each linkage.
133
15. Motor Servicing. The only repairs that can be
accomplished in the field are cleaning the potentiometer
or limit switch contacts, repairing internal connecting
wires, and replacing the internal wires.
16. If the motor will not run, check the transformer
output first. Look for the transformer in figure 133. If it
checks out good, use the transformer to check the motor.
Disconnect the motor terminals (usually numbered 1, 2
and 3) and connect the transformer output leads to
terminals 2 and 3. The motor should run clockwise, if it
is not already at that end of its stroke. Similarly,
connecting the transformer across terminals 1 and 3
should drive the motor counterclockwise.
17. If the motor responds to power from the
transformer, the fault probably lies in the relay, wiring, or
potentiometer. To check the potentiometer, disconnect
terminals T, G, and Y from the outside leads. The
resistance of the potentiometer windings can now be
checked with an ohmmeter. The resistance across Y and
G should be about 150 ohms. The resistance across T and
either Y or G should change gradually from near 0 ohms
about 135 ohms as the motor is driven through its stroke.
18. If the motor does not respond to direct power
from the transformer, you must remove the motor cover
and check for broken wires, defective limit switch, or a
faulty condenser (capacitor).

Figure 134. Refrigerant solenoid valve control system.
36. Application
1. The electronic control system has definite
characteristics-flexibility, sensitivity, simplicity, speed,
and accuracy-that show to best advantage in an air-
conditioning system where signals from several
controllers must be coordinated to actuate a series of
control motors or valves. Each controller is a component
of a modified Wheatstone bridge circuit. A change in the
controlled variable will cause a change in the voltage
across the bridge. This change in voltage is detected by
an electronic relay which starts corrective controlled
device action. The magnitude of the voltage change and
the resulting device movement are a result of the amount
of controlled variable change.
2. Authority “pots” in the control panel adjust the
change in variable required at a controller to give a certain
voltage change. For example, an outdoor thermostat
might be adjusted to require a 10° temperature change to
give the same voltage change as a 1° change at the space
thermostat. For the remainder of this discussion, let us
consider temperature as the controlled variable.
3. Voltages resulting from a rise in temperature
differ in phase from voltages resulting from a drop in
temperature and therefore can be distinguished. Voltages
resulting from temperature changes at several thermostats
are added in the bridge if they are of the same phase or
subtracted if they differ in phase. The total voltage
determines the position of the final controlled device.
Each controller directly actuates the final controlled
device.
4. All adjustments for setting up or changing a
control sequence can be made from the control panel.
The panel may be mounted in any readily accessible
location. Selection of controls is simplified since one
electronic control, with its broad range, replaces several
conventional controls where each has a smaller range.
5. The following systems are typical examples of
how electronics is applied to the control of air-
conditioning and equipment cooling systems. The control
134
sequence is given for each application.
6. Refrigerant Solenoid Valve Control. The
electron control panel R1 in figure 134 will control space
temperature by coordinating signals from the space
thermostat T1 and the outdoor thermostat T4 to operate the
refrigerant solenoid valve V1. T4 will raise the space
temperature as the outdoor temperature rises to a
predetermined schedule. T5 will remove T4 from the
system when the outdoor temperature falls below the
setting of T5 to prevent subcooling of the space at low
outdoor temperature.
7. You will find that a nonstarting relay, R2, is
wired into the compressor starting circuit. This relay will
prevent the compressor from operating unless the
solenoid valve is operating.
8. T1 is a space thermostat which may have an
integral set point adjustment and a locking cover. T4 and
T5 are insertion thermostats.
9. Summer-Water Compensation for a Two-
Position Heating or Cooling System. Controller T5
shown in figure 135 will select either the summer or
winter compensation schedule. This selection depends
upon the outdoor temperature.
10. On the winter compensation schedule, electronic
relay panel R1 will control the space temperature by
coordinating signals from space thermostat T1 and
outdoor thermostat T3. The relay will operate either the
heating or cooling equipment, depending upon the space
temperature requirement. You can adjust the effect of T3
to overcome system offset or to elevate the space
temperature as the outdoor temperature falls.
11. During the summer compensation schedule, the
electronic panel will control temperature by coordinating
the signals from T1 and the outdoor thermostat T4 to
operate the appropriate equipment, depending upon space
temperature requirements. T4 will elevate the space
temperature
Figure 135. Two-position heating and cooling system.
as the outdoor temperature rises according to a
predetermined schedule.
12. The last major topic that you will cover in this
volume is maintenance of electronic controls.
37. Maintenance
1. In this section we shall discuss the adjustments,
calibration, and calibration checks you will perform.
After you have adjusted and calibrated the system, you
will learn how it operates. This system differs from the
systems previously discussed in that the electronic control
panel controls a pneumatic relay. The section will be
concluded with a troubleshooting chart. With the
information given in this section, you should have very
little trouble acquiring the skill to perform most types of
maintenance performed on electronic control systems.
2. Adjustments. You will find that the throttling
range adjustment determines the temperature change at
the T1 thermostat. This adjustment will change the branch
line air pressure from 3 to 13 p.s.i.g. An adjustable
throttling range is commonly provided with a range from
1° to 50° F.
3. You should set the throttling range to as low a
value as possible without causing instability or hunting of
the branch line pressure. If the controlled variable varies
continually and regularly reverses its direction, too low a
setting of the throttling range is indicated. You must
increase the throttling range until hunting stops.
4. Stable operation does not mean that the branch
line pressure fails to change often; actually the control
system is extremely sensitive, and small temperature
changes are being detected continuously. It is important
for you to learn to distinguish between “jumpiness” and
“hunting.” Jumpiness is caused by sensitivity of the relay,
while hunting is a definite periodic alternating action.
You must not interpret small gauge pressure fluctuations
as hunting. A condition of this type can be caused by
resonance in the valve unit chambers.
5. The authority dials are graduated in percentages.
These dials determine the respective authorities of
discharge or outdoor thermostats with respect to the space
thermostat. The space thermostat is commonly referred to
as T1. The remaining thermostats, outdoor, duct, etc., are
numbered T2, T3, and T4. With an authority of 25 percent,
the outdoor thermostat is one-quarter as effective as the
space thermostat. When you set the authority dials at zero
percent, you are eliminating all thermostats except T1
from the system. An authority setting of 5 percent means
that a 20° change in outdoor temperature will have only as
much effect as a 1° change at the space thermostat.
135
6. You may find that the control panel has a control
point adjuster. This adjuster makes it possible to raise or
lower the control point after the system is in operation.
The control point adjuster is set at the time the system is
calibrated. The control point adjuster dial contains as
many as 60 divisions, each of which normally represents a
1° change at the space thermostat.
7. The factory calibration and the valve unit
adjustment can be checked or corrected only when the
throttling range knob is out. The factory calibration on
most systems is properly adjusted when it is possible to
obtain a branch line pressure within 1 pound of 8 p.s.i.g.
with an amplifier output voltage of 1 ± ¼ volt d.c. If the
calibration is not correct, you must turn the factory
calibration potentiometer until 1 volt is read from a
voltmeter connected at the (+) terminal of the relay and (-)
terminal of the bridge panel. A voltmeter of no less than
20,000 ohms per volt resistance must be used. The next
step is to turn the valve unit adjusting screw until the
branch line pressure is between 7 and 9 p.s.i.g. Clockwise
rotation of the valve unit adjustment screw decreases
branch line pressure. The factory calibration is now
correctly set.
8. Calibration. Before you calibrate an electronic
control system you must determine the throttling range
and the compensator authorities. Start your calibration
with the adjustment knobs in the following positions:
(1) Control point adjuster: FULL COOL
(2) Throttling range: OUT
(3) Authority dials: 0
9. After the knobs are set, you must check the
factory calibration. The branch line pressure should be 8
p.s.i.g. (±1 p.s.i.g). The actual branch line pressure
obtained will be referred to as control reference pressure
(CRP).
10. Next, you must measure the temperature at T1.
This temperature will be referred to as the control
reference temperature (CRT). After you have obtained
the two references, turn the throttling range to the desired
setting. At the same time, turn the control point adjuster
until the CRP is obtained (7-9 p.s.i.g.).
11. The authority dials are now set. This adjustment
will change the branch pressure, so you must reset the
control point adjuster to maintain a CRP of 7-9 p.s.i.g.
The position of the control point adjuster represents the
control reference temperature measured at T1. Increase or
decease the temperature setting as desired. Remember,
each scale division is equal to approximately 1° F.
12. If a space thermostat is not used, the
calibration procedure will be the same, provided the
discharge controller is connected to T1 (T2 is not used)
and T3 authority is turned to the desired setting f the
discharge controller is connected to the T3 position and T3
authority is tuned to the desired setting, the procedure is
the same except that 70 F. is used as the CRT. The
correction for the desired set point is made with the
control point adjuster dial divisions representing
approximately ½° F each.
13. Calibration Check. The calibration of any
system should be checked after the system has been put in
operation. First, we will check a winter system.
14. At the no-load condition, the control point
(measured space temperature) should be equal to the set
point. On compensated systems, the control point should
be approximately equal to the set point, whereas on an
uncompensated system, the control point will be slightly
lower than the set point. On systems compensated to
provide successively higher temperatures as the outdoor
temperature falls, the control point can be expected to be
higher than the set point.
15. For any summer system, at the no-load
condition, the control point should equal the set point. If
the outdoor temperature is above the no-load temperature
on an uncompensated system, you may consider it normal
because the control point will be slightly higher than the
set point. However, on systems compensated to provide
successively higher temperatures as the outdoor
temperature rises, the control point can be expected to be
higher than the set point.
16. To make a correction for a calibration error,
simply rotate the control point adjuster the number of dial
divisions equal to the calibration error.
17. Operation. The one electronic control discussed
here is similar to those in other panels; that is, it contains
a modified Wheatstone bridge circuit which provides the
input voltage for the electronic amplifier. The amplified
output voltage is then used to control a sensitive, high-
capacity, piloted force-balance pneumatic valve unit.
18. A change in temperature at T1 will initiate
control action by a signal from the bridge circuit.
TABLE 21
136
Figure 136. Pneumatic valve unit.
This signal change provides a voltage to be fed to the
amplifier which operates the pneumatic valve unit. The
system will then provide heating or cooling as required
until the initial signal is balanced by a change in
resistance at T1 and T2 (depending upon the system’s
schedule). An outdoor thermostat, T3, is used to measure
changes in outdoor temperature so that control action can
be initiated immediately before outdoor weather changes
can be detected at T1. This in effect compensates for
system off. The authority of T3 may be selected so that in
addition to compensating for offset, T3, will provide
setup. For example, it will raise the system control point
as outdoor temperature drops.
19. The output of the electronic amplifier controls
the current through the magnetic coil. Look at figure 136
for the magnetic coil. As the voltage changes, the nozzle
lever modulates over the nozzle. When the lever moves
toward the nozzle, the branch line pressure will increase.
The new branch line pressure, through the feedback
bellows, opposes further movement of the nozzle lever.
The forces which a upon the lever a now in balance.
When the voltage decreases, the lever will move away
from the nozzle. This movement will cause the branch
line pressure to decrease until the forces are again in
balance.
20. Troubleshooting. Troubleshooting a suspected
defective device can be speeded up by relating apparent
defects to possible causes. The troubleshooting guide,
table 21, is broken up into portions related to the setup
and calibration procedure given earlier.
 TABLE 21-Continued

Review Exercises 4. What factor will reduce the sensitivity of a

The following exercises are study aids. Write your thermostat? (Sec. 25, Par. 11)
answers in pencil in the space provided after each
exercise. Use the blank pages to record other notes on
the chapter content. Immediately check your answers
with the key at the end of the text. Do not submit your 5. Explain the procedure you would use to
answers. reposition the crank arm on a damper motor.
(Sec. 35, Par. 13)
1. What precaution should you observe when
installing a humidity sensing element? (Sec. 35,
Par. 2)
6. Name the repairs that can be made to the damper
motor in the field. (Sec. 35, Par. 15)

2. Describe the outdoor thermostat sensing element.

(Sec. 35, Par. 5)
7. How can you check the transformer output?
(Sec. 35, Par. 16)

3. How do you check the resistance of a thermostat

sensing element? (Sec. 35, Par. 9)

137
 8. What troubles may exist if the damper motor
does not respond to direct transformer power?
(Sec. 35, Par. 18)
9. Which component in the control panel adjusts
the change in variable required at a controller to
give a certain voltage change? (Sec. 36, Par. 2)
10. What factor determines the position of the final
control element? (Sec. 36, Par 3)
11. Where are the adjustments made for setting up or
changing a control sequence? (Sec. 36, Par. 4)
12. Explain the function of the nonrestarting relay.
Where is it connected? (Sec. 36, Par. 7)
13. How does the summer compensation schedule
differ from the winter compensation schedule?
(Sec. 36, Pars. 10 and 11)
14. What has occurred when the controlled variable
varies continually and reverses its direction
regularly? (Sec. 37, Par. 3)
15. With an authority setting of 10 percent, how
much effect will t2 have when a 10° temperature
change is felt? (Sec. 37, Par. 5)
138
16. How can you reset the control point after the
system is in operation? (Sec. 37, Par. 6)
17. A trouble call indicates that an electronic control
system is not functioning properly. The
following symptoms are present:
(1) The amplifier output voltage is 1 volt.
(2) The branch line pressure is 5 p.s.i.g. What is
the most probable trouble? (Sec. 37, Par. 7)
18. What is the control reference temperature?
Control reference pressure? (Sec. 37, Pars. 9 and
10)
19. When checking the calibration of a compensated
system on winter schedule, what is the
relationship of the control point to the set point?
(Sec. 37, Par. 14)
20. How does a bridge signal affect the pneumatic
relay? (Sec. 37, Pars. 18 and 19)
21. What will happen if a faulty connection exists
between the amplifier and bridge? (Sec. 37,
table 21)
22. The tubes in the control panel light up and burn
out repeatedly. Which components would you
check? (Sec. 37, table 21)
 Answers to Review Exercises
1. The three things to consider before installing a
preheat coil are necessity for preheat, entering air
temperature, and size of coils needed. (Sec. 1,
Par. 2)
2. The most probable malfunction when the stream
valve is closed and the temperature is 33° F. is
that the controller is out of calibration. (Sec. 1,
Par. 4)
3. The two functions which the D/X coil serves are
cooling and dehumidification. (Sec. 1, Par. 7)
4. When a compressor using simple on-off control
short cycles, the differential adjustment on the
thermostat is set too close. (Sec. 1, Par. 9)
5. On a two-speed compressor installation, the
humidistat cycles the compressor from low to
high speed when the space humidity exceeds the
set point. (Sec. 1, Par. 11)
6. The nonrestarting relay prevents short cycling
during the off cycle and allows the compressor to
pump down before it cycles “off.” (Sec. 1, Par.
12)
7. When the solenoid valves are not operating, you
should check the operation of the fan because the
fan starter circuit has to be energized before the
control circuit to the valve can be completed.
(Sec. 1, Par. 14)
8. The type of compressor used when two-position
control of a D/X coil and modulating control of a
face and bypass damper are used is a capacity
controlled compressor. (Sec. 1, Par. 15)
9. An inoperative reheat coil. (Sec. 1, Par. 18)
10. The humidistat positions the face and bypass
dampers to provide a mixture of conditioned and
recirculated air to limit large swings in relative
humidity. (Sec. 1, Par. 20)
11. The space humidistat has prime control of the
D/X coil during light loads when a space
thermostat and humidistat are used to control
coil operation. (Sec. 1, Par. 26)
12. The only conclusion you can make is that the
unit is a “medium temperature unit.” Sec. 2. Par.
3)
13. If you installed a medium temperature unit for a
40° F. suction temperature application, the motor
would overload and stop during peak load. (Sec.
2, Par. 3)
14. The low-pressure control will cycle the unit
when the crankcase pressure exceeds the cut-in
pressure setting of the control even though the
thermostat has shut off the liquid line solenoid
valve. (Sec. 2, Par. 4 and fig. 19)
15. The automatic pump-down feature may be
omitted when the refrigerant-oil ratio is 2:1 or
less or when the evaporator temperature is above
40° F. (Sec. 2, Par. 5)
16. Th four factors you must consider before
installing a D/X system are space requirements,
139
equipment ventilation, vibration, and electrical
requirements. (Sec. 3, Par. 1)
17. To prevent refrigerant condensing in the
compressor crankcase, warm the equipment area
so the temperature will be higher than the
refrigerated space. (Sec. 3, Par. 2)
18. The compressor does not require a special
foundation because most of the vibration is
absorbed by the compressor mounting springs.
(Sec. 3, Par. 3)
19. The minimum and maximum voltage that can be
supplied to a 220-volt unit is 198 volts to 242
volts. (Sec. 3, Par. 5)
20. A 2-percent phase unbalance is allowable
between any two phases of a three-phase
installation. (Sec. 3. Par. 5)
21. During gauge installation, the shutoff valve is
back-seated to prevent the escape of refrigerant.
(Sec. 3, Par. 9)
22. The liquid line sight glass is located between the
dehydrator and expansion valve. (Sec. 3, Par.
12)
23. Series. (Sec. 3, Par. 14)
24. Parallel. (Sec. 3, Par. 14)
25. Dry nitrogen and carbon dioxide are used to
pressurize the system for leak testing. (Sec. 3.
Par. 15)
26. Moisture in the system will cause sludge in the
crankcase. (Sec. 3, Par. 16)
27. The ambient temperature (60° F.) allows the
moisture to boil in the system more readily. This
reduces the amount of time required for
dehydration. (Sec. 3, Par. 17)
28. A vacuum indicator reading of 45° F.
corresponds to a pressure of 0.3 inch Hg
absolute. (Sec. 3, Par. 18, fig. 17)
29. Shutoff valves are installed in the vacuum pump
suction line to prevent loss of oil from the
vacuum pump and contamination of the vacuum
indictor. (Sec. 3, Par. 20)
30. Free. (Sec. 3, Par. 22)
31. The valves are backseated before installing the
gauge manifold to isolate the gauge ports from
the compressor ports to prevent the entrance of
air or the loss of refrigerant. (Sec. 3, Par. 25)
32. The four items that you must check before
starting a new compressor are the oil level, main
water supply valve, liquid line valve, and power
disconnect switch. (Sec. 3, Par. 26)
33. Frontseating the suction valve closes the suction
line to the compressor port, which causes the
pressure to drop and cut off the condensing unit
on the low-pressure control. (Sec. 3, Par. 34)
34. Placing a refrigerant cylinder in ice will cause
the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant
within the cylinder to fall below that which is
still in the system. (Sec. 4, Par. 3)
35. A partial pressure is allowed to remain in the
system to prevent moist air from entering the
system when it is opened (Sec. 4, Par. 4)
36. To prevent moisture condensation, you must
allow sufficient time for the component that is to
be removed to warm to room temperature. (Sec.
4, Par. 6)
37. Basket; disc. (Sec. 4, Par. 9)
38. Noncondensable gases collect in the condenser,
above the refrigerant. (Sec. 4, Par. 10)
39. Noncondensable gases are present in the
condenser when the amperage draw is excessive,
the condenser water temperature is normal, and
the discharge temperature is above normal. (Sec.
4, Par. 10)
40. A discharge pressure drop of 10 p.s.i.g. per
minute with the discharge shutoff valve
frontseated would indicate a leaky compressor
discharge valve. (Sec. 4, Par. 15)
41. Valve plates ere removed from cylinder decks
with jacking screws. (Sec. 4, Par. 18)
42. The emergency procedure you can use to
recondition a worn valve is to lap the valve with
a mixture of fine scouring powder and refrigerant
oil on a piece of glass in a figure 8 motion. (Sec
4, Par. 21)
43. The oil feed guide is installed with the large
diameter inward. Sec. 4, Par. 27)
44. A hook is used to remove the rotor to prevent
bending of the eccentric straps or connecting
rods. (Sec. 4, Par. 29)
45. A small space is left to provide further tightening
in case of a leak. (Sec. 4, Par. 34)
46. 1.5 foot-pounds. (Sec. 4, Par. 35)
47. Check the start capacitor for a short when the air
conditioner keeps blowing fuses when it tries to
start and the starting amperage draw is above
normal. (Sec. 4, Par. 36)
48. A humming sound from the compressor motor
indicates an open circuited capacitor. (Sec. 4
Par. 36)
49. Closed. (Sec. 4, Par. 38)
50. Counter EMF produced by the windings causes
the contacts of the starting relay to open. (Sec. 4,
Par. 38)
51. Relay failure with contacts closed can cause
damage to the motor windings. (Sec. 4, Par. 41)
52. Heater (and) control. (Sec. 4, Par. 43)
53. Oil pump discharge pressure; crankcase pressure.
(Sec. 4, Par. 44)
54. Disagree. The oil safety switch will close when
the pressure differential drops. (Sec. 4, Par. 45)
55. A burned-out holding coil or broken contacts
will cause an inoperative motor starter. (Sec. 4,
table 1)
56. A restricted dehydrator is indicated when the
dehydrator is frosted and the suction pressure is
below normal. (Sec. 4, table 2)
57. The expansion valve is trying to maintain a
constant superheat. To accomplish this with a
loose bulb, the valve is full open, which causes
liquid refrigerant to flood back to the
compressor. (Sec. 4, table 5)
58. A low refrigerant charge (flash gas in the liquid
line). (Sec. 4, table 6)
59. An excessive pressure drop in the evaporator.
(Sec. 4, table 6)
140
60. The most probable causes for an exceptionally
hot water-cooled condenser are an overcharge
and noncondensable gases in the system. These
conditions may be remedied by bleeding the
non-condensables or excessive refrigerant from
the condenser. (Sec. 4 , table 7)
61. An obstructed expansion valve. (Sec. 4, table
10)
62. When a capacity controlled compressor short
cycles you must reset the compressor capacity
control range. (Sec. 4, table 10)
CHAPTER 2
1. The component that should be checked when the
condenser waterflow has dropped off is the
thermostat that controls the capacity control
valve. The thermostat is located in the chill
water line. (Sec. 5, Par. 2)
2. Tap water; lithium bromide. (Sec. 5, Par. 3)
3. When heat is not supplied to the generator, the
salt solution in the absorber will become weak
and the cooling action that takes place within the
evaporator will stop. This will cause the chill
water temperature to rise. (Sec. 5, Par. 5)
4. Disagree. It heats the weak solution. (Sec. 5,
Par. 5)
5. The component is the capacity control valve.
The reduced pressure will cause the thermostat to
close the capacity control valve which reduces or
stops the flow of water through the condenser.
The capacity of the system will decrease without
condenser waterflow. (Sec. 5, Pars. 6 and 7)
6. 4. (Sec. 5, Par. 7)
7. A broken concentration limit thermostat feeler
bulb will cause the vapor condensate well
temperature to rise because the capacity control
valve will remain closed. (Sec. 5, Par. 8)
8. The chill water safety thermostat has shut the
unit down because the leaving chill water
temperature was 12° above the design
temperature. To restart the unit, the off-run-start
switch must be placed in the START position so
that the chill water safety thermostat is bypassed.
After the chill water temperature falls below the
setting of the chill water safety control, the off-
run-start switch placed in the RUN position.
(Sec. 5, Pars. 9 and 10)
9. The pumps are equipped with mechanical seals
because the system operates in a vacuum. (Sec.
5, Par. 14)
10. Disagree. It only controls the quantity of water
in the tank. It does not open a makeup water
line. (Sec. 5, Par. 14)
11. The nitrogen charge used during standby must be
removed. (Sec. 6, Par. 3)
12. A low water level in the evaporator will cause
the evaporator pump to surge. (Sec. 7, Par. 3)
13. A partial load. (Sec. 7, Par. 4)
14. The solution boiling level is set at initial startup
of the machine. (Sec. 7, Par. 5)
15. When air is being handled, the second stage of
the purge unit will tend to get hot. (Sec. 7, Par.
7)
16. Solution solidification. (Sec. 7, Par. 9)
17. You can connect the nitrogen tank to the alcohol
charging valve to pressurize the system. (Sec. 7,
Par. 14)
18. Three. (Sec. 7, Par. 15)
19. You can determine whether air has leaked in the
machine during shutdown by observing the
absorber manometer reading and checking it
against the chart. (Sec. 8, Par. 2)
20. Corrode. (Sec. 8, Par. 2)
21. To check a mechanical pump for leaks, you must
close the petcocks in the water line to the pump
seal chamber and observe the compound
pressure gauge. A vacuum indicates a leaky
seal. (Sec. 8, Par. 3)
22. Flushing the seal chamber after startup will
increase the life of the seal. (Sec. 8, Par. 4)
23. Chill water as leaked back into the machine.
(Sec. 8, Par. 5)
24. Octyl alcohol is added to the solution to clean
the outside of the tubes in the generator and
absorber. (Sec. 8, Par. 7)
25. When actyl alcohol is not drawn into the system
readily, the conical strainer is dirty and must be
removed and cleaned. This is normally
accomplished at the next scheduled shutdown. If
this situation persists, the solution spray header
must be removed and cleaned. (Sec. 8, Par. 8)
26. When the purge operates but does not purge, the
steam jet nozzle is plugged. To correct this, you
must close the absorber purge valve and the
purge steam supply valve. Then remove the
steam jet cap and clean the nozzle with a piece of
wire. The steam supply valve can be opened to
blow out the loosened dirt. After the nozzle is
clean, replace the cap and open the valves. (Sec.
8, Par. 9)
27. Silver nitrate. (Sec. 8, Par. 10)
28. Three drops of indicator solution is added to the
solution sample. (Sec. 8, Par. 10)
29. 1. (Sec. 8, Par. 11)
30. When more silver nitrate is needed to turn the
sample red, the sample contains more than 1
percent of lithium bromide. The evaporator
water must be reclaimed. (Sec. 8, Pars. 10 and
11)
31. The length of time needed to reclaim evaporator
water depends upon the amount of salt (lithium
bromide) in the evaporator water circuit. (Sec. 8,
Par. 12)
32. It takes 2 or 3 days for the dirt to settle out when
the solution is placed in drums. (Sec. Par. 14)
33. The conical strainer is cleaned by flushing it with
water. (Sec. 8, Par. 16)
34. The purge is cleaned with a wire or nylon brush.
(Sec. 8, Par. 20)
35. Disagree. The diaphragm in a vacuum type
valve is replaced every 2 years. (Sec. 8, Par. 22)
36. A steady rise in vapor condensate temperature
indicates that the absorber and condenser tubes
must be cleaned. (Sec. 8, Par. 25)
37. Soft scale may be removed from the condenser
141
tubes with a nylon bristle brush. (Sec. 8, Par. 28)
38. The maximum allowable vacuum loss during a
vacuum leak test is one-tenth of an inch of Hg in
24 hours. (Sec. 8, Par. 28)
39. The refrigerant used to perform a halide leak test
is R-12. (Sec. 8, Par. 29)
40. Three causes of lithium bromide solidification at
startup are condenser water too old, air in
machine, improper purging, or failure of strong
solution valve. (Sec. 8, table 11)
41. To check for a leaking seal, close the seal tank
makeup valve and note the water level in the
tank overnight (Sec. 8, table 12)
CHAPTER 3
1. 1200 pounds. (Sec. 9, Par. 1)
2. The economizer reduces the horsepower
requirement per ton of refrigeration. (Sec. 9,
Par. 2)
3. Disagree. The chilled water flows through the
tubes. (Sec. 9, Par. 3)
4. Condenser float chamber. (Sec. 9, Par. 5)
5. The pressure within the economizer chamber is
approximately halfway between the condensing
and evaporating pressures. (Sec. 9, Par. 5)
6. Line with the shaft. (Sec. 10, Par. 1)
7. The impellers are dipped in hot lead to protect
them from corrosion. (Sec. 10, Par. 2)
8. Two. (Sec. 10 Par. 3)
9. Brass labyrinth packing prevents interstage
leakage of gas. (Sec. 10, Par. 4)
10. Axial thrust will affect suction end of the
compressor. (Sec. 10, Par. 5)
11. Main compressor shaft. (Sec. 10, Par. 7)
12. The pump lubricates the thrust bearing first.
(Sec. 10, Par. 8)
13. Oil is returned from the oil pump drive gear by
gravity. (Sec. 10, Par. 9)
14. Oil pressure actuates the shaft seal. (Sec. 10,
Par. 10)
15. The two holes in the inner floating seal ring
allow the passage of oil to the front journal
bearing. (Sec. 10, Par. 11)
16. 8. (Sec. 10, Par. 12)
17. The oil pressure gauge located on the control
panel are the seal oil reservoir and “back of
seal.” (Sec. 3, Par. 13)
18. A flow switch in the water supply oil cooler line
turns the oil heater on automatically when
waterflow stops. (Sec. 10, Par. 14)
19. Disagree. They are held apart during operation.
(Sec. 10, Par. 16)
20. A high-grade turbine oil is used in centrifugal
compressors. (Sec. 10, Par. 17)
21. Increases. (Sec. 11, Par. 1)
22. Journal speed, tooth speeds, (and) clearances.
(Sec. 11, Par. 3)
23. The gear drive cooling water is turned on when
the oil temperature reaches 100° F. to 110° F.
(Sec. 11, Par. 5)
24. Gear wear. (Sec. 11, Par. 9)
25. The gear to compressor coupling uses a spool
piece. (Sec. 12, Par. 1)
26. The hub is heated with oil, steam, or open flame
to expand it: (Sec. 12, Par. 2)
27. Feeler gauge. (Sec. 12, Par. 3)
28. The offset alignment of a coupling is checked
with a dial indicator. (Sec. 12, Par. 4)
29. The couplings that have collector rings in the end
of the cover can be lubricated while running.
(Sec. 12, Par. 8)
30. Three; 60; adjustable speed wound. (Sec. 13,
Par. 3)
31. Slipring circuit; speed. (Sec. 13, Par. 3)
32. When the start button is held closed, the oil
pressure switch is bypassed. (Sec. 13, Par. 4)
33. The secondary function of the condenser is to
collect and concentrate noncondensable gases.
(Sec. 14, Par. 1)
34. A perforated baffle is used to prevent the
discharge gas from directly hitting the condenser
tubes. (Sec. 14, Par. 2)
35. When you remove the water box cover you must
leave two bolts in the cover until the cover is
supported with a rope or chain. (Sec. 14, Par. 3)
36. A blocked compressor suction opening. (Sec.
14, Par. 6)
37. Check the sight glass on the cooler to determine
the system refrigerant charge. (Sec. 4, Par. 11)
38. A load increase is indicated when the refrigerant
and chill water temperature differential increases
(Sec. 14, Par. 13)
39. Surging. (Sec. 15, Par. 1)
40. The liquid injector is used desuperheat the hot
gas (Sec. 15, Par. 2)
41. The pressure drop across the orifice created by
the flow of gas through the orifice controls the
amount of liquid refrigerant flowing to the hot
gas bypass. (Sec. 15, Par. 3)
42. Disagree. The high-pressure control resets auto-
matically when the pressure falls to 75 p.s.i.g.
(Sec. 16, Par. 3)
43. The weir and trap is located in the center of the
evacuation chamber. (Sec. 16, Par. 3)
44. Air is in the system. (Sec. 16, Par. 5)
45. Air in the condenser is released through the
purge air relief valve. (Sec. 16, Par. 6)
46. One-half pint of water per day collected by surge
unit indicates leaky tubes. (Sec. 16, Par. 8)
47. A pressure drop will exist across the pressure-
regulating valve when it is wide open. (Sec. 16,
Par. 9)
48. Large amounts of air are normally purged after
repairs and before charging. (Sec. 16, Par. 10)
49. Water is drained from the separator unit when it
can be seen in the upper sight glass. (Sec. 16,
Par. 12)
50. Low oil pressure, high condenser pressure, low
refrigerant temperature, (and) low water
temperature. (Sec. 17, Par. 1)
51. The low oil pressure control does not require
manual resetting. (Sec. 17, Par. 2)
52. The high condenser pressure control has a differ-
ential of 7 pounds. (Sec. 17, Par. 3)
142
53. You can change controllers with the rotary
selecting switch on the safety control panel.
(Sec. 17, Par. 6)
54. Control the speed of the compressor. (Sec. 18,
Pars. 1 and 2)
55. When you add more resistance to the rotor
circuit of the drive motor, the compressor speed
will decrease. (Sec. 18, Par. 3)
56. Suction damper control is more effective than
speed control when it is necessary to maintain a
non-surging operation at light loads. (Sec. 18,
Par. 4)
57. During startup the drum controller lever is in
number 1 position, all resistance in the circuit to
the rotor. (Sec. 19, Par. 2)
58. Condensed refrigerant will cause the oil level to
rise in the pump chamber during an extended
shut-down. (Sec. 9,. Par 6)
59. 1. (Sec. 20, Par. 2)
60. Agree. The 2-inch plug does prevent leakage
when the ¾-inch plug is removed. (Sec. 20, Par.
3)
61. To charge refrigerant into the system as a gas,
you must let the drum rest on the floor and open
the drum charging valve. (Sec. 20, Par. 5)
62. The system may be pressurized with the purge
recovery unit. (Sec. 20, Par. 6)
63. High condenser pressure is normally caused by
air in the condenser. (Sec. 20, table 19)
64. Light load, air leak, (or) high condenser pressure.
(Sec. 20, table 19)
65. When the economizer float valve is stuck, the
compressor second stage will frost. (Sec. 20,
table 19)
66. Low “back of seal” oil pressure and a high seal
oil pressure are caused by a dirty filter or a filter
cartridge improperly installed. (Sec. 20, table
19)
67. Misalignment, insufficient lubrication, (or)
excessive wear. (Sec. 20, table 19)
68. Agree. A high oil level will cause the gear to
overheat. (Sec. 20, table 19)
CHAPTER 4
1. The main scale-forming compound found in con-
densing water systems is calcium carbonate.
(Sec. 21, Par. 1)
2. 7.1 (to) 14; 200. (Sec. 21, Par. 4)
3. Using the formula
(Sec. 21, Par. 6)
4. Four methods of preventing scale are bleedoff,
pH adjustment, adding polyphosphates, and
using the zeolite softener. (Sec. 21, Par. 7)
5. Using the formula
Hardness p.p.m. = 20 X (total No. of ml. of std.
 soap solution required to obtain a permanent
lather)
p.p.m = 20 X 10
p.p.m = 200
(Sec. 21, Par. 9)
6. The lime-soda process changes calcium and
magnesium from a soluble to an insoluble state.
(Sec. 21, Par. 11)
7. The zeolite process replaces the calcium and
magnesium compounds with soluble sodium
compounds. (Sec. 21, Par. 11)
8. It is necessary to add lime or clay to the
Accelator to add weight which prevents rising
floc. (Sec. 21, Par. 15)
9. The factors that would limit the use of the
Spiractor are excessive magnesium hardness,
high water temperature, and turbidity over 5
p.p.m. (Sec. 21, Par. 17)
10. A salt or brine solution is uniformly distributed
on top of the zeolite bed, which passes evenly
down through the bed. (Sec. 21, Par. 18)
11. Corrosion is more rapid in a liquid with a low pH
value. (Sec. 22, Par. 2)
12. The most common type of corrosion in an acid
liquid is uniform corrosion. (Sec. 22, Par. 4)
13. Pitting corrosion is characterized by cavities and
gradually develops into pinhole leaks. (Sec. 22,
Par. 5)
14. The type of corrosion that corrodes steel in a
system that contains an abundance of copper is
known as galvanic corrosion. (Sec. 22, Par. 6)
15. Erosion-corrosion is caused by suspended matter
or air bubbles; the best control for this type of
corrosion is a good filtration system, and air
purging valves installed in the highest point of
the water system. (Sec. 22, Pars. 7 and 8)
16. The two most common chemical corrosion
inhibitors are chromates and polyphosphates.
(Sec. 22, Par. 10)
17. 200 (to) 500 p.p.m.; 7.5. (Sec. 22, Par. 11)
18. The most common chromate used is sodium
bichromate because it is more economical than
others. (Sec. 22, Par. 11)
19. The chromate concentration of treated water is
measured by color comparison of the sample to
that of a tube chromate water known to contain a
certain p.p.m. of chromate. (Sec. 22, Par. 14)
20. High concentration of polyphosphates precipitate
out in the form of calcium phosphate. (Sec. 22,
Par. 14)
21. First of all, there is no yellow residue produced
by polyphosphates, as there is by chromates.
Secondly, polyphosphates reduce sludge and rust
(tuberculation). (Sec. 22, Par. 15)
22. Bleedoff must be adjusted on condenser water
systems using polyphosphates to avoid
exceeding the solubility of calcium phosphate.
(Sec. 22, Par. 16)
23. The chemical corrosion inhibitors that are in a
nylon net bag which is placed in a cooling tower
may be in pellet or crystal form. (Sec. 22, Par.
18)
24. Chilled water and brine solution systems require
the pot type corrosion inhibitor feeders. (Sec.
22, Par. 18)
25. Algae formations will plug the nozzles in
143
cooling towers, thus causing high condensing
temperatures and reducing the system’s capacity.
(Sec. 23, Par. 1)
26. The amount of chlorine needed to eliminate
algae growth is 1.5 p.p.m. (Sec. 23, Par. 2)
27. Disagree. The sample is heated after the
orthotolidine is added. (Sec. 23, Par. 3)
28. Chlorination is effective because the bactericidal
efficiency of chlorine increases with the increase
in the temperature of the water. (Sec. 23, Par. 6)
29. The orthotolidine test measures only the total
available chlorine residual, while the
orthotolidine-arsenite test measures the relative
amounts of free available chlorine, combined
available chlorine, and color caused by
interfering substances. (Sec. 23, Par. 8)
30. The combined available chlorine residual is 3.25
– 2.5 = .75 p.p.m. (Sec. 23, Par. 9)
31. To perform a chlorine demand test, you must
first prepare a test sample by mixing 7.14 grams
of calcium hypochlorite with 100 cc. Of water to
produce a 5000 p.p.m. chlorine solution. Add 1
milliliter of this sample to the water to be tested.
Wait 30 minutes and perform a chlorine residual
test. You must then subtract the chlorine
residual from the test dosage to obtain the
chlorine demand. (Sec. 23, Pars. 13, 14, and 15)
32. To perform the pH determination with a color
comparator, you would fill the color comparator
tube with the sample to be tested to the
prescribed mark on the tube. The you would add
0.5 ml. mark on the tube. Then you would add
0.5 ml. of cresol red-thymol blue solution to the
sample. After mixing the solution thoroughly in
the sample, you would place the sample tube in
the comparator and match the sample color with
the cresol red-thymol blue disc. (Sec. 23, Pars.
17, 18, and 19)
33. Alkaline, because a pink color indicates a pH
above 8.3. (Sec. 23, Par. 22)
34. Sulfuric, sodium sulfate, and phosphoric acids
are added to adjust the pH. They are added to
the water through a solution feeder. (Sec. 23,
Par 24)
35. Calcium hypochlorite contains more chlorine by
weight; 65 to 70 percent available chlorine by
weight. (Sec. 23, Pars. 26 and 27)
36. To add 100 gallons of chlorine solution per day,
you would select the Wilson type DES
hypochlorinator because its capacity is 120
gallons per day. (Sec. 23, Par. 32)
37. 4.
38. You would have to add 43 pounds of HTH to
that water which requires 30 pounds of chlorine.
39. Thirty gallons of chlorine is added per day to
treat
 2 million gallons of water when the dosage is 1.5
p.p.m. and dosing solution is 10 percent.
40. The precautions that must be followed while per-
forming the turbidimeter test are as follows: The
glass tube must be placed in a vertical position
with the centerlines matched. The top of the
candle support should be 3 inches below the
bottom of the tube. The candle must be made of
beeswax and spermaceti, gauged to burn within
114 and 126 grains per hour. The flame must be
a constant size and the same distance below the
tube. The tube should be inclosed in a case when
observations are made. Soot, moisture and
impurities must not be accumulated on the
bottom of the glass tube. (Sec. 24, Pars. 4, 5,
and 6)
41. The number of gallons that a vertical type
pressure filter, 4 feet in diameter, can treat in 1
hour is:
Area = π2
Area = 3.146 X (1/2d)
Area = 3.146 X (2 X 2)
Area = 3.146 X 4
Area = 12.564 or 12.6
12.6 X 3 = 37.8
37.8 X 60 =2268 gallons.
(Sec. 24, Par. 11)
42. The precaution for taking water samples that is
common to both types of analysis is that the
equipment (bottle, stopper, etc.) must be
sterilized. (Sec. 25, Pars. 3 and 4)
43. To sterilize a bottle that is to be used for chlorine
rating 0.2 to 0.5 grams of sodium thiosulfate is
added to the sample in the bottle. Then it is
sterilized at a temperature below 392° to prevent
decomposition of the thiosulfate (Sec. 25, Par. 4,
a)
44. You should hold the bottle least 3 inches below
the surface of water in a tank when you take a
sample. (Sec. 25, Par. 4, c)
45. A solution of lysol, mercuric chloride, or of
bicarbonate of soda is used to rinse your hands
after making water tests. (Sec. 25, Par. 7)
CHAPTER 5
1. The amount of cement that you would mix with
12 pounds of sand and 24 pounds of crushed
rock is 4 pounds. (Sec. 26, Par. 1)
2. A 1-inch space is left between the foundation
and baseplate to allow enough room for grouting
after the baseplate is level. (Sec. 26, Par. 1)
3. A ¾-inch baseplate bolt requires a sleeve made
from 1.875-inch pipe. (Sec. 26, Par. 1)
4. To level the baseplate, you would place two
wedges below the center of the pump and two a
below the center of the motor. (Sec. 26, Par. 3)
5. The angular alignment of a “spider” is checked
at four points on the circumference of the outer
ends of the coupling hubs at 90° intervals. (Sec.
26, Par. 4)
6. Angular alignment is accomplished by loosening
the motor holddown bolts and shifting or
shimming the motor. (Sec. 26, Par. 5)
144
7. To grout the unit, you must build a wooden dam
around the foundation and wet the top of the
foundation. Then fill the space with grout. (Sec.
26, Par. 7)
8. One part of Portland cement to three parts of
sharp sand is used to make grout. (Sec. 26, Par.
7)
9. You should allow 48 hours for the grout to
harden. (Sec. 26, Par. 7)
10. To establish initial alignment of the pumping
unit, you must tighten the foundation and
holddown bolts. Check the gap, angular
adjustment, and parallel alignment. Recheck
alignment after each adjustment. (Sec. 26, Par.
9)
11. The unit may become misaligned because of
foundation settling, seasoning, or springing; pipe
strains; shifting of the building structure; or
springing of the baseplate. (Sec. 26, Par. 9)
12. Strainer. (Sec. 26, Par. 10)
13. The pump will lose a and capacity if smaller
discharge pipe is installed. (Sec. 26, Par. 11)
14. To prime the pump, fill it with the fluid to be
pumped through the priming opening in the
pump. (Sec. 27, Par. 1)
15. After the pump is primed and before it is started,
make sure that all the pump connections are
airtight and rotate the pump shaft by hand to be
sure that it moves freely. (Sec. 27, Par. 1)
16. Loose pump connections, low liquid level in the
pump, loose suction line joints, improper
direction of rotation, motor not up to nameplate
speed, and dirty suction strainer will cause the
failure of a newly installed pump. (Sec. 27, Par.
3)
17. The lantern ring. (Sec. 28, Par. 2)
18. You must pipe clean water to the stuffing box
when the water being pumped is dirty, gritty, or
acidic. (Sec. 28, Par. 3)
19. Loose packing will leak excessively and tight
packing will burn and score the shaft. (Sec. 28,
Par. 4)
20. When five-ring packing is used, stagger the
packing joints approximately 72°. (Sec. 28, Par.
5)
21. Back off the gland bolts. (Sec. 28, Par. 10)
22. The bellows should not be disturbed unless it is
to be replaced. (Sec. 28, Par. 11)
23. The four types of bearings found in centrifugal
pumps are grease-lubricated roller and ball
bearings, oil-lubricated ball bearings, and oil-
lubricated sleeve bearings. (Sec. 28, Par. 17)
24. Overlubrication causes overheated bearings.
(Sec. 28, Par. 17)
25. Mineral greases with a soda soap base are
recommended for grease lubricated bearings.
(Sec. 28, Par. 19)
26. Vegetable and animal greases are not used to
lubricate pump bearings because they may form
acid and cause deterioration. (Sec. 28, Par. 19)
27. 180° F. (Sec. 28, Par. 20)
28. 150° F. (Sec. 28, Par. 22)
29. The four drilled recesses facilitate the removal
and
 installation of the coupling bushing. (Sec. 28,
Par. 24)
30. Disagree. The recessed holes should face away
from the pump. (Sec. 28, Par. 26)
Chapter 6
1. Thermionic emission is a method of emitting
electrons from the cathode with heat. (Sec. 29,
Par. 3)
2. In a directly heated cathode, the material that
heats also emits electrons, whereas the indirectly
heated cathode has separate heating and emitter
elements. (Sec. 29, Par. 4)
3. The elements of a diode vacuum tube are the
cathode and plate. (Sec 29, Par. 7)
4. Cathode; plate. (Sec. 29, Par. 7)
5. The diode rectifies a.c. because current will pass
through the tube in one direction. (Sec. 29, Par.
8)
6. The factors that determine the amount of current
flowing through a diode tube are the temperature
of the cathode and the potential difference
between the cathode and plate. (Sec. 29, Par. 9
7. Positive. (Sec. 29, Par. 11)
8. The capacitors will filter half-wave rectification
by charging during the positive half-cycle and
discharging through the load resistance during
the negative half-cycle. (Sec. 29, Par. 13)
9. A duo-diode is a tube containing two diode
tubes. It may have one cathode and two plates.
(Sec. 29, Par. 16)
10. The purpose of the control grid is to provide
more sensitive control of the plate current. (Sec.
30, Par. 2)
11. The control grid is physically located between
the cathode and plate. (Sec. 30, Par. 2
12. Negative. (Sec. 30, Par. 4)
13. When the grid is made more negative, the current
through the tube will decrease. (Sec. 30, Par. 5)
14. Grid bias is the potential difference of the d.c.
voltage on the grid with respect to the cathode.
Cutoff bias is the point at which the negative
grid voltage stops all current flow in the tube.
(Sec. 30, Pars. 5 and 7)
15. The types of grid bias used on vacuum tubes are
fixed, cathode, and contact potential. (Sec. 30,
Pars. 8, 9, and 12)
16. A disadvantage of contact potential bias is that
bias is developed only when a signal is applied
to the grid. (Sec. 30, Par. 14)
17. The triode can be used as an amplifier because a
small a.c. voltage applied between the cathode
and grid will cause a change in at grid bias and
vary the current passing through the tube. (Sec.
30, Par. 15)
18. The potential of the screen grid is positive with
respect to the cathode. (Sec. 30, Par. 19)
19. The power amplifier handles larger values of
current than triode amplifiers. (Sec. 30, Par. 20)
20. A negative potential is applied to the suppressor
grid of a pentode tube. (Sec. 30, Par. 23)
21. The valence ring is the outer ring or orbit of an
atom. (Sec. 31, Par. 4)
145
22. Conductor. (Sec. 31, Par. 4)
23. N-type germanium is made when an antimony
atom has gone into covalent bonding with
germanium. The antimony in the material
donates a free electron. (Sec. 31, Par. 8)
24. N-type material has free electrons which support
electron flow, whereas P-type material has a
shortage of electrons. This shortage causes
current to flow from the N-type material to the P-
type material. (Sec. 31, Pars. 8 and 9)
25. N-type; P-type. (Sec. 31, Par. 13)
26. Forward bias encourages current flow. (Sec. 31,
Par. 14)
27. 2500 watts is developed in a circuit having 100
ohms resistance and an amperage draw of 5
amps (P = I2R). (Sec 31, Par. 17)
28. The base is located between the emitter and
collector. (Sect. 31, Par. 19)
29. Maximum power gain is obtained by making the
base region very narrow compared to the emitter
and collector regions. (Sec. 31, Par. 24)
30. The emitter is comparable to the cathode, the
base to the grid, and the collector to the plate.
(Sec. 31, Par. 29)
31. The three basic transistor circuits are the
common base, common emitter, and common
collector. (Sec. 32, Par. 1)
32. The common collector circuit has a high
impedance input and a low impedance output.
(Sec. 32, Par. 5)
33. The coupling capacitor is used to couple the
signal into the emitter-base circuit of the
transistor. (Sec. 32, Par. 6)
34. The voltage drop is 9 volts (3/4 X 12 = 9). (Sec.
33, Par. 1)
35. A simple two-resistor bridge is balanced when
no current flows between the wipers. (Sec. 33,
Par. 2)
36. The Wheatstone bridge sends a signal to the
amplifier, which builds up the bridge signal to
operate a relay. (Sec. 33, Par. 5)
37. The higher temperature will unbalance the bridge
by increasing the resistance in one circuit. The
signal from the bridge will be amplified and
operate a relay. (Sec. 33, Par. 8)
38. A vacuum tube voltmeter is used because it has a
high input resistance. (Sec. 33, Par. 9)
39. The first step to take when using a V.T.V.M. is
to turn the meter on and allow it to warm up.
(Sec. 33, Par. 10)
40. The purpose of the discriminator circuit is to
determine in which direction the bridge is
unbalanced and take the necessary action to
correct the condition. (Sec. 34, Par. 1)
41. The function of the blocking capacitor is to pass
a.c. to the second stage and block the high-
voltage d.c. (Sec. 34, Par. 3)
42. When the signal in the discriminator circuit goes
negative, the cutoff bias is reached on the control
grid. (Sec. 34, Par. 5)
43. The bridge supply voltage should come from the
same phase as the discriminator supply to insure
a bridge signal that is either in phase of 180° out
of
 phase with the discriminator supply. (Sec. 34,
Par. 7)
44. The discriminator circuit will conduct when the
plate and the amplified bridge signal are both
positive. (Sec. 34, Par. 8)
45. A balancing potentiometer is used with a
modulating motor to bring the bridge back into
balance when a deviation has been corrected.
(Sec. 34, Par. 10)
Chapter 7
1. The precaution you should observe when
installing a humidity sensing element is to locate
it not too close to sprayers, washers, and heating
or cooling coils, but within 50 feet of the control
panel. (Sec. 35, Par. 2)
2. The outdoor thermostat sensing element is a coil
of fine wire wound on a plastic bobbin and
coated for protection against dirt and moisture.
(Sec. 35, Par. 5)
3. To check the resistance of the sensing element,
disconnect the leads and connect an ohmmeter
across them. (Sec. 35, Par. 9)
4. Dirt on the sensing element will reduce the
sensitivity of a thermostat. (Sec. 35, Par. 11)
5. To reposition the crank arm on the damper motor
shaft, loosen the screw and nut that hold the arm
on the shaft. This will allow you to reposition
the shaft in four different positions, 90° apart.
The adjustment screw on the face of the crank
arm provides angular setting of the crank arm in
steps of 22 1/2° throughout any one of the four
positions on the shaft. (Sec. 35, Par. 13)
6. The damper motor repairs that may be made in
the field are cleaning the potentiometer or limit
switch contacts, repairing internal connecting
wires, and replacing the internal wires. (Sec. 35,
Par. 15)
7. You can check the transformer output by
connecting a voltmeter across its terminals.
(Sec. 35, Par. 16)
8. If the damper motor does not respond to direct
transformer power, the most probable faults are
broken wires, defective limit switch, or faulty
condenser. (Sec. 35, Par. 18)
9. The authority “pots” adjust the change in
variable required to give a certain voltage
change. (Sec. 36, Par. 2)
*U.S. Government Printing Office: 2001-628-075/40468
146
10. The total voltage across the bridge determines
the position of the final control element. (Sec.
36, Par. 3)
11. The adjustments for setting up or changing a
control sequence are made at the control panel.
(Sec. 36, Par. 4)
12. The nonrestarting relay is connected in the
compressor starting circuit. It will prevent the
compressor from operating unless the solenoid
valve is operating. (Sec. 36, Par. 7)
13. The summer compensation schedule differs from
the winter compensation schedule in that outdoor
thermostat T3 will be replaced by T1. (Sec. 36,
Pars. 10 and 11)
14. When the controlled variable varies continually
and reverses its direction regularly, the throttling
range is set too low. (Sec. 37, Par. 3)
15. With a 10 percent authority and 10° temperature
change T3 will have the same effect as a 1°
change in temperature at T1. (Sec. 37, Par. 5)
16. The control point can be reset after the system is
in operation by positioning the control point
adjuster in the control panel. (Sec. 37, Par. 6)
17. When the amplifier output voltage is 1 volt and
the branch line pressure is 5 p.s.i.g., the most
probable trouble is that the valve unit is out of
adjustment. (Sec. 37, Par. 7)
18. The control reference temperature is temperature
measured at T1. The control reference pressure
is the actual branch line pressure. (Sec. 37, Pars.
9 and 10)
19. The control point of a compensated system on
winter schedule should be equal to the set point.
(Sec. 37, Par. 14)
20. The bridge signal is amplified and fed to a
magnetic coil in the pneumatic valve. The
amount of current flowing through the coil
positions nozzle lever over the nozzle. The
position of this lever controls the amount of
branch line pressure sent to the controlled
device. (Sec. 37, Pars. 18 and 19)
21. A faulty connection between the amplifier and
bridge will cause one or more of the tubes to
remain cold. (Sec. 37, table 21)
22. The transformer output and the valve unit relay
must be checked when the tubes light up and
burn out repeatedly. (Sec. 37, table 21)