Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

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Ore Geology Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev

Review

Pegmatites and aplites: Their genetic and applied ore geology

Harald G. Dill
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University, Welfengarten 1, D-30167 Hannover, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pegmatitic rocks are very coarse-grained basement rocks abundant in quartz, feldspar or/and mica, in places,
Received 24 December 2014 endowed either with mega crystals of the aforementioned rock-forming minerals or rare-element minerals. Peg-
Received in revised form 20 February 2015 matites are treated in this study together with aplitic rocks, which are compositionally similar to pegmatites but
Accepted 24 February 2015
strikingly different from them by their fine-grained texture. Rocks of the granitic suite take an intermediate po-
Available online 26 February 2015
sition between the two and, locally, they are transitional into both end-member types, emphasized in the denom-
Keywords:
ination by supplements such as aplite granite or pegmatitic granite. A similar scenario can be reported for syenitic
Pegmatite and, less frequently, for granodioritic through dioritic rocks which are found to be associated in time and space
Economic geology with pegmatites and aplites.
Rare elements The approach taken in the current review to explain, how the pegmatites evolved through time closely resembles
Industrial minerals the way petroleum geologists in search of or during study of a “petroleum system” address this problem. Their
Classification scheme “basin analysis” at the beginning is equivalent to the analysis of the geodynamic setting out of which only
three – Variscan-, Alpine- and Rift-type – are considered in this study as pegmatite-prone. These geodynamic set-
tings have particular “source rocks” for elements used to be enriched in granites and pegmatites, they provide
physical regimes capable of sparking the mobilization of fluids and melts and they are endowed with migration
pathways such as deep-seated lineamentary rifts, shallow thrust and shear planes used by A- and S-type granites
and pegmatites, alike. Pegmatites sensu stricto are found as immigrations into environments different from their
birthplace where they were trapped in structures providing the accommodation space necessary for their em-
placement and sealed off by impervious roof rocks. In the petroleum system, there are also “oil shows” close to
the source rocks analogous to the in-situ anatectic pegmatoids. “Oil and gas seeps” are comparable to the various
types of (auto)hydrothermal alteration common to many pegmatite systems. In principle, granites and pegma-
tites are two sides of the same coin, both are undergoing mobilization and migration; the granite mirrors diffu-
sion and dissemination, the pegmatite reflects trapping and concentration. Fractionation and separation can be
recognized in the petroleum as well as in the pegmatite–granite systems.
While the mineralogy of pegmatites has been intensively studied and also backed by experimental work, the
(economic) or ore geology of these felsic rocks has not been given adequate attention, particularly when it
comes to the classification of the pegmatites. The newly elaborated CMS classification scheme (Chemical compo-
sition–Mineral assemblage–Structural geology) pays attention to the three ore-controlling factors of pegmatites,
in general, and rare element deposits associated with them, in particular (Sn–W, Be, REE, Zr, Th–U, B, F, P, Li–Cs–
Rb, Nb–Ta, Sc, Mo, Bi). The second string to the bow is the wide range of industrial mineral deposits (feldspar,
feldspathoids, quartz, alumosilicates–corundum, garnet, mica, graphite, kaolin). The “ore body” of the pegmatite
is described by two items—1st order and 2nd order terms, the type of deposit (e.g. metapegmatite, pegmatoid,
pseudopegmatite) and by its shape and structure (e.g., stock-like, tabular, miarolitic). The “ore composition” is
defined also by two characteristics, labeled as 3rd order and 4th order terms, by a chemical (e.g. Be–Li–Nb peg-
matite stock-like) and a mineralogical qualifier (e.g. (andalusite)–quartz–feldspar metapegmatite tabular) added
to the 1st order and 2nd order terms. The CMS classification scheme as it stands is purely descriptive and de-
signed for genetic and applied economic geology.
In terms of structural geology and geodynamics, pegmatitic deposits primarily occur in ensialic Variscan-type
orogens (calc-alkaline) with a thickened crust and a preponderance of thrusting and nappe stacking. In Rift-
type settings (alkaline) where a strong subcrustal impact is evident and as reactivated/reworked
pseudopegmatites in Alpine-type orogens (calc-alkaline) these deposits developed during the initial stages
when the crustal section was still rather thick. Both types pertain to the marginal ensimatic settings. Fully-
developed ensimatic Andean- and Arc-type settings are devoid of pegmatitic deposits. There are metals in rare
element pegmatites that are typical of Variscan-type, such as U, B, P and Sn. Th, REE, Mo and Zr preferably
show up in Rift-type settings whereas Li and Ta are of widespread occurrence in reactivated Alpine-type orogens.

E-mail address: haralddill@web.de.

URL: http://www.hgeodill.de.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.02.022
0169-1368/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
418 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

The highest economic potential has been observed in pegmatites/aplites sensu stricto, pseudopegmatites and
pegmatite–skarns. Granite pegmatites are ranked second in the abundance of rare elements, mainly Sn and W,
whereas metapegmatites and pegmatoids are used to concentrate only feldspar, quartz and mica.
A similar tripartite subdivision as performed for the geodynamic positioning of the host environment can also be
done for the emplacement of pegmatites themselves. They are part of the (1) thrustbound and fold-related
metamorphogenic deposits, (2) collision and intrusive-related deposits and (3) deposits originated from deep-
seated lineamentary remobilization. With this in mind a direct correlation of pegmatite deposits with non-
pegmatitic deposits such as carbonatites or skarn deposits can easily be performed and all physico-chemical pro-
cesses inherent to these groups of non-pegmatitic deposits can be applied to pegmatitic deposits as well. Based
upon this joint chemical–mineralogical–geological approach taken in the classification of pegmatites it becomes
evident that pegmatites can no longer be referred to as a simple product of fractionation of a parental granite but
have to be placed as an entity of its own hierarchically besides the granite suite. Pegmatitic rocks cannot be put
into a category sharply delimited from the adjacent ones. In nature they are often transitional from simple
pegmatoids in migmatites to complex pegmatites sensu stricto. They are characterized by a polyphase develop-
ment with their formation guided by structures, controlled by open access to crustal and subcrustal heat and el-
ement sources. Since pegmatites and aplites used to be smaller in size than granites, a more consequent
concentration of elements accompanied by a more intensive interaction with their country rocks takes place dur-
ing their emplacement than in granites (skarn, episyenites, and albitites).
Considering the economic part of pegmatites, the primary pegmatite deposits and their clastic aprons with placer
deposits from residual to fluvial type will be left unchallenged as far as the exploitation of colored gemstones is
concerned, because there is no other choice. The hard rock deposits will still have a say when the requirements
for the raw material are very strict (ultra-high quartz) or a shortage of electronic and strategic elements is
looming (Ta, Nb, Be). Exploitation of industrial minerals from hardrocks is competitive if no easy-to access de-
posits (near-surface sedimentary deposits) of similar quality are close-by and the labor costs are moderate in
the country of production. Low-grade large tonnage deposits (salars, brines) are a challenge particularly for lith-
ium. The pegmatites will maintain their position as a source for those elements which make up the lion share in
the mineral association, quartz and feldspar. Pegmatites fueled from subcrustal sources, and related in time and
space with reactive country rocks (ultrabasic, basic igneous rocks and carbonate rocks) have not yet been given
the attention they might deserve.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction — from experimental work to field geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

2. The geodynamic setting of pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
2.1. The European Variscides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
2.2. The Proterozoic Orogenies of Gondwana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
3. The classification schemes of pegmatites — complexity and applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
3.1. The history of classification of pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
3.2. The CMS classification scheme of pegmatitic and aplitic rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
3.2.1. Crystallization versus deformation — age of pegmatitization relative to the age of host rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
3.2.2. Shape and structure of pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
3.2.3. Chemical and mineralogical composition of pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
4. Commodities and the origin of pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
4.1. Tin- and tungsten pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (12 DE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
4.1.1. Sn–W plutonic pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
4.1.2. Sn–W pegmatites in the Neoproterozoic Metallotect in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
4.1.3. Sn–W plutonic pegmatites of the Neoproterozoic Rondônia Province, Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
4.1.4. Sn–W pegmatites of the Neoproterozoic Older Granites, Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
4.1.5. Synopsis of Sn–W pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
4.2. Beryllium pegmatites (14 ABDEJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
4.2.1. Be pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
4.2.2. Be pegmatites in the Alpine Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
4.2.3. Be pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
4.2.4. Synopsis of Be pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
4.3. Rare-earth element and zirconium pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (24DE + 39 E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
4.3.1. REE pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
4.3.2. REE pegmatites in the Alpine Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
4.3.3. REE pegmatites in Greenland and Scandinavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
4.3.4. REE pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
4.3.5. REE pegmatites in the Brazilian Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
4.3.6. Zr pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
4.3.7. Synopsis of REE and Zr pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
4.4. Uranium–thorium pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (24 DE + 26 DE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.4.1. U–Th plutonic pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.4.2. U–Th pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.4.3. U–Th pegmatites in South and North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
4.4.4. Synopsis of U–Th pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
4.5. Fluorine-boron pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (32 DE + 30 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 419

4.5.1. F–B pegmatites in the Variscan metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

4.5.2. F–B pegmatites in the Proterozoic metallotect in Africa and South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
4.5.3. Synopsis of F–B pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
4.6. Phosphate pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (38 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
4.6.1. P pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
4.6.2. Phosphate pegmatites reactivated in the Alpine Fold Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
4.6.3. Phosphate pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa and South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
4.6.4. Synopsis of P pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
4.7. Lithium–cesium–rubidium pegmatites (15 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
4.7.1. Li pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
4.7.2. Li pegmatites in the Alpine Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
4.7.3. Li pegmatites in the Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic metallotects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
4.7.4. Synopsis of Li pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
4.8. Niobium–tantalum–scandium pegmatites (13 DE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
4.8.1. Nb/Ta pegmatites in the Variscan metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
4.8.2. Nb/Ta pegmatites in the Precambrian Metallotect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
4.8.3. Sc pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
4.8.4. Synopsis of Nb–Ta pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
4.9. Arsenic–bismuth–zinc–molybdenum pegmatites and pegmatite skarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
4.9.1. As pegmatites (21 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
4.9.2. Bi pegmatites (18 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
4.9.3. Zn pegmatites (16 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
4.9.4. Mo pegmatites (11 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
4.9.5. Chemical qualifiers in the classification of pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
4.10. Feldspar pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (41 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
4.10.1. Feldspar granitic and syenitic pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
4.10.2. Feldspar pegmatoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
4.10.3. Feldspar metapegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
4.10.4. Feldspar pegmatites and aplites sensu stricto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
4.10.5. Pegmatitic rocks with semiprecious feldspar varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
4.11. Quartz pegmatites (40 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
4.12. Feldspathoid pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (42 D + 43 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
4.12.1. Scapolite pegmatoid-(skarn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
4.12.2. Nepheline and sodalite syenite pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
4.12.3. Zeolite pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
4.13. Alumosilicate and corundum pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (49 ACD + 50 ACD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
4.13.1. Alumosilicate pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
4.13.2. Corundum pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
4.14. Garnet pegmatites and pegmatite skarn (47 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
4.15. Mica pegmatites and pegmatite skarn (59 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
4.16. Graphite pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (52 D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
4.17. Kaolin in pegmatites (55 DH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
5. Processes in the exocontact of pegmatites and within pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
5.1. Skarn mineralization and contact metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
5.2. Episyenitization and albitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
5.3. Metamorphogenic, magmatogenic and hydrothermal pegmatitic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
6. Mineral deposits associated with pegmatitic rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
6.1. Variscan-type metallogenic setting and pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
6.2. Rift-type metallogenic setting and pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
6.3. Alpine-type metallogenic setting and pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
7. Economic geology of pegmatite-related elements and minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
7.1. Tin–tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
7.1.1. Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
7.1.2. Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
7.2. Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
7.3. Rare earth elements and zirconium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
7.4. Uranium–thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
7.5. Fluorine–boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
7.5.1. Fluorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
7.5.2. Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
7.6. Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
7.7. Lithium–cesium–rubidium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
7.8. Niobium–tantalum–scandium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
7.9. Arsenic–bismuth–zinc–molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7.10. Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7.11. Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7.12. Feldspathoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7.13. Alumosilicate and corundum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7.14. Garnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
7.15. Mica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
7.16. Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
7.17. Kaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
420 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

8. Structural geology of pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

8.1. Pegmatites and the architectural elements of the country rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
8.2. Plutonic pegmatites and the architectural elements of their country rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
8.3. Pseudopegmatites and the architectural elements of their country rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
9. Genetic and economic conclusions and outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
9.1. Genetic conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
9.2. Economic outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

1. Introduction — from experimental work to field geology
Pegmatitic rocks are very coarse-grained crystalline rocks which, in
places, contain giant crystals of feldspar, quartz or mica that render
this felsic lithology to strongly contrast with compositionally similar
granites often lying in their close vicinity. These features draw the atten-
tion of entrepreneurs, mining engineers and mineral enthusiasts to
these accumulations of industrial and rare minerals. On the opposite
end of the grain-size scale of these crystalline felsic rocks, we may find
the aplites to be quite similar by chemistry and mineralogy to the peg-
matites and granites which they often gradually pass into via aplite
granites. In the classical Hagendorf-North pegmatite deposit, SE
Germany, a diamond drill hole sunken into the contact zone, displays
such a gradual transition from the gneissic country rocks, via the aplitic
feldspar rim into the feldspar pegmatite ore (Fig. 1).
Definition: The term “ore” is defined in the current study to describe a
concentration of non-metallic, e.g., feldspar, or metallic minerals, e.g. spod-
umene, in pegmatitic rocks irrespective of its structure and position in the
deposit which was or is currently mined for a profit. Minerals of showcase
quality or of scientific purposes only, sometimes only to be detected under
the stereomicroscope are omitted from this paper. The reader is referred
to one of the several mineralogical papers mentioned in the “References”
or in full-color magazines devoted to mineral enthusiasts. For the
Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, the mineralogical part has been
compiled in Dill (2015). To elucidate the structural elements and lithology
of a stock-like zoned feldspar pegmatite the (Nb–Li–P)–quartz–feldspar
pegmatite (columbite–Li–Fe–Mn phosphate) at Hagendorf-North,
Germany, has been taken reference (Fig. 1a, b). It is shown in a cross section
(Fig. 1a, b); by examination of one of its diamond drill cores (Fig. 1c, d) and
by visual inspection of hand specimens typical of the various lithological
zones (Fig. 1d).
Metapegmatite/-aplite: Prekinematic/premetamorphous rocks composed
mainly of feldspar, quartz and mica only (“barren pegmatitic rocks”)
showing microstructural, textural and mineralogical changes. Gradual
transition into augen- and orthogneisses is common. Dynamometamorphic
processes have a deleterious effect on the rock-forming minerals and inevitably
result in a comminution of feldspar. The contact to the wall rocks may be sharp
or transitional.
Pegmatoids/aploids: Syn- to late kinematic felsic rocks similar in com-
position to the aforementioned metapegmatites/-aplites. No relation to plu-
tonic rocks in high-grade regionally metamorphosed rocks. Gradual
transition into granitoids, but mostly in sharp contact to the metamorphic
wall rocks. Crystal growth of feldspar, quartz and mica, although falling
short of the size requirements of pegmatites may allow for their use as
raw material for ceramic purposes. Seldom rare metals are recorded from
these rocks at an economic level. Reflect in-situ formation or short-
distance migration of substance.
Pseudopegmatites: Pegmatite-like mobilizates, also called remobilized
pegmatites or reworked/reactivated pegmatites, which, in places, may
have lost their original pegmatitic or aplitic texture but based on their min-
eral association and chemical composition point to a pegmatitic derivation.
No connection to plutonic rocks can be determined and often found along
shear- and thrust zones. They are feasible as deposits for ceramic raw ma-
terials and for their rare metal contents.
Apart from the size of their crystals, it is the varied spectrum of rare
elements, e.g., Nb, Ta, Be or Li and the plethora of extraordinary minerals
resultant from these elements, that renders these crystalline rocks so
different from granitic rocks and draws the attention of mineralogists
and mineral collectors, alike, to these felsic rocks.
Not surprisingly, numerous mineralogical and chemical studies have
been centered on these pegmatitic rocks, looking at these crystalline
rocks from different angles. A great deal of effort has been taken on
these minerals to find new minerals, refining the crystal structure of
characteristic minerals and fine-tuning the physical–chemical regime
of formation (Strunz, 1954a,b, 1956; Seeliger and Mücke, 1970; Moore
and Kampf, 1977; Sturman et al., 1981; Mücke, 1983, 1988; Marzoni
Fecia Di Cossato et al., 1989; Walter et al., 1990; Birch et al., 1995,
2011; Adiwidjana et al., 1999; Raade et al., 2002; Brugger et al., 2011;
Yakovenchuk et al., 2012). Others have addressed the mineral textures
(Klementova, and Rieder, 2004) and placed emphasis on the chemistry
of pegmatites (Černy, 1992; Wise and Černý, 1996; Černý et al., 1995; Lu
and Lottermoser, 1997; Bakker and Elburg, 2006; Oyarzábal et al.,
2009). Only a small fraction of the numerous publications can be cited
here, mainly from Central Europe. Further papers are in the list of refer-
ences and in the text, provided that they contain also some information
on the geology of pegmatites. The latter is often treated like an after-
thought and publications are rather scant and mentioned in the text in
the pertinent sections.
The history of studying pegmatites is as long as the number of scien-
tific papers on pegmatites is big and it is most conveniently recorded by
the theories and models used to account for the genesis of pegmatites.
The most recent papers citing some previous investigations and sum-
marizing the state-of-the-art of mineralogical research on pegmatites
or, in other words, the mindset of their advocates have been published
by Černý et al. (2005) and by London (2008). Granitic pegmatites, as
they were called by the above authors, developed by late-stage crystal-
lization of a highly fractionated melt deriving from partial melting of
crustal or mantle rocks.
The siliceous melt separated from parental granites by filter pressing
which expelled this residual magma so as to become a melt self-
intrusive into the country rocks where it gave rise to a wide range of
unzoned or zoned pegmatites. It has been Jahns (1955), who put for-
ward that all pegmatitic structures can be accounted for by crystalliza-
tion from a melt of low viscosity. This explanation has not lost its
relevance today. Increasing contents of fluxing agents such as F, Li, Be,
P, and H2O significantly reduce the viscosity and solidus temperature
of the magma and so provoke concentration of rare or large-ion-
lithophile elements (LILE) in the residual melt. Cameron et al. (1949)
tried to explain the increasing chemical fractionation and inward-
directed textures of the pegmatites. The effects of liquidus undercooling
are said to play an important factor and to have dominated the textures
of the contact zone of pegmatites characterized by an aplitic rim while
in the more central parts it became the cause for the graphic inter-
growths and mega crystals to form (Fenn, 1986; London, 2008).
The theory was revitalized by London (2008), who assumed
undercooled conditions of approximately 200 °C as a special state in hy-
drous granitic liquids. He also reiterated the viscosity of the growth medium
to be important for the particular graphic intergrowth and provided graphs
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 421

a)
S drill hole (2011)

main shaft (1928-1937)

N

11 m

17 m

22 m

28 m

0 10 20 30m
44 m

Pegmatite with
Gneiss aplitic Phosphate zone
aplitic margin
Granite passing into
aplite granite Quartz core
(marginal zone)

b) µSv/h
0.20

0.15
K: 90 cps
0.10

K: 40 cps
U: 70 cps
0.05
U: 30 cps
Th: 20 cps Th: 20 cps
0

S N

11 m

?
0 10 20 30m

Fig. 1. a. Cross section through the Hagendorf-North pegmatite, SE Germany. The underground workings are shown by the galleries and shafts and rises. The pegmatite is well zoned and
typical of a stock-like pegmatite body with gneissic country rocks, aplitic internal contact/rim zone, feldspar rim and a quartz core. The rare metal concentration is marked by the phos-
phate zone in black (modified from Dill et al., 2013). b. The contours of the open pit have been given in this cross section together with a gamma-survey across the pegmatite deposit which
gives an idea of the shape and dip of the pegmatite body at depth (for more details see also Fig. 1a). The gamma readout is given in μSv/h and cps (modified from Dill et al., 2013). c. Drill
core through the external parts of the Hagendorf-North Pegmatite. For the position of the drill site see Fig. 1a. The DDH displays the transition from the Quaternary soil and solifluction zone
through the saprolite and saprock into the unaltered pegmatite, which is represented by the aplite/aplite granite–pegmatite transition. The gneiss is overprinted by the most recent
weathering and pedological processes. The photographs have been provided by the Wasserwirtschaftsamt Weiden/Water authority Weiden. The interpretation of the lithology has
been performed by the author. Technical services: DDH drilling by Fa. Eder Brunnenbau Deutschland GmbH and Ingenieurbüro GolHo. d. Drill core through the external parts of the
Hagendorf-North Pegmatite. For the position of the drill site see Fig. 1a. Specimens typical of the gneissic wall rocks, aplitic rim zone, pegmatite and phosphate zone.
422
c)
Brown soil + periglacial scree
Deeply weathered saprolite with kaolin
0-1
m m
illustrating the crystal-nucleation delay. It has to be mentioned, that this
idea caused a lot of debate and is considered as a misleading pathway by
some researchers dealing with the physical–chemical regime of pegmatites.
Thomas (2009), Thomas et al. (2008), and Thomas et al. (2009a) showed
that the formation of pegmatites is characterized by a combination of meta-
somatic reactions, and magmatic crystallization from extreme water-rich
silicate melts. Pegmatite-forming melts are not in the equilibrium with
the parental intrusion, and granite and pegmatite are decoupled at a phys-
icochemical level. Liquidus undercooling forming the basis of London's the-
ory (2008) to explain how the pegmatites came into existence, thus cannot
be the driving force according to these authors cited above. For further in-
formation on this topic that cannot be discussed in a profound way in a re-
view on ore geology, the reader is referred to the most recent discussion and
reply (London, 2014; Thomas and Davidson, 2015).
Jahns and Burnham (1969) created a model on the basis of exper-
imental studies to explain the derivation and crystallization of gra-
nitic pegmatites which formed by equilibrium crystallization of
coexisting granitic melt and hydrous fluids slightly below the hy-
drous granite liquidus. This chemically driven and mineralogically-
H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Deeply weathered saprolite grading into saprock
Aplitegranite –aplite altered, transitional into
the pegmatite
Aplitegranite –aplite altered to
saprock with kaolin
Feldspar pegmatite
2-3 3-4
m
Fig. 1 (continued).
minded approach has been taken still today as demonstrated by pub-
lications of London et al. (1989), Webber et al. (1999), and Simmons
et al. (2003).
Pegmatites have a 3-dimensional representation in nature and they
were emplaced in relation to the accommodation space provided by the
geological processes being related in time and space to structural distur-
bances, as part of an orogeny and last but not least the geodynamic evo-
lution of a crustal rock slap and its underlying subcrustal part. Ignoring
geological parameters becomes a stumbling block for a real progress in
the understanding of the origin and emplacement of pegmatites and the
more hides the scope of economic geology.
Economic geology is a “mixtum compositum” of all geoscientific disci-
plines focused on one goal, finding new mineral deposits and enhancing
the exploitation of existing ones. The keystones of this “mixtum
compositum” are geology and mineralogy whose studies are centered
on the emplacement of the ore body and the development of its min-
erals and rocks (Dill, 2010). To provide a realistic model of pegmatitic
mineralization in accordance with nature is impeded by the refusal of
alternative ideas for the formation of rare-element granites by anatexis
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 423

Aplitic gneiss
agn

gn

Agn = aplitic gneiss

Deformed pegmatite-aplite close to the granitic aplite

8 cm Gn = biotite gneiss

Aplite (granite)
6 cm
bt+ch

bt = biotite
ch= chlorite

Pegmatite –quartz core

7 cm kf
qz

qz = quartz, kf = K feldspar

5 cm

10-11
m
Fe-Mn zwieselite (phosphate zone) Li triphylite
Fig. 1 (continued).

or fluid-induced overprinting of barren pegmatites and to discredit them
as “untested” and “speculative” (Černy, 1992; Černý et al., 2005). More-
over tectonic correlation with geochemistry has been held to be of
minor importance relative to the control by source lithologies (Černy,
1992; Černý et al., 2005). Browsing the pertinent Anglo-Saxon litera-
ture, the geology of pegmatites and the geodynamic setting have
not widely found application in modeling the emplacement of peg-
matites or have been well entrenched in the literature. Only Martin
and De Vito (2005) made an attempt in a key paper to correlate the
tectonic setting with the family-classification scheme of pegmatites,
but the paper did not spawn further studies among pegmatologists,
despite the fact that a fundamental book covering pegmatites world-
wide has already been issued by Schneiderhöhn in 1961, but in a lan-
guage different from English.
Geology and geochronology cannot be cast aside when dealing with
pegmatites. As deep geology plays an important part during the em-
placement of pegmatites, and super-deep drill holes are less frequently
drilled in the crystalline basement than in a hydrocarbon prone basin,
424 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

the involvement of geophysical methods is a must as it comes to the in-
terpretation of a pegmatite-prone crustal section.
In an area along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif, close to
the Czech–German border, the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Prov-
ince was used as some sort of a test-site for the emplacement of
pegmatitic and aplitic rocks in an ensialic orogen (Dill, 2015). The min-
eralogical and chemical composition of more than 100 pegmatites all
across Central Europe has been studied, the largest of which in this min-
eralized region, named Hagendorf-South, totals 4.4 million t of pegma-
titic ore, feldspar, quartz and Li phosphate (Forster et al., 1967). The

a)

Fichtelgebirge-
Erzgebirge
Sudetes
Cornubian
ore field

Amorican
Central
Prov. Central Bohemian+
Massif Moravian Z.
Prov.
W Carpathian

NE Bavarian East Alpine

Prov.+HPPP
Iberian Pyrenees
Province

Bohemian Massif
Hagendorf-Pleystein Pegmatite Province (size not to scale)
b)

New England
Province

Fig. 2. a. Variscan massifs in Europe with sutures and lineamentary faults bounding the geodynamic units (Matte et al., 1990; Franke et al., 1995; McKerrow et al., 2000). The map was
supplemented with mineralized provinces containing pegmatite-hosted deposits. Variscan Provinces (yellow), Alpine reactivated-Variscan Provinces (blue). b. The Variscan and the
Alleghanian Orogenies on the northern hemisphere and their reactivation along their southern boundary. The North American analogue to the Variscan provinces is highlighted by the
New England Pegmatite Province. The Bohemian Massif and the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province often referred to in the text is shown in this sketch map. The size of both is
exaggerated.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
study was supplemented by extensive geological and geochronological
work and backed by data derived from gravimetric, geomagnetic, reflec-
tion seismic surveys, and geoelectric deep-sounding on a regional scale.
Foot-borne surface as well as underground radiometric surveys were
conducted on a local scale. Experimental work has not been done by
myself during the project, yet the data that have been published so far
in the literature have been placed much emphasis upon and they
formed an integral part of the study for constraining the physical–chem-
ical conditions under which the various minerals formed in the different
types of pegmatites, aplites and their host rocks.
In the current paper, this study launched in the Central European test
site at Hagendorf–Pleystein or on a larger scale along the western edge
of the Bohemian Massif is expanded further afield to a wider range of
pegmatites worldwide (Figs. 2a, b, 3). This review is based upon the
existing literature on pegmatites with special reference given to the ge-
ology of pegmatites and aimed at assisting proponents of the genetic
and applied branches of economic geology. Mineralogy and chemistry
are applied in a well-balanced way so as to underscore this geological
study, but not given priority as the title of this review reveals. Emphasis
is placed on these geosciences in Dill (2015).
2. The geodynamic setting of pegmatites
In the current paper it would impossible to provide a full blown pic-
ture of pegmatites across the globe, many of which are located in remote
areas and poorly studied, particularly as to the parts relevant to the under-
standing of pegmatites. Therefore emphasis has been placed upon the
pegmatite geology of two crustal sections, the Paleozoic Variscan Orogen,
extending across the Atlantic Ocean into the Alleghanian Orogen, on the
northern hemisphere and the geology of southern Africa and western
South America which formed part of the Precambrian Continent of Gond-
wana (Figs. 2a, b, 3). Other areas in Northern America with Greenland, in
Australia, in SE Asia and in Scandinavia have only been addressed to inter-
pret special types and the geology has only been described to the extent
necessary for the understanding of the origin of these pegmatites. This
is also the case with the Alpine-Carpathian Mountain Range in Europe
which cannot be cast aside in a review of the geological evolution of
Fig. 3. The plate assembly of Gondwana in relation to the continents of today (Kusky et al., 2003).
425
pegmatites as it comes to reactivated ones along with the Mesozoic–Ce-
nozoic amalgamation of the European continent (Fig. 2a). To give an over-
view of the regional geology of all these areas would go far beyond the
scope of this paper and it is not given in this review so as not to deviate
the reader from the pegmatites and those who want to know more
about the geological setting are, hence, referred to the literature cited in
the pertinent section or subsection. The Paleozoic European–American
pegmatite provinces and the Precambrian Afro-American province are
most appropriate to demonstrate the effect of crustal and subcrustal geo-
logical processes on the emplacement and the alteration of pegmatites
and the positioning of pegmatites in relation to the geodynamic evolution
of the crust.
2.1. The European Variscides
The European Variscides, also called Hercynian Fold Belt in the liter-
ature extend for over 3000 km from the northern tip of Morocco at the
NW tip of Africa to the Bohemian Massif and reach a width of as much as
800 km (Matte, 1986, 1991) (Fig. 2a).
The present investigations reveal that its southern boundary was
obliterated and part of the Variscan rocks was integrated into the Alpine
orogeny whose morphological expression is the Alpine Mountain Range
and the Carpathian Mountains within the Alpine-Himalayan Fold Belt
(Fig. 2a, b). In Fig. 2a the primary and reactivated pegmatites are
shown in yellow and blue. Newly formed pegmatites near the Insubrian
and Ivrea Line in the Western Alpine Mountain Range that originated
during the Alpine orogeny have been omitted from the map owing to
their rather small size and to avoid overload it. They are addressed in
this review in Section 4.3.2. This is also true for the pegmatite, e.g., on
the Isle of Elba. Both areas were mainly investigated for their mineral as-
semblages and only referred to in the text.
The Variscan orogen has been subdivided into different geodynamic
units starting off in the foreland with the Rheno-Hercynian Zone and
ending in the central part called Moldanubian Zone all of which are
highlighted in the sketch map of Fig. 2a. Towards the west, across the
modern Atlantic Ocean this orogen passes into the Alleghanian Orogen,
now exposed at the eastern coast of the USA and Canada (Fig. 2b). The
426 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table 1
Classification scheme of pegmatitic and aplitic rocks for applied and genetic economic geology.

Fig. 4. a. Quartz–feldspar metapegmatite intercalated into biotite–sillimanite gneisses (contact stippled yellow line) exposed in an open pit near Erbendorf, SE Germany. Fracturing along
with the Variscan deformation during the Paleozoic is accentuated by blue lines. b. Close-up view of a flasered quartz–feldspar metapegmatite (albite–oligoclase) near Neustadt a. d.
Waldnaab, SE Germany. c. For comparison of a porphyroblastic flasered augengneiss (orthogneiss/metagranite) (og) in contact with an aplitic mobilizate (ap) McKile Gneiss of the Devo-
nian Lost Lake Pluton, eastern Canada. d. Graphic intergrowth of alkaline feldspar and quartz in the feldspar metapegmatite tabular mined at Getrude Mine near Wendersreuth, Germany.
The yellow arrowhead denotes a transition from a graphic intergrowth with the preexisting orientation of the rock-forming minerals still preserved into a graphic intergrowth with
tectosilicates randomly structured. e. Transition of a quartz–feldspar metapegmatite into a pegmatite sensu stricto. The rather homogeneous structure and preferred orientation of
phyllosilicates and tectosilicates is gradually substituted for by a blocky texture along with a change in the principal type of pegmatite from a feldspar metapegmatite tabular into a
Be–Nb (meta)pegmatite tabular. Püllersreuth, Germany. f. Aplitic rim (ap) along the selvage of the feldspar pegmatoid (albite–oligoclase) enriched in muscovite (ms). The phyllosilicates
are only weakly arranged parallel to the contact zone between pegmatoid and hornblende gneiss. Friedmannsdorf, Germany. g. Strongly sheared feldspar pegmatoid (albite–oligoclase)
(pg) exposed between wooden safety pillars at the 18 m-level of the Friedmannsdorf pegmatite mine. The pegmatoid gradually passes into the banded hornblende gneiss (hgn) of the
Münchberg Gneiss Complex. The transition zone is made up of aplitic hornblende gneiss (ap). h. Feldspar–quartz pegmatoid lens-shaped (pg) within banded amphibolites (amp) of
the allochthonous Zone of Erbendorf–Vohenstrauss (ZEV). Remmelberg Quarry near Vohenstrauss, Germany. i. Close-up view of Fig. 4h displaying a pegmatoid strongly enriched in quartz
(dark gray). j. Aploid schlieren and veinlets around amphibolite fragments giving rise to an amphibolite breccia at Mirosov, Czech Republic. Using the common migmatite nomenclature,
the breccia-like structure has to be called agmatitic (Mehnert, 1968; Ramsay and Huber, 1983). Bounded by the yellow lines one of the aploid schlieren has been cut out to show the contact
at higher magnification. k. The feldspar aploid (ap) lens-shaped intercalated into amphibolite (amp). Muglhof, Germany. l. Feldspar aploid from Muglhof, Germany. m. Roof zone of a Be–
Li–Ta pegmatite with an enclave of micaschists sunken into the pegmatitic melt. The pegmatite took accommodation within an anticline whose limbs gently dip away from the fold crest.
The present-day hilly landscape is conformable to the lithology underneath. Las Cuevas Pegmatite, NW Argentina. n. A stock-like “micro-pegmatite” formed in medium-grade micaschists
along the border of the Independencia Pegmatite (Nb–Be–P pegmatite). The sketch on the right-handside illustrates by the two red arrowheads the compressional strength exerted onto
the metasediments and the resultant accommodation space generated in the hinge zone of the open microfold. The “micro-pegmatite” stock was emplaced late- to postkinematically. o.
Criss-crossing stockwork-like pegmatite veins (REE–Nb–Ta pegmatite (fergusonite–euxenite)) held to be related to the Blomskog Granite. The gneisses are dated to 1.65 Ga. Dusserud,
South Sweden. p. (Nb)–Ta–Be pegmatite (microlite-columbite) tabular in metaconglomerates. The border zone with tourmaline (enriched in dravite), spessartite and beryl (yellowish-
green) grades towards the center into feldspar. Capoeira Pegmatite, NE Brazil. q. Nb/Ta–Li–B pegmatite (kaolinized) tabular in muscovite–quartzites of Neoproterozoic age is renowned
for its concentration of cuprian elbaite (Paraiba Tourmaline). Batalha Pegmatite, NE Brazil. r. Uranium plutonic pegmatite apophyses within the two-mica granite. Monte Galinero, NW
Spain. s. Feldspar aplite granite (ag) infiltrated by Mo granite aplite (ap). Molybdenite is concentrated in nests and pockets (mo). Kataberget, North Sweden. t. P–Be–Li pseudopegmatite
(spodumene N holmquistite) tabular exposed in an adit of the Koralpe Li deposit, southern Austria. The ore shoots are steeply dipping in the gallery towards the bottom right (photograph:
courtesy of R. Göd). u. The fractionation of the felsic melt conduced in a subhorizontal rare-element pegmatite, measuring 2 km in length and 25 m in thickness into a quartz core enveloped
by K feldspar. Evje, Norway (photograph: courtesy of A. Müller, Geological Survey of Norway).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
New England Pegmatite Province is the analogue of the pegmatite prov-
inces in the European Variscides. The arcuate belt of these orogens re-
sulted from the convergence, obduction and collision of two mega-
continents, Laurussia in the north and Gondwana in the south. Large-
scale thrusting and nappe stacking caused a thickening of the crust
between 380 and 320 Ma, leading to an ensialic orogen and providing
a mineralogically and structurally fertile environment for the genera-
tion of all kinds of pegmatitic rocks from metapegmatites, pegmatoids,
through pegmatites sensu stricto — Section 3.2. It was followed by
the intrusion of a huge volume of felsic to intermediate granitoids
starting off already during the Upper Devonian and lasting into the
waning stages of the Variscan orogen until the early Permian
biotite-sillimanite gneiss
2m
a
b c
20 cm
427
(280 Ma). The latter host rocks were the “kitchen” of the plutonic
pegmatites discussed later in the special sections — Section 3.2
(Dill, 2015).
2.2. The Proterozoic Orogenies of Gondwana
Even a brief introduction into the Precambrian orogenies and the
geodynamic evolution of Gondwana would go far beyond the topic of
this review devoted to the geology of pegmatitic rocks. Therefore in
this paper, the overview is narrowed down to a crustal section be-
tween eastern South America–Brazil and eastern Africa, an area
abundant in pegmatitic rocks richly endowed with all elements
Meta-pegmatite
ap
og
20 cm
428 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

5 cm 5 cm

e d

hgn
ap
5 cm

pg ms
ap
g 10 cm

ms
i
pg

amp

Fig. 4 (continued).

characteristic for the evolution of rare metal pegmatites (Fig. 3). The
mosaic of lithospheric plates making up modern-day Africa and
South America is illustrated in the map redrawn from Kusky et al.
(2003). It is rimmed by some fragments at its northern rim, when
looked at it from the present point of view, that were incorporated
into younger orogens in the same way as fragments of the Paleozoic
Variscides were incorporated into the Mesozoic–Cenozoic Alpine-
Himalayan Fold belt (Fig. 3).
The African continent relevant for the evolution of pegmatites
evolved around three major Achaean cratons, from North to South, the
West-African Craton, the Congo Craton and the Kalahari Craton, which
are representative of the era older than 2500 Ma (Schlüter, 2006).
These three crustal nuclei are “clued” together by fold belts of Proterozoic
through early Paleozoic age. The Paleoproterozoic around 2000 Ma is
represented inter alia by the Ubendian Fold Belt in Central Africa, Early
Neoproterozoic rocks between 1000 and 900 Ma are exposed in
the Kibaran Fold Belt in East-Central Africa and by the Kamativi Fold
Belt in Zimbabwe. The Late Neoproterozoic through Early Paleozoic fold
belts, which evolved around 600 to 450 Ma in the Damara Fold Belt,
Namibia, on the Arabo-Nubian Shield in NE Africa and in the
Mozambique Fold Belt in SE Africa are put together under the term
Pan-African Orogeny.
The various orogens are representative of tectonic, magmatic, and
metamorphic activities of Proterozoic to Early Paleozoic age in a
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 429

amp

ap

Fig. 4 (continued).

crustal section which once formed part of Gondwana before the
break-away from South America, involving the Brazilian Shield and
several smaller cratons. The West Congo Belt forms the eastern sec-
tion of the Pan-African orogenic system, part of which is now situat-
ed in the Aracuai Fold Belt in Brazil and represented there by a series
of ophiolites, 800 Ma old. This geodynamic setting has also conse-
quences for the correlation of pegmatites on both sides of the Atlan-
tic Ocean and forces to a joint discussion of pegmatites on both sides
of the South Atlantic Ocean. On the opposite side of the African con-
tinent, the Neoproterozoic orogenies and the assigned pegmatites
have to be correlated with similar ones in Antarctica, Madagascar
and India (Fig. 3). Particular the Isle of Madagascar and the
Subcontinent India with Sri Lanka at its “tiptoe” are abundant in peg-
matite deposits, mainly in gemstone deposits related to pegmatitic
rocks.
3. The classification schemes of pegmatites — complexity
and applicability
3.1. The history of classification of pegmatites
Classification of pegmatite deposits began as early as 1920 with
Niggli's pioneer work followed by Fersmann (1928, 1931) and
Landes's (1933) scheme and is still going on today (Dill, 2015).
430 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Fig. 4 (continued).

A classification scheme used for mineral deposits must fulfill certain
requirements. It must cater for the extractive and the genetic part of
economic geology alike and ought to be applicable in the office and
the field, where the pegmatites formed. Open access and space for
amendments, preferably in its electronic or digital version, are needed
so as to render the classification scheme adjustable to the needs and
wants of application, research and training in geosciences and is no
flash in the pan. The hierarchical levels should be open for alpha-
numerical coding, given that the classification scheme is used in a digital
version and each level must be entitled with a header that stands for all
of its items in a logical way. The present classification schemes for peg-
matites do not meet the conditions specified in this paragraph.
The classes in the classification scheme introduced by Ginsburg et al.
(1979) for pegmatites “abyssal”, “muscovite”, “ muscovite-rare ele-
ment”, “rare element”, and “miarolitic” that later were adopted as
prime level in the classification scheme by Černý and Ercit (2005) do
not fulfill these requirement for special reasons. It is a mixture of sub-
stance (elements and minerals), depth estimation (abyssal) and texture
(miarolitic). Description and interpretation cannot all in one form a
basis for classification scheme. Critical points as to the existing
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 431

10 cm

o p

q r

s ap

ag

mo t

Fig. 4 (continued).

classification schemes of pegmatites have already been raised by
Tkachev (2011) as to the applicability of such schemes. The inferior
level in this hierarchy underneath the above classes is named the “peg-
matite family”, made of two members, one enriched in Li, Cs and Ta, ab-
breviated to LCT, and the other enriched in Nb, Y and F, abbreviated to
NYF. The system may fit in one way or the other but in most cases it
does not. In the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province Li is present
in three stock-like pegmatites, whereas tabular aplites and pegmatites,
excluding the Silbergrube Aplite, are barren as to this element. Cesium
does not play a significant role and Nb always prevails over Ta, thus con-
tradicting any classification of these pegmatites as LCT pegmatites. In
the pertinent literature above Hagendorf the pegmatite is categorized
as a rare-element LCT pegmatite belonging to the beryl type. Beryl is
however subordinate and trails behind other elements like P and Zn
by a wide margin. Only 1 km away from the so-called LCT pegmatite
at Pleystein a Sc-bearing sheet-like aplite with high values of Ti, Nb, U,
Zr, Y, REE and Th was intruded into the biotite–sillimanite gneisses. Ac-
cording to the classification scheme elaborated by Černý and Ercit
(2005) this aplite would belong to the NYF family and the subclasses
“REL–REE” plus “MI-REE” (Dill et al., 2008a). What is the consequence
of such a classification? LCT granite–pegmatite systems are said to be re-
lated to S-type granites in orogenic settings, whereas NYF granite–
432 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Quartz Core
Fig. 4 (continued).
pegmatite systems are derived from late- to post-tectonic anorogenic A-
type granites. It is hard to believe that consanguineous pegmatite sys-
tems of the late Variscan heat event around 300 Ma formed in two
geodynamic settings so different from each other on a kilometer scale
(Černý, 1991a). Many pegmatites do not contain the diagnostic ele-
ments as it is the case with some NYT deposits or share element combi-
nation of both types called the LCT and NYT families, as it is the case with
some pegmatites from Madagascar. It encouraged Pezzotta (2001) fac-
ing problems with his classification of gem-bearing pegmatites in
Madagascar, to come up with another classification scheme integrating
elements of the classical scheme of Černý (1991a) into a new one plac-
ing emphasis on reference minerals (Pezzotta, 2001). Wise (1999) tried
to tackle the problem inherent in the NYF pegmatites by introducing
chemical groups such as “peraluminous” for the 1st order discrimina-
tion and a wealth of minerals for the 2nd order subdivision. Ercit
(2004) again fell back on the metamorphic grade of the host rocks of
pegmatites, while being conservative in the remaining items of classifi-
cation such as element combinations, minerals and elements. Zagorsky
et al. (1999) selected a totally different criterion for their first-order
subdivision in their classification scheme. Their systematics is based
on low-, moderate and high-pressure pegmatites stuffed with the com-
mon element and mineral associations for further subdivision.
Another shortcoming of most of the classification schemes present-
ed on pegmatites is on one hand their restrictive handling, using so-
called reference types with diagnostic minerals and on the other hand
mixing facts with interpretation (Ginsburg et al., 1979; Černý, 1991a).
None of the schemes mentioned above is designed to introduce another
set of elements or minerals into the pegmatites 'classification system. In
the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Zn (in Fe-bearing sphaler-
ite and gahnite), and Bi (Bi sulfides and -phosphates) are more wide-
spread than beryl. Arsenic (As sulfides and arsenates) and phosphorus
are genetically interrelated with each other and of fundamental bearing
on the presence and absence of As sulfides and phosphates in pegmatite
systems, but left unaddressed in all classification systems. All attempts
to relate pegmatite types and subtypes to the origin of a specific
magma failed and other mobilization processes, such as anatexis at
depth or along shear zones cannot be addressed satisfactorily
(Simmons et al., 2003).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 433

The current classification schemes may speculate on the magmatic
source at depth but do not address such issues mentioned above. If a
classification scheme is at odds with the natural systems and results in
a puzzle of environments and settings that do not fit together we have
to change the classification scheme and not the natural habitat. Mostly
the pegmatite deposits are pigeonholed in the various studies without
trying to get to the bottom of the geological setting of formation or
attempting to correlate the various types and subtypes in terms of
their physical-regimes. A way out of this dilemma is to take a more sim-
plistic approach and to be more descriptive than speculative. You can-
not explain a foreign word by means of another foreign word and if
the grammar is too complex, say it in a few plain words. In the following
paragraphs such a classification scheme is tailor-made for the pegma-
tites. In essence it is a subtype of the “Chessboard classification scheme
of mineral deposits” (Dill, 2010). This is particularly highlighted by the
basic alpha-numerical codes used for the various commodities in
Section 4. A breakdown of the variegated element composition of peg-
matites of the succeeding CMS classification scheme is anything but
trivial. The pegmatites are a complex interplay of lithological and miner-
alogical processes impacted by the mantle and the crust. Consequently
each element composition and mineral assemblage is split up into ele-
ments or commodity groups which are going to be analyzed as to
their geological and geodynamical role they play in time and space
(Section 4). Some elements are supporting actors, while others are lead-
ing actors on this outdoor-stage. The leading actors appear again on
stage in Section 7 when it comes to the economic use.
3.2. The CMS classification scheme of pegmatitic and aplitic rocks
Chemical composition, the Mineral assemblage and the Structural
geology of pegmatitic rocks constitute the basic ingredients of this de-
scriptive classification scheme and, hence, the acronym CMS has been

Fig. 5. a. The pegmatite deposits of Finland (Simonen, 1980; Lahti et al., 1989). b. Table of RE pegmatites and REE minerals.
434 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

a) Island arc
Alpine type Variscan type Rift type Andean type type

Pegmatites
Barren zone
Calc-alkaline Alk

Reworked Primary

ENSIMATIC ENSIALIC ENSIMATIC

b) c) kaolin kaolin kaolin

As-Bi (graphite) graphite

As-Bi-(Zn)-(Mo) Zn+Mo
Sc Mica (muscovite) (mica)
Sc
(phlogopite+
(Nb/Ta) Nb/Ta Nb/Ta+Na vermiculite

Li (Si) Li (P) garnet

Li (Si)
Li (B) corundum (corundum)
P P P
alumosilicates
B B/F< 1 B/F>> 1 F zeolite zeolite
Th/U<1 Th/U>1 (contact-skarn)
Zr Zr-Ti nepheline+
sodalite
REE REE+Na
(desilication)
Be Be Be+Na
scapolite (skarn)
(Sn-W ?) Sn-W Sn-W+Na
quartz quartz quartz
Alpine type Variscan type Rift type Alpine type
feldspar Variscan
feldspartype Rift type
feldspar

Pegmatites Pegmatites

Calc-alkaline Alk Calc-alkaline Alk

Reworked Primary Reworked Primary

ENSIMATIC-ENSIALIC ENSIALIC ENSIMATIC ENSIMATIC-ENSIALIC ENSIALIC ENSIMATIC

Fig. 6. a. Overview of those environments favorable for the generation of pegmatites and those detrimental to the evolution of pegmatitic rocks in relation to geodynamic settings. Alk =
alkaline. b. Rare element pegmatites and the geodynamic setting (CMS classification scheme — Chemical Qualifiers). The size and font of the letters are used to demarcate the significance
of each element in the various settings. Bold-faced means widespread occurrence, set in brackets or added up with a quotation mark means minor potential as to the accumulation of a
certain element or concentration processes uncertain. c. Common pegmatites and rare mineral pegmatites (CMS classification scheme — Mineralogical Qualifiers). To show the importance
of each setting for pegmatites see caption of Fig. 6b

coined (“CMS classification scheme of pegmatitic and aplitic rocks”)
(Table 1). The classification scheme has four rows which are mandatory
and three which are optional depending upon the database and the pur-
pose of the classification. The basic sections are the “Ore Body”,
encompassing the levels 1 and 2 of classification and the “Ore Composi-
tion” being split up into a level 3 (chemical qualifiers) and level 4 (min-
eralogical qualifiers). A detailed description and the use of the
classification scheme have been published in Dill (2015). Only a brief
discourse is given in this review on the geology of pegmatites.
3.2.1. Crystallization versus deformation — age of pegmatitization relative
to the age of host rocks
All aplitic and pegmatitic rocks occur in crystalline host rock litholo-
gies, either of metamorphic or of magmatic origin. The 1st order term of
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 435

classification is based upon the relation between crystallization and de-
formation or in an area with igneous activity only, on the timing of
pegmatitization relative to the age of intrusion of the host rocks. Based
upon well established and general agreed mineralogical and structural
features, metapegmatites/metaaplites which evolved prekinematic/
premetamorphous can be distinguished from pegmatoids/aploids
which are synkinematic/synmetamorphous or from pegmatites/
aplites which formed in the aftermaths of these regional- and
dynamometamorphic processes. Moreover pegmatites can occur in in-
trusive rocks after the emplacement and cooling of the magma
(Table 1). For basic information on these temporal relations between
crystallization and deformation in metamorphic and magmatic realms,
the reader is referred to textbooks on structural geology and petrology
like those published by Ramsay and Huber (1983), Best (2002),
Kearey et al. (2009), Fossen (2010), Turcotte and Schubert (2014).
Those structural features used for classification can be recognized with
the unaided eye or hand lens in the field and determined with a back-
ground in structural geology. A sequence of images gives a general over-
view of the structural and textural features of metapegmatites (Fig. 4a,
b, c), metapegmatites transitional into pegmatites (Fig. 4d, e),
pegmatoids (Fig. 4f, g, h, i, k, l) and pegmatites sensu stricto (Fig. 4m, n,
o, q) at outcrop and in hand specimens so as to ease a precise determina-
tion of these felsic mobilizates in the field. Plutonic pegmatites and their
fine-grained analogues, called plutonic aplites, are shown in Fig. 4r and s.
Plutonic pegmatites are hosted by plutons of different size and petrogra-
phy, most frequently of granitic and granodioritic composition. It has to
be kept apart from pegmatites which have a granitic, dioritic or even
gabbroic composition and may be hosted by plutons different in their
composition from the mobilizates but may also be discovered in meta-
morphic host rocks. In metamorphic rocks the criteria mentioned
above for their denomination as metapegmatites and pegmatoids have
to be applied. An example of how plutonic pegmatites can form has
been given by Audétat and Lowenstern (2014) who showed the grada-
tion from normal granite into a granophyric and pegmatitic texture in
the vicinity of a miarolitic cavity in granite from the Rio del Medio Pluton.
The term pseudopegmatite has been applied to pegmatite-like
mobilizates, also called remobilized pegmatites or reworked pegma-
tites, which, in places, may have lost their original pegmatitic or aplitic
texture but based on their mineral association and chemical composi-
tion point to a pegmatitic derivation (Fig. 4t). The fractionation of the
felsic melt into a quartz core enveloped by feldspar is shown in the out-
crop at Evje, Norway (Fig. 4u). In a subhorizontal rare-element pegma-
tite, measuring 2 km in length and 25 m in thickness a white quartz core
is overlain by a rim of K feldspar, appearing in mega crystals which take
a size of as much as 5 m — see also, where it began in Fig. 21c.
The term pseudopegmatite was introduced for the metamorphic
realm to avoid during classification jumping into genetic conclusions
which afterwards prove to be premature. As a type example the Koralpe

a)
Sadisdorf Altenberg Pechtelsgrün Ehrenfriedersdorf

sediment Sn greisen

gneiss pegmatite

granites quartz porphyry

granite(greisenized) ore veins

quartz cap
Fig. 7. a. Sn–W granite pegmatites, greisen- and vein-type deposits of the Erzgebirge, Germany. Sadisdorf quartz-greisen-type deposit, Altenberg granite pegmatite-greisen-type deposit,
Pechtelsgrün granite pegmatite-greisen-type deposit with intragranitic veins, Ehrenfriedersdorf granite pegmatite-greisen-type deposit with veins intersecting the roof rocks (modified
from Rundquist et al., 1971). b. Greisenized Sn–W-bearing leucogranite at Modot, Mongolia. c. Albitization of the Sn–W-bearing leucogranite at Modot, Mongolia, resulting in an aplite. d.
Radiating aggregates of topaz (pyknite) from the granite-hosted Sn deposit Altenberg, Germany. The zone of pyknite evolved immediately underneath the pegmatitic stockscheider in the
apical parts of the granite copula and shows the typical growth of giant crystals. e. Tourmalinized cassiterite-bearing tin granite. South Crofty Mine, Cornwall, Great Britain. f. External con-
tact of the Sn deposit at Weissenstadt, Germany (redrawn from Schneiderhöhn, 1961). g. The supercritical and subcritical stages in the Hagendorf-South Pegmatite and their structural
representation. The pegmatitic–pneumatolitic transition known from Sn–W pegmatites in a phosphate pegmatite sensu stricto. h. Open pit exposing flat-lying veinlets within
leucogranodiorite to adamellite hosting the Barruecarpardo W deposit, Spain. i. Aplite-granite contact marked by W veins in the Barruecarpardo W deposit, Spain. The photograph is ro-
tated by 90° to the right. j. Arsenopyrite rosettes on fault planes veins in the Barruecarpardo W deposit, Spain. k. Veinlets of scheelite (white) and arsenopyrite (oxidized) in the
Barruecarpardo W deposit, Spain. l. Open pit of the Ta–Li deposit in albitic and greisenized leucogranite mineralized with cassiterite, columbite–tantalite and amblygonite, Golpejas, Spain.
436 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

b 3cm c
5 cm

d e

25 cm

5 cm
Fig. 7 (continued).

lithium deposit in Austria (Göd, 1989) and the Greenbushes lithium de-
posit in western Australia are taken here (Partington et al., 1995).
These types of pegmatitic and aplitic rocks taken as reference for the
structural and textural variations and shown in the various images
above – Fig. 4 – are treated in the succeeding sections in more detail re-
lated to the chemical composition of pegmatite deposits, their structural
emplacement and origin.
To determine the aforementioned structural features in the field is
mandatory for the classification, but unfortunately not available in all
cases studied. Describing the host-rock lithology of the pegmatites and
making it part of the classification is optional and depends of the aim
of the investigation, e.g., pegmatoid (cordierite–sillimanite–gneiss)
(Table 1).
The classification has been designed so as render possible also a ret-
roactive view and classification handling this classification scheme on a
limited database with only chemical composition, mineral assemblage
and moderate overview of the structure but it encourages provide full
particulars in the future. The CMS classification scheme can be used in
its long version, applying all terms listed in Table 1. Given only a limited
database, the classification can be also run in its short version, using
only term 3 and 4, as exemplified in the index of sites (Table x). Irre-
spective of the database, the classification scheme is designed so as to
be used also in a digital data base on PC. (See Table xx.)
3.2.2. Shape and structure of pegmatites
In addition to some standard terms that may illustrate the shape of
the pegmatitic rocks in a simple way, such as tabular, schlieren, stock-
like, or vein-type, the applicant of the CMS classicization scheme can de-
fine further descriptive qualifiers and use them as a 2nd order term for
classification. Some of these morphologies, however, will be restricted
to the plutonic pegmatites, such as pod-like or miarolitic, the latter ad-
jective has also been used by Černý (1991a) and by Černý and Ercit
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 437

f)
Quartz veins

Pegmatitic margin

Greisen + Sn, F, As, Cu

Granite

Mica schist

m 0 5 10 20

g)
Host Anticline

pipe
Older
Pegmatite

Quartz Core
Gneiss

Stage 2

Fig. 7 (continued).

(2005). For those who can read the book of structural geology in the
field the shape can tell them, e.g., where the material came from, what
the pathway was, and whether the material has come out of the sur-
rounding rocks or from a different place far off. Furthermore they
might get some ideas about the timing of the various pegmatites in a
certain pegmatite province. The pegmatitic rocks can be assigned a cer-
tain style and phase of deformation so that the various pegmatite bodies
are no longer erratic rocks but architectural elements fitting into a
dynamo-metamorphic plan. Consequently these felsic intrusive rocks
are amenable for incorporation into an exploration plan for pegmatitic
deposits. It has to be noted that a lot of study needs to be done to pro-
vide the information necessary for the proposed pegmatite classifica-
tion because the current literature on pegmatites is almost devoid of
such investigations (Cameron et al., 1949). The majority of pegmatitic
438 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
floors
j
l
Fig. 7 (continued).
and aplitic bodies are sheet-like or tabular in shape and of variable
thickness and striking length (Fig. 4a, q). Some pegmatites s.str. occur
as stockwork-like bodies or form veins (Figs. 1a, 4j, o). There is a great
variety of irregularly-shaped bodies, predominantly arcuate pegmatite
bodies which trace the volume of an anticline and, to a lesser extent,
syncline (Fig. 4m, n). The hinge and trough areas of fold structures
stand out as to be the most preferred loci for the emplacement of peg-
matites. In a compressional regime accommodation space runs through
a maximum in the hinge areas of folds in metamorphic rocks, giving rise
to stock-like bodies, whereas the limbs of anticlinal structures only pro-
vide enough space for tabular bodies, following the rules of mimic tec-
tonics or do not show up at all as a “trap” for these felsic melts. Deep-
seated lineamentary fault zones cutting through isotropic host rocks,
such as intrusive igneous rock as well as schistose metamorphic rocks
used to form tabular pegmatitic bodies or en echelon dike swarms. See
later in the review for shape and morphology also the photographs
and line drawings of Figs. 7a, f, g, 8a, b, c, 9a, b, c, d, 11, 19d, 23c, 24a,
b, c, g, 36c, d, 45a, b, c, and 46 in the pertinent sections.
The size of pegmatites is optional, but may be of utmost importance
when it comes to a decision for mining engineers or entrepreneurs to
open up the intrusive body or leave it. Internal zonation is a term
often to be heard of in context with pegmatites. The most recent
thoughts centered on this term were made public by Thomas and
Davidson (2015). Fractionation would tend to increase the volatile con-
centrations, and zonation would result from the residual melt passing
from the stability field of one mineral to the next in order of evolving
composition and decreasing temperature. This general assessment can
also be applied to hydrothermal/subcritical vein-type deposits which
i k
floors
feature a characteristic bilateral zonation or a unidirectional growth zo-
nation as well as sheet-like or tabular pegmatites starting off from su-
percritical fluids/melts. The onion-shell like arrangement of zones
around a granite have often been published in cartoons like in Černý
et al. (1989), but closer look at the many geological sections will provide
with a different view as we will see also in this book. In miarolitic granit-
ic pegmatites it may still work in some places but upgrading the level to
the size of pegmatite ore body does no longer allow us the term zona-
tion. Many have their mineralizations patchily distributed in the indi-
vidual ore bodies closely controlled by the tectonic processes and we
can longer speak of a mono-phase emplacement but have to invoke a
series of different processes. See later in the review of pegmatites and
pseudopegmatites in Figs. 7g, 24a, b, c, g, and 46a. for internal zonation.
Many of them have a thin selvage at the contact with the wall rocks but
their internal arrangement of mineral assemblages is anything but a
symmetrical arrangement which allows for the use of the term zona-
tion. The aplite at the selvage can best be compared with the chilled
margin of many sills, but the rest of the story of pegmatite emplacement
includes a variegated spectrum from multiphase intrusions through re-
placement, to mention only few of the processes in this general discus-
sion. The term zonation has rather blurred our picture of the formation
than contributed much to a better understanding of the formation of
pegmatites and deviate our view from the true nature of pegmatites
as they are emplaced in nature. This becomes obvious even in the clas-
sical study conducted by Cameron et al. (1949). The closer we look at
the longitudinal or cross sections drafted by the mining surveyor we
get the impression of a patchy arrangement of mineral associations
with the implication of a rather complex emplacement. If we shift our
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 439

Tin pegmatites Super floors

Basement undifferentiated
500m
tourmaline tourmaline pegmatite
gneiss

migmatites schist schist

1000m

Basement undifferentiated
500m
Fig. 8. a. Cross section through the Sn-bearing Manono–Kitolo pegmatite, DR Congo. In the cross section the topography and thickness is shown twice as much as in reality (redrawn from
Bassot and Morio, 1989). b. Cross section through the Sn-bearing Kamativi pegmatite, Zimbabwe, plus host rock geology (redrawn from Pelletier, 1964). c. Individual ore shoots of the
Kamativi pegmatite (redrawn from Fick, 1960; Rijks and van der Veen, 1972). Each ore shoot forms an anticline with both of its limbs gently dipping away from the hinge zone.

eyes towards cartoons the “onion-shell zonation” is conspicuous. As an
economic geologist working underground in different types of mines I
have always based my confidence in a large-scale underground map
performed by a mining engineer or surveyor.
3.2.3. Chemical and mineralogical composition of pegmatites
Chemical qualifiers (3rd order term of classification) and mineralog-
ical qualifiers (4th order term of classification) are second to none from
whatever angle you might look at the pegmatite, whether from a genet-
ic or economic point of view. It is, however, often not that easy to get a
full blown picture of the chemical or mineralogical composition of a
pegmatite in the field or even after trenching due to the heterogeneous
lithology and the zonation which can be unraveled only when opening
up the pegmatite with drilling operations. Therefore chemical and min-
eralogical parameters were not given a higher order within the hierar-
chical CMS classification scheme and ranked lower than the relative
age of pegmatitization and the 3D-representation of the aplites and peg-
matites in nature. The latter are key in linking the pegmatite ore body to
the geological setting, otherwise it will end up as a “flying carpet”.
It has to be noted that the lion share of raw material extracted from
pegmatites is feldspar, quartz and mica, and only a tiny fraction of less
than 10% of pegmatites contains rare elements at a level so as to render
mining of these rare-element pegmatites feasible. The 3rd order term
and 4th order term of classification are a mirror image of the tripartite
subdivision into ore minerals (chemical qualifiers — rare element peg-
matites), industrial minerals (mineralogical qualifiers — non-rare ele-
ment pegmatites, also denominated as barren pegmatites) and
gemstones plus decoration stones (mineralogical qualifiers — non-rare
element pegmatites bearing colored gemstones) used in the “Chess-
board Classification Scheme of Mineral deposits” (Dill, 2010)
(Table 1). These qualifiers will be used in the succeeding paragraphs
for classification. The 1st and 2nd order terms cannot strictly be used
in the current review since only a small part of pegmatitic and aplitic
rocks in modern-day publications addresses the age of formation and
the 3D-representation of these rocks in nature. You know the ore com-
position but it is difficult to relate it in time and space to the overall geo-
logical setting. I am hopeful that the pioneer studies of Cameron et al.
(1949) who summarized a lot of spatial data on pegmatites in the USA
and the book of Schneiderhöhn (1961) who published the most com-
prehensive study on pegmatites worldwide at that time were not all
in vain and may encourage geoscientists to see pegmatites as an integral
part of the geodynamic–geological evolution and not only as a treasure
box full of colorful minerals (Dill, 2015).
Feldspar, quartz and mica form the main constituents of granitic
rocks as well as of pegmatitic rocks. Therefore these ubiquitous rocks
need not be explicitly named in a classification scheme dealing with
granitic and pegmatitic rocks and emphasis is placed upon the rare-
element contents. If however, the student of a special type of pegmatite
feels it is essential to place emphasis also on these common constitu-
ents, it is no violation of the rules of the CMS scheme to name a pegma-
tite, e.g., in a way like that: Al albite-oligoclase pegmatite (ruby). It is the
group of minor constituents next in abundance to the aforementioned
rock-forming silicates and the commodities, which the pegmatite is op-
erated for, that play a decisive role in a more detailed classification
scheme. All elements concentrated during the emplacement of these
pegmatitic rocks such as Sn, W, Ta, Nb, Sc, Be, Li, Cs, Rb, REE, U, Th, B,
F, and P can be used to specify the pegmatitic rocks. Five to six qualifiers
may be sufficient in practice to render the classification scheme man-
ageable, even though there is no real limitation to the number of quali-
fiers, as long as the relative abundance of elements is considered. The
440 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

elements are arranged in the order of decreasing abundance with the while Sc prevails over Sn. This approach is not new but has already suc-
most widespread marker-element next to the 1st order term, e.g., Sn– cessfully been applied by the Geological Survey of Finland for the peg-
Sc–Nb pegmatite that is a pegmatite most strongly enriched in Nb matite deposits situated in the Precambrian metamorphic and igneous

floors
a

Quartz porphyry

Sn greisen

d Granite c

Fig. 9. a. Stacked pegmatite veins (see yellow arrowheads) from the main lode drive of South Crofty Mine, Great Britain (photograph: LeBoutillier, 2002). See meter for scale. b. Cross sec-
tion of the strongly greisenized two-mica granite at Panasqueira, Portugal (modified from Kelly and Rye, 1979). The cupola is overlain by a silica cap and surrounded by schistose country
rocks. The topmost part is intersected by a stacked set of subhorizontal ore veins (floors). R = rise. c. The concave Sn greisen zone is parallel to the contact between the apical part of the
host granite and the country rocks (modified from Rundquist et al., 1971). It is controlled by the onion-shell-like joint system of the granite at Zinnwald (Germany)/Cínovec Sn deposit
(Czech Republic). d. Onion-shell exfoliation in the course of weathering following the rules of the granite tectonic. The present-day topography (yellow full line) accentuates the cupola
of the Flossenbürg Granite (P-bearing granite). The stacked convex joints (yellow stippled line) are more or less parallel to the weathering surface of the granite. e. Resistivity-depth func-
tion measured by MMT (=medium-magnetotelluric) in areas with exposures of different pegmatitic rocks (modified from Haak, 1989), Germany. f. Reflection seismic survey along a cross
section perpendicular to the geodynamic zone of the Central European Variscides at the western edge of the Bohemian Massif (see also Fig. 2a for location). I: Seismic reflectors dipping
towards the S. II: Geodynamic interpretation and positioning of the structural types of pegmatitic rocks according to the CMS classification scheme. HPPP denotes the area of the
Hagendorf-Pleystein-Pegmatite Province. The area is geodynamically characterized by thrusting and nappe stacking. ZEV = Zone of Erbendorf-Vohenstrauss + Teplá-Barrandian zone
or Bohemicum.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 441

Beidl
e) B-Be pegmatite
10 -2

10 -1

10 0

Depth [km]
10 1

10 2

10 3

10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4

RHO [OHM M]

f) Seismic reflectors
Frankenwald MGC Fichtelgebirge Oberpfälzer W.
ZEV Böhmer Wald

I
Plutonic
pegmatites
Pegmatoids> Metapegmatites> Pegmatites+aplites
metapegmatites pegmatoids
Pegmatite-
(skarn)

II HPPP
Geodynamic
interpretation
Fig. 9 (continued).

rocks (Simonen, 1980; Lahti et al., 1989). There is no way to do it any
better than to describe the deposits in this simple and most realistic
style by the Finish geologists (Fig. 5a, b).
For genetic or economic reasons it might make sense to supplement
the term as shown in Fig. 4t. In case of lithium pegmatites, the main el-
ement may be accommodated in the lattice of spodumene or
phyllosilicates such as zinnwaldite or lepidolite, and thus it is advisable
to use one of the Li minerals as qualifier, e.g., Li–Nb–P pegmatite
(amblygonite) versus Li–Nb–P pegmatite (triphylite). At the Koralpe
Li deposit, southern Austria, it is a P–Be–Li pseudopegmatite
(spodumene N holmquistite) tabular. For comparison and to demon-
strate the applicability, some more rare-element-bearing feldspar peg-
matites in the close vicinity of the Koralpe Li deposit are classified
according to the current classification scheme (Ucik, 2005): Spittal
442 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table 2
Rare elements and minerals in pegmatites sensu lato as a function of their geodynamic setting.

Element Type of pegmatite Intracrustal setting and mobilization Subcrustal setting and Reactivation
mobilization

Sn Granitic pegmatites transitional into Frontal part of nappes, collisional Deep-seated lineaments and
greisen- and vein-type deposits, environment embryonic and failed rifts
pegmatite-(skarn)
W Granitic pegmatites transitional into Frontal part of nappes, collisional
greisen- and vein-type deposits, environment
pegmatite-(skarn)
Be (Granitic pegmatites to) pegmatites, Towards the root zones of nappes or Deep-seated lineaments, rifts, Secondary enrichment and
rarely in pegmatoids and core zone of ensialic orogens mantle affiliation high reactivation potential
metapegmatites. Also in
pseudopegmatites
REE Pegmatites, minor pegmatite-(skarn) Deep-seated lineaments, rifts,
mantle affiliation
U Pegmatites, minor pegmatite-(skarn) Preferably orogenic–ensilialic, anatectic
Th Pegmatites, minor pegmatite-(skarn) Preferably anorogenic, ensimatic
F Granitic pegmatites transitional into Frontal part of nappes, collisional Anorogenic, ensimatic Secondary enrichment and
greisen-type deposits reactivation possible
Pegmatites related to anorogenic granitoids
B Granitic pegmatites transitional into Ensialic, orogenic parametamorphic Secondary enrichment and
greisen-type deposits, pegmatites, rocks, nappe emplacement, lower reactivation potential
pegmatite-(skarn) geodynamic marker in the core than P
zone-proximal.
Deep erosional level
P Metapegmatites transitional into Ensialic, orogenic parametamorphic Secondary enrichment and
pegmatites and aplites, rocks, nappe emplacement, stronger reactivation potential
pseudopegmatites, pegmatite-(skarn) geodynamic marker in the core than B
zone-distal, anatectic
Li–Cs–(Rb) Granite pegmatite (with Sn, F), Ensialic orogens intracrustal recycling Secondary enrichment and
pegmatites and pseudopegmatites by anatectic processes in parts very stronger reactivation
mediated by subcrustal processes. potential. Dismembered
Concentration of Li and emplacement pseudopegmatites
of its pegmatites closely linked to
shear zones and thrusting. Strong
geodynamical zonation from the
frontal parts of collision zones to the
root zones of nappes, where
subcrustal heat may add up to the
mobilization of Li
Nb–Ta–(Sc) Pegmatites, minor concentration in Tracer for metamorphic and Anorogenic, ensimatic impact Moderate to extreme
pseudo- and metapegmatites magmatic fractionation processes common particularly to Nb and Sc enrichment, particularly with
respect to Ta
As–Bi–Zn Pegmatites, minor concentration in Enrichment due to local Enrichment due to local Moderate enrichment,
pseudopegmatites preconcentration in crustal sections preconcentration in subcrustal particularly with respect As
sections and near the root zone of and Bi
nappe complexes — see Zn
Mo Granite pegmatites, pegmatite-(skarn) Frontal part of nappes, collisional Mo skarn related to A-type
environment magmatic rocks
Feldspar Granite-, syenite, rhyolite pegmatite, Magmatic and metamorphic origin. No indication for reactivation
pegmatoid, metapegmatite, pegmatite s.str. Relative to quartz pegmatites,
Pseudopegmatites, pegmatite-(skarn) feldspar pegmatites are emplaced at a
shallower level
Quartz Granite pegmatite, pegmatoid, Magmatic and metamorphic origin. Quartz pegmatites may be No indication for reactivation
metapegmatite, pegmatite s.str. Relative to feldspar pegmatites, representative of subcrustal origin
quartz pegmatites are emplaced at a when associated with Ti-, Nb-,
deeper level Zn-minerals. See also C
Feldspathoids Pegmatoid, pegmatoid-(skarn) Magmatic to metamorphic in origin A-type magmatism in some Mo
scapolite deposits
Feldspathoids syenite pegmatite Alkaline magmatism, plus Not known
nepheline + desilication
sodalite
Feldspathoids Granite-, syenite pegmatites, pegmatites, Secondary (hydrothermal) processes in Alkaline magmatism
zeolite pegmatite-(skarn) the aftermaths of calc-alkaline
magmatism and contact metasomatism
Alumosilicates Pegmatoid, pegmatites, Metamorphic–anatectic origin, Present in reactivated
+ F- and pegmatite-(skarn), pseudopegmatites controlled by the metamorphic pegmatitic rocks, but no
B-bearing (?) regime and the parent material of the indication as to whether it is
crustal rocks part of the neomorphism
Corundum Syenite pegmatites, pegmatite-(skarn) Metamorphic–magmatic, as far as the Sapphire in syenite pegmatites
main component is concerned of
crustal affiliation, chromophores may
be of subcrustal origin
Garnet Pegmatites, metapegmatites, Metamorphic–magmatic
pegmatite-(skarn)
Muscovite Granite pegmatite, pegmatoid, Magmatic and metamorphic origin.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 443

Table 2 (continued)

Element Type of pegmatite Intracrustal setting and mobilization Subcrustal setting and Reactivation
mobilization

metapegmatite, pegmatite s.str

Phlogopite Pegmatoid, pegmatite-(skarn) Subcrustal source
Graphite Syenite–pegmatite, pegmatoid, Metamorphic–magmatic origin Subcrustal source for syenite
pegmatite-(skarn) pegmatites and some quartz
pegmatites
Kaolin Granite pegmatites, pegmatites, Supergene alteration dependent
pegmatoids, metapegmatites upon the size of the outcrop
Hypogene alteration extremely
efficacious when the roof rocks are
still intact

a.d. Drau: P–Be–B, plutonic pegmatite near Villach: P–B–Be, Erling
near Spittal: P–Be–Be, Wildbachgraben/Steiermark: Nb/Ta–Be–Li, St.
Radegund near Graz: B–Li–Be. The data have been derived from differ-
ent sources. These terms are more in accordance with nature and tell
us much more than the word LCT granite pegmatite, when cesium can-
not be pinpointed mineralogically at site, and the columbite s.s.s. is
enriched in Nb rather than Ta and no granite is close by. A list of ele-
ments being part of the term to classify a pegmatite may spark criticism,
but even minor elements can play a part in that their major host min-
erals capture elements in the pegmatite system and thereby may be-
come of control on the element composition of others. The data of
Bilal et al. (1998) may be interpreted this way. When boron forms
part of the chemical composition of pegmatites and shown in the list
of elements used for classification one can better understand the Fe/
Mn ratio in columbite s.s.s. Tourmaline may alter the Fe/Mn ratio to
such an extent that the columbite precipitation no longer can go on
unbiased.
The industrial minerals other than feldspar, quartz and mica in a peg-
matitic rock can be described by a mineralogical qualifier in a way like
that: quartz–feldspar metapegmatite with corundum, or graphite pegma-
tite. In the first case it is a metapegmatite that could be mined for the
common ceramic raw materials quartz and feldspar provided that the
amount of corundum is not detrimental to the run-off mine ore. In the
second example it is a graphite pegmatite as described in Section 4.16.
Colored gemstones and ornamental stones are not the second but
the third string to the bow in terms of raw materials extracted from
pegmatites (Pezzotta, 2001; Simmons, 2007; Shigley et al., 2010).
Other than the common industrial minerals quartz and feldspar or tan-
talum and niobium for which pegmatites are still an important source,
colored gemstones won by local diggers and small-scale miners are dif-
ficult to quantify as to the mine output, be it of jeweler's or showcase
quality — see also Section 7. The classification system put forward in
the previous paragraphs can be handled in the same way. A sapphire
pegmatite tabular is a pegmatite s.st. with sapphire as the main com-
modity, while a F-Sn-W plutonic pegmatite (topaz) miarolitic contains
topaz in miaroles and has also the potential for a rare-element pegma-
tite, particularly for Sn and W.
For reasons of final use, it may sometimes be advisable to provide
full particulars as to the composition of feldspar, e.g., albite
pegmatoid, rose quartz pegmatite, scapolite–sapphire pegmatoid. It
is not only the mining engineer or gemologists who may reap the
benefit of this more detailed mineral description but it enables geo-
scientists also to fine-tune the physical–chemical regime of
pegmatitization.
Ab initio, a pegmatite is defined by its chemical/mineralogical compo-
sition and by its three-dimensional shape. This is valid irrespective of the
depth of emplacement, or the age of formation. Whether you see the peg-
matitic rocks as a source of raw materials or as an objective for genetic
study, this descriptive classification scheme is a sound basis for both
camps of economic geology to live with. It is not dogmatic, open for
amendments and whatever mineral or element a user adds to the classi-
fication scheme, it will be self-explanatory and acceptable to any reader.

Table 3
The classification of Sn-W-bearing and their geodynamic setting.

Mineral province CMS classification of pegmatites Interpretation

Chronology Structural type Shape 2nd Chemical qualifier Mineralogical Geodynamic setting Igneous rocks
1st order order 3rd order qualifier 4th
order

Central Europe Granitic pegmatites Stock-like Mo–Zn–Bi–U–F– Li mica + Li–Al Ensialic, collisional, S-type granites,
(Variscides-Permo- (As)–B–Be–Li–P– phosphate nappe thrusting anatectic
Carboniferous) Sn–W
Western Europe Granitic pegmatites Stock-like, pipes, P–Li–F–As–Sn–W Li mica to Li mica Ensialic, collisional, S-type granites,
(Variscides-Permo- and aplites tabular (floors) to REE–U–F–Nb/Ta– + Li–(Al) nappe thrusting anatectic moderately
Carboniferous) Be–B–Li–P–Sn–W phosphate + stronger mantle impact
spodumene (see ophiolitic Lizard
complex)
Eastern Africa Pegmatites tabular (Cs–Pb)–Nb/Ta–Li– spodumene + Li Ensialic, collisional, S-type granites,
(Kibaran — Sn to (B–REE–W–P)– mica to pollucite nappe thrusting, initial anatectic with stronger
Neoproterozoic) Nb/Ta–Sn–Li + Li–(Al) rifting mantle impact
phosphate Sn albitites, A type
granites underneath the
pegmatite floors
Central South America–Brazil Pegmatites to Layered to + P–Li–F–Nb/Ta–Sn–W Li mica Ensialic–ensimatic, A-type granites strong
(Rondônia — Neoproterozoic granite pegmatites vein-type rifting mantle impact
to Early Paleozoic)
Western Africa–Nigeria Pegmatites vein-type Nb/Ta–Sn Ensimatic, failed rift A-type granites strong
(Older Granite Suite- mantle impact
Late Neoproterozoic
Early Paleozoic)
 444
H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Fig. 10. a. The distribution of precious Be-bearing gemstone deposits related to pegmatites by country and by geology. It is extracted from the map “Gems and Gemstones by Country and Geology — Beryllium” (modified from Dill and Weber, 2013). b.
Pegmatitic, mega crystal of white opaque beryl ore from La Toma, Argentina. Length of scale bar 16 cm. c. Pegmatitic pinkish massive beryl (morganite) from the Quintos pegmatite, Brazil. For scale see the thickness of the biro. d. Non-pegmatitic
beryllium ore with fluorite containing 1% BeO from the nodular beds of the Pliocene tuffs of the Spor Mountain deposit in Utah, USA (Dill, 2010).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
The third strong point of the CMS classification, lies in its use as a key ele-
ment or legend for mapping projects. A similar approach has already been
taken and tested for the metallogenetic map 1:2,500,000 available on CD
(Dill et al., 2008b,c). In the succeeding Section 4, the basic ingredients of
this classification scheme discussed in Section 3.2.3 are used as header
for the individual sections and the gap between description and interpre-
tation of the genesis of pegmatites is closed. The main focus is the integra-
tion of the pegmatites into the economic geology, while the interpretation
of the physical-regime, which without any doubt is important, is kept to a
minimum and performed in some of the papers quoted in the reference
for the deposits under consideration and exemplified for the pegmatite
province along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif with full partic-
ulars given in Dill (2015).
4. Commodities and the origin of pegmatites
To prevent a classification scheme and its terms from ending up as a
stopgap in a research paper, the various elements and element associa-
tions (chemical qualifiers) as well as minerals and mineral assemblages
(mineralogical qualifiers) need to be correlated with the geology, to be
more precise with the geodynamic setting (Fig. 6a).
Five reference settings have been selected and checked whether
they are favorable or detrimental for the emplacement of pegmatitic
rocks. The key setting for the pegmatites is the ensialic Variscan-type
setting which is characterized by crustal thickening. Large part of the
Variscan-Alleghanian orogeny in Europe and North America is repre-
sentative of this type. The Alpine-type fold belts extending from West-
ern Europe into East Asia are considered as a model for reworked
pegmatites. This crustal section has ensimatic and ensialic components.
The Rift-type shows a thinning of the crust which during its incipient
stages is the preferred locus for alkaline magmatism and also for the em-
placement of pegmatites. The Oslo Graben can be taken as a reference
for this type. Andean- and Island-Arc-type settings are barren to pegma-
tites as exemplified by the “Ring of Fire”. Only the innermost parts of the
Andean-type, proximal to the shield contains pegmatites, e.g., in Bolivia.
Rare element pegmatites – Sections 4.1 to 4.9 – are discussed in rela-
tion to the three settings rife with pegmatites (Fig. 6b). The subdivision of
pegmatites is carried out using the chemical qualifiers in the CMS classifi-
cation scheme. Common pegmatites, sometimes also called barren peg-
matites owing to its lack of rare metals and rare minerals are dealt with
in Sections 4.10 through 4.17. They are represented by the mineralogical
qualifiers of the CMS classification scheme (Fig. 6c). More details as to the
various elements and minerals with respect to the crustal and subcrustal
setting of source and reactivation are listed in Table 2. The codes used in
445
the “Chessboard classification scheme of mineral deposits” are given in
rounded brackets in the subtitles so as to facilitate linking the precise en-
vironment of formation of pegmatites s.l. with the environment of associ-
ated mineral deposits (Dill, 2010). It highlights that pegmatites are not a
stand-alone deposit but form part of the economic geology of mineral
deposits.
4.1. Tin- and tungsten pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (12 DE)
Tin and tungsten are key elements among the granite-related de-
posits. The morphology of ore bodies spans the complete range from
pipes, chimneys, curved and flat-lying ore bodies in the apical parts of
felsic igneous rocks, through faultbound Sn–W deposits in the roof
rocks to stock-like and large tabular pegmatitic ore bodies which do
not show any link to granites of whatever chemical composition
they might be (Fig. 7a). In hydrothermal solutions, chloride and
hydroxychloride complexes are the most efficient transporters of tin
as SnCl2, SnOHCl and Sn(OH)2Cl2 (Wood and Samson, 1998). The
most recent Sn–W deposits of the Late Paleozoic Sn–W belt of the
European Variscides have been subjected to an intensive study during
the last decades. In this European metallotect (a technical term used
in this review to demonstrate the unity between a mineral province
and a crustal section undergoing metamorphic–kinematic distur-
bances) all sorts of Sn–W mineralization from intragranitic, through
greisen-type, pegmatitic, to vein-type can be observed-special literature
cited in the succeeding section. The interaction of pegmatitic rocks with
their cogenetic structural types of Sn–W mineralization such as greisen
or stockscheider can best be studied in the Late Variscan Orogen
using the CMS classification scheme put above for categorization
(Section 4.1.1). The results obtained are interpreted genetically so that
they can also be applied to older mineralized sites, e.g., for pegmatitic
deposits in Proterozoic rocks (Sections 4.1.2 to 4.1.4).
4.1.1. Sn–W plutonic pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect
Tin and tungsten are both bound to the Saxo-Thuringian geodynamic
zone, or outer external zone of the Central European Variscides (Fig. 2a,
Table 3). Lithology and structure of this geo-dynamic zone are character-
istic of a rift basin Cambro-Ordovician in age. A great variety of sedimen-
tary and volcanic rocks formed in this basin from the Precambrian
through the Lower Carboniferous, when the Visean tectonic disturbances
once and for all put an end to the basin development. Near the Cornubian
Sn–W Orefield – see below – the Lizard Complex was emplaced. It has all
hallmarks of an ophiolite sequence, known from many modern fold belts,
such as in Oman or the Isle of Cyprus (Jones, 1997; Cook et al., 2002).
446 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Fig. 10 (continued).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 447

in the Moldanubian Zone is no Sn–W deposit but enriched in Li and Nb.

Nevertheless it is from the structural point of view not very much differ-
ent from the Sn–W deposits (Fig. 7h).
Cassiterite and wolframite in the Erzgebirge area are almost exclu-
sively related to the younger granites (older granites: 330–310 Ma,
younger granites: 305–290 Ma) (Baumann et al., 1986; Seltmann and
Faragher, 1994; Tischendorf et al., 1995; Breiter et al., 1999; Webster
et al., 2004; Romer et al., 2007). However, there are obviously excep-
tions from the rule. For example, radiometric age dating by Kempe
and Belyatsky (1997), using the Nd144/Nd143 and Sm147/Nd144
methods, yielded a Namurian formation age (321–326 Ma) for the
Sadisdorf Sn–W mineralization. Sn–W mineralization occurs in the
endo- and exo-contact area of the Sn–F–Li granites and may locally

Fig. 10 (continued).

Tin and, to a lesser extent, tungsten are closely related to granitic

rocks and as far as the pegmatitic rocks are concerned, they can be
taken as a reference type of plutonic pegmatites according to the classi-
fication scheme put forward in Section 3. Metalliferous pegmatites
coded 12a D and 13b D by Dill (2010) carry a variegated spectrum of
minerals besides cassiterite, wolframite and scheelite as demonstrated
by the most well-known Ehrenfriedersdorf — (Mo–Zn–Bi–U–F–As)–B–
Be–Li–P–Sn–W plutonic pegmatite deposit (Tischendorf et al., 1995;
Spallek, 1996). Thomas et al. (2009b), who investigated the miarolitic
granitic pegmatites in this region published a crystal growth tempera-
ture of smoky quartz of ≈650 °C. The Erzgebirge Sn–W mining region
is a classical example to show the close intertonguing of Sn–W granite
pegmatites with greisen- and vein-type deposits (Fig. 7a). The
Ehrenfriedersdorf deposit is compared with the Sadisdorf, Altenberg
and Pechtelsgrün Sn–W deposits from the Erzgebirge, Germany, illus-
trated in the series of cartoons of Fig. 7a. Moreover, this comparison
is also extended to some reference deposits further to the West,
in the Fichtelgebirge, Germany (Fig. 7f) and to some from the southern
Moldanubian Zone (Fig. 7g). The Hagendorf-South pegmatite, Germany, Fig. 10 (continued).
448 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table 4 Table 4 (continued)

Beryllium-bearing pegmatites by country and geology – see also Fig. 10a as a 2-D repre-
sentation – worked for beryllium-bearing minerals of gemological quality (modified from No. Site Country Mineral
Dill and Weber, 2013). Plus legends for the maps Fig. 10a country and geology. 74 Nilaw Pakistan Beryl
75 Orissa India Aquamarine
No. Site Country Mineral
76 Pattalai India Aquamarine
1 Adun-Tschilon Mountain Russia Aquamarine 77 Pikes Peak USA Aquamarine
2 Alto Ligonha Mozambique Beryl 78 Pingwu China Beryl
3 Analalava District Madagascar Beryl 79 Rio Grande Do Norte Brazil Aquamarine
4 Andapa District Madagascar Beryl 80 Sambesi Graben Zambia Beryl
5 Andilamena Madagascar Beryl 81 Santa Leopoldina Brazil Chrysoberyl
6 Andravory District Madagascar Beryl 82 Santa Tereza Brazil Chrysoberyl
7 Ankazobe–Vohambohitra Madagascar Beryl 83 Sherlovaya Gora Russia Beryl
8 Antandrokomby Madagascar Rhodizite 84 Shigar Valley Pakistan Aquamarine
9 Antsongombato Madagascar Rhodizite 85 Shingus-Dusso Kashmir-Pak Beryl
10 Apaligun Pakistan Aquamarine 86 Sibweza Tanzania Beryl
11 AraþuaÝ Brazil Aquamarine 87 Sichuan China Beryl
12 Baragoi District Kenya Beryl 88 Sierra De Ancasti Argentine Beryl
13 Barra De Salinas Rubelita Brazil Aquamarine 89 Sierra De Cordoba Argentine Beryl
14 Benson Zimbabwe Beryl 90 Sierra De San Luis Argentine Beryl
15 Betafo-Antisabe Madagascar Beryl 91 Sierra Velazco Argentine beryl
16 Bikita Zimbabwe Beryl 92 Socoto Brazil Chrysoberyl
17 Boise USA Aquamarine 93 Spitzkopje Namibia Beryl
18 Borborema Brazil Aquamarine 94 Stak-Nala Pakistan Aquamarine
19 Bulache (Gilgit) Pakistan Beryl 95 Teofilo Otoni Brazil Aquamarine
20 Burmado Brazil, Bahia Beryl 96 Teofilo Otoni Brazil Beryl
21 Carnaiba Region Brazil Chrysoberyl 97 Terra Branca Minas Gerais Brazil Aquamarine
22 Carrara Near Harar Ethiopia Beryl 98 Thach Khoan Vietnam Beryl
23 Castelinho Brazil Chrysoberyl 99 Thomas Range USA Beryl
24 Chamachhu Pakistan Aquamarine 100 Tisgtung Pakistan Aquamarine
25 Chitral Afghanistan Beryl 101 Topsham USA Aquamarine
26 Coimbatore India Beryl 102 Triunfo Brazil Chrysoberyl
27 Danba China Beryl 103 Tsaratanana 2 Madagascar Beryl
28 Danie South Africa Beryl 104 Valadares Brazil Aquamarine
29 Darra-I-Pech Afghanistan Aquamarine 105 Wah-Wah Mountains USA Beryl
30 Doce Brazil Aquamarine 106 Willie South Africa Beryl
31 Doko-Balistan-Gilgt Pakistan Aquamarine 107 Wolodarsk Ukraine Aquamarine
32 Dusso (Balistan-Gilgit) Pakistan Beryl 108 Wonder Well — Menzies Australia—Western Australia Emerald
33 Embu-Meru Kenya Beryl 109 Xuan Le Area Vietnam Aquamarine
34 Erongo Mountain Namibia Aquamarine 110 Yuanyang China Beryl
35 Espirito Santo Brazil Aquamarine 111 Zambue Mozambique Aquamarine
36 Gascoyne Australia—Western Australia Beryl
37 Godarpur Pakistan Beryl
38 Governador Valadares Brazil Aquamarine
39 Gur-Salak Konar Province Afghanistan Aquamarine extend into the pegmatitic bodies also related to these Late Variscan
40 Gwantu Nigeria Emerald granites (Thomas and Webster, 2001). The Altenberg, Germany and
41 Haddam USA Beryl Zinnwald/Cínovec deposits, Germany–Czech Republic are among the
42 Harris Great Britain Beryl
best known Sn deposits of Europe and thus described in more detail
43 Hematita Brazil Chrysoberyl
44 Irondro Madagascar Emerald
below (Dill et al., 2008b,c).
45 Itabira Brazil Chrysoberyl The mineralizing stage characterized by greisen-, vein-type and peg-
46 Itaguau Brazil Chrysoberyl matitic Sn–W deposits, taking place subsequently to solidification of the
47 Iveland Norway Aquamarine granitic melt was given a name of its own and called pegmatitic–
48 Jaguaribe Area Brazil Aquamarine
pneumatolitic phase by Schneiderhöhn (1961) (Fig. 7a). The term has
49 Kapiri Mposhi Zambia Beryl
50 Karoi-Miami Zimbabwe Beryl not really become well established in the geoscientific community and
51 Khaltaro-Gilgit Pakistan Emerald describes the transitional stage from the supercritical to the subcritical
52 Knoydar Great Britain Beryl fluid system. The same author described from a trial mining operation
53 Kobokobo Congo Beryl
targeted upon Sn near Weissenstadt in the Fichtelgebirge, a gradual
54 Kotokay China Aquamarine
55 Kuangding China Beryl
transition from the normal granite, into a coarse-grained granite peg-
56 Kukurt Tajikistan Aquamarine matite with graphic intergrowth of quartz and feldspar. Towards the
57 Kunar Afghanistan aquamarine country rocks a quartz-enriched greisen zone with cassiterite and arse-
58 Lake Alaotra District Madagascar Chrysoberyl nopyrite comes into existence next to the pegmatite. The contact be-
59 Las Palomas-San Luis Argentina aquamarine
tween the greisen and the mica schists around is very sharp (Fig. 7f).
60 Leeuw Kop South Africa Chrysoberyl
61 Leeuwspruit South Africa Beryl The Sn ore mineralization is exclusive to the greisen, whereas the peg-
62 Little Three Mine, Ramona USA Beryl matite is left barren as to Sn minerals.
63 Lundazi Area Zambia Beryl The Altenberg Sn deposit is located in the contact zone of the
64 Luumõki Finland Beryl
Altenberg granite porphyry and the Teplice quartz porphyry. The main
65 Makanjior Tanzania Beryl
66 Malakialina Madagascar Beryl
ore minerals are cassiterite, wolframite, and molybdenite (Baumann
67 Mawi Afghanistan Aquamarine et al., 1986). The Altenberg granite forms a stock-shaped intrusion in
68 Miass Russia Beryl the granite porphyry with extensive greisen zones measuring 300 to
69 Mursinska District Russia Aquamarine 400 m in diameter and 230 m in vertical extension (Fig. 7a). Greisen refers
70 Mursinska District Russia Beryl
to a pervasively altered lithium–albite granite in which feldspar and bio-
71 Mwani Baboon Hill Zimbabwe Aquamarine
72 Nagar Hunza Valley Pakistan Aquamarine tite are converted into a disseminated assemblage of quartz, topaz, mus-
73 Nassarawa Nigeria Emerald covite, zinnwaldite and protolithionite (both Li-micas), cassiterite,
sericite, fluorite, dickite, kaolinite, wolframite and scheelite (Fig. 7b).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 449

Strong albitization in granite-related Sn–W deposits may give rise to “ap- Orefield as fairly rare, due to the extensive fracturing in the late-stage
litic rocks” (Fig. 7c). Pegmatitic parts in the apical parts of the Sn granites solidification stage, which saw the fluids migrating into the fractures
altered to topaz (pyknite), zinnwaldite, and quartz were called by the an- forming lodes rather than accumulating within the granite itself.
cient miners as “Stockscheider” (Fig. 7d) (Thomas and Davidson, 2013). Alderton (1993) reported a temperature of formation in the range
Fig. 7a gives an overview of the various subtypes and illustrates the 250 °C to 460 °C for the pegmatite. Dines (1956) and LeBoutillier
evolution from greisen-type Sn–W deposits through pegmatite-hosted (2002) described quartz floors in cylindrical zones extending vertically
(“Stockscheider”) to vein-type deposits. All subtypes of the silica cap- for over two hundred meters in dip height. They interpreted these fea-
greisen-pegmatite-vein system illustrated in Fig. 7a for the Erzgebirge tures as tensional fractures that were infilled by granite-derived fluids
Sn–W deposits have one thing in common, a pronounced vertical in response to internal shearing in the still-plastic granite. These struc-
extension resulting in a chimney-like or pipe-like shape of the Sn–W- tures carry a mineralogical association of true pegmatites. Ore-shoots of
bearing ore shoots. This is especially well demonstrated in the a pronounced vertical extension for several meters are also known from
Sadisdorf- and Altenberg-type deposits. The ore shoots developed on the Erzgebirge deposits and less conspicuously expressed even in some
top of the apical part of the Late Variscan granites. A mixed vertical– phosphate pegmatites of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province
horizontal zonation turned into a vertical-only zonation with the (Fig. 7g). A two stage-evolution can be deduced from the cross section
onset of the pegmatitization in the Altenberg-type. Excluding the of Fig. 7g. In a host anticline made up of biotite–sillimanite gneiss and
Ehrenfriedersdorf-type, all greisen-types are endogreisens affecting sill-like granites the felsic melt has been intruded during stage 1, the fun-
the granitic host rocks, proper. nel-shaped vertical structure evolved during stage 2. Tin mineralization is
Variscan granitoids of widespread occurrence in the Erzgebirge/ present in this pegmatite but only at subordinate amounts together with
Krušne Hory Mts. (Germany–Czech Republic) formed between 340 and a varied spectrum of sulfide minerals (Mücke, 2000). What in previous
310 Ma and have been attributed to the S-type and high-K I-type granites textbook was described as the pegmatitic-pneumatolitic stage, e.g., by
(Finger et al., 1997). The youngest group of leucogranites in Central Schneiderhöhn (1961), is denominated now as the supercritical (pegma-
Europe formed between 300 and 250 Ma, during the late Carboniferous titic) and subcritical (pneumatolitic) state in these deposits. This compar-
and Permian, when highly-fractionated S-type granites and A-type gran- ison between Sn–W granite pegmatites and P pegmatites sensu stricto is a
ites were concentrated across the Fichtelgebirge and the Erzgebirge. manifesto that various stages can be telescoped into each other in com-
The (Mo–Zn–Bi–U–F–As)–B–Be–Li–P–Sn–W granite pegmatite at plex pegmatites, such as those from the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite
Ehrenfriedersdorf is chemically a good match to the granite types. Province – see a more detailed discussion in Section 4.6.1 – and that com-
Definition: The term skarn coined by Swedish geologists is used here in plex mineral assemblages can be disentangled into more simple ones
its traditional and rather descriptive way in context with pegmatites, be- based on the chronological and geological data available so that the origin
cause of its close spatial relationship with pegmatitic rocks, leading in of these rock can better be determined.
some places to rare-element mineral associations of economic interest, par- One of the giant deposits sensu Laznicka (2014) enriched in W is the
ticularly for gemstones. It is a rock-type enriched in amphibole, pyroxene, Shizhuyuan greisen- and skarn deposit in China, which is hosted by Devonian
garnet and further Ca silicates, such as vesuvianite which have replaced cal-
careous sedimentary rocks or basic to ultrabasic igneous rocks leading to an
exoskarn within the wall rocks and, locally, to an endoskarn in the produc-
ing intrusive rock, of granitic or pegmatitic type. As exemplified in the book,
there is often no sharp boundary between these contact-metasomatic and
contact-metamorphic rocks.
Granite-related mixed-type Sn–W deposits of this kind do not only
occur along the Czech–German border in the Erzgebirge/Krušné Hory
Mountains but also pass towards the West into the Cornwall Sn–W dis-
trict, Great Britain, which is a match to the Central European Sn–W de-
posits and which has pegmatites also besides, greisen-, vein-type
deposits and tourmalinized tin granites (Fig. 7e). This type of
cassiterite-bearing Sn granite is rare among the host granites, but ex-
traordinary for its radially oriented acicular tourmaline crystals. In the
Cornubian mining region a polymetallic mineralization, involving Cu-,
As-, Zn-, Pb-, Ag- and Co minerals, is associated with the Sn mineraliza-
tion. Pegmatites developed during the initial mineralizing phases
together with skarns and were followed subsequently by post-granitic
lodes and veins bearing the aforementioned polymetallic mineral
associations (Guilbert and Park, 1986). All kinds of structural types of
granitic pegmatites/aplites, such as pods, schlieren, veins, lenses
and “stockscheider” were reported from the Cornubian granites
(Dines, 1956; Dunham et al., 1978; Badham, 1980). They are syn- to
postgranitic and reflect a strong heterogeneity within the host granitic
system as to fluid migration and viscosity during the latest phases of
granite emplacement. Radiometric age dating yielded an age of forma-
tion for the Halvosso Pegmatite of greater than 285 Ma attesting to its
emplacement in the aftermaths of the Carnmenellis Granite (Halliday,
1980; Clark et al., 1993). The rare metal pegmatites bear tourmaline,
zinnwaldite, apatite, chlorite, stokesite, topaz, triplite arsenopyrite,
loellingite, wolframite and cassiterite (Dines, 1956). According to the
mineralogical assessment made by LeBoutillier (2002) the rare element
pegmatites may be classified as P–Li–F–As–Sn–W granite pegmatites,
while the majority of pegmatites can only be worked for feldspar and
mica. The author describes the presence of pegmatites in the Cornubian Fig. 11. Pegmatite-related schist-hosted emerald deposits in Zambia (from Dill, 2010).
450 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

limestone in the thermal aureole of the Qianlishan granite complex. Tungsten
is concentrated in scheelite and wolframite which occur together with Bi in
massive W–Bi–Mo–Sn skarn ore, stockwork W–Sn–Bi–Mo–F ore, and W–
Sn–Mo–Bi greisen ore a granitic complex with five separate intrusions
(Jingwu Yin et al., 2002). There exist also some Pb–Zn–Ag ore bodies related
to this granite complex. True pegmatites have not been recorded from this
large deposit. Shizhuyuan is the largest polymetallic tungsten deposit in
China. Ore reserves amount to 750,000 t of WO3, 490,000 t of Sn, 300,000 t
of Bi, 130,000 t of Mo, 200,000 t of Be ore (combined grades 1% to 5%).
There are additional fluorite reserves of 7000 t, making it also one of the larg-
est associated fluorite deposits in China (source: internet database).
Another giant deposit of this type is located in Vietnam. The Nui Phao
deposit, Vietnam, is hosted in skarns and their greisenized or retrograde
equivalents. Greisenization consists of high fluorine, beryllium, tungsten,
tin and limited rare earth metals, which have replaced granitic dykes and
earlier-formed skarn units (Northern Miner, 2001). The Da Lien two-mica
granite is estimated to be late Cretaceous in age, and is considered to be
the main source of mineralization in the area. The medium-to-coarse-
grained granite consists of light-colored alkali feldspars and micas and is
enriched in tin, tungsten, beryllium, bismuth, niobium and lithium
(Northern Miner, 2001; Ishihara and Orihashi, 2014). It is said to be the
largest tungsten deposit in the world and one of the largest fluorite deposits

a) 1000

COLG

100 WPG
Bogd uul Modot Tsagaan davaa
Rb (ppm)

ORG = ocean ridge granite

VAG VAG = volcanic arc granite
COLG = collisional granite
10 WPG = within plate granite
ORG

1
1 10 100 1000

(Y+Nb) (ppm)

b) 1.6

Metaluminous
1.4 Peraluminous
Al2O3 /(Na2O+K2O) mol

Bogd uul

1.2 Modot

Tsagaan davaa
1.0
Peralkaline

0.8
0.8 1.0 1.2
Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O+CaO) mol

c) 8
7
6
5 Bogd uul
(Shoshonite
4 series)
K2O (wt %)

High K Modot
3
2 Medium K Tsagaan davaa

1 Low K

0
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SiO2 (wt %)

Fig. 12. a. Y + Nb vs. Rb diagram elaborated by Pearce et al. (1984) is to show the geodynamic setting of the granitic rocks. b. Chemical discrimination of plutonic rocks based upon the mol
ratios using Al2O3, K2O, Na2O and CaO (Maniar and Piccoli, 1989). c. Chemical discrimination of plutonic rocks based upon the weight percentage of K2O and SiO2 (LeMaitre et al., 1989).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
too, with a projected production of 190,000 t of fluorite per annum. True
pegmatites have not been recorded from this large deposit, either.
While the Sn–W mineralization in the French part of the Variscan
Orogen is rather modest, these commodity group known from the
Erzgebirge and Cornwall is widespread in the Variscan massifs along
the western boundary of the Iberian Peninsula. There are true Sn–W–
Ta deposits such as Barruecopardo and Golpejas in Spain, the
Panasqueira Sn–W deposit in northern Portugal which has a silica cap
on top of a granite cupola and subhorizontal aplites, and pegmatites
present over a wide area of more than 100 km along the Serra de Estrela
granitic massif, and many pegmatites on the Iberian Peninsula strongly
enriched in cassiterite (Derré et al., 1986) (Fig. 7h, i, j, k, l, Table 3). In the
pegmatites of the Amarante Region, Northern Portugal, the Cañada Peg-
matite in Castile and Leon, Spain, in the Lalín pegmatite field, in Galicia,
Spain, Ponte Segade area in Galicia, NW Spain, and granitic pegmatite
dikes of the La Canalita, Navasfrias Sn–W district, Spain, Sn
mineralization has been observed among other elements (Maijer,
1965; Fuertes-Fuente et al., 2000; Roda et al., 2004; Llorens and Moro,
2010; Canosa et al., 2011, 2012).
In the USA, the structural differentiation into quartz veins and peg-
matites resembles closely what has been described from the Variscan
metallotect in Europe. Minor occurrences are in the Appalachian Sn
belt, and in the Black Hills, South Dakota. Cassiterite is frequently ac-
companied by a spade of minerals containing Nb/Ta, Be, Li and P.
4.1.2. Sn–W pegmatites in the Neoproterozoic Metallotect in Africa
A true pegmatite-hosted Sn deposit is located at Manono-Kitolo,
DR Congo, which is the most well-known representative of a Sn–
W–Nb–Ta–Be–Li province along the eastern boundary of the DR
Congo with Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda (Pelletier, 1964; Bassot
and Morio, 1989; Ngulube, 1994). The deposit consists of two sepa-
rate tabular zoned pegmatites with a striking length of as much as
6 km. The deposit was attributed to the metallogenic event around
900 Ma (Fig. 8a).
Manono-Kitotolo is a postkinematic pegmatites of the Lower
Kibaran (Proterozoic) for which the succeeding types of pegmatites
have been mapped in the region: (1) microcline–quartz–muscovite,
(2) microcline–quartz–plagioclase (albite–andesine), (3) plagioclase
(albite)–quartz–spodumene–mica, (4) microcline–plagioclase–spodu-
mene (Table 3). The mineral assemblage encompasses cassiterite, co-
lumbite–tantalite, thoreaulite, loellingite, rutile, ilmenite, arsenopyrite,
pyrite, galena, Fe- and Mn oxides. Spodumene is present in amounts
of up to 20% and makes these deposits to one of the biggest Li resources
in the world. Spodumene formed more or less contemporaneously with
beryl whereas cassiterite came slightly later than the Li minerals. Co-
lumbite s.s.s. has been accumulated in the greisen-type mineralization
where it is associated with thoreaulite. Thoreau (1950) and Varlamoff
(1972) provided an overview of the mineral assemblage of the
pegmatite.
Cumulative production since 1919 is reported to stand at 180,000 t
of cassiterite concentrate (Bassot and Morio, 1989). The authors assume
that this subhorizontal sheet-like pegmatite originated from an injec-
tion parallel to the roof of parental granite underneath. It displays, how-
ever, unidirectional growth zones from bottom to top and it is hard to
believe that a parallel injection of melt took place over a striking length
of 12 km and gave rise to a body with a width of 50 to 800 m (Bassot and
Morio, 1989). The country rocks are metasediments (phyllite, quartzite,
chert) and greenstone, with steeply dipping schistosity planes which
are cut by the flat-lying pegmatite. Among the granites in the close vi-
cinity a red leucogranite was held accountable for the pegmatite. The
granite is of S-type, it is peraluminous, depleted in REE, but with a pro-
nounced negative Eu anomaly, and plots as syn-collisional in the Rb–
Hf–Ta or Rb–Yb–Ta plate tectonic discrimination diagrams (Günther
and Ngulube, 1992; Pohl et al., 2013). This stands in opposition to the
assumption of granite underneath the ore body published by Bassot
451
and Morio (1989). According to Pohl et al. (2013) the highest Sn and
Ta concentration, is associated with yellowish albitite.
A similar tin pegmatite is said to form part of the early
Neoproterozoic metallogenesis around 1000 Ma in Eastern-Central
Africa and was found further south, in Zimbabwe at Kamativi and
Kalinda in the Magondi Belt (Fick, 1960; Gallagher, 1967; Rijks and
Van der Veen, 1972; Petters, 1991) (Fig. 8 b, c). In Kamativi these
unzoned tin-bearing pegmatites were probably formed by intrusive sil-
icate melts with three mineral phases to be superimposed on each
other: 1. alkali feldspar–quartz–spodumene; 2. quartz–albite; 3. musco-
vite–quartz (Rijks and Van der Veen, 1972). The Kamativi pegmatite is
only vaguely zoned with primary spodumene and secondary petalite.
Based upon the compositional data published by the above authors
both pegmatites have to be categorized as follows: Manono-
Kitolo ((Cs–Pb)–Nb/Ta–Li–Sn pegmatite tabular (spodumene + Li
mica)), Kamativi ((B–REE–W–P)–Nb/Ta–Sn–Li pegmatite tabular
(spodumene + petalite N amblygonite)). Both pegmatites are of
Neoproterozoic age according to Gäbler et al. (2011) whose age esti-
mates plot in the range 925 to 1026 Ma. The early Neoproterozoic
Kibaran Belt running along the eastern boundary of the Congo Craton,
where the Manono-Kitolo pegmatite formed, is contemporaneous
with the Kamativi Belt in Zimbabwe, running along the SE boundary
of this craton. Cahen et al. (1984) and Dewaele et al. (2013) pointed
to the intrusion of voluminous Mesoproterozoic S-type granitoid mas-
sifs and subordinate mafic bodies.
Both pegmatites from Africa are flat-lying tabular pegmatites
with some antiforms that cut across the steeply dipping Precambri-
an gneisses, schists and migmatitic country rocks (Pelletier, 1964;
Rijks and van der Veen, 1972). The tabular pegmatites neither
form a subhorizontal coherent layer or a seam cutting across the
subvertical Precambrian units for several kilometers, nor do they
show up in dome-like structures indicative of a granite underneath.
It is a stacked pattern of anticlines with their limbs gently dipping
away from the hinge zone and which can be traced over several kilo-
meters (Fig. 8c). Another argument against a batholith underneath is
the arrangement of the country rocks that dip almost vertically
(Fig. 8b).
Similar in composition, the Järkvissle pegmatite, Sweden, may be re-
ferred to as an example for Sn pegmatites from Scandinavia. It is a (Nb–
Carbonatites
Areas with
numerous
carbonatites
Fig. 13. Carbonatite occurrences in Africa (Bosse et al., 1996).
452 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Be)–Sn–Li pegmatite (Smeds, 1990; Romer and Smeds, 1997). These
Paleoproterozoic pegmatites resulted from a melt derived from
orogenically-thickened continental crust. Pegmatitic derivates indica-
tive of subcrustal processes and a thinning of the crust are coeval or
younger than the aforementioned types. Postcollisional extension may
be reported also from younger orogenies in Europe and elsewhere on
the globe.
Apart from the Kibaran pegmatite-hosted Sn mineralization there is
another belt stretching along the SW coast of Africa in the Damara Belt
(von Knorring, 1970). The oldest Sn pegmatite was reported from the
Barberton Belt, Kaapvaal Craton, with an age of 3100 Ma, which is at
the same time and the oldest pegmatite ever found in Africa
(Maphalala et al., 1989; Maphalala and Trumbull, 1998; Trumbull,
1995). The intrusives did not evolve from a remelting of a 3500 to
3600 Ma old Ancient Gneiss Complex. Maphalala et al. (1989) favored
an underplating model with a significant component of juvenile magma.
The high Sr initial ratios suggest that the granites in the Tin Belt and the
pegmatites are remelting products of older sialic crust. Tin is the oldest
granophile or pegmatophile commodity that was concentrated by a pro-
cess different from fractionation of a parental granite.
In south-western Africa Sn pegmatites are confined to the Central
Zone of the Damara Orogen where they occur in three NNE-trending
belts (Uis, Karlowa and Strathmore), emplaced in form of en-echelon
structures (Diehl, 1993a,b). Uis pegmatites are simple unzoned tin peg-
matites while the remaining ones are more complex Nb/Ta–Sn–Li
pegmatites.
4.1.3. Sn–W plutonic pegmatites of the Neoproterozoic Rondônia Province,
Brazil
The well-known tin province of Rondônia (1600 to 990 Ma) in Brazil
is associated in time and space with Rapakivi granites (Teixeira et al.,
2007). The Younger Granites of the Rondônia province yielded U–Pb
ages between 998 and 974 Ma (Bettencourt et al., 1999). Lithologically
they consist mainly of amphibole–biotite alkali–feldspar granite,

1 cm

b 1 cm c
1 cm

No. 2+4 = max. U-Th-REE

No. 1+3 = min. U-Th-REE
2 mm d
Fig. 14. a. Opaque grayish to yellowish brown zircon and K feldspar on arfvedsonite from the Mount Malosa agpaitic alkaline pegmatite, Malawi. b. Dark gray opaque bipyramidal zircon
from the K feldspar zone. Calcalkaline La Independencia, Totoral Pegmatite Field, San Luis, NW Argentina. c. Brown opaque zircon in nepheline syenite pegmatites in the southern part of
Seiland Island, Norway. d. For comparison, four multi-colored zircon groups from an alkaline basalt of the Eger Rift-Reichsforst, Germany (Photograph: Siebel et al., 2009).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 453

1mm 1mm

a b

1mm

c
d

Fig. 15. a. Uraniferous columbite-(Fe) with uraninite epitactically intergrown with the host mineral. Uraninite shown in this image is a complex intergrowth of the hexahedron (100),
octahedron (111) and the dodecahedron (110). Uranium “black ore” from the Hagendorf-South pegmatite, Germany (photographer: B. Weber). b. Uraniferous columbite with Fe phos-
phate overgrown with uranium “yellow ore” minerals. It is an integrate of torbernite (green) into autunite (yellow). Kreuzberg Pegmatite, Pleystein, Germany. Germany (photographer: B.
Weber). c. Th-bearing brown monazite irregularly intergrown with columbite-(Fe) at Hagendorf-South pegmatite. It is the most common host of LREE in pegmatites (photographer: B.
Weber). d. U–Th-bearing xenotime crystal under the SEM. Malosa pegmatite, Malawi. It is the most common host of HREE in pegmatites.

syenogranite, topaz–lithium mica albite granites with which Sn-, W-,
Nb, Ta-, Cu-, Pb- and Zn mineralization is associated. The fluorine-rich
peraluminous alkali–feldspar granites contain topaz and/or muscovite
or zinnwaldite and have geochemical characteristics comparable to
the low-P sub-type topaz-bearing granites. Stockworks, veins, bed-like
greisen and tabular pegmatites form the ore shoots (Bettencourt et al.,
2005). Tabular marginal pegmatites are bound to the Correas Massif
(603 ± 7 Ma to 619 ± 11 Ma) (Goraieb, 2001). The initial intrusions
are metaaluminous monzogranites to syenogranites, the latter
syenogranites and alkali feldspar granites.
The Bom Futuro deposit (Li–F–W–Sn pegmatites tabular and vein-
type) is different from other tin deposits of the Rondônia Tin Province,
and presents a good opportunity to better understand the relationship
between pegmatite and greisen deposits (Leite et al., 2008). Anorogenic

Fig. 16. Section through the intragranitic uranium deposits at Rössing, Namibia.
After Berning (1986).
454 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

a b

d
c

Fig. 17. a. Tourmaline–quartz pegmatite (schorl–dravite) in the Svratka Unit (Moldanubian Zone) near Pernstein, Czech Republic. b. Batalha Pegmatite with elbaite tourmaline, the central
zone of which is filled with lepidolite, Brazil. c. “Ore” from the Batalha Pegmatite. Hand-picked Paraiba Tourmaline pieces of jeweler's quality. See biro refill for scale. d. Aggregates of
dravite in the pegmatite near Luc Yen, Vietnam. e. Pink elbaite and green verdelite accompanied by lepidolite. Las Cuevas Pegmatite, NW Argentina.

topaz granite porphyry and topaz rhyolite porphyry were intruded into
gneisses and amphibolites with ages probably older than 1330 Ma. Two
phases of Sn mineralization gave an age of 994 ± 3 Ma and 993 ± 3 Ma,
respectively. The older and major pegmatite bodies occur as lenses and
veins and are internally zoned. The mineral assemblage consists of
quartz, topaz, K-feldspar, zinnwaldite, cassiterite, stannite and base
metal sulfides. Tin-mineralized greisen occurs mainly as pipelike struc-
ture with quartz, zinnwaldite, topaz, fluorite, cassiterite, wolframite, py-
rite, and base metal sulfides as accessory minerals — for structures see
also Section 4.1.
Late Proterozoic anorogenic granites are accountable for this
Sn province, where pegmatites are still present besides greisens
and veins. Its deposits bound to alkali granite complexes are
scattered along a NE–SW trending zones extending over 250 km.
It is one of these deep-seated lineamentary fault or rift zones that sparked
mantle plumes to evolve at depth and giant ore deposits at shallower
depth within the crust (O'Driscoll, 1985; O'Driscoll, and Campbell, 1997;
Kutina, 1993, 1999, 2001; Kravchenko, 1999; Laznicka, 2005, 2014).
These deep structures with their hotspot activity can be traced into the
Nigerian tin province beyond the Atlantic Ocean.
 FLU ORI N E
(Chessboard classification scheme of mineral deposits No 32 sensu DILL 2010)
a)
180° 160° 140° 120° 100° 80° 60° 40° 20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180°

80° 80°

70° 70°
SJ

Greenland

60° 60°

Iceland
22 Russia
Finland
50° 50°
Norway
Canada
Sweden EE
LV 18
United Kingdom DK
LT
Belarus 1
IE NL
24Poland
BE Germany
40° LU CZ SK Ukraine Kazakhstan Mongolia 8 33 40°
AT HU MD
France CH SI Romania
Italy HR
BA RS
Bulgaria
Uzbekistan North Korea 30
ME MK GE Kyrgyzstan
United States Japan
AL AM AZ
PT Spain Turkey Turkmenistan Tajikistan KR 19
30°
Greece 7 26 11 China
30°
CY Syria Afghanistan 29
21
Tunisia LB Iraq Iran 14
3 Morocco IL JO 20
KW Nepal
12 23
Pakistan BT
Algeria 34

H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Libya
20° Mexico BS
Egypt QA
Bangladesh
10 9 20°
Western Sahara Saudi Arabia AE India
Cuba Myanmar
DO Oman Laos
HT
BZ JM PR Mauritania Mali
Niger Philippines
Guatemala
Honduras Yemen Thailand
CV Senegal Chad Eritrea
SV Nicaragua GM Sudan 16
Cambodia
10° Burkina Faso DJ 10°
Vietnam
CR TT GW Guinea 13
Nigeria
PA SL Benin Somalia
Ethiopia
Venezuela Cote d'Ivoire Ghana Central African Republic LK
Guyana LR TG BN
Colombia Cameroon
Suriname Malaysia
GQ Uganda
0° GabonCongo Kenya Indonesia 0°
Ecuador RW
Congo, DRC BI
32

Tanzania
Papua New Guinea
Peru TL
Brazil
6 SB
10° Angola MW 10°
Zambia
31 2 28
WS Bolivia Mozambique
25 17 VU
Zimbabwe Madagascar
PF 27
Namibia
4 Botswana FJ
Paraguay 15
20° NC 20°
SZ
5 South Africa LS Australia

Uruguay
Chile
30° Argentina 30°

40° 40°
TF
FK New Zealand
GS

50° 50°

60° 60°

70° Antarctica 70°

80° 80°

180° 160° 140° 120° 100° 80° 60° 40° 20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180°

0 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 km

Fig. 18. a. The distribution of fluorine gemstone deposits related to pegmatites by country and by geology. It is extracted from the map “Gems and Gemstones by Country and Geology — Fluorine” (modified from Dill and Weber, 2013). For legend see
Fig. 10a. b. The distribution of boron gemstone deposits related to pegmatites by country and by geology. It is extracted from the map “Gems and Gemstones by Country and Geology — Boron” (modified from Dill and Weber, 2013) For legend

455
see Fig. 10a.
456 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Fig. 18 (continued).
 BORON
(Chessboard classification scheme of mineral deposits No 30 sensu DILL 2010)
b)
180° 160° 140° 120° 100° 80° 60° 40° 20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180°

80° 80°

70° 70°
SJ

Greenland

60° 60°

Iceland 32 Russia
Finland
50° 50°
Norway
Canada
Sweden EE
United Kingdom DK
LV 9
LT
NL Belarus
IE Poland 1 58
BE Germany
40° LU CZ SK Ukraine Kazakhstan 28 33 Mongolia 40°
40 7 France CH
AT HU
SI
MD
Romania
39 Italy HR
BA RS Uzbekistan North Korea
60 ME MK
Bulgaria GE Kyrgyzstan
United States Japan
Spain AL AM AZ KR
PT Turkey Turkmenistan Tajikistan
30° 57 Greece 34 45 47 49 China
30°
46 24
48 52 CY Syria Afghanistan 19
Tunisia LB Iraq Iran
38
6 Morocco IL JO
26 51 17
KW Nepal

H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Algeria
Pakistan BT
20 16
Libya Egypt
20° Mexico BS QA 35 20°
Western Sahara Saudi Arabia Bangladesh
AE India
Cuba Myanmar
DO Oman Laos
HT
BZ JM PR Mauritania Mali
Niger Philippines
Guatemala
Honduras Yemen Thailand
CV Senegal Chad Eritrea
SV Nicaragua GM Sudan Cambodia
10° Burkina Faso DJ 10°
GW Guinea Nigeria Vietnam
CR TT
Benin 25 Somalia
PA SL Ethiopia
Venezuela Cote d'Ivoire Ghana Central African Republic LK
Guyana LR TG BN
Colombia Cameroon
Suriname Malaysia
GQ Uganda
0° GabonCongo Kenya Indonesia 0°
Ecuador RW
Congo, DRC BI
55 8
Tanzania
50 Papua New Guinea
Peru TL
37
12 36
Brazil
SB
10° 11 Angola
53 2 MW 10°
56
4 21 Zambia
43 44
WS Bolivia 54 5 Mozambique 3
10 27 59 Zimbabwe
42 VU
13 Madagascar
14
PF 18 Namibia
Paraguay 23 Botswana FJ
20° NC 20°
SZ
South Africa LS Australia
61
Uruguay 15
Chile
30° Argentina 30°

40° 40°
TF
FK New Zealand
GS

50° 50°

60° 60°

70° Antarctica 70°

80° 80°

180° 160° 140° 120° 100° 80° 60° 40° 20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180°

0 2.000 4.000 6.000 8.000 10.000 km

Fig. 18 (continued).

457
458 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Fig. 18 (continued).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 459

a b

W E

I II

Fig. 19. a. Massive tourmaline in the Batalha Pegmatite, Brazil, known for its blue Paraiba Tourmalines. b. The tourmaline pegmatite at Taquaral, Brazil, host fragments of biotite–cordierite
gneiss, now floating as slices within the felsic rock. It is quarried to use this pegmatite as ornamental stone. See person for scale. The inset downright gives a close-up view of a schorl dis-
semination in the pegmatite. c. Geological cross section of the Coronel Murta Pegmatite Field (modified from Pedrosa-Soares et al., 1990, 2001). Late Proterozoic Salinas Fm.: quartz–
micaschists, metagraywackes, calcsilicate rocks, Middle Neoproterozoic Macaúbas Fm.: quartzites. d. Correlation of internal structure of pegmatites to their morphology and 3-D position.
I) Lens-shaped, subhorizontal pegmatites. II) Balloon-shaped pegmatites dipping at high angle along fractures (modified from Pedrosa-Soares et al., 1997; Pedrosa-Soares et al., 2001).

4.1.4. Sn–W pegmatites of the Neoproterozoic Older Granites, Nigeria bearing pegmatites (Küster, 1990). Okunlola (1998, 2005) delineated
In Nigeria across the Atlantic Ocean post-orogenic Older Granites seven pegmatite fields in south-western, central and northern Nigeria
were intruded into the basement where they gave rise to Sn–Nb–Ta- with thousands of pegmatite veins attaining a length of as much as
460 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

1500 m, and a thickness of as much as to 50 m, which were intruded
into metasediments and minor amphibolites and dolerites as well as
gneisses, granites and metavolcanics (Okunlola, 2005). The Nb/Ta–Sn
pegmatites belong to the Older Granite Complex. The staple product
was cassiterite during the mining period with 247 t in the Ijero area,
and 117 t in the Egbe area, Nigeria (Schaetzl, 1971). Matheis (1987)
and Tkachev (2011) reported Rb–Sr data for muscovite. Their cooling
ages fall in the range 535–555 Ma which is a minimum age of emplace-
ment of the vein-type and tabular pegmatites.
Similar Sn pegmatites were studied by Haapala (1997) in the type
locality of the Rapakiv Granite in Scandinavia. In the 1.57 Ga Eurajoki
stock in southwestern Finland, the ore system is composed of biotite–
hornblende–fayalite granite, biotite granites and a late-stage crystalliza-
tion of topaz-bearing granite, as well as related topaz-bearing rhyolite
(ongonite) dykes. Cassiterite accumulated in greisen and in pegmatites
bearing a Sn–Be–W–Zn mineralization.
4.1.5. Synopsis of Sn–W pegmatites
Tin and tungsten need to be a more special handling because of their
physical–chemical regime within which the deposits formed. Their pri-
mary mineralization evolves from the supercritical to the subcritical
stage, a transitional section which once was called the pegmatitic–
pneumatolitic state. Not surprisingly both elements show up in a wide
range of sub-environments (Table 3) and the morphology of their ore
shoots is the most variegated one among the elements and minerals
under study.
4.1.5.1. Ore shoots and the physical regime at depth. Greisen ore bodies and
granitic pegmatites may easily be accounted for and related in time and
space to the adjacent granites. Tabular pegmatites which take an interme-
diate position in term of their morphology and the geodynamic setting
need a more detailed treatment as to their geological setting (Table 3).
The subhorizontal Precambrian Sn pegmatites in Africa may be termed

e
h= hagendorfite h
w= wolfeite
w w

Fig. 20. a. Dark phosphate pocket (green arrowhead) in the core zone of the Santa Ana Nb–Be–P Pegmatite, NW Argentina. b. Stockwork-like veinlets in K feldspar (white) mineralized with
primary Fe–Mn phosphates triplite, and zwieselite (dark) in the central zone of the Pacher Pegmatite near Junco, Brazil, in quartz–biotite schists. Head for scale on the right-hand side. c.
Faultbound mineralization of secondary Fe phosphates (green arrowhead) including mainly blue phosphosiderite, red variscite and cyrilovite in the Boa Vista Pegmatite, Brazil. d. Dark blue
well-shaped stubby hexagonal prisms of apatite jeweler's quality Capoeira-1 Pegmatite, Brazil. e. Massive hagendorfite intergrown with wolfeite from Hagendorf-South Cornelia Mine, Germany.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 461

“super floors” — see also Section 4.1.1. The namesake behind this resistivity “hump” close to the basement boundary fault. According
term is found in the dike swarms in the Late Paleozoic Cornubian to the geophysical working group, at a depth of about 10 km a layer
Orefield where the pegmatite bodies vary in thickness from a few of high conductivity with 0.1 Ω m has been identified by both
centimeter to a meter with an inclination between 0 and 20° LOTEM and MMT measurements. Another shallow conductor exists
(LeBoutillier, 2002) (Fig. 9a). The Panasqueira Sn–W deposit in between 300 and 1000 m, according to AAMT well below 10 Ω m
Portugal, is characterized by a set of subhorizontal ore veins overly- and according to AMT of 50 to 100 Ω m (Haak, 1989). The low resis-
ing and cutting through the strongly greisenized cupola of the two- tivity layer at shallow depth can be interpreted as an accumulation
mica granite which was intruded about 290 Ma (Kelly and Rye, of graphitic matter or highly saline waters. Organic matter appears
1979). It may be concluded simply from the cartoon in Fig. 9b,
that the veins are younger than the granite and its silica cap. The
veins are horizontally very extensive but mineralized only in a nar-
row interval extending vertically for 100 to 300 m. While the afore-
mentioned Sn deposits have individual ore structures with gently
dipping limbs away from the hinge zones, the greisen zones in the
Sn–W–Li deposit of Zinnwald/Cínovec (Germany/Czech Republic)
consists of a system of regular steeply dipping convex veins in the
greisenized zones of a granite body, with quartz, wolframite, schee-
lite, cassiterite, zinnwaldite, topaz, fluorite, muscovite, Li-mica and
feldspar (Fig. 9c). The occurrence of sheet joints is related to the
cooling of the granite. It controls not only the emplacement of the
greisen but become exposed near-surface during exhumation and
unroofing of granites (Fig. 9d).
A continuous catena of evolution may be depicted changing from
sickle-shaped onion-shell-like joint patterns of ore control for the
intragranitic Sn–W greisen, through granite pegmatite floors within a
pipes and chimney, into laterally extensive subhorizontal super-floors
which may be spatially related to granites as at Panasqueira or occur
as true pegmatites with no granite close by. While the intra-granitic
greisen zones are related in time and space to the cooling of the b
magma and solidification history of the granite, the pegmatite floors de-
veloped after the emplacement of the granite. In the pipes or chimney of
the Erzgebirge and Cornubian Orefield, the presence of minerals con-
taining B and F attest to an overpressure of high volatiles which was
channeled through tensional fractures. Taylor (1965) considered these
floors resulting from trust zones and tensile stacked shears. Farmer
and Halls (1993) saw them as the missing link between magmatic/gra-
nitic and hydrothermal mineralization, used the old term as “pegmatitic
pneumatolitic” sensu Schneiderhöhn (1961). The specific structures
may be held to be caused by the upward movement of volatile compo-
nents to the upward apical part of the granite, involving the transport of
incompatible elements like Sn, Li, B or W. This works only during the
formation of the greisen zone as shown in Fig. 7a and c. In case of
Panasqueira and all the more so in the African pegmatite deposits
(Figs. 8a, b, c, 4.1.5b) this model can no longer be applied, as the granite c
disappears from the scene as a source of fluids and only acts as a local
conduit for fluids from a much deeper source. Who is in this case the
“deus ex machina” at depth?

4.1.5.2. Deep geophysics. If we do not want to speculate on petrological

processes without evidence we have to take refuge to geoelectric resis-
tivity measurements to answer this question. Haak (1989) and his
study-group carried out such measurements during a pre-well-site
study for a super-deep drill hole (Fig. 9e). As this regional deep-
sounding covered also part of the area rife with pegmatite deposits
along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif, these data were re-
interpreted in view of the genesis of pegmatites by Dill (2015). Different
electromagnetic methods with different sensitivities to different
aspects of the electrical conductivity were applied and summarized:
(1) magnetotellurics (MT), (2) medium-magnetotelluric (MMT), 1m
(3) audio-magnetotelluric (AMT), (4) controlled source audio
magnetotelluric (CSAMT), (5) time domain electromagnetic method
(LOTEM), (6) Schlumberger direct current method (DCR). Fig. 21. a. Anatectic pegmatoid with cordierite, schorl, biotite and alkaline feldspar
(“migmatite”), Věžná 5 Pegmatite, Czech Republic. b. Anatectic pegmatoid made up of
The 1-D measurement shows the resistivity to be lower under-
K-feldspar and quartz bordered by a paleosome of biotite, Strontium Granite in North
neath some pegmatites. The 2-D results obtained by means of the Scotland, Great Britain. c. In-situ pegmatite formation by partial melting of amphibolites
various methods revealed a low-resistivity zone known from the (assumed anatexis age 910–915 Ma) in a road cut near Iveland Village, Norway (photo-
foreland to dip down under the basement with a pronounced low- graph courtesy of A. Müller, Geological Survey of Norway).
462 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table 5
Two reference types to show diagnostic features of granitic and pegmatitic uranium deposits (modified and supplemented from Rogers et al., 1978).

Characteristic Rössing Bokan Mountains

Lithology
Source
Th/U ratios
Initial Sr isotope ratios
Level of erosion
Level of emplacement
Tectonic vs. mineralization
Age
Geodynamic setting
Metamorphic grade
Pegmatite–alaskite–gneiss, anatectic Alkaline and peralkaline granites, syenites, commonly albite-riebeckite granites
Reworked and recycled sialic crust Mantle or lower crust
Less than 1.0 Greater than 1.0
Greater than 0.710 Less than 0.710
Deep Shallow
Catazonal Epizonal
Syn- to late tectonic Post-tectonic
Proterozoic to early Paleozoic Post-Achaean
Orogenic/ensialic Anorogenic to post-orogenic/(ensimatic)
Medium to high-grade amphibolite facies and granulite facies All facies type including unmetamorphosed country rocks

during the primary mineralization in the pegmatitic rocks. These Sn–W pegmatites from Brazil can be reported from Lagoa Real, Bahia
zones have restricted vertical extension but are horizontally rather (Lobato and Fyfe, 1990). It is not the only one located at the eastern
extensive, a feature pretty well in accordance with the tabular peg- sea border of Brazil (Espinharas, Itataia). The analogue beyond the At-
matites in Africa, which similar to the horizontal low-resistivity lantic Ocean is Kitongo, Cameroon, which marks the initial suture
zones cut across the lithology (Fig. 8b). The zones are interpreted zone for the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, a guide line for the mantle
in terms of fracking zones caused by natural fluid overpressure gen- plumes sparking the pegmatite intrusion.
erated by a magmatic body (?). One of the oldest granite pegmatite-hosted Sn deposits (Be–REE–Th–
The Sn–W granite pegmatites are located in the Fichtelgebirge Anti- B–Li–Nb/Ta–Sn pegmatite (spodumene + Li mica)) is located in the
cline in the autochthonous part of the Saxothuringian Zone which forms Achaean Sinceni pegmatite field of the Kaapvaal Craton, Swaziland. It
a klippen in the stacked pattern of the nappes (Fig. 9f — “granite pegma- gave an age of 3000 Ma and has the highest concentration of cassiterite
tite”). The zone of high conductivity underneath the pegmatites in the late-stage pegmatite units of sugary albite, associated with mica-
(Fig. 9e) may be interpreted to coincide with one of the prominent tourmaline metasomatic selvages in the host rock (Trumbull, 1995;
subhorizontal layers or thrust zones, in terms of structural geology Cairncross, 2004). The first author interpreted the albitic parts of this
(Fig. 9f). granite pegmatite as the products of late residual melt, and the meta-
somatic selvages to reflect fluid exsolution from the melt at the latest
4.1.5.3. The geodynamic setting at the transition from the supercritical to stage of pegmatite consolidation. The term granitic pegmatite would
the subcritical state. At the same time tin–tungsten pegmatites are a not well fit here. According to Trumbull (1995), the best tin values
function of the geodynamic setting and the magmatic intrusive rocks occur in pegmatites that exhibit boudinage and other signs of ductile
generated in this setting (Table 3). Generally speaking, pegmatitic deformation caused by shearing. Albitization and wall rock alter-
rocks are a mixtum compositum of crustal and subcrustal processes. An ation are synkinematic.
index element typical for subcrustal magmatic processes in the Sn–W Further indicator rocks for a mantle impact on the formation of peg-
pegmatites is sodium, the accumulation of which resulted in the forma- matites may be seen in the mafic rocks associated with the S-type gran-
tion of albitites — Sections 4.1.2 and 5.2. Albitization took place as a re- ites. The Sn–W pegmatites are transitional from an ensialic to an
sult of a Na-bearing fluid to be exsolved at the end of the pegmatite ensimatic (rift-type) environment (Fig. 6a, b, Table 3).
evolution in the East African Rift System (Vandaele et al., 2012).
Albitite-type uranium deposits are exclusive to Proterozoic metamor- 4.2. Beryllium pegmatites (14 ABDEJ)
phic rocks. A reference example lies within the Kirovograd-Krivoi Rog
district, where deep-penetrating faults extend over several tens of kilo- Beryl is a relatively rare element in the uppermost part of the con-
meter and closely associated with pegmatite intrusions (Belevtsev, tinental crust averaging 3 ppm Be, where granites and pegmatites
1980; Grechishnicov, 1980). An example much closer to the anorogenic are the dominant igneous host rocks. Other than Sn and W which
are accommodated in pegmatitic rocks in the lattice of a few true
ore minerals such as cassiterite, wolframite and scheelite, Be is pres-
ent in pegmatites in ore minerals such as beryl, being the source of
Table 6
beryllium and in a wide range of colored gemstones, with one of
Boron-bearing minerals to be exploited as gemstones from pegmatites and pegmatite-re-
lated skarns. them, emerald, belonging to the “Big Three”. Only a few of these
gemstones which are very popular also with non-mineralogists for
Achroite (var. Elbaite) NaLi2.5Al6.5(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
their esthetic value are mentioned here in this study devoted to the
Axinite Ca2MgAl2(BO3)Si4O12(OH)
Danburite CaB2Si2O8 geology of pegmatites and shown in Fig. 10a, and Table 4. Ordinary
Datolite CaB(SiO4)(OH) chrysoberyl is yellowish-green, transparent or translucent. Alexan-
Dravite NaMg3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 drite is strongly pleochroic of emerald green, red and orange-
Dumortierite Al6.9(BO3)(SiO4)3O2.5(OH)0.5 yellow colors which change under artificial light. Beryl has been
Elbaite NaLi2.5Al6.5(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
Elbaite-Paraiba With Cu
given different names corresponding to its color: emerald (green),
Indicolite Na(Li,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 aquamarine (pale blue), heliodor (yellow), goshenite (transparent
Jeremejevite Al6B5O15F2.5(OH)0.5 colorless variety), morganite (pink), rosterite (pink) and bixbite
Kornerupine Mg3.5Fe2+0.2Al5.7(SiO4)3.7(BO4)0.3O1.2(OH) (red) (Fig. 10b, c, d). The pegmatite-related Be deposits, mainly of in-
Liddicoatite Ca(Li,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(O,OH,F)4
terest for the gemologists, were grouped in the “Chessboard classifi-
Painite Ca0.77Na0.19Al8.8Ti0.19Cr0.03Zr0.04B1.06O18
Rossmanite LiAl8Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)4 cation scheme of mineral deposits” into beryl–emerald–euclase–
Rubellite Na(Li,Al)3Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4 hambergite (14 a D), pegmatites, chrysoberyl and beryl-bearing peg-
Serendibite Ca2Mg4.5Al1.5Si3.6Al1.8B0 matites in the contact zone to metaultrabasic and metapelites (14 b
Sinhalite MgAl(BO4) A), chrysoberyl pegmatites (14 c E) and beryl pegmatites (14d
Verdelite NaLi2.5Al6.5(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
D) (Dill, 2010).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 463

Table 7a Table 7b
Fluorine-bearing pegmatites by country and geology – see also Fig. 18a as a 2-D represen- Boron-bearing pegmatites by country and geology – see also Fig. 18b as a 2-D representa-
tation – worked for fluorine-bearing minerals of gemological quality (modified from Dill tion – worked for boron-bearing minerals of gemological quality (modified from Dill and
and Weber, 2013). For legends see Fig. 10a. Weber, 2013). For legends see Fig. 10a.

No. Site Country Mineral No. Site Country Mineral

1 Altai Russia Topaz 1 Altai Russia Tourmaline

2 Aracuai Brazil Topaz 2 Alto Ligonha Mozambique Tourmaline
3 Baja California Mexico Topaz 3 Anjanabonoina Madagascar Tourmaline
4 Lana Mine, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais Brazil Topaz 4 AraþuaÝ Brazil Tourmaline
5 Caxias Brazil Topaz 5 Aukas Namibia Tourmaline
6 Chipata Zambia Topaz 6 Baja California Mexico Tourmaline
7 Gone — Shirgar Valley Pakistan Topaz 7 Black Mountain Dunton Mine USA Tourmaline
8 Goriko Zuun Bayan Mongolia Topaz 8 Borborema Province Brazil Tourmaline
9 Guangdong China Topaz 9 Bortschowotschnom Russia Tourmaline
10 Guangxi China Topaz 10 Brandberg Namibia Tourmaline
11 Hushe Pakistan Topaz 11 Burmado Brazil, Bahia Tourmaline
12 Hyakule Nepal Topaz 12 Chipata Zambia Tourmaline
13 Jos Nigeria Topaz 13 Franciscopolis N Brazil Tourmaline
14 Katlang Ghundao Hill Pakistan Topaz 14 Fianarantsoa Madagascar Tourmaline
15 Limoeiro Brazil Topaz 15 Forrestania Australia–Western Australia Tourmaline
16 Loc Tan Vietnam Topaz 16 Fugong China Tourmaline
17 Marambaia Brazil Topaz 17 Gongshan China Tourmaline
18 Miass Russia Topaz 18 Governador Valadares Brazil Tourmaline
19 Naegi Japan Fluorite 19 Hoh, Braldu Valley Pakistan Tourmaline
20 Niyit-Bruk Pakistan Topaz 20 Hyakule Nepal Tourmaline
21 Nyet Pakistan Topaz 21 Jequitinhonha Province Brazil Tourmaline
22 Orivesi India Topaz 22 Kantiwa-Ye · lya Pakistan Tourmaline
23 Phakuwa Nepal Topaz 23 Karibib Namibia Tourmaline
24 Schneckenstein Germany Topaz 24 Kashmir India Tourmaline
25 Serro Brazil Topaz 25 Keffi Nigeria Tourmaline
26 Shengus Pakistan Topaz 26 Khumbu Nepal Tourmaline
27 Spitzkopje Namibia Topaz 27 Klein-Spitzkopje Namibia Tourmaline
28 St. Ann's Hurungwe District Zimbabwe Topaz 28 Koktokay China Tourmaline
29 Stak-Nala Pakistan Topaz 29 Korgal Afghanistan Tourmaline
30 Suishoyoma Japan Fluorite 30 Korgal Laghman Afghanistan Tourmaline
31 Virgem Da Lapa Brazil Topaz 31 Kunar Province Afghanistan Tourmaline
32 Voi-Taveta Kenya Topaz 32 Kuortane Finland Tourmaline
33 Xilin Qagan Obo China Topaz 33 KuruÚrte China Tourmaline
34 Yunnan China Topaz 34 Lagham Province Afghanistan Tourmaline
35 Luc Yen Vietnam Tourmaline
36 Lukusuzi Zambia Tourmaline
37 Lundazi Zambia Tourmaline
38 Mawi Afghanistan Tourmaline
4.2.1. Be pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect 39 Mount Auburn USA Tourmaline
A closer look at the map drafted by Štemprok (1981) for the 40 Mount Mica USA Tourmaline
European Variscides that illustrates the distribution of so-called 41 Muiane Mozambique Tourmaline
42 Murupane Murrua Mozambique Tourmaline
granitophile elements such as Sn, W, Be, Li and U reveals a relatively
43 Nacala Mozambique Tourmaline
high content for beryllium in the Moldanubian realm of the French 44 Namecuna Mozambique Tourmaline
part of the Variscides. 45 Nilaw Afghanistan Tourmaline
The Moldanubian zone, also called the central geodynamic or core 46 Nuristan Afghanistan Tourmaline
zone of the Mid-European Variscides, includes two tectonostratigraphic 47 Pabrok Afghanistan Tourmaline
48 Pala USA (California) Tourmaline
units, one named as Moldanubicum sensu stricto forms the autochtho- 49 Paprok Pakistan Tourmaline
nous unit, while the other allochthonous unit is named the Teplá– 50 Paraiba Brazil Tourmaline
Barrandian zone or Bohemicum (Weber and Behr, 1983) (Figs. 2a, 9f). 51 Phakuwa Nepal Tourmaline
An overview of this geodynamic zone has been given by Matte (2001) 52 Ramona USA Tourmaline
53 Ribaue Mozambique Tourmaline
and Raumer et al. (2003). The Moldanubian zone represents a stacked
54 Rio Doce Province Brazil Tourmaline
pattern of nappes which were superimposed onto each other during 55 Rio Grande Do Norte Brazil Tourmaline
the late Variscan (Fig. 9f). 56 Sahatany District Madagascar Tourmaline
Several Be occurrences are known from NW France. At Menez- 57 San Diego County USA Tourmaline
Goaillou-en-Coray in Finistère-Brittany, France, a typical “pneumatolitic– 58 Talate China Tourmaline
59 Usakos Namibia Tourmaline
pegmatitic” beryllium mineralization with greisen, pegmatites and 60 Wah Wah USA Tourmaline
quartz veins, as they were described also from Great Britain, formed 61 Warriedar Tourmaline Australia—Western Australia Tourmaline
in the cupola of an aplitic granite, intruded into Brioverian schists
((P–As–Cu)–Sn–Be granite pegmatite). The mineralization is also
enriched in As and Mo (Chauris and Le Bail, 1959). At Scaër-
Langonnet and Gouesnach aplites and pegmatites hosting beryl, grouped as granitic aplites or pegmatites with a strongly varying
bertrandite and tourmaline are associated with leucogranites of the morphology. Stussi (1989) who dealt with the chemistry of granitic
Amorican Massif (Chauris, 2008, 2009). In the pegmatite at Monts rocks of the French Variscides, classified the granitic suite into
d'Ambazac (Haute-Vienne) which is also associated with three principal associations: aluminopotassic, subalkaline, and calc-
leucogranites, beryl was concentrated, as it was the case at Vieux alkaline. Each of these associations is characterized by the petro-
Mayres (Le Château pegmatite)–P–B–Be granite pegmatite and at graphical and geochemical composition of their members and the
Imbert pegmatite at Montbrison in the Rhône-Alpes (Lebocey, nature of the related mineralization. Aluminopotassic granitoids
2008). All of these deposits and mineral showings have to be contain most of the observed Sn, W, and U mineralization and
464 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table 8
A NNW–SSE transect through the Central European Variscides and the Alpine Mountain range with the pegmatitic rocks at various sites arranged as a function of the geodynamic evolution
of both orogens. Feldspar and quartz are only mentioned for the so-called barren or nonrare-element containing pegmatites and aplites, e.g. The “Host rocks” refer to the rocks giving host
to the pegmatitic and aplitic rocks. The “Chemical/mineralogical qualifier” and the “Type” are used according to the classification scheme proposed in the CMS classification but were ar-
ranged in decreasing order in this table for ease of comparison (the most prevailing element is placed on the left-hand side of the column). The “Geodynamic environment” summarizes
the results of the geodynamic interpretations. The zone of Erbendorf–Vohenstrauss is equivalent to the Tepla–Barrandian Unit shown in Fig. 2a.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 465

Table 9
A comparison of Variscan-type pegmatites from the Central European Variscides (Hagendorf-South) with pegmatites from the Iberian Peninsula.

(continued on next page)

466 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table 9 (continued)
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 467

Table 9 (continued)

(continued on next page)

468 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Table 9 (continued)
all the Be, Nb–Ta, and Li mineralization. They are associated with
two-mica leucogranites, with a separate occurrence of Sn, W, Li, Be,
Nb–Ta mineralization related to highly evolved Na leucogranites,
whereas U mineralization is related to K leucogranites. The author
claims that the element distribution pattern which is also reflected
by the emplacement of pegmatites results from the ensialic evolu-
tion of the French Variscan orogeny and its granitoids were
emplaced in response to the postcollisional thrusting and shearing
tectonics — see also Fig. 9 for comparison.
Moving eastward in the Vosges, France, and Black Forest Mts.,
Germany, we encounter basement blocks notoriously poor in elements
known to be genetically related to granitic intrusions, such as Sn, Be, Nb
or Li, even though almost half of the crystalline rocks exposed in the
uplifted block of the Schwarzwald is made up of Variscan granites. The
only granite-hosted mineralization bearing some Sn and Be and,
hence, has been mineralogically revisited again and again for its peculiar
Table 10
Chemical composition of various types of pegmatitic rocks in and around the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Germany.
position, is located in the Triberg Granite Complex, Germany (Markl,
1995; Achstetter, 2007). Analogous Be mineralization with bertrandite,
phenakite and beryl has been known from the pegmatite veins at
Rothau-Alsace, France on the opposite banks of the River Rhein/Rhin
(Hohl, 1994). Besides a small tin mineralization, the author reported
bertrandite, beryl, and phenakite from this granitic pegmatite. On the
way East along the general strike within the European Variscides,
these two massifs straddling the Upper Rhein/Rhin Valley Rift are the
least endowed with rare-element pegmatites.
The abundance of Be-bearing pegmatites and aplites significantly
increases as we approach the western edge of the Bohemian Massif. In
the Moldanubian Zone, several pegmatites s.str. occur in marbles,
calcsilicates, mica schists, cordierite–sillimanite gneisses, and granite–
gneiss–mylonites, apart from granites and granodiorites. They contain
beryl, bertrandite, bazzite, bavenite, helvine, bertrandite, and bityite
and may be classified as F–U–Be–Nb–P-, Be–B–P-, Sc–Li–F–B–U–REE–
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 469

Table 11 Austria and the Western Carpathians in Slovakia, that is the eastern ex-
a. Chemical composition of “nigrine”. tension of the Alpine Mountain Ridge. All of them have pegmatites
enriched in Be (Höller, 1959; Moser et al., 1987; Walter et al., 1990;
Taucher et al., 1992, 1994; Malló et al., 1995; Uher et al., 2012).
The Pyrenees form the westernmost part of the Alpine orogen with
the majority of their rocks subjected to Late Cretaceous through Paleo-
gene structural deformation (Alvarado, 1980). Granite-related, mainly
skarn deposits, formed during the Paleozoic in the basement rocks of
this Alpine mountain chain. Malló et al. (1995) described from the
Albera Region zoned pegmatite in the Eastern Pyrenees, France. It is ac-
cording to the CMS scheme a series of (Nb/Ta–U)–Be–Li–P pegmatites
with chrysoberyl and Nb/Ta–Be–Li–P pegmatites with beryl. According
to the authors, the individual pegmatite mentioned above is distributed
Sph = sphalerite, po = pyrrhotite, U-pyr = uraniferous pyrochlore, Ti–Al–P–Fe ox =
within four subparallel zones, being arranged concentrically around
“leucoxene”+“limonite” + aluminum phosphates, I + A = inclusion plus alteration.
Chemical results are given in wt.% (modified from Dill et al., 2014a,b).
anatectic muscovite–biotite leucogranites.
In the main or central part of the Alpine mountain chain, geological
Be–P- and B–Be–P pegmatites, in the majority of cases of tabular shape investigations unraveled two major tectonic activities similar to the
(Dill, 2015). Heading further east into the center of the Bohemian Mas- western Pyrenees, one during the Cretaceous and another during the
sif — see Fig. 2b for location, the Scheibengraben pegmatite, 1.5 km E of Paleogene and Neogene provoking that the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic
Maršíkov, a tabular Be–Nb pegmatite was emplaced in medium- rocks that were under the sea within the Neo-Tethys elevated over the
grained hornblende gneisses (Novák et al., 2003) (Fig. 2a). According sea level and transformed into the present-day high-altitude mountain
to Novák (2005), the following chemical relations can be met in the peg- ridge, stretching from Grenoble, France, to Vienna, Austria. In the west-
matites of the Moravo Silesian zone: B ≫ P + F, and Be ≫ Li. With re- ern Alps crystalline basement rocks are exposed among others in the
spect to the paleofacies and element composition of pegmatites, this Gotthard and Aare Massifs, Switzerland (Trümpy, 1980). Rare-element
geodynamic unit at the SE boundary of the Bohemian Massif is a close pegmatites do not play a significant part in this area, apart from some
match to the Mid-German Crystalline High (Fig. 2a). The Mid German mineral shows which have been paid attention to by mineral collectors.
Crystalline High forms part of a suture zone extending from Mexico to Heading east, in the Tauern Window and the “Altkristallin” (Old
Turkey, resulting from the late Variscan closure of the Rheic Ocean Crystalline Rocks), Paleozoic rocks are of more widespread occurrence
which opened up during the incipient stages between Gondwana and
Laurussia and taking a wide range of Paleozoic sediments sourced from Table 11
Baltica and from Gondwana — see also the fragments in Fig. 3. In other b. Silica-bearing pegmatites by country and geology – see also Fig. 32e as a 2-D represen-
tation – worked for silica-bearing minerals of gemological quality (modified from Dill and
word, it is a global structure into the mantle persisting over a long period
Weber, 2013). For legends see Fig. 10a.
of time during the geological past. In Germany, the Königshain — ((P–U–
F–Ag–Li–Sn–W–Pb)–Bi–Nb/Ta–Be–REE pegmatite is another member of
this type of pegmatite (Thomas et al., 2009b). The area is endowed with
lamprophyres a group of hypabyssal porphyritic rocks with phenocrysts
of dark-colored minerals, whose lithological classification scheme has
not yet found common consensus and whose origin is still under debate
(Seifert, 2008; Vasyukova et al., 2011). Yet there is little doubt about their
start-up from a subcrustal level and association with pegmatites in the
Bohemian Massif (Dill, 2015). A closer look at the increase of Be contents
during fractionation of granites and the Be contents in lamprophyres re-
veals that the latter mafic magmatic rocks come close to a highly differ-
entiated granite as far as the Be contents are concerned. Richter and
Stettner (1979) published the increase of beryllium by differentiation
of a granite suite in the Saxo-Thuringian zone of the Mid-European
Variscides: G 1: 4.6 ppm Be, G 2: 7.7 ppm Be, G 3: 9.9 ppm Be, G 4:
17.6 ppm Be (G 1 is the oldest granite and G 4 the most strongly fraction-
ated granite). Seltmann et al. (1998) reported Be contents from the
Erzgebirge granites, which also host granitic pegmatites, in the range of
5.1 to 11.0 ppm Be. This chemical data are supported by the finds of Be
daughter minerals in fluid and melt inclusions in this study area of the
Erzgebirge (Thomas et al., 2011). Lamprophyres have considerable Be
contents and so stand out from the overall igneous rocks, by values of
10.6 ppm Be (Dill, 2015). Mineralized pegmatites s.str., however, may
reach up to 42.1 ppm Be, as at Plössberg, where beryllium formed min-
erals of its own and beryl precipitated as dominant rare element mineral.
Across the Atlantic Ocean in the USA, remarkable concentrations of
beryl, accompanied by amblygonite, spodumene and minerals of the
triphylite s.s.s. were worked as a source of beryllium in South Dakota,
in the Keystone District, and in Colorado.

4.2.2. Be pegmatites in the Alpine Metallotect

Three areas deserve particular attention as to the reactivation of Late
Variscan pegmatites in the course of the Alpine orogeny. It is from West
to East, the Pyrenees, between Spain and France, the Alpine Mts. in SE
470 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
and pegmatites become more prominent constituents among the
crystalline rocks, particularly in the Austrian Alps (Tollmann, 1977).
The minerals of the Austrian pegmatites have been investigated for
decades by different geologists (Höller, 1959; Moser et al., 1987;
Walter et al., 1990; Taucher et al., 1992, 1994). A varied spectrum
of beryllium minerals is known from the Koralpe pegmatite
deposit: Uralolite [Ca2Be4(PO4)3(OH)3·5H2O], hydroxyl-herderite
[CaBe(PO4)(OH)], roscherite [(Ca,MnFe)Be2(OH/PO4)·2/3H2O],
weinebeneit e [CaBe3(OH)2(PO4)2·4H2O], beryl/aquamarine [Be3
Al2Si6O10] and bavenite [Ca4Be2Al2Si9O24(OH)2]. Beryl is among the
minerals of the primary pegmatite mineralization and, hence, allows
this primary pegmatite mineralization to be classified as a B–Nb/Ta–
Be–Li–P pegmatite based upon the mineralogical investigations of
Niedermayr and Göd (1992). The primary pegmatite mineralization is
analogous to that of the major pegmatite stocks exposed in the
Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province in the Moldanubian Zone to-
wards the North of the Alpine Mountain Range (Dill, 2015). Thöni
et al. (2008) were able to fine-tune their previous petrological and chro-
nological investigations and furnished clear evidence for a multiple em-
placement of the pegmatitic melts between 273 ± 2 and 258 ± 3 Ma, in
some sites with offshoots even younger with an age down to 251 ± 7 to
c. 230 Ma. Ensuing overprinting metamorphic processes under eclogite-
facies conditions with peak temperatures around 700 °C and a pressure
at 2.2 GPa accompanied by an intense deformation during Cretaceous
time, were unable to obliterate previous isotopic signals and to blur
the magmatic nature of the aforementioned rocks.
In the Western Carpathians beryl is the characteristic mineral of the
Variscan (ca. 350 Ma) pegmatite dikes of the Tatric Unit (Uher et al.,
2012). Accessory Nb–Ta–(Sn) oxide minerals occur in the most fraction-
ated ones. According to the authors 1st gen. beryl is associated with the
K feldspar, while the 2nd one is found in the saccharoidal and
cleavelandite albite unit of the pegmatites.
On comparison of Variscan Be-bearing pegmatites in Alpine orogens,
the three reference types from the various branches have one mineral in
common, beryl. It is the primary beryllium mineral that developed
within the Paleozoic source rocks. According to Barton (1986), in a
water saturated system above 600 °C, beryl reacts with one of the
Table 12
Processes leading to the emplacement and alteration of the pegmatites and aplites in the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Germany (modified from Dill, 2015).
Al2SiO5 polymorphs to produce chrysoberyl, which was obviously
the case in the pegmatites of the Pyrenees. Around 200 °C phenakite
and bromellite hydrate to bertrandite and behoite, respectively, and
pure beryl reacts to euclase + quartz + bertrandite or phenakite. This
mineral association supplemented with some Be phosphates is charac-
teristic of the Austrian pegmatites and attests to an adjustment of the
primary Be mineralization to the late-stage hydrothermal condition.
In the Carpathian Mts. Uher et al. (1998) described several pegmatites
such as the Variscan Prašivá pegmatites as rather primitive Be-bearing
pegmatites. They suffered only modest alteration upon the Alpine reacti-
vation or in other words were incorporated into the modern fold belt
without any significant mineralogical and chemical changes. Another
type, not very widespread in the southern Bohemian Massif was studied
by Novák and Filip (2010). It is presented by the Kožichovice II pegmatite
which apart from its high beryllium contents is also outstanding as to its
exotic Be mineralization with beryl, bavenite, and bazzite and thereby fur-
nish evidence of a close genetic link to the ultrapotassic orogenic Třebíč
syenogranite, Czech Republic. The exotic Be mineral association with
smectite came into being at temperatures slightly below 250–350 °C
with neutral to slightly alkaline conditions accountable for the formation
of the secondary mineral assemblage encompassing beryl II, bavenite,
bazzite plus smectite. This rare type of Variscan Be pegmatite has no ana-
logue within the Alpine-Carpathian mountain chain.
4.2.3. Be pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa
Beryllium minerals are common to many pegmatites in Africa, where
they provide a good basis for small-scale miners and local diggers who
exploit the colored varieties of beryl and its associates to make their
living from (Fig. 10a). This is especially true for Madagascar, today an
island separated from Africa and India by the Indian Ocean and during
the Precambrian was squeezed between Africa and India (Fig. 3).
Geodynamically it is located at the southern end of the Mozambique
Belt, where syntectonic (750–600 Ma) and post-tectonic pegmatites
developed (Petters, 1991). The younger pegmatites, straddle the
Precambrian-Paleozoic boundary around 565 Ma down to 492 Ma
(Berger et al., 2006; De Vito et al., 2006). Apart from Be, the pegmatites
on the Isle of Madagascar contain increased amounts of U, REE, Nb and
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Ta (De Vito et al., 2006; Knorring von and Condliffe, 1987). Pezzotta
(2001) tried to adjust the existing classifications and created a new
scheme with three classes (1) abyssal class, (2) rare element class,
(3) NYF miarolitic class. I mention this scheme only for the sake of com-
pleteness and to highlight the importance of beryllium among the group
of elements relevant for the pegmatites. A list of gemmy beryllium-
bearing minerals is presented in Table 4 and shown in Fig. 10. Pezzotta
(2001) listed beryl–columbite-, beryl–columbite–uranium-, beryl–co-
lumbite–phosphate-, chrysoberyl/massive + miarolitic, and emerald
pegmatite subtypes under the header beryl. The study is very detailed
but the classification scheme is still inconsistent in each structure and
applicable only for the sites under study. Some beryllium-bearing
pegmatites are shown in the paragraphs below.
The Mananjary emerald district hosts (F–B–P–Mo)–Be pegmatite
(emerald) whose emeralds formed along a phlogopitic contact zone
between the pegmatite and the surrounding basic to ultrabasic igne-
ous rocks (Cr-rich meta-ultrabasites (hornblendites) which can be
held accountable for the vanadium being the chromophore of the
beryl) (Grundmann, 2001; Groat et al., 2008). According to Moine
et al. (2004) who studied fluid inclusions in the metasomatic min-
erals, the alteration took place at 500 °C and 2 kbar. Co-
precipitation of F-rich phlogopite caused the deposition of beryl
(Moine et al., 2004). Vapnik et al. (2006) reported a temperature
and pressure regime of 250 to 450 °C and 1.5 kbar based upon fluid in-
clusions in emeralds from the Kianjavato deposit in the Mananjary re-
gion and postulated shearing was the mechanism most relevant for
introducing a CO2-rich fluid to foster the emerald genesis at the
Kianjavato deposit. The Isahara Pegmatite Field was described by
Pezzotta (2001); it contains B–F–Be pegmatites (aquamarine). More-
over these pegmatites host topaz, tourmaline, smoky quartz and citrine
and are intercalated into migmatitic rocks. The reason why these peg-
matites are pigeonholed as NYF, being devoid of Nb, Y and HREE min-
erals is not known. Pegmatites in the Ambatondrazaka district,
Madagascar, e.g., near Masiadrivotra are Be pegmatites (chrysoberyl)
or B–Be pegmatites (chrysoberyl–beryl/tourmaline–dumortierite) and
said to be bound to granites (Behier, 1960).
The geodynamic palimpsest map of Gondwana in Fig. 3 gives a lo-
cation totally different from Madagascar's present position just to the
East of Mozambique. It was located then near the “Horn of
Africa”, where the Kenticha and Bupo pegmatites in Ethiopia contain
beryl besides Nb/Ta oxides, spodumene, and amblygonite (Tadesse and
Zerihun, 1996; Küster, 2009). The Be-bearing pegmatite at Kenticha,
Ethiopia, is a peraluminous pegmatite bound to a post-accretionary
granitoid magmatism, lasting from 610 to 530 Ma (Küster, 2009). The
author renders I-type or A2-type magmas accountable for the mineraliza-
tion in the pegmatites with either crust derived or hybrid crust–mantle
derived magmas. Kenticha, Ethiopia is a (Sn)–Be–Li–Ta tabular pegmatite
(Li silicate N Li phosphate). Beryl occurs as emerald, and lithium is
accommodated in lepidolite, spodumene, holmquistite, elbaite and
swinfordite, while Li phosphates are represented by amblygonite and
lithiophyllite, so that a simple description as spodumene type would
not fit in. This classification is only true for the Bupo pegmatite. The
Ethiopian pegmatite province bears beryllium only as minor constituent
besides Ta and Li manifesting closer chemical similarities with
Greenbushes, Australia, than the pegmatites in Madagascar — see also
the geodynamic attribution of elements in Table 2 and Fig. 6b.
Magadascar's pegmatites feature stronger Rift-type affiliation than
the Ethiopian ones already signaling a break-away tendency from
the African continent which only took effect during the late Mesozoic
when it split from Africa around 150 Ma and from India 90 Ma ago,
while Ethiopia is still fixed to the main continent.
In the Alto Ligonha Province, northern Mozambique, the situation is
not any better in the Li- and Nb/Ta-bearing pegmatites, where beryl is
only an accessory mineral in the K-enriched pegmatites (Schmidt,
1986; Cronwright, 2005; Thomas and Davidson, 2010). Even in the re-
nown Bikita pegmatite beryl is present only in subordinate amounts
471
and was investigated as to its trace element contents by Černý et al.
(2003). Pegmatite-related schist-hosted emerald deposits are mined
in open pits in Zambia (Fig. 11). Seifert et al. (2004) gave a detailed ac-
count on the origin of the emerald deposits in the Kafubu Area, Zambia.
The authors identified highly magnesian talc–chlorite ± actinolite ±
magnetite metabasites, hosting emerald mineralization as metamor-
phosed komatiites. A closer look at Fig. 38e cited in context with
the hydrothermal kaolinization of pegmatites provides a picture
similar to the photograph taken in Zambia. In the Ural Mts. emerald
developed at the contact between granite and talc schists plus talc–
actinolite schists (Fig. 38e) (Fersmann, 1929). The pegmatite
hosting the emerald pockets is associated with albitites and was
affected by a strong hydrothermal kaolinization (see also Section 5.2
about episyenitization and albitization). The felsic melt of the pegmatites
interacted with the Cr-bearing basic country rocks. As a result of this
desilification of the pegmatites part of the rocks were converted into
albitites (see also Section 5.2 about episyenitization and albitization).
One of the classical emerald and alexandrite mining areas in pegmatites
((P–Li–B–Bi–Mo–Nb–Ta–F)–Be pegmatites) and also the main source of
industrial beryllium was the Izumrudnye Kopi area, near Ekaterinburg
in the Middle Urals, Russia, where more than 35 sites of beryllium concen-
tration were found in an area measuring 25 × 2 km (Pekov, 1998).
4.2.4. Synopsis of Be pegmatites
The pegmatite-related Be-bearing gemstone deposits were extracted
from the global distribution of Be-bearing gemstones (Dill and Weber,
2013) (Fig. 10a). The newly created map allows for delineating two
areas, which have already attracted our attention as we dealt with the
Sn–W deposits in Section 4.1. It is the East Africa Rift System and the su-
ture zone between Brazil, Namibia and Nigeria. Many small-scale mining
operations are known from eastern Africa and from Brazil. While other
beryllium concentration, e.g., in the Variscides did not bring about pre-
cious beryl from aquamarine through morganite, these deep-seated su-
tures gave rise to such an accumulation of Be and sparked small-scale-
mining. There is one site outstanding for the concentration of precious
beryl, where the element creating the host, beryllium, and the chromo-
phores, e.g., vanadium and chromium, contained in basic and ultrabasic
rocks from the mantle comes close to one another like nowhere else on
earth. Madagascar is rife with Be-bearing pegmatites and host of the
3rd largest known deposit of vanadium in the world. The Green Giant
vanadium deposit was discovered in 2007 at the southern tip of the
Isle of Madagascar by Energizer Resources Inc. (Fig. 10a).
Evensen and London (2002) performed experimental studies of the
partition coefficients for beryllium between hydrous granitic melt and
alkali feldspars, plagioclase feldspars, quartz, dark mica, and white
mica at 200 MPa H2O as a function of temperature in the range of 650
to 900 °C. The experimental results and the interpretations published
by both authors did not find a general consensus as demonstrated by
Thomas and Davidson (2015) in their Fig. 4. Based on their experimen-
tal results and the interpretations, Evensen and London (2002) conclud-
ed that cordierite, calcic oligoclase, and muscovite (in this order) control
as to whether Be get incorporated or not into pegmatites. Beryl-bearing
pegmatites can develop only after extended crystal fractionation of large
magma batches. All those magmas that originate from cordierite-
bearing protoliths or that contain large modal quantities of calcic oligo-
clase will not achieve beryl saturation at any point in their evolution.
Another geodynamic setting abundant in rare element relevant
for the formation of pegmatites was studied during field work in
Central Mongolia. The Early Mesozoic Bogd uul, Tsagaan davaa and
Modot granites of the Sn–W–As–Pb–Zn–Cu complexes of the Khentii
Uplift, Mongolia, felsic intrusive rocks surrounded by a marginal
facies of more granodioritic to monzonitic composition were attributed
to the A2-type granites which evolved post-collisionally in an
intracontinental environment (Dill and Khishigsuren, 2013). Siting of
a few samples within the field of so-called collisional or volcanic arc
granites is caused by alteration and can be excluded by field evidence
472 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
from the discrimination diagrams. This geodynamic classification is
based on discrimination diagrams using K, Na, Si, Nb, Y and Rb
(Fig. 12a, b, c). The basic x–y plot Y + Nb vs. Rb elaborated by Pearce
et al. (1984) shows the majority of the granites to fall in the field of
the within-plate granites (Fig. 12a). The pattern resembles the data ar-
rays in the various discrimination plots drafted by Simmons et al.
(2011) for the REE-rich pegmatites from sites in South Platte, Co,
Trout Creek Pass, Co, Kingman and Aquarius Range, Az, USA. The chem-
ical discrimination of plutonic rocks based upon the mol ratios using
Al2O3, K2O, Na2O and CaO sheds some light on the aluminous character
which is peraluminous for all samples excluding one (Maniar and
Piccoli, 1989) (Fig. 12b). Based upon the diagram put forward by Le
Maitre et al. (1989) a x–y plot with weight percentage of K2O vs. SiO2,
the granites classify as high-K granites (Fig. 12c). The rare metal granite
system has also elevated contents of fluorite, topaz and tourmaline and
is characterized by the LREE minerals allanite-(Ce) and monazite (Ce)
prevailing over xenotime being the only host of HREE in these
Mongolian granites. Beryllium shows non-correlation in these A-type
granite system with all elements excluding the REE (r = 0.74) and Th
(r = 0.54). Beryllium is another example for the important role the sub-
crustal magmas play in the formation of pegmatites together with REE
elements. The separation of HREE and LREE may be due to fluorine
complexing of HREE over LREE (Simmons et al., 1987). Based upon the
regional data presented above, beryllium together with strong albitization
is mainly observed in an extensional geodynamic region (rift-related)
which may persist over quite a long time as shown by the examples
from the African and South American continents. But it is also present in
collisional and reactivated geodynamic settings (Fig. 6b).
4.3. Rare-earth element and zirconium pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns
(24DE + 39 E)
The rare earth elements (REEs) are currently in the lime lights due to
some shortage of supply for part of these element suite owing to some
misbalances in the production of REE by leading countries: China
(100,000 t), USA (3200 t), India (2300 t) and Malaysia (320 t) (Weber
and Zsack, 2007). China's share in the world REE production stands at
94% based on its giant REE deposit Bayan Obo, a non-pegmatitic REE
concentration in Inner Mongolia. After years of controversial discussion,
the pendulum on the concentration of the largest REE resource in the
world has swung towards a carbonatitic origin including dolomite, cal-
cite and calcite–dolomite carbonatite varieties as source rocks (Yang
et al., 2011). The second and third in the row are no pegmatitic REE de-
posits either. Little work has been centered on REE accumulation in peg-
matites. On the other hand a quick look at the REE deposits related to
alkaline intrusive, effusive and carbonatitic, magmatic rocks which con-
tain more than 50% by volume of carbonate minerals provide the reader
with a series of rare elements very well known also from pegmatitic
rocks, such as P, Nb, Ta, F, Be, (Mitchell, 1991; Woolley and Church,
2005). Intra-plate fractures, grabens or rifts are settings not far away
from the pegmatite-controlled REE deposits and processes relevant for
the emplacement and alteration of the above REE-bearing alkaline igne-
ous rocks cannot be sidelined when dealing with pegmatite-hosted REE
deposits (Fig. 13).
Kanazawa and Kamitani (2006) listed about 200 rare earth minerals.
The most common ore minerals of REE are phosphates: Monazite,
xenotime, ningyoite, florencite and rhabdophane — see also Fig. 15c
and d in the succeeding section. They occur in metamorphic and granitic
rocks and result from supergene alteration and thus may often be met in
pegmatites, albeit as accessory minerals only. Second most in abun-
dance are REE carbonates such as bastnaesite, synchysite, lanthanite
and parisite which are of widespread occurrence in carbonatites often
accompanied by REE oxides, e.g., cerianite and knopite and REE nio-
bates–titanates, e.g., fergusonite and aeschynite. The latter may also be
encountered in or adjacent to pegmatitic deposits.
Owing to its close association with REE in pegmatitic rocks, Zr is
dealt with together with this group of elements in Section 4.3. Zirconi-
um and its “closest chemical ally” hafnium are chemically next of kin
to titanium but far less widespread than this major element and only
present in the earth's crust at an average of 140 ppm Zr. Zircon is the
most common representative among the Zr minerals. Yet there are
some rare Zr minerals present in pegmatites, e.g., Strange Lake,
Canada, which many of us probably never have heard of (Birkett et al.,
1992).
4.3.1. REE pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect
REE-bearing pegmatites are not as common as Li-, Sn- or P-bearing
ones in the central Variscides. Only taking a look at the Moravo-
Silesian geodynamic unit to the East and South-East of the Central
European Variscides may change our view. Some well-studied exam-
ples of REE-bearing pegmatites are located in the Třebíč Pluton which
lies about 20 km to the West of Brno, Czech Republic, on the boundary
between the Moldanubian and Moravo-Silesian Terranes (Škoda and
Novák, 2007). Considering the mineral association reported by Škoda
et al. (2006) and by Škoda and Novák (2007), the pegmatites have to
be classified as (W–Sn–F–Li)–Be–Nb/Ta–REE pegmatite dikes. The
REE-hosts are monazite, xenotime as well as aeschynite- and
euxenite-group minerals. The dikes reside in amphibole–biotite
melasyenite to melagranite (durbachite) of the Třebíč Pluton. These
ultrapotassic intrusive rocks were interpreted as a product of mixing
of magmas derived from the mantle and the crust (Janoušek et al.,
2000). These ultrapotassic intrusive rocks, called durbachites were
also recorded from the Black Forest and the Vosges Mts., yet without
any link to pegmatites there (Holub et al., 1997). At Oslavice near
Velké Mezíříčí in the Třebíč Pluton in some mineral sites allanite-(Ce)
acts as host of REE in a REE pegmatite-dike pertaining to the
syenogranite shoshonitic association (Škoda et al., 2006; Škoda and
Novák, 2007). From another site at Oslavice, the authors reported a min-
eral assemblage conducive to a Nb/Ta–Be–REE pegmatite-dike-pocket.
In both cases, the host rock lithology closely resembles that described
from the within-plate granitic system illustrated in Fig. 12c. Heading
for the gneiss in the country rocks of the Třebíč Pluton causes a change
in the structure and in the composition of the pegmatite: Sn–F–Li–B–
Nb/Ta–Be–REE (Li tourmaline–Li mica) (Novák et al., 1999a,b). Some
more pegmatites have been classified and placed here as a function of
host rock lithology to demonstrate the close relationship between geo-
logical setting and the type of pegmatite: Bližná I (Li–P–W–Nb/Ta)–B–
REE pegmatite-dike (metacarbonate) (Novák et al., 1999a,b),
Vlastějovice near Zruč nad Sázavou (F–P–As–Sn–U)–Nb/Ta–B–REE peg-
matite dike-layers (migmatites–gneiss–skarn) (Novák and Hyršl, 1992;
Žáček et al., 2003; Ackerman et al., 2007), Ruda nad Moravou (P–Zr–U–
Th)–Nb/Ta–REE pegmatite dike (ultrabasite) (Novák and Gadas, 2010),
Maršíkov I and III (Zn)–REE–Nb/Ta–Be metapegmatite (Černý et al.,
1992). Also from the eastern boundary of the Bohemian Massif, REE-
bearing pegmatites are known at Szklarska Poręba (Karkonosze Massif,
Lower Silesia, Poland) (Szełęg and Škoda, 2008). In the Strzegom-
Sobótka Massif, miarolitic pegmatites were encountered in the two-
mica monzogranite whose age of formation was chronologically
constrained to 324 ± 7 Ma by Pin et al. (1989). The various minerals
allow for an attribution of this pegmatitic mineralization to a REE–Nb–
Ta–Be–B–Sc–F–W granitic pegmatites miarolitic (Janeczek and
Sachanbiński, 1989; Ciesielczuk et al., 2008). Another lens-shaped
and zoned pegmatite called Skalna Brama pegmatite is located
near Szklarska Poręba within the Karkonosze Granite. It is a As–Nb/
Ta–U–REE–pegmatite containing zirconolite, gadolinite, fergusonite–
formanite, aeschynite, arsenopyrite, uraninite, monazite, zircon, and
xenotime (Szełęg and Škoda, 2008). In the same geotectonic setting at
the eastern edge of the European Variscides near Königshain a (P–U–
F–Ag–Li–Sn–W–Pb)–Bi–Nb/Ta–Be–REE pegmatite miarolitic was inves-
tigated by Thomas et al. (2009b). The CMS classification scheme is more
suitable for a fine-tuning of the source of pegmatitic rocks in the
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Variscan Orogen than the current classification schemes, allowing you
to closely link REE-bearing pegmatitic rocks with deep-seated
lineamentary fault zones and thrust zones along the edge of uplifted
basement blocks and to estimate to what extent crustal material has
been involved in the built-up of the pegmatites, simply by considering
the elements listed in Fig. 6b. The Třebíč Pluton bears pegmatitic de-
posits from pure mantle-controlled Nb/Ta–Be–REE pegmatite-dike-
pockets through Sn–F–Li–B–Nb/Ta–Be–REE pegmatite (Li tourmaline–
Li mica). The first-order ore control is executed by the structure, the
second-order control by the host-rock-lithology. Frequently, U and Th
are close by, a fact that may make mineralogists enthusiastic for the
number of minerals awaiting study and the potential for chronologically
constraining the emplacement, but it does not make happy the entre-
preneurs and engineers who have to get rid of the radioactive material
under certain circumstances.
4.3.2. REE pegmatites in the Alpine Metallotect
A series of syngenetic and epigenetic pegmatites quite different from
those described in Section 4.2.2 evolved in the granodioritic–tonalitic
Masino-Bregaglia intrusion, and within the Alpine Lepontine nappe
boundaries in close contact with the Insubric Line (Guastoni, 2012;
Guastoni and Pennacchioni, 2013). The Masino-Bregaglia intrusive mas-
sif is Oligocene in age. The pegmatitic rocks are Nb/Ta–Y–U–REE pegma-
tites. Guastoni and Pennacchioni (2013) gave an account of some more
low-evolved pegmatites in the Southern Alps that may be categorized as
(Li)–B–P–Be metapegmatites within orthogneiss and were affected by
strong albitization, while other pegmatites reside in tonalites and
granodiorites. Syngenetic pegmatitic rocks formed in a rather “hot” en-
vironment of temperatures greater than 450 °C, whereas the epigenetic
true pegmatites show all hallmarks of strong temperature contrasts in a
“cool” environment with sharp contacts and aplitic apophyses. The
above authors postulated that the syngenetic metapegmatites formed
in the interval 32 to 25 Ma (Liati et al., 2000; Oberli et al., 2004). The epi-
genetic aplites and pegmatites were emplaced in the age interval 32 to
24.1 Ma (Gebauer, 1999; Guastoni and Mazzoli, 2007). Guastoni and
Pennacchioni (2013) feel hard pressed to find a parental granite ex-
posed nearby, which does not exist and consequently point to the meta-
morphic processes as the stimulus for the pegmatitization. They explain
the emplacement of these pegmatites in a wide range of non-granitic
host rocks by an increase of the temperature during metamorphism,
in that metamorphic temperatures can remain above solidus (650 °C)
for a long time, as it is the case with the Lepontine dome. The REE-
and Be-bearing pegmatites, some also contain the beryl variety emerald
among their accessory minerals, formed in the waning stages of the col-
lision between the Adriatic microplate and the European one during the
passage from the Eocene to the Oligocene. They reflect the mantle-
derived component of mobilization and metasomatism (formation of
emeralds) during these plate tectonic processes whereas the minor
amount of P, B and Li is interpreted in terms of the crustal input into
this mixed-type or complex pegmatite system. The synkinematic
through post-kinematic features observed by the authors well fit into
the scheme of geodynamic evolution at that time of the Alpine Orogeny.
4.3.3. REE pegmatites in Greenland and Scandinavia
While in Central Europe none of the pegmatites has been explored for
its REE contents, a case in point may be reported from the Näverån
Th–(U)–REE deposit, in western central Sweden. The fracturebound min-
eralization in weakly deformed granitoids has REE-bearing minerals such
as xenotime-(Y), monazite-(Ce), allanite and an Y-bearing phosphate to-
gether with uraninite (Sadeghi et al., 2013). Criss-crossing stockwork-like
REE–Nb/Ta pegmatite veins (fergusonite–euxenite) at Dusserud, South
Sweden, are held to be related to the Blomskog Granite, Sweden
(Fig. 8o). The gneisses at Dusserud, South Sweden, are dated to 1.65 Ga.
By contrast, zirconium may improve the quality of the ore given the
mineralogical bonding is not too complex. This is true also for miarolitic
Be–Nb/Ta–B–F–REE pegmatites with topaz and fluorite in the Wiborg
473
rapakivi granite, SE Finland (Lukkari et al., 2009). The Motzfeldt Sø REE
deposit linked to the intrusion of the Igaliko nepheline syenite complex,
contains important Ta–Nb enriched zones with pegmatite and diorite
dykes, apart from the syenite (Tukiainen, 1988). In Scandinavia and
Greenland the REE-bearing pegmatites are either bound to fractured
granitoids or closely linked to alkaline igneous rocks of subcrustal
derivation.
A complex REE-bearing mineralization has been discovered in the Two
Tom Lake deposit that is hosted by the Letitia Lake Group metavolcanic
rocks and associated metasyenites (Miller, 1988). Barylite, eudidymite,
niobophyllite and pyrochlore, were suggested as possible REE hosts
(Westoll, 1971). Results from drill holes have shown grades of as much as
1.32% TREO*, 0.37% Nb2O5 and 0.23% BeO (Rare Earth Metals Inc., Press Re-
lease, November 17, 2010). The Y–Th–REE–Nb– Zr–Be mineralization is ge-
netically related to peralkaline magmatic activity.
4.3.4. REE pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa
The pegmatites on the Isle of Madagascar are also well endowed
with REE apart from Nb/Ta, U, and Be (Delbos, 1965; Berger et al.,
2006; De Vito et al., 2006). The youngest members of these
pegmatites reside within the Pan-African mobile belt which extends
from the eastern Desert, Egypt, down to Mozambique and swings into
the eastern appendix of Africa, Madagascar (Schmidt and Thomas,
1990; Fung et al., 1990; Fritz et al., 2013). The youngest pegmatites
yielding a monazite age between 554 and 492 Ma according to Berger
et al. (2006) are most strongly enriched in REE. The zoned Mboro (B)–
Bi–REE–Nb/Ta pegmatite, in the eastern Atsinanana Region,
Madagascar, produced large quantities of samarskite-(Y) besides co-
lumbite–tantalite group minerals (Giraud, 1956; Besaire, 1966). The
Ikalamavony Pegmatite Field, in the Matsiatra Region, Madagascar,
with its (W–REE–Bi)–Be–P–Li–Nb/Ta pegmatites contains also REE
mainly accommodated in the lattice of minerals like xenotime and to
subordinate amounts also in pyrochlore-group minerals (Giraud,
1957; Pezzotta, 1999, 2001).
Across the Canal de Mozambique, which is part of the Indian Ocean,
in Mozambique, REE-bearing pegmatites are still common as shown by
the REE–U pegmatites of the Mavusi, Tete Province, Mozambique, locat-
ed in a syenitic and gabbroic environment. Uranium and LREE are ac-
commodated in a typical refractory mineral davidite-(La). In the
Marropino deposit, Alto Ligonha Province, (REE–Bi)–Li–F–Be–Nb/Ta
pegmatites have been reported by Schappmann (2005). Rare earth ele-
ments are present although of subordinate quantity in the Alto Ligonha
Province in a series of (U–Th–REE)–Be–Nb–Ta–Li pegmatites (spodu-
mene–lepidolite) which were emplaced during the waning phases of
the Pan-African Deformation (Dias and Wilson, 2000; Schäfer and Arlt,
2000; Thomas and Davidson, 2010). Heading further north along the
Pan-African Metallotect no outstanding REE concentrations can be re-
ported anymore. Minor amounts of REE are also found in the Kobokobo
(B–Sn–REE–Li–As–Th)–P–U–Be–Nb pegmatite, DR Congo (Safiannikoff
and van Wambeke, 1967; Van Wambeke, 1987).
On the opposite side of today's Africa, the Etiro (Cs–REE–Bi–B–Li–
Nb/Ta)–P pegmatite, in the Karibib District, of the Erongo Region,
Namibia, bears monazite (von Bezing et al., 2008) (Bi)–Nb–Ta–Sn–
Be–Li–P pegmatite (LiS − LiP). At Odegi, Nigeria, in the Afu Hills
(Th–Sn–Nb/Ta)–REE pegmatites (LREE-carbonate N LREE phosphate)
characterized by a strong albitization occur (Styles and Young, 1983).
The REE hosts are bastnaesite-(Ce), bastnaesite-(La), cerianite-(Ce),
fluocerite-(Ce) and monazite-(Ce). The location cannot precisely been
given and the age relation only constrained by the chemical composi-
tion which points to an affiliation with the anorogenic Younger Gran-
ites. They were intruded during the Jurassic into the Precambrian
gneiss–migmatite complex in the course of the incipient spreading of
the Atlantic Ocean or more precisely as the rifting in the Benue Trough
took place (Mücke and Neumann, 2006; Woolley, 2001a,b). Crossing
into eastern Brazil means that the wheel has come to full circle in the
southern Gondwanaland as to the emplacement of pegmatites (Fig. 3).
474 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
4.3.5. REE pegmatites in the Brazilian Shield
In the Conselheiro Pena District the (Be–P–Sn–REE)–Nb/Ta–Li–B peg-
matites (Li silicate) also contain a REE mineral assemblage (Wilson,
2012). The current data indicate that all rare element pegmatites in the
eastern provinces are of Brasiliano age, i.e., formed between 600 and
480 Ma, which is contemporaneous with the Pan-African Orogeny in
Africa, mentioned above in Section 4.3.4 (Morteani et al., 2000). Bastos
Neto et al. (2009) investigated a complex deposit which indicates that
these A-type mineralizations hosting REE are not confined to the Pan-
African or Brasiliano but have their onset much earlier around 1880 Ma.
The Madeira deposit, in the Pitinga mining district, Amazonas State,
Brazil is characterized by an association of Sn with cryolite, Nb, Ta (Y,
REE, Li, Zr, U, and Th) in an albite-enriched granite that hosts a massive
cryolite deposit. REE concentrations with xenotime are reported from
the pegmatitic zones. Yttrium and REE mineralization includes
gagarinite-(Y), with fluocerite-(Ce) inclusions that formed by exsolution
of the early gagarinite.
4.3.6. Zr pegmatites
Zircon is a common accessory mineral in metamorphic, magmatic and
even sedimentary rocks, where it appears in significant amounts on ac-
count of its resistance to hypogene and supergene alteration, and even
contributes to placer deposits of economic grade. In pegmatites it is not
ubiquitous, but warrants mentioning for its diagnostic value when it
comes to the origin of its host rocks (Fig. 14b, c., d). Pegmatite samples
from calk alkaline and alkaline pegmatites show an almost isometric
morphology, some are bipyramidal. The darkest almost black varieties
of zircon are most strongly enriched in U, Th and REE (Fig. 14d).
The Strange Lake pegmatite, Canada, is a (Li–Zn–Th–F–Nb–Ta)–Be–
REE–Zr pegmatite–aplite formed in an alkaline magmatic province in
Canada (Miller, 1990, 1996; Salvi and Williams-Jones, 1995; Kerr,
2010; Kerr and Rafuse, 2012). Gysi and Williams-Jones (2013) provided
a hydrothermal mobilization model to elucidate the fluid–rock interac-
tion in the peralkaline granitic systems and provide and a clue to the
concentration of REE and Zr. Many of the pegmatites are zoned into a
border zone consisting primarily of K-feldspar, arfvedsonite, quartz,
and zirconosilicates, and a core rich in quartz, fluorite and some exotic
REE minerals. The primary silicate minerals in the pegmatites were re-
placed during acidic alteration by K-, Fe- and Al-phyllosilicates, aegirite,
hematite, fluorite and/or quartz. Primary zirconosilicates (e.g., elpidite)
were replaced by gittinsite and/or zircon. Secondary REE-silicates indi-
cate hydrothermal mobilization of the REE. Hydrothermal fluorite and
fluorite–fluocerite-(Ce) s.s.s. are interpreted to indicate the former
presence of F-bearing saline fluids in the pegmatites. Mobilization of
Zr took place at rather low temperatures around 250 °C, whereas the
REEs were mobilized by saline HCl-bearing fluids at higher tempera-
tures around 400 °C. The authors claim as a key requirement for REE
and Zr mobilization in peralkaline igneous intrusions the formation of
an acidic subsystem with high fluid/rock ratios that increases the over-
all permeability of the rocks. This alkaline mantle-derived magmatic
system does not only assist in a better understanding of the simulta-
neous precipitation of Zr and REE in such a pegmatite, it also sheds
some light on the concentration of fluorine (Section 4.5.2.1). There are
numerous examples revealing the concentration of Be, REE, Ti, Ta, Nb,
Zr and Hf in peralkaline magmatic rocks, e.g., Lovozero and Chibina,
Russia, Mont Saint-Hilaire, Canada, and Ilímaussaq in South Greenland,
as shown in the review by Dill (2010). In the case of peralkaline
miaskitic rocks Zr and Hf are incorporated in minerals like zircon,
sphene and ilmenite, whereas in agpaitic varieties, these elements
form complex Na-(Zr, Ti)-silicates. Zircon concentrations are known
from the nepheline syenite pegmatites in the southern part of Seiland
Island, Norway and from Mwanza, Malawi, which also belongs to the al-
kaline magmatic province in Eastern Africa. Bjørlykke (1934, 1937) was
among the first to study the Swedish and Norwegian pegmatites which
concentrated Zr and REE mineral during the initial phase of their
emplacement.
The world's largest laccolitic alkaline magmatic complex at Lovozero,
Russia, has revealed an extraordinary mineral association and lithology. Dur-
ing the Paleozoic, alkaline magmatic rocks intruded during a multistage pro-
cess garnet–biotite–gneisses: (1) nepheline syenite, (2) rhythmites of
alternating urtites, foyaites and lujavrites, (3) eudialyte lujavrite which
were intruded into older rocks, (4) lamprophyre dykes. Nb ore occurs in
seams of varying thickness and made up of loparite overlying pyrochlore
ore. The mineral assemblage includes among others loparite (Nb–Ta–REE pe-
rovskite), murmanite (alteration product of lomonosovite), lomonosovite,
eudialyte, lorenzenite and pyrochlore (Chakhmouradian and Sitnikova,
1999; Chakhmouradian and Mitchell, 2002; Pekov, 2000). There are various
pegmatites such as Yubileinaya pegmatite, No. 61 pegmatite and the Palitra
pegmatite (Pekov, 2005). Niobium is accumulated in the agpaitic nepheline
syenite (7 Mt of metals), tantalum is concentrated in loparite layers in the
agpaitic layered intrusion (80,000 t grade 500 ppm Ta), while zirconium is
accumulated in the eudialyte-rich layers in agpaitic syenites and their peg-
matites (210 Mt of metals, grade 1% Zr) (Kogarko, 1987).
Within the 1.13-Ga-old Ilímaussaq intrusive complex, a magmatic as-
semblage of titanomagnetite + apatite + ilmenite not very much different
from that of the aforementioned Fe–Ti–V deposits occurs in augite syenites.
In these Al- and Si-undersaturated (agpaitic) magmatic rocks Zr, Ti, Nb, P
and REE are strongly enriched and Ti is accommodated in the lattice of rath-
er complex silicates such as neptunite, murmanite, epistolite and rinkite
(Ferguson, 1964). Apart from Zr, Nb and REE concentrations, the Ilímaussaq
intrusion, Greenland–Denmark, is famous for its U and Th enrichments with
monazite, pyrochlore and eudialyte as the main ore minerals. At Ilímaussaq
in Greenland among others eudialyte, steenstrupin and mosandrite are
common constituents of the alkaline magmatic rocks. These alkaline Zr-
enriched melts have been derived by extreme fractionation processes in al-
kali basaltic or nephelinitic magmas. Two groups of peralkaline magmatic
rocks (molar (Na + K)/Al N 1) are known, both characterized by exception-
ally high contents of incompatible elements like Be, Rb, REE, Ti, Ta Nb, Zr and
Hf. In the case of peralkaline miaskitic rocks Zr and Hf are incorporated in
minerals like zircon, sphene and ilmenite, whereas in agpaitic varieties,
these elements form complex Na–(Zr, Ti)–silicates. Various pegmatites
are known such as the Lilleelv pegmatite, the hiortdahlite-bearing pegma-
tite at Tuperssuatsiat Bay and the Narsaq River pegmatite (Robles et al.,
2001; Matsubara et al., 2001). Zirconium in eudialyte-rich layers in
agpaitic syenites totals 38 Mt grading 1.1% Zr (Laznicka, 2014).
Zircon mineralization was described from the (Sn–As/Zn–Zr)–Tb/
Nb–U–B–Be–P pegmatites Mount Mica, USA by Brownfield et al.
(1993) which is the reference type of kosnarite, [KZr2(PO4)3] and also
the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, where a Zr-phosphate-
silicate mineralization came into existence besides zircon, an accessory
mineral to many pegmatites (Dill et al., 2008a). Textural observations
suggest that both the K–Ba–Zr phosphate and the Sc–Zr phosphate(–sil-
icate) found at Trutzhofmühle, a satellite aplite of the Hagendorf–
Pleystein Pegmatite Province, are magmatic high-temperature phases.
Neither pegmatite is located in a peralkaline intrusion which used to
have originated from mantle intrusions. Nevertheless a subcrustal im-
pact on the pegmatite system under consideration during the initial
stages of its evolution cannot be ruled out for the phosphate pegmatites
in Germany as well as northeastern USA.
4.3.7. Synopsis of REE and Zr pegmatites
REE pegmatites more than Be pegmatites are a manifesto for the in-
fluence of subcrustal magmatic activity (Fig. 6b). In ensialic orogens,
they mark the deep-seated sutures and extended thrustal zones but
they are not part of the genuine ensialic pegmatites. In the Alpine
Mountain Chain, REE in pegmatites do not occur as reworked entities
from adjacent Variscan terrains but used to be a marker of plate bound-
aries being lined up along the Insubrian Line and its parasite faults. Tak-
ing a closer look at the element associations with Nb, Ta, Y, F, Be, Zr, Th,
Ti and P in mineral deposits dominated by REE and the typical litholog-
ical and geodynamic setting reveals a few magmatic environments
where they used to be concentrated throughout the earth's history
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
(Dill, 2010). It is prevalently the carbonatites (24a E), the alkaline igne-
ous complexes (24b E), and alkaline intrusive rocks (nepheline syenite)
(24d E), and to a lesser extent the hydrothermal iron deposits (24c EF).
The REE-bearing pegmatites are transitional into intragranitic deposits
with Mo–W–U–Be (24a D).
The distribution of carbonatites in Africa is illustrated in Fig. 13. On
comparison plate mosaic in Fig. 3 and the distribution of Be-bearing
gemstones in pegmatites (Fig. 10a) with these mantle-derived magmat-
ic rocks constituting an ancient triple junction in southern Africa a coin-
cidence of REE pegmatites and magmatic rocks of mantle affiliation
cannot be denied (Bosse et al., 1996).
Zirconium-bearing pegmatites are closely related to mantle-derived
magmatic intrusions. They are also enriched in REE, F and Ti and giving
rise not unexpectedly to a series of rare exotic mineral phases. Even in
the pegmatites typical of crustal origin such as the Li- and P-bearing
pegmatites such subordinate mineral assemblages with Zr and REE
can be recognized during the incipient stages of pegmatite formation
and considered to be indicative of a subcrustal influence on the compo-
sition of pegmatites otherwise dominated by elements of crustal origin.
4.4. Uranium–thorium pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (24 DE + 26 DE)
The two radioactive elements uranium and thorium are ranked very
high among those elements well-known for their great variety of miner-
al deposits, particularly in magmatic host rocks (Dill, 2010) (Table 5).
The most common ore mineral in U deposits is uraninite and its
collomorphous variety called pitchblende. Thorianite is the Th-bearing
analogue among these U–Th oxides. Uranium and thorium silicates
also count among the so-called “black ore minerals” which predomi-
nantly accommodate tretravalent uranium in their lattice (Fig. 15). It
is coffinite [U(SiO4)0.9(OH)0.4], thorogummite [Th(SiO4)0.9(OH)0.4] and
thorite [ThSiO4] which make up this group of U–Th minerals. Uranium
and thorium titanates such as brannerite, thorutite and davidite are
very complex chemical compounds, accommodating U in its tetravalent
state and, in places, also REE in their lattice so that they may also be
grouped under the header “U black ore minerals”. They are also called
refractory radioactive minerals because processing of these minerals is
often fraught with difficulties and deposits dominated by these min-
erals, such as some pegmatites, are not high up on the list of exploration
targets among U companies.
Another category of U minerals is called as “uranium yellow ore”
made up of uranyl complexes with hexavalent uranium and a wide va-
riety of hydroxyl groups and anion complexes mainly phosphate-,
vanadate-, and arsenate which may show up in uraniferous pegmatites
dependent upon the accompanying elements precipitated during the
previous stages of the pegmatite formation (Fig. 15b).
Thorianite and Th-enriched uraninite are common constituents in
pegmatite-hosted and intragranitic U–Th deposits, whereas colloform
pitchblende is rare. For a long time the integration of Th into its uranium
analogues, has been known to be closely related to the temperature of for-
mation of the uranium black ore minerals (Ramdohr, 1975). While the
common U silicate coffinite is widespread in vein-type and sandstone-
hosted deposits, its Th-bearing analogues thorutite and thorite prefer sy-
enites and pegmatites genetically related to these magmatic rocks. This
chemical variation in U black ore minerals, which has significant implica-
tion on the geological positioning of pegmatite-hosted U- and Th deposits
becomes more apparent among the U–Ti compounds some of which are
almost exclusively restricted to alkaline igneous rocks and their pegmatit-
ic satellite deposits, e.g., davidite La0.7Ce0.2Ca0.1Y0.75U0.25Ti15Fe3+5O38 (3%
U) or dessauite Sr0.75Pb0.25Y0.7U0.3Ti15Fe3+5O38 (4% U). The uranium con-
tents and the moderate LREE contents both render these black ore min-
erals not very attractive in search of U- or REE deposits, particularly in
view of their refractory character. This can also be applied to some min-
erals well known from pegmatite-hosted REE deposits, whose U contents
are listed below in decreasing order of abundance: xenotime YPO4
(6630 ppm U), zircon ZrSiO4 (1367 ppm U), monazite (Ce,La,Y,Th)PO4
475
(820 ppm U), sphene CaTiSiO5 (196 ppm U), orthite (Ca,Fe) (REE,
Al,Fe)3 Si3O12(OH) (180 ppm U) (Fig. 15c, d).
4.4.1. U–Th plutonic pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect
Although being of very widespread occurrence in the European
Variscides, uranium is not an element typical of pegmatites and found
more often in vein-type deposits cutting through the basement rocks
and locally also extending into the foreland sediments. The Polish part
of the European Variscides, being located at the eastern fringe of the Bo-
hemian Massif is particularly enriched in REE-bearing Th–U pegmatites.
In the Karkonosze Granite at Markocice near Bogatynia, in the meta-
morphic wall rocks of the aforementioned granite, REE–U–Th pegma-
tites, called metasomatic syenites occur (Mochnacka and Banas,
2000). Mineralogists will be happy about the outstanding mineral as-
semblage including monazite, thorite, cheralite, grayite, huttonite,
ningyoite, voglite, thorogummite accompanied by various sulfides, but
engineers who have to seek for techniques to recover the economic el-
ements will not share this enthusiasm. Kucha (1980) reported ThO2
contents of 56.4–69.9 wt.% from the huttonitic monazite-(Ce), which
lies between ThSiO4 and CePO4. In the Fore-Sudetic Block rare metal-
bearing pegmatite veins are known from the Szklary serpentinite massif
P–U–REE–Be–Nb/Ta which is also host of uraninite (Pieczka, 2000). The
age of the Gory Sowie pegmatites was dated to 370 ± 14 Ma (Van
Breemen et al., 1988). This value is slightly lower than that obtained
for the uraninite from Szklary (Pieczka, 2000). The emplacement of
these Th–U pegmatites is unrelated to the collisional event of the Cen-
tral European Variscides during the Permo-Carboniferous and reflects
the intensive splitting apart into various terranes in this zone of the
Variscides (Quenardel et al., 1988). The Gory Sowie ultrabasic igneous
rocks part of a dismembered ophiolite sequence are a suspected alloch-
thonous terrane which was obducted onto the Central Sudetes before
the Upper Devonian. It is a good match with the age information given
above. The genetic linkage between pegmatite and the geodynamic set-
ting cannot yet precisely been established and one can only suspect of a
link between Th-bearing pegmatites and fracturation and/or thrusting.
In the Hagendorf-South, Hagendorf-North and Kreuzberg pegmatite at
Pleystein well-shape octahedral (prevailing crystal morphology) urani-
nite is found intergrown with columbite-(Fe) (Fig. 15a). Uraninite from
the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Germany, stands out from
the numerous uranium oxides determined in the vein-type U deposits
by its particular intergrowth. These crystal aggregates may be quoted as
an example of epitactical or law-like overgrowth of octahedral, dodecahe-
dral and cubic uraninite onto Nb–Ta oxides (Strunz, 1962). Its crystal mor-
phology and lattice parameters attest to a high-temperature precipitation.
It is totally different from the Polish examples described above, in terms of
mineral chemistry and its accompanying minerals and placed rather cen-
tral within the Central European Variscides. To come to the point, the peg-
matite system of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province is, being
looked at from a geodynamically angle, part of a collisional event, yet at
a distal position and sitting just on top of the root zone of a nappe pile.
The Albera pegmatite has been addressed in Section 4.2.2 in the
scope of Be pegmatites and mentioned here again for its minor U min-
eralization related to an anatectic muscovite–biotite leucogranites
(Malló et al., 1995). It is a Variscan pegmatite mineralization in a central
ancient massif surrounded by a series of rocks submitted to Alpine de-
formation. Uranium in pegmatites obviously preserved its primary hall-
marks adopted during the Variscan orogeny even under subsequent
tectono-metamorphic overprinting (Fig. 6b).
4.4.2. U–Th pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa
Several of the pegmatites on the Isle of Madagascar were also
explored for their uranium contents — see also Section 4.3.4 for REE
and Section 4.2.3 for Be (Burret, 1988). Burret (1988) recorded
uraniferous pegmatites from around Ampangabe, Ambatohasana and
Ambatofotsikely with betafite and pyrochlore-group minerals. It is not
one of the common black ore uranium minerals mentioned in the initial
476 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
paragraph of this section but this betafite averages 12–15% of U3O8. This
particular mineral association stands for about 50% of Madagascar's
total uranium production. The author grouped the uraniferous pegma-
tites into (Be)–Nb/Ta–U–Th pegmatites. The predominant mica belongs
to the biotite s.s.s. in this group of U–Th pegmatites. The second type
may be described following the CMS classification as Be–U–Th pegma-
tite, where muscovite prevails over biotite among the mica minerals
present in the pegmatite. Such rather primitive biotite pegmatites are
also known from elsewhere in the world in crystalline rocks with silli-
manite, cordierite and biotite, e.g., around the Hagendorf–Pleystein Peg-
matite Province. Next to these biotite pegmatites two lithologies, very
much different from each other and strongly contrasting with these bi-
otite pegmatites can be found. It is a series of gabbroic, dioritic to grano-
dioritic rocks mostly occurring in dikes and skarn-type mineral
assemblages with mainly grossularite, diopside–hedenbergite, vesuvi-
anite, zoisite and scheelite. In subordinate amount wollastonite has
been proven. Apart from the high-temperature alteration indicated by
wollastonite, the mafic to intermediate intrusive rocks attest to a deep
subcrustal source.
Pezzotta gave a short note on what he called alkaline skarns and
urano-thorianite mineralization in Southern Madagascar (Pezzotta
and Simmons, 2001). Presumably, the mineralization took place along
shear zones intersecting granulite-facies crystalline basement to
the south of the Ranotsara–Bongolava Shear Zone, Madagascar. The lith-
ological setting shows a contact of undeformed alkaline magmatic
intrusions in association with carbonate-bearing and pyroxenitic meta-
morphic rocks. The “alkaline skarns” frequently take on a pegmatitic
grain size accompanied by an exceptional concentration of minerals
like phlogopite, diopside, scapolite, titanite, andradite, thorianite, zir-
con, apatite, spinel, and many others, including locally corundum varie-
ties, hibonite, sapphirine, kornerupine, and grandidierite. Although the
exotic enrichment of U–Th is far from being convincingly explained as
to its origin, hypotheses such as a pegmatite-related pneumatolitic
melting of marbles have been put forward. These mineral assemblages
formed during metamorphism at temperatures exceeding 850 °C and
a pressure of 7 to 8 kbar (about 20 km deep in the crust), during the lat-
est stages of the Pan-African uplift and cooling down about 490 Ma ago
(Rakotondrazafy et al., 1997).
The Ntebeni pegmatite, in Mashonaland, East Zimbabwe is a (Zr)–U–
Th pegmatite with thorite, uranothorite and zircon (Gallagher, 1967).
The most prominent pegmatitic to intragranitic U deposit in Africa
lies in Namibia, in the Rössing Hills near Swakopmund (Fig. 16). The
ore deposit is located within the high-grade metamorphic rocks of the
Damara Orogen. Masberg et al. (1992) attributed the regional metamor-
phism in the central Damara Orogen to the granulite facies of low-
pressure type. The resultant metamorphic rocks were intruded by gran-
ites. The low-grade-large-tonnage U deposit is characterized by a wide-
ly concordant layering of U-bearing pegmatites, aplites and pegmatitic
granites, the latter attributed to the alaskitic clan by Berning (1986),
Nex and Kinnaird (1995), Basson and Greenway (2004) and Kinnaird
and Nex (2007). At the contact of the alaskite to its wall rocks a con-
tact-metamorphic aureole may be observed which is indicative of a
temperature disequilibrium and the presence of a melt phase that has
been intruded into the metamorphic basement of the Damara Province.
This crustal section of south-western Africa was studied in great detail
by Tankard et al. (1982), who took this crustal section as a reference
for an ensialic mobile fold, which is characterized by nappe stacking a
setting very much different from what we know of the classical Wilson
Cycle Concept. Based upon the minerals known from the deposit, it may
be classified as a (F–P–As–Mo–W)–Th–REE–U pegmatite. Despite its
abundance in REE minerals, uraninite makes up 50% of the minerals
from which U is recovered. Another 45% derive from yellow U ore min-
erals and a minor amount from betafite, which is predominantly
enriched in sheeted leucogranites. The uraniferous pegmatitic
leucogranites are held to be bound to A-type magmatism. The
uraniferous pyrochlore is closely linked to basic rocks magmatic in
origin, such as Nb- and Ti-bearing amphibolites of the Rössing Forma-
tion or metacarbonates.
Another ore-controlling factor may be envisaged to have exerted by
the structural setting in that antiforms with amphibolites and marbles
to pond the rising fluids from escape. Uraniferous betafite is 500 Ma in
age and the mineral association another example for a Pan-African
late-kinematic emplacement of pegmatites. The question still waits an
answer whether the melt is totally derived from a subcrustal source or
whether the pegmatitic granites have scavenged elements from sedi-
mentary and magmatic crustal rocks abundant in U, Th and REE
(protore, or low-metal preconcentration).
As shown for some pegmatites from Central Europe by Dill (2015)
the emplacement is neither a mono-phase process nor have they been
fed by one source only. The chemical composition is simply a mirror
image to what extent crustal and subcrustal processes were accountable
for the pegmatitization. Metamorphosed alaskitic rocks elsewhere, such
as at Charlebois–North Athabasca basin, Canada and Johan Beetz in the
Greenville province of Quebec, Canada undercut grade and tonnage of
Rössing, Namibia and today held as uneconomic.
4.4.3. U–Th pegmatites in South and North America
A series of A-type granites were intruded during the Carboniferous in
NW Argentina in the pro-Andean foreland. Although being quite rich in
Th and some of them also in REE no enrichment to economic grade
took place (Dahlquist et al., 2010). Uraniferous pegmatites are found
also in the Comechingones Pegmatitic field (CPF) is located in the south-
eastern Pampean Pegmatitic Province, in the northwestern Sierra de
Comechingones, Córdoba province, NW Argentina (Galliski, 1994a,b,
1999) It is composed of several Be–Nb–Ta–P–U-rich pegmatites. Accord-
ing to Demartis (2010) the pegmatites from the southern CPF developed
in a P–T regime of 500 MPa and 600–700 °C. In Brazil, Th-bearing pegma-
tites are known in the States of Bahia, Minas Gerais and Goias but the top
scorer, albeit of subcrustal origin, is a non-pegmatitic deposits. The alka-
line intrusion at Araxá has Th associated with pyrochlore.
A classical example cited as a pegmatite-hosted uranium deposit lies
in the Bancroft area in Ontario, Canada (Goad, 1990). Uraninite and
other uranium–thorium minerals were accumulated in sheared simple
granitic pegmatites, pegmatitic granites, and syenitic pegmatite that
are conformably intercalated with metagabbro, amphibolite, amphibole
gneiss, and biotite gneiss. They were metamorphosed to the amphibo-
lite grade of regional metamorphism. Metasomatic processes and defor-
mation are post-metamorphic. The grade of this uraniferous pegmatite
stands at 800 ppm U. A similar site with uraniferous pegmatites is at
Campbell Island, Canada.
4.4.4. Synopsis of U–Th pegmatites
Rare metal pegmatites such as Greenbushes, Australia, (6–20 ppm U
and 3–25 ppm Th, IAEA, 2009) average higher contents of radioactive el-
ements than granites, but do not qualify generally as uranium or thori-
um deposits. Uranium and thorium in pegmatites is rather seldom
enriched to economic grade and the number of U–Th-bearing pegma-
tites trail far behind the number of Sn-, Li-, Nb/Ta- and Be-bearing peg-
matites mined for the aforementioned commodities be it for the
recovery of the element itself or for gemstones accommodating Li or
Be in their structures. There is a close link between A-type or mantle-
derived alkaline magmatic rocks like Palabora, South Africa, Ilimaussaq,
Greenland and the intraintrusive-pegmatitic rocks at Rössing. The more
Th and REE dominate the element composition of uraniferous pegma-
tites the more evident it becomes that a strong interference with sub-
crustal material has taken place. Thorium and REE-poor or -free
element associations are less likely to have a direct connection with a
subcrustal source and used to be uneconomic as to the elements in
question. Basic rocks of the sedimentary and magmatic realms or their
metamorphic analogues, when being involved in the concentration of
these elements have not only a physical effect of ponding rising fluids
but also may be involved chemically. They behave as marker lithologies
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
for that involvement or they stand out as a skarn deposits related in
time and space with the pegmatites. With respect to the derivation of
the melt producing a pegmatite and as to the involvement of basic coun-
try rocks in the make-up of the final composition of a pegmatites, a clos-
er look at the petrological and tectonic criteria offered by Rogers et al.
(1978) may shed some light on these enigmatic issues.
Discrimination based upon the Th/U ratios and initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios
enable us to split up the group of pegmatitic deposits. Th/U ratios below
1 combined with high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios suggest anatectic and
migmatitic processes to have predominated in the formation of the
uraniferous pegmatites such as at Rössing, Namibia, and Bancroft,
Canada (Table 5). Remobilization of crustal material with a uranium-
low-metal concentration can be taken accountable as a source for
these uraniferous pegmatites while normal alaskites elsewhere are in-
fertile. Metasedimentary terrains with abundant pelites have uranium
contents well above Clarke values, and therefore can account for a peg-
matitic uranium concentration or an intrusive-related U deposit.
Th/U ratios greater than 1 along with low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios are
common to sodium-enriched post-tectonic intrusive rocks such as al-
bite–riebeckite granites which have derived directly from a lower or
subcrustal level (Table 5).
Between syngenetic disseminations of uranium and thorium min-
erals found in alkaline igneous rocks such as Ilimaussaq, Greenland,
Pocos de Caldas, Brazil, and carbonatites, like Oka, Canada and Araxa,
Brazil, on one side and the pegmatitic and intragranitic analogues at
Rössing on the other, no sharp boundaries exist when these rocks are
viewed with respect to their geodynamic setting and their processes
of formation. Processes like albitization and contact-metasomatic pro-
cesses in metacarbonates and ultrabasic igneous rocks, such as pyroxe-
nite skarn, e.g., Madagascar, Bancroft-Canada and Rössing put the world
in a different light (Satterly, 1957; Berning et al., 1976).
A comparison between the U–REE–Nb–Zr deposit at Bokan Moun-
tain in the Jurassic Bokan Mountain peralkaline ring-dike intrusive
complex and the Rössing pegmatite is carried out to highlight the com-
mon items and differences as a function of geodynamic positioning. The
U–Th mineralization is associated with intense albitization and
chloritization (calcite, fluorite, quartz, sulfides, tourmaline, hematite).
Uranothorite and uraninite are the main ore minerals (Philpotts et al.,
1998; Dostal et al., 2011). For equivalent features at Rössing, Namibia,
see Section 4.4.2.
At the end of this discussion, another issue is addressed in this study
upon pegmatites, to what extent these rocks play a role as some kind of
a subeconomic protore for different types of economic uranium
deposits. Annesley et al. (2010) investigated mineralized granitic
pegmatites/leucogranites which occur within the contact zone
between Wollaston Group metasediments and underlying Achaean
orthogneisses in the Athabascan basin, Canada. Apart from the typical
rock-forming minerals of pegmatites they also contain subordinate
amounts of apatite, monazite, allanite, U-rich zircon uraninite–
uranothorite–thorite, and ilmenite. Age dating yielded 1770 ± 90 Ma
for the pegmatite and gave some younger age clusters. The younger
age data point to a post-Athabascan alteration of these granitic pegma-
tites during which these felsic rocks have provided U for the renowned
unconformity-type uranium mineralization in the region.
4.5. Fluorine-boron pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (32 DE + 30 D)
It is a classical theory that was put forward by Daubrée (1841) to ex-
plain the precipitation of cassiterite in greisen-type Sn deposits or gra-
nitic pegmatites
–SnF4 þ 2H2 O≫SnO2 þ 4H F
–SiF4 þ 2H2 O≫SiO2 þ 4HF:
As an alternative boron can take the place of fluorine in the magmat-
ic environment.
477
Despite this prominent role of boron and fluorine in the granit-
oids, conceded by Daubrée (1841) and his contemporaries, these
felsic intrusive rocks are not the first choice in search of boron as a
raw material.
There is a wide spectrum of Na borates (playa lakes in the USA,
Turkey, Argentina), Na–Ca borates (playa lakes in Chile, Peru, USA,
Turkey, Argentine), Ca borates (USA, Turkey, Russia) and Mg borates
(China, Turkey, Permian salt deposits in Europe) which are confined
to boron (borate) deposits sensu stricto in (volcano) sedimentary
environments where the elemental boron is used to be recovered
from (Helvaci and Alonso, 2000). In addition to these borates, a
group of boron silicates exists whose members resist supergene
and hypogene alteration and found frequently in granites where
they got continuously enriched during the evolution of granitic
magmas and finally concentrated within the apical parts of
peraluminous granites, greisens and granitic pegmatites (Trumbull
and Chaussidon, 1999; Thomas et al., 2003). The hardness combined
with a wide range of hues and shades render some members of these
boron silicates, particularly of the tourmaline s.s.s. very attractive as
gemstones (rubellite: red to pink, indigolite: green, Paraiba tourma-
line/elbaite: blue, watermelon tourmaline: zoned tourmaline,
dravite: brown, schorl: black, achroite: colorless). A generic formula
for the tourmaline s.s.s. is X1 Y3 Al6 B3 Si6 (OH)4 with X = Na and/or
Ca and Y = Mg, Li, Al, and/or Fe2 + (Fig. 17a, b, c, d, e). For more infor-
mation on the crystallographic part and classification of tourmalines
the reader is referred to Novák and Kadlec (2010) and Novák et al.
(2004, 2011). Some boron-bearing minerals are looked for mainly
by small-scale miners in pegmatites, granitic pegmatites, and
contact-metasomatic rocks related to pegmatitization, such as
skarns and presented in Table 6.
What has been discussed above as to the economic geology of
boron can also be applied sensu lato to fluorine. The element fluorine
is concentrated by fractional crystallization during the latest stages of
granite emplacement and similar to its associate boron enriched in
the apical part of the most strongly differentiated so-called “Tin
Granites”. It is rarely the mineral fluorite and normally the mineral
topaz which shows up in this environment. Apart from this
alumosilicate, fluorine used to be accommodated also in the mica-
group sheet silicates and in apatite where it substitutes for the hydrox-
yl group and as far as the phosphate is concerned also for chlorine and
the carbonate. Fluorite is the only F-bearing mineral currently
exploited on a commercial basis from a wide-range of structure-
related F deposits and sedimentary F deposits, whereas fluorine as a
by-product of mining phosphorites is only a reserve to be used by
future generations (Dill, 2010). But there are also some magmatic
deposits, such a volcanic-hosted F–U–Mo deposits, granite-related
Be–Nb–Ta–fluorite deposits, in places with skarn deposits where
fluorine can be won. Granites and granitic pegmatites may give rise
to topaz in miaroles which achieve gemstone quality similar to their
analogues on the boron part.
What renders fluorine strikingly different from boron is the close
link of fluorite deposits to U–REE carbonatites and alkaline intrusive
rocks as shown by different sites across the globe: Amba-Dongar in Gu-
jarat State, India, Okurusu, Namibia Mountain Pass, USA, Speewah,
Australia, and Rock Canyon Creek, Canada. Of particular interest for
mineralogists, the metasomatic cryolite deposits in Greenland have to
be referred to in this place for its close relationship to metasomatic A-
type pegmatites. These mineral assemblages are known from Greenland
and the northern rim of the Brazilian Shield, yet not at recoverable grade
(anymore). In Ivigtut, Greenland, apart from cryolite, base metal sul-
fides were recorded in remarkable concentrations from the rime of
the pegmatite (Bailey, 1980; Pauly, 1992; Petersen and Secher, 1993).
It has to be noted that this high-temperature sulfide mineral assem-
blage with Fe-enriched sphalerite can also be found elsewhere in calc-
alkaline phosphate pegmatites, such as Hagendorf-South and Pleystein,
Germany.
478 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Boron and fluorine in pegmatites might take on the role as a marker
element to discriminate between different geodynamical settings. Can
fluorine and boron also be used to constrain crustal and subcrustal der-
ivations of pegmatites?
4.5.1. F–B pegmatites in the Variscan metallotect
Fluorine and boron-bearing pegmatites are confined in the Central
European Variscides to the Saxo-Thuringian Zone, or in geomorpholog-
ical terms, the Fichtelgebirge–Erzgebirge Anticline which straddles the
German–Czech border. From the geodynamic point of view this region
is most proximal to the frontal thrust or subfluence zone where conti-
nent–continent collision conduced to a thickening of the crust and
which later was exhumed and intruded by a huge volume of granitoids.
Weber (1978) proposed a subfluence model which may be regarded as a
plate tectonic model including the special features of an ensialic orogen —
see also Table 3 and Fig. 9f. The superimposed uplift and tectonic short-
ening leads to horizontal overthrusts and, in places, a stacked pile of
nappes. Subfluence in the Rhenohercynian zone is interpreted in connec-
tion with the movement of larger lithospheric plates which transgressed
the limits of the Rhenohercynian zone and the Subvariscan Foredeep.
This Central European region has already been treated when
discussing the Sn–W deposits of greisen- and pegmatite-types
(stockscheider) — Section 4.1.1. These rare metal deposits may be classi-
fied as granitic pegmatites (miarolitic) and to a lesser extent as pegma-
tite–aplites and pegmatoids (Dill, 2015). Five different groups can be
singled out according to the CMS classifications along the Fichtelgebir-
ge–Erzgebirge Anticline: (1) B-, (2) Be–B-, (3) Be–B–F–Li–Sn-, (4) Be–
F–B–Li–U- and (5) Sn–F–P–As (granite) pegmatites. In the Erzgebirge a
trend with increasing boron concentration in the granitic and pegmatitic
melts from E to W can be recognized. This chemical trend is mirrored also
in the secondary fluid inclusions of quartz from the granites.
Heading further south within the Bohemian Massif, into the
Moldanubian Zone of the Central European Variscides, perpendicular
to the strike of the geodynamic units, the boron content strongly in-
creases at the expense of fluorine whose minerals fluorite and topaz
gradually disappear from the mineral assemblages of the rare element
pegmatites (Fig. 2.1a).
Tracing the Saxo-Thuringian zone parallel to the strike of the
Variscides towards the West will get us through the Cornubian Ore
Field, Great Britain, where high-F topaz-bearing greisenized
leucogranites exist, into the Portuguese part of the Variscides on the
Iberian Peninsula (Fig. 2a). There, fluorine is incorporated into mica-
ceous sheet silicates, into topaz as well as some phosphates in a wide
range of aplitic and pegmatitic sills of the Guarda–Belmonte area, and
at Gonçalo and Segura, Portugal, in pegmatitic rocks which are
emplaced in two-mica-granites and muscovite granites intruded into
Cambrian schist-metagraywackes (Neiva et al., 2001; Neiva and
Ramos,2010). Tourmaline is present as accessory mineral in the afore-
mentioned pegmatites and aplites and moreover at Vidago, Portugal,
in aplite veins intersecting Silurian schists and metagraywackes. At
Paredes da Beira the pegmatite is located within a two-mica-granite
and muscovite granite intruded into Cambrian schist-metagraywackes
similar to the aforementioned examples (Neiva et al., 2001). Topaz
was also recorded from the Alvarrões Pegmatite, Central Portugal, and
the pegmatites of the Beauvoir Granite, France (Cheillelz et al., 1992;
Ramos et al., 1995; Charoy et al., 2003). Shifting our view to the inner
zone of the West-European Variscides reveals for some pegmatites a
striking difference when compared with the outer zone.
The Cap de Creus pegmatite region, Spain, is located at the eastern
end of the Pyrenees and belongs to the deepest zone of the Variscides
in the region (Carreras et al., 1975; Melgarejo et al., 1990; Alfonso and
Melgarejo, 2000). Its country rocks can be attributed to three different
facies zones with regard to the regional metamorphism, arranged in
order of increasing metamorphic grade: (1) greenschist facies, (2) am-
phibolite facies, and (3) cordierite–sillimanite facies. Metamorphic
rocks of the highest metamorphic grade are intruded by granodiorites
and gave host to tabular pegmatites. Tourmaline s.s.s. encompasses
dravite, schorl, in parts present as rubellite variety, while fluorine is
only present as fluorite. In the pegmatite deposits of the Sierra Morena
around Córdoba, in Andalusia, Spain, fluorite is the F-bearing mineral
(Garrote et al., 1980; Ortega Huertas et al., 1982).
By and large, the B/F ratio increases from the external zone towards
the internal parts of the ensialic orogen, opposite to the thrustal move-
ment. The fluorine contents in the pegmatites go down to almost nil in
what might be considered as the root zone of the nappes.
Judging by the mineral assemblages observed in the Austrian Alps
and Western Carpathian, boron plays only a moderate role and fluorine
can be neglected in the Older Variscan Massifs that were incorporated
into the modern Alpine fold belt.
4.5.2. F–B pegmatites in the Proterozoic metallotect in Africa and South
America
Boron is quite common in many pegmatites of the Precambrian
metallotects on the southern hemisphere, whereas fluorine is rather
scarcely distributed in what is known as Gondwana (Tables 7a, 7b,
Fig. 18a, b).
4.5.2.1. Fluorine in pegmatites. Only a few examples of F-enriched peg-
matites shall be discussed in this section. The early Proterozoic Volta
Grande pegmatite deposit in Minas Gerais, Brazil, operated for Sn and
Ta also contains F-bearing minerals such as fluorite, micaceous minerals.
Furthermore the deposit is the type locality of a rather complex F-
bearing Nb–Ta oxide of the microlite group, fluorcalciomicrolite [(Ca,
Na,□)2Ta2O6F] (Andrade et al., 2013). In the zoned (U–B–F–Be)–Ta/
Nb–Sn–Li pegmatite (spodumene–holmquistite–Li mica) high Rb con-
tents correlate with high F contents and can be interpreted in terms of
a metasomatic process (Quéméneur and Lagache, 1999). The (Be–F–
U–Bi–Pb–Zn–Cu–B–Sn)–Li–Nb/Ta–P pegmatites from the Borborema
Province, northeastern Brazil, also contain a moderate fluorite mineral-
ization (Beurlen, 1995; Beurlen et al., 2001, 2009, 2014). The age of for-
mation is Early Paleozoic, based upon the U/Pb data published by Araújo
et al. (2005) and Baumgartner et al. (2006) whose data plot in the range
523 ± 2.5 Ma to 494 ± 15 Ma. It has to be noted, that both provinces
lack topaz.
The Li–F–W–Sn pegmatites tabular and vein-type deposits described
in Section 4.1.3 from Bom Futuro, Brazil, are in stark contrast to these
types. These Li–F–W–Sn pegmatites are significantly older than the
Borborema pegmatites but younger than the Volta Grande pegmatite.
They contain topaz in a great variety of igneous host rocks and they are
bound to anorogenic granites. Students of the fluorite-bearing pegmatites
mentioned above are hard pressed to find a so-called “parental granite”, a
problem which many researchers are faced with dealing with pegmatites.
Concluding from the studies along the western edge of the Bohemi-
an Massif, Germany (Dill, 2015), the two main representative of fluorine
in pegmatites reflect two different phases in the evolution of these
rocks. Fluorite and to a lesser extent carlhintzeite [Ca2AlF7·H2O] and
pachnolite[NaCaAlF6·H2O] are secondary products, derived from the
decomposition of F-bearing phosphates, e.g. manganiferous apatite-
(F) and in some cases mica, e.g., lepidolite. Topaz, however, is a primary
mineral that predominates in most pegmatites derived from A-type
granites with Sn. In some particular cases it can be substituted for by
cryolite [Na3AlF6]. The second site which also brings topaz into exis-
tence is located within the shallow Variscan Granites in Central
Europe as pegmatites were emplaced in the frontal parts of the zone
of thrustal movements (Fig. 9f).
There are numerous topaz occurrences in remote areas in Pakistan,
Afghanistan and Brazil. Often the minerals are well described and treated
according to the up-to-date gemological methods but the lithological,
structural, and chronological setting is often very poorly known so that
we might expect an estimated number of unreported cases which might
force us to change one or the other facets of our picture on the positioning
of topaz-bearing pegmatites. Topaz mineralization at Shingus, Haramosh
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
and Stak Nala, east of Gilgit in the Haramosh Massif within the Indo-
Pakistan plate, and further E in the Dusso Nyit Bruk Mine in the Karakorum
Batholith within the Asian plate, Pakistan, may be some of the areas still
waiting for some more detailed field work (Menzies, 1995).
A different approach may be taken to interpret the concentration of
topaz in pegmatites and harness the numerous gemological data avail-
able on this gemstone to shed some light on the geological setting of
pegmatites. The Groote Spitzkopje biotite granite intruded during the
waning stages of the Damara orogeny about 530 Ma ago (Pan-African)
(Frindt, 2000). The pegmatite related to an A-type granite provided
specimens of world-class topaz. Gemological investigations of the
topaz by Cairncross et al. (1998) revealed refractive index values that
are somewhat lower, and specific gravity values that are slightly higher,
than those of topaz from similar deposits. The data obtained are more
appropriate to topaz from rhyolitic deposits than from pegmatites,
and apparently correspond to a higher fluorine content. This is not any-
thing spectacular if you take a closer look at the complex suite of A-type
lithologies at Bom Futuru across the Atlantic Ocean in Brazil, where
anorogenic topaz granite porphyry and topaz rhyolite occur side-by-
side. It attests to a rather shallow environment and opens up a connec-
tion to rocks discussed later in this review — see Section 6.
The latter section using the gemological data of topaz refers particular-
ly to a great number of topaz-bearing pegmatites in Brazil, Madagascar,
Namibia and Pakistan where the main sources of transparent colorless
and blue topaz are located. The imperial topaz continued to originate
from the Ouro Preto region of Minas Gerais in Brazil. Some of the most im-
portant topaz and fluorite occurrences in pegmatites operated for high-
quality topaz and suitable for such an approach were extracted from
Dill and Weber (2013), a gemological appendix to the “Chessboard Clas-
sification scheme of Mineral Deposits” and listed in Table 7a.
4.5.2.2. Boron in pegmatites. In Section 4.5.2.1 our view was directed to
topaz as a gemstone used on a commercial basis and as a potential gem-
ological marker for a lithological and geodynamic classification of
pegmatite deposits worldwide or to be more specific in “Terrae
incognitae” in South America, Asia and Africa. This applies all the more
so for most of the colored varieties of tourmaline and its gemological as-
sociates listed in Table 6, the gemmy material of which is found only
outside the Variscides (Section 4.5.1) mainly on the southern hemi-
sphere and East Asia (Table 7b, Fig. 19a, b). In Brazil, tourmaline pegma-
tites (schorl) or B pegmatites are also quarried as ornamental stones for
its peculiar structures which are in parts pegmatite-derived but also
caused by the integration of metamorphic xenoliths into the felsic
melt (Fig. 19b). In the tourmaline pegmatite at Taquaral, Brazil, a peg-
matite belonging to the Brasiliano Orogeny (ca. 500 Ma) fragments of
biotite–cordierite gneiss have been incorporated from the country
rocks and now float as slices within the felsic melt (Fig. 19b). There
seems to be little doubt that the elevated boron content of the pegmatite
and the dissemination of schorl can be traced back to the marine
metasediments in the endo- and exocontact of the B pegmatite.
As a reference site for these B pegmatites in South America, the
boron-enriched Coronel Murta Pegmatite Field is described in more de-
tail. The ore field belongs to the Ara uai District, Brazil. Numerous small
pegmatites occur in this district together with the G 4 granites of the
Itaporé Suite (Pedrosa-Soares et al., 1990, 2001; Pedrosa-Soares and
Oliveira, 1997; Castañeda et al., 2001). The batholith consists of biotite
granites, two-mica granite, garnet-muscovite granites and pegmatoid
granites. The biotite granite forms the root zone of the batholith, followed
towards the top by two-mica granites and garnet–muscovite pegmatites.
In places, a pegmatitic cupola evolved in the apical part of the granite,
similar to what has been described from the Erzgebirge as
“stockscheider” — see Section 4.1.1. The pegmatites are not confined to
the uppermost part of the granitic batholith but also observed as tabular
pegmatites within the quartz–mica schists and in the metagraywackes
of the Late Neoproterozoic Salinas Formation and in the quartzite of the
Middle Neoproterozoic Macaúbas Group. The pegmatitic rocks in the
479
various country rocks differ from each other as to their structural outward
appearance. In the Middle Neoproterozoic metapsammitic rocks a series
of pegmatitic dikes filled the fractures opened up in the hard quartzites
and run at high angle to the schistosity, whereas in the Late
Neoproterozoic, tabular pegmatites evolved along the cleavage planes of
the metamorphic rocks. The authors assumed that pegmatites were
emplaced at a crustal level between 12 and 15 km depth. Tourmaline of
schorl- and elbaite-type co-exists with beryl, herderite bismuthinite, apa-
tite, aquamarine, spodumene, lepidolite, amblygonite–montebrasite, and
some other phosphates. From the commercial point of view, the top parts
contain the pockets and fractures mineralized with tourmaline of jew-
elers' quality, with only one pegmatite producing 50 t of bi-color pink-
green elbaite, while towards the depth pegmatite became on important
site for the extraction of feldspar (Fig. 19c, d). There are still some open
questions such as those: Is the structure of the pegmatite bodies an
issue related to the rock-mechanics or related to the age of emplacement?
The ore bodies illustrated by Pedrosa-Soares et al. (2001) are lensoid bod-
ies intercalated into the metamorphic country rocks at low angle and
balloon-shaped pegmatitic bodies arranged as high-angle-dipping peg-
matites (Fig. 4n). According to the cartoon published by the authors, the
pegmatites evolved after the consolidation of the granitic host rocks. Put-
ting together the mineralogical data and interpreting the structural fea-
tures, enable us to categorize the tourmaline-enriched pegmatites as Bi–
Li–P–Be–B pegmatites tabular and stock-like. The first one may be attrib-
uted to the hinge zone and the second one to the limb zones of syn- and
antiforms in the metasedimentary series.
Elbaite-type tourmalines are among the most looked-for tourma-
lines, particular their Cu-bearing variety, which has been discovered
for the first time in Brazil, and fetches a high price even if similar tour-
malines have recently been discovered elsewhere in Mozambique
(Laurs et al., 2008). This extraordinary tourmaline called Paraiba Tour-
maline was discovered near Salgadinho, Brazil, in pegmatites which
were intruded into Proterozoic muscovite–quartzites. It is an atypical
tourmaline of bluish-green to medium blue-green color. These most
precious tourmalines of its kind contain bivalent copper as chromo-
phore and is as such responsible for the attractive blue color
(Karfunkel and Wagner, 1996) (Fig. 19c). In the Jonas Mine (João
Pinto mine) a (Be–P–Sn–REE)–Nb/Ta–Li–B (Li silicate) pegmatite is
worked for rubellite (Wilson, 2012).
Tourmalines are taken from pegmatites that are intrusive into schis-
tose or granitoid rocks. Other sites producing high-quality tourmaline
are known from, e.g., Nepal (Hyakule, Phakuwa), Russia (Mursinska
Mts. in the Ural Region), Kenya (Voi-Taveta) and Zambia (Chipata).
The pegmatite-forming processes responsible for the formation of
boron pegmatites were investigated in detail by Zagorsky and
Peretyazhko (2008) and by Thomas et al. (2012), targeting the Malkhan
in Transbaikalia, Russia. The pegmatite-forming processes started at
magmatic temperatures around 720 °C. The primary melts or supercrit-
ical fluids were very water- and boron-rich (maximum values of about
10% (g/g) B2O3) and over the temperature interval from 720 to 600 °C
formed a pseudobinary solvus, indicated by the coexistence of two
types of primary melt inclusions (type-A and type-B) representing a
pair of conjugate melts. Due to the high water and boron concentration
the pegmatite-forming melts are metastable and can be characterized
either as genuine melts or silicate-rich fluids. During the evolution of
the pegmatites the gel- or gel-like state has left traces in form of real
gel inclusions in some minerals in the Malkhan pegmatite yet only in
a late, fluid dominated stage (Thomas et al., 2012).
Many tourmaline mineralizations reflect a rather complex history
(Simonet, 2000). Bicolor tourmaline of gem quality from the Yellow
Mine in the Mangare area (southern Kenya) occurs in a pegmatite
which has undergone several stages of deformation, metasomatism
and metamorphism; they resulted from the interaction of pegmatites
with different lithologies such as ultrabasic rocks or marbles.
The above account on the genesis of B pegmatites in Brazil, may in
some cases be surpassed by the complicated history which the gem-
480 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
tourmaline-bearing pegmatites Korgal, Nilaw and Mawi, in the Nuristan
Region, Afghanistan, went through (Fuchs et al., 1974). It is a series of
complex migmatites, mica schists, quartzites and marbles with a suite
of granitic intrusions and, to a larger extent, by diorites and gabbros.
The pegmatitic rocks, a swarm of layers, strongly folded within the dio-
rites and gabbros are rather called pegmatoids, whose way of emplace-
ment is still today not well understood.
Fuchs et al. (1974) claimed that Paleozoic sedimentary series on top of
migmatites, were metamorphosed and intruded by a series gabbros, dio-
rites, and biotite–amphibole granites provoking a remobilization of the
migmatites. The age of the basic to intermediate intrusions is supposed to
be Early Cretaceous and that of the granites of Oligocene age followed by
the emplacement of the pegmatitic rocks — see also the European branch
of the Alpine-Himalayan Mountain Belt in Section 4.3.2. The folded pegma-
titic rocks are Cs–Sn–Nb/Ta–Li–Be–B pegmatoids (kunzite-lepidolite).
A geological-minded account on the Kenyan deposits was given by
Pohl and Horkel (1980) in which both authors highlighted the impor-
tance of the Pan-African Orogeny for the emplacement of tourmaline-
bearing pegmatites. Tourmaline also occurs in association with
desilicified plumasitic pegmatites renowned for their ruby occur-
rences — see also Section 4.13. Green tourmaline formed in that area
in pegmatites and pegmatoid segregations.
Danburite and dumortierite of gem quality are observed in pegmatites
together with tourmaline and spodumene, e.g., in Madagascar. The host
rocks are metapsammopelitic rocks and metacarbonates. Jeremejevite is
a rare constituent of the late stage hydrothermal alteration of pegmatites.
The B-bearing pegmatites in the Antananarivo Province, Madagascar, are
classified as (F–REE–Bi–Li)Nb/Ta–Be–B pegmatites.
4.5.3. Synopsis of F–B pegmatites
To draw a clear picture of the distribution of F and B in rare element
pegmatites with respect to the geodynamic setting is not easy and rather
heterogeneous, particularly as far as fluorine is concerned (Fig. 6b). Both
elements tend to be concentrated in Sn–W pegmatites, emplaced at shal-
low depth in the frontal parts of the collision zone or in other words
away from the root of the thrust zones in an ensialic orogen. Boron is
an element typical of the crust and, hence, its contents in the pegmatitic
rocks increase towards the core zone of the metallotects at the expense
of fluorine. The latter has another source, the mantle, as demonstrated
by the close link of fluorine to A-type granitoids and their pegmatites.
This picture less clear as that of uranium and thorium in pegmatites is
due to the different characters. Fluorine, a gas, is without any doubt a
member of the group of non-metals, boron however has to be attributed
to the metalloids with non-metal-like and metal-like properties, the lat-
ter of which come into full effect when reacting with fluorine.
Palmer and Slack (1989) raised expectation to clarify some of these
open questions using the isotope composition of boron in tourmalines.
They mentioned as potential controls over the boron isotopic composi-
tion of tourmaline the following factors: (1) composition of the boron
source, (2) regional metamorphism, (3) water/rock ratios, (4) seawater
entrainment, (5) temperature of formation, and (6) secular variation in
seawater. Trumbull and Chaussidon (1999) demostrated that in pegma-
tite–aplite dikes (−12.7 to 21.6‰) the boron ratio is higher than in hy-
drothermal tourmalines (− 18.0 to − 23.0‰) and interpreted their
findings as a result of fluid fractionation.
Hervig et al. (2002) published B isotope data obtained from experi-
mental studies of melt/fluid fractionation of −5‰ at 650 °C to −14‰
at 350 °C. Apart from this strong dependance of the boron isotope ratios
from fluid fractionation there are also some values that can be used as
some kind of provenance marker. Values published by Marschall and
Ludwig (2006) within a range of − 11.3 ± 5.4‰, corresponding to
what is known from S-type granites that have originated by anatectic
process from metasedimentary rocks. Martin and De Vito (2005) men-
tioned that the isotopes of boron in tourmaline and danburite reveal
clues about the unusual geochemical environment, taking as an exam-
ple a hybrid pegmatite system from Madagascar. At the end of listing
these isotope results and their interpretation, which is by no means
complete, the conclusion may be drawn that some indications pointing
to a crustal source of boron exist but the wealth of factors on the control
of boron isotope ratios renders this highly-sophisticated method of iso-
tope studies less efficient than a classical chemical review conducted as
a function of the geological setting.
The otherwise well-fractionated granites from the Fichtelgebirge,
Germany, fail to reveal any trend and no gradual increase of boron can
be claimed for the G 1, G 2, G 3 and G 4 granites that are arranged in de-
creasing age of formation (Richter and Stettner, 1979). The boron con-
tents known from the NE Bavarian pegmatitic and aplitic rocks lie
with 672 ppm B well above the average reported for the most strongly
differentiated granite G 4, yielding 17 ± 8 ppm B. Thus, a transfer of
boron from one of the granites even into the most proximal granitic
pegmatites or those pegmatites bodies at a more distal position is un-
likely. As the average grades of pegmatitic and aplitic rocks are precisely
be monitored and checked against the mean values of the gneissic coun-
try rocks the paragneisses seem to be closer to the source of boron than
the felsic magmatic rocks (Dill, 2015). The boron contents in the gneiss-
ic country rocks under consideration in the Hagendorf–Pleystein Peg-
matite Province show strongly positive correlation with aluminum,
potassium and phosphorus (RB–Al = 0.78, RB–K = 0.80, RB–P = 0.89),
which stresses a close genetic link between boron and the marine
phosphate-bearing (meta)pelites. The data well accord with the find-
ings published in the classical paper by Harder (1970), that clays con-
tain more boron than sands or limestones and micaceous
phyllosilicates contain more boron than smectite-enriched sediments.
Boron is supposed to be directly incorporated into these felsic
mobilizates, by-passing the granites, whose boron trend is not
corroborating the granites' role as an intermediate repository for this el-
ement. Tourmaline is ubiquitous in many pegmatitic rocks, be it a
metapegmatite or a true pegmatite, even if there is no granite nearby.
4.6. Phosphate pegmatites and pegmatite–skarns (38 D)
Phosphorus significantly differs from the aforementioned ele-
ments boron and fluorine found at abnormally high contents in
rare metal pegmatites. Contributing with approx. 1010 ppm P to
the chemical composition of the lithosphere, phosphorus is among
the top-ten elements in the earth's crust, although at the bottom of
this “league”. In nature, phosphorus is bound exclusively to oxygen,
forming a large and ever-increasing group of phosphate minerals
mainly in the pegmatites and thereby rendering them the top-
scorer among the host rocks contributing to new minerals. The
Brazilian pegmatites are abundant in primary and secondary phos-
phates, mainly concentrated in or proximal to the core zone of the
phosphate pegmatites (Fig. 20a,b,c,d,e). The Hagendorf–Pleystein
pegmatites in NE Bavaria are a treasure box for enthusiasts in phos-
phate minerals (Fig. 20e). Of the 274 minerals known from this peg-
matite province 135 are phosphates, accommodating Na, Al, Ca, Ba,
Mg, Mn, Fe, Sr, Be, Bi, Cu, K, Pb, Li, REE, Y, Sc, Zr, Ti, U, and Zn, as
well as fluorine and hydroxyl groups in their lattice. They formed
as primary and secondary phosphates and were generated during
hypogene and supergene alteration of the pegmatites over quite a
long period of time from the Carboniferous until the Neogene.
4.6.1. P pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect
4.6.1.1. From pegmatites sensu stricto to plutonic pegmatites — zonation by
crystallization and fluid/melt movement. The phosphate pegmatites of
the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province are located in the
Moldanubian Zone along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif
and in summary are classified as (Sc–As–Be–Zn)–Li–Nb–P pegmatites
(stock-like and tabular) as well as aplites (tabular). All felsic mobilizates
were emplaced in biotite–sillimanite gneiss which also gave host to a
suite of sheet-like granites. Although not acting as a host, calcsilicates
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 481

and skarns are found in the close vicinity of the stock-like phosphate ap-
lites and pegmatites. The most-well known Hagendorf-South Pegmatite
which was mined in the Cornelia Mine shows a zonation by crystallization
that is more or less concentrically shaped with a thin aplitic zone at its
margin being replaced towards the center by a zone of K feldspar and
eventually by quartz (Fig. 7g). On top of this quartz zone the phosphate
zone developed in Hagendorf-South and Hagendorf-North (Figs. 1a, 7g).
Uebel (1975) distinguished during his studies of the Hagendorf-
South Pegmatite two generations of pegmatite, a “Younger Pegmatite”
and an “Older Pegmatite”. Although his interpretation needs some revi-
sion, his polyphase concept of emplacement can be supported by new
geological finds in the area. A second aplitic zone evolved within the
Hagendorf-South stock, marking a slight hiatus prior to the emplacement
of the “Younger Pegmatite”. The latter formed in an unbalanced physical

a
d

c f

Fig. 22. a. Lithium–cesium ore with lepidolite and pollucite as the main minerals from Bikita, Zimbabwe. b. Lithium ore with lepidolite, Tanco/Bernic Lake, Canada. c. Lithium ore made up of
lath-shaped spodumene altered into cookeite. Sapucaia Pegmatite, Brazil. d. Lithium ore made up of holmquistite. Koralpe Pegmatite, Austria (photograph: courtesy of R. Göd). e. Lithium
phosphate ore made up of triphylite (dark) with older spessartite (red) in a matrix of alkaline feldspar and muscovite. Cigana Pegmatite, Brazil. f. Lithium phosphate ore made of
amblygonite–montebrasite in a K feldspar matrix. San Elias Pegmatite, Argentina. g. Lithium mobilization along a NW–SE transect through the Saxo-Thuringian and Moldanubian
Zones. For the geodynamic setting see also Fig. 9f (Saxo-Thuringian Zone = Fichtelgebirge Steinwald, Münchberg Gneiss Complex + Zone of Erbendorf–Vohenstrauss allochthonous
part of the Moldanubian Zone, Oberpfälzer wald + Bayerischer–Böhmer Wald = Moldanubian Zone s.str.) Green shows the southward dipping nappe complex. Li–Si–(OH/F) = Li
mica, Li–Al–P–(OH/F) = Li phosphate of the amblygonite–montebrasite s.s.s., Li–Fe–Mn–P = triphylite–ferrisicklerite s.s.s., Li–Si–B = Li tourmaline, Li–Si = spodumene–holmquistite.
Boxes give Li contents in ppm.
482 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

g) Metamorphism
Li-Si-(OH/F) Deep-seated lineaments
Li-Al-P-(OH/F) + mantle impact

Age Münchberg Fichtelgebirge- Zone von Erbendorf-

Oberpfälzer Wald Bayerischer-Böhmer Wald
(Ma) Gneiss Complex Steinwald Vohenstrauß
Li-Fe-Mn-P

Podlesi
904-

Křížovýkámen
/Kreuzstein
280 550
2130 Li-Si-B
290 306 G4
Granite
Pegmatite Lamprophyre Lamprophyre
153
Granite

300 G3 (min age) (min age)

Pegmatite+
129 G2 Aplite
Granite
310 Granite Granite Pegmatite
G1

Flossenbürg Granite
Pegmatite
60

Bärnau Granite
Steinwald Granite
320

Leuchtenberg Granite

Granite
Falkenberg Granite
Granitic
330 fractionation
340
+deep seated 159
47
Granitic lineaments
350
fractionation
105
33
amblygonite 65 Li-Si
zinnwaldite
lepidolite triphylite Metamorphic
granite pegmatite
lithiophyllite re-mobilization
pegmatite tavorite
sicklerite spodumene
Collision zone ferrisicklerite holmquisite
pegmatite pseudopegmatite

Fig. 22 (continued).

regime, as its melt came in contact with a cooler and semi-consolidated
preexisting pegmatitic rock and gave rise to a funnel-shaped pipe
mushrooming from the quartz core towards the top of the pegmatite
stock (Fig. 7g). This type of zonation is uni-directional from bottom to top.
The apical part of the quartz core and the feldspar resting immedi-
ately on top of it contain the Nb–Ta oxides, and the suite of phosphate
minerals, containing Na, Al, Ca, Ba, Mg, Mn, Fe, Sr, Be, Bi, Cu, K, Pb, Li,
REE, Ti, U, and Zn. In its footwall aplite, a section inaccessible in
Hagendorf-South but exposed in some places at Pleystein, a phosphate
mineralization with Al, K, Ti, Bi, Zn, Mn, and Fe, arranged in increasing
order of abundance and less varied than the mineralization described
above, was identified in a zone pervasively kaolinized.
This funnel-shaped vertical fading out of the quartz core or vertical
“chimney” has much in common with the Sn-bearing siliceous greisen
deposits at Altenberg and Sadisdorf in the Erzgebirge, Germany, located
in the Saxo-Thuringian Zone and some of the Sn-greisens in the
Cornubian ore Field — Section 4.1.1. This structural similarities strongly
corroborate the idea that between siliceous Sn greisen deposits at rather
shallow depth and quartzose P pegmatites at a deeper level is no real
difference by quality but only by quantity. In the broadest sense, this
structure may be explained with the so-called up-dip-effect of ascend-
ing hyper fusible-rich fluids sensu Černý (1991b).
This composite zonation by crystallization and melt/fluid movement
is only represented within the stock-like pegmatites. The chimney
or pipe structures become less conspicuous as the height of the accom-
modation space provided in the host anticline becomes reduced. The
various associations of primary phosphates got “telescoped” into each
other and disseminated among the Nb–Ta oxides of the columbite
s.s.s. in this core-rim zone. The tabular pegmatites and aplites are devoid
of any zonation or “chimney” even if these pegmatite sheets steeply dip
along the limbs of the host of the anticlines. Neither cells nor fronts of
fluid movement could evolve in these narrowly-spaced phosphate peg-
matites and aplites and, consequently they show neither a zonation by
crystallization nor by melt/fluid movement.
Since the morphologies of the pegmatite stocks in the Hagendorf–
Pleystein Pegmatite Province closely resemble each other and the vertical
siliceous ore shoots in these stocks are left untilted, it is reasonable to
claim that after their emplacement only vertical movements have affected
these pegmatites and no folding had any effect on these pegmatites.
4.6.1.2. Phosphate pegmatites and associated pegmatites as a function of
geodynamic setting — vertical facies changes. Along a NNW–SSE profile
through the Central European Variscides, perpendicular to the strike of
the various geodynamic units, 128 pegmatitic and aplitic deposits were
investigated and classified according to the CMS classification scheme
(Table 8). Their chemical composition, and phosphate contents, in partic-
ular, varies considerably as a function of their geodynamic setting.
The Rhenohercynian geodynamic unit a mirror image of rifting and
folding with sediments and magmatic rocks undergoing very-low
grade to low grade regional metamorphism is barren as to pegmatites
at all. U/Pb single zircon dating by a Laser-ICP-MS of samples from the
marginal facies of the two major granites Brocken and Ramberg showed
a concordia age of 283 ± 2.1 Ma for the Brocken granite and a concordia
age of 283 ± 2.8 Ma for the Ramberg granite (Zech et al., 2010). These
ages are interpreted by the author of the review as follows. This crustal
event is characterized by an extension and thinning of the crust, a process
unfavorable for the formation of pegmatites in a typical ensialic orogen.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
a NW Oberpfälzer Wald because both units once formed a coherent
b and autochthonous parts of the Variscides (Table 8, Fig. 2a). Strong
c Saxothuringian and Moldanubian zones sensu lato. The number of
Fig. 23. a. Amphibolite-bearing lithium ore shoot mined out during trial mining at the lith-
ium deposit Koralpe, Austria (photograph: courtesy of R. Göd). b. Alternating layers of am-
phibolite and Li-bearing aplite, dipping towards bottom right in the underground gallery
of the lithium deposit Koralpe, Austria (photograph R. Göd). c. Pseudopegmatites at the
Brandrücken in the lithium deposit Koralpe, Austria (redrawn from R. Göd, 1989).
The Mid-German Crystalline High forms part of a suture zone ex-
tending from Mexico through Turkey, resulting from the late Variscan
closure of the Rheic Ocean which opened up between Gondwana and
Laurussia and took a wide range of Paleozoic sediments sourced from
Baltica and from Gondwana. It is composed of high-grade metamorphic
rocks and intrusive rocks of the granitic suite. The Bärenkopf granite is
intersected by E–W trending muscovite-bearing pegmatite dykes with
some samples of muscovites from these dykes yielding a K–Ar cooling
483
age of 333 ± 7 Ma (Neuroth, 1997). Pegmatoids and pegmatites are
rare and only contain some apatite in the Spessart Mts.
The Münchberg Gneiss Complex, as part of the Saxo-Thuringian
Zone, is an allochthonous metamorphic complex with paragneisses,
orthogneisses, amphibolites and eclogites (Fig. 9f). The orthogneiss
yielded a Rb/Sr whole rock age of 499 ± 20 Ma (Söllner et al., 1981).
U/Pb age dating using zircon and monazite from metagabbros
and metagranites gave an age of intrusion around 500 Ma for both
intrusive rocks (Gebauer and Grünenfelder, 1979). Its metabasic mem-
bers contain numerous pegmatoid deposits, yet barren as to phos-
phates. The color code of the Münchberg Gneiss Complex shown in
Table 8 is similar to that of the Zone of Erbendorf Vohenstrauss in the
nappe complex (Fig. 9f).
The Saxo-Thuringian Zone saw its pegmatites, granite–pegmatites
(miarolitic) and pegmatite–aplites concentrated in and around the Fich-
telgebirge–Erzgebirge Anticline. Phosphate minerals, prevalently U
phosphates, increased relative to those pegmatitic rocks being located
to the North-West of the widespread granites in this unit (Table 8). Th
geodynamic unit under consideration is the frontal part of the
subfluence zone with the main geodynamic processes relevant for the
formation of pegmatites involving continent–continent collision and
gradual thickening of the crust.
Immediately south of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone the autochthonous
parts of the Moldanubian Zone get in contact with the Zone of Erbendorf
Vohenstrauss which is equivalent to the Tepla–Barrandian Zone
(Fig. 9f). In other words, it is the transition zone between allochthonous
diapthoresis and shearing is common in this contact zone between the
pegmatitic rocks rises and the chemical qualifiers of the rare element
pegmatites and aplites become more variegated. While granitic pegma-
tites gradually disappear from the scene, the number of Fe-, Mn-, Zn-,
Al- and even Li phosphates, increased in the pegmatites but did not
yet reach this level known from the locus typicus for the phosphate peg-
matites at Hagendorf–Pleystein.
The allochthonous Zone of Erbendorf Vohenstrauss, a nappe com-
plex overriding the autochthonous Moldanubian Zone, is some kind of
a relapse as far as the distribution and type of the pegmatitic rocks is
concerned. It is a very complex lithology found today in an allochtho-
nous position, derived from suboceanic mantle, endowed with ocean
ridges and also showing signs of within-plate magmatism with subse-
quent rifting. The chemical qualifiers of pegmatitic rocks are similar to
those of the barren rocks from the Münchberg Gneiss Complex but
with a slight impact of the autochthonous Moldanubian zone under-
neath. Therefore it is not a surprise to find a moderate increase of the
phosphate content in the meta-pegmatites, pegmatoids and pegmatites
of the Zone of Erbendorf Vohenstrauss relative to the Münchberg Gneiss
Complex.
The Moldanubian Zone sensu stricto consists of high grade meta-
morphic rocks in an autochthonous position with a protolith mainly of
Proterozoic age. At the margin these units are overthrusted onto adja-
cent geodynamic units (e.g. Moravo-Silesicum) and penetrated by mul-
tiple intrusions of the granitic suite but also of mantle-derived melts,
some of which are now present as syenitic rocks (Dill, 2015). The
geodynamic setting is characterized by a significant increase in phos-
phate and also in boron, both of which can be taken as marker elements
for the inner zone of an ensialic orogen and held to be crustal-derived.
Their accumulation goes along with thrustal movements, stacking of
nappes, and element mobilization in the course of anatectic processes
in the deepest parts of the thrust planes, close to the root zones. The
Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province is located at the root zone of
the nappe complexes thrusted onto the north-western geodynamic
realms (Dill, 2015).
The southernmost part of the Moldanubian Zone shown in bright
green in Table 8 is the core zone of the Central European Variscides.
484 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Boron and phosphate are still predominating in the southern
Moldanubian. Both elements are so-called geodynamic proximity indi-
cators in pegmatites as to the geodynamic center. Boron signals an em-
placement closest to the core zone and the ultimate stage of thickening
of the crust, whereas phosphate denotes a more distal position with a
thickening of the crust less intensive than for boron.
The Variscan massifs of Central Europe got incorporated into the
modern fold belt of the Alpine Mountain Range and were reactivated
in these fold belts. With regard to the distribution of the pegmatitic
and aplitic rocks, Variscan Massifs in the Austrian Alpine Mountain
Range in the Kärnten–Steiermark border region, deserve particular at-
tention, where granitic pegmatites, meta-pegmatites, pegmatoids exist
and pseudo-pegmatites become economic deposits (Table 8). The grad-
ual increase of P and B towards the core of an ensialic orogen suffers a
setback when being reactivated in a new mobile belt. Phosphate and
boron are both present but no longer take such a prominent position
similar to the parent crustal section from which they originated
(Table 8). They are only second- and third-most in abundance, with
phosphate showing a higher preservation potential during this kind of
orogenic reactivation than boron.
The NW–SE transect across the Central European Variscides with the
extension across the boundary into the Alpine Mountain Belt illustrates
the variation of phosphate and its chemical ally in this ensialic orogen
boron as a function of the geodynamic setting, a change which also im-
plies a variation in the physical–chemical regime. It would go beyond
the scope of this review focused on the geology of pegmatites to address
these changes of the physical–chemical regime. As far as the Central
European Variscides are concerned this issue has been addressed in

a
Weathering +overburden

Amphibolite

Li zone (high grade)

K feldspar zone
Mafic intrusive sill
Li zone (low grade)

Na feldspar zone (Sn/Ta)

Border zone +pegmatite
undifferentiated

Fig. 24. a. Cross section through the Greenbushes pseudopegmatite, Australia, based upon drill holes plotted in the image which is modified from a cross section in Kippenberger et al.
(1988). b. Cross section through the Bikita pegmatite, Zimbabwe (modified from Pelletier, 1964). c. Longitudinal section through the Bernic Lake (Tanco) pegmatite, Canada (modified
from Laznicka, 2010, after Trueman and Turnock, 1982). d. Mined out spodumene ore in the tabular pegmatite of Cachoeira, Brazil. Red arrowhead denotes layers of spodumene pegmatite
parallel to the contact with the main ore shoot. e. Post-mineralization faulting and syn-mineralization boudinage of contact-parallel pegmatite layers at Cachoeira Li deposit, Brazil. Biro for
scale. f. Lath-shaped brown spodumene crystals are aligned subparallel to the contact of the ore shoot. Cachoeira Li deposit, Brazil. Biro for scale. g. The Varuträsk Li pegmatite, Sweden
(modified from Quensel, 1956).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
d to the NE. The South-Portuguese Zone, being located to the South of
ca.1m
e Mid Europe. It is barren as to pegmatites as it is the case with its Central
f geodynamic units that are correlative in geodynamic terms with the
g Noronha, 1987; Roda et al., 1996, 2004; Roda-Robles et al., 2013;
Cs replacement
Li replacement
Core Zone
Intermediate Zone
External Zone
Amphibolite
50 m
Fig. 24 (continued).
Dill (2015) based upon more than 250 minerals determined in the peg-
matites and aplites along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif.
4.6.1.3. Phosphate pegmatites as a function of the geodynamic setting —
lateral facies changes. To what extent can we apply this zonation of phos-
phate in pegmatites elaborated for Central Europe also to the western
branch of the European Variscides on the Iberian Peninsula (Fig. 2a,
Table 9)? The Mid-German Crystalline Rise has been referred to as a su-
ture zone of global extension, where the emplacement of pegmatites
and pegmatoids began along the NW–SE from the very-low grade to
the high-grade metamorphic zones of the Central European Variscides
(Table 8). It can be used as a “geodynamic marker horizon” in order to
correlate the eastern and western branch of the European Variscides.
In Portugal and Spain, the Ossa-Morena Zone is held to be equivalent
485
to the Mid-German Crystalline High which was referred to as
European Crystalline Zone by Kopp and Bankwitz (2003), owing to its
prominent role and enormous extension. On the Iberian Peninsula this
zone is rather poorly represented in terms of pegmatitic rocks compared
with the adjacent geodynamic zones there. Only granitic aplites and peg-
matites with spessartite but devoid of rare element-bearing minerals,
were reported from pegmatite veins cutting the S. Geraldo Tonalite and
medium-grained biotite–muscovite granite (Lima et al., 2009). The
geodynamic setting and the abundance in pegmatitic rocks closely re-
sembles its Central European counterparts several thousand kilometers
this geodynamic unit is correlated with the Rheno-Hercynian Zone in
European analogue. The Central Iberian Zone being located immediately
to the north of the Ossa Morena Zone is presumed to be the western pro-
longation of the Moldanubian Zone, while the West Asturian-Leonese
Zone being located further towards the north is to some extent an equiv-
alent of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone in Central Europe. Ribeiro et al. (1990)
investigated a geotraverse along the Central Iberian Zone, delineating al-
lochthonous, parautochtonous and autochthonous units similar to what
has been recorded from Central Europe and interpreted the stacked pat-
tern of nappes in terms of a flake tectonic — see Fig. 9f.
Many of the Variscan pegmatite fields in Portugal and Spain are
enriched in phosphate minerals, mainly accommodating lithium in
their lattice: Almendra Pegmatite, NE Portugal (Li–F–P–(LiS)), Alvarrões
Pegmatite (Central Portugal) (Li–F–P–(LiS)), Barroso–Alvão pegmatite
field, Vila Real District, Portugal ((U–Zn–Be–REE)–Sn–Nb/Ta–Li–P),
Assunção Mine, Viseu District, Portugal ((F–Mo–Bi–Cu–W–Sn–B)–Li–
U–Nb/Ta–Be–P). The mineralized areas are encountered in those
Moldanubian and Saxo-Thuringian zones in Central Europe (Neves,
1960; Bertelli et al., 1982; Marzoni Fecia di Cossato and Orlandi, 1986;
Fuertes-Fuente et al., 2000; Martins et al., 2011: Alves and Mills,
2013). From ENE towards the WSW perpendicular to the strike of the
geodynamic units, the phosphate contents increase while the chemical
composition of the phosphate minerals becomes more varied. In the
Cañada pegmatite in Castile and Leon, Spain, the phosphates belong
mainly to the group of Al-, Fe-, Mg-, Mn-phosphates in places with alka-
line and earth alkaline elements. Where lithium adds up to the chemical
composition of the pegmatites, triphylite [LiFePO4], ferrisicklerite
[Li(Fe,Mn)PO4] and montebrasite [LiAl(PO4)(OH)0.75F0.25] came into
being, a sequence well-known from the Saxo-Thuringian–Moldanubian
transition. The montebrasite–amblygonite s.s.s. decreases, while the Fe
and Mn increase in the Li phosphate of the pegmatites sensu stricto.
The chemical composition that most closely resembles the phosphate
association in the pegmatites of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Province
evolved in the Bendada and Mangualde areas in Portugal, at the western
edge of the Iberian Pegmatite Ore Field (Table 9). At Hornachuelos,
Córdoba, in Andalusia, the pegmatites may be denominated as (B–F)–
Be–Nb/Ta–REE–U–P pegmatites.
If the North Atlantic Ocean had not come into existence during the
Early Cenozoic, we would not have to talk about a Late Paleozoic Iberian
and New England pegmatite province, including discrete pegmatite
areas in Maine, New Hampshire and Connecticut along the eastern
coast of the USA. The pendant to the Variscan orogeny is called the
Alleghanian or Appalachian orogeny that formed the Appalachian and
Allegheny Mountains (Bartholomew and Whitaker, 2010). During the
aforementioned mountain-building processes, North America which
was part of the Euramerica super-continent collided with Gondwana
resulting in the newly formed super-continent Pangaea a process
which has been repeatedly discussed in this study for the European
Variscides and, thus, need not reiterated here (Fig. 2b). It is after all
not really a surprise to find a wide range of phosphate minerals to pre-
vail among the accessory minerals of the New England pegmatite prov-
ince (Cameron et al., 1954; King, 1975; King and Foord, 1994; Simmons
486 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

2 cm 2 cm
qz

ms

kf
nf

a b

Fig. 25. a. Dark gray sprays of columbite-(Fe) at the contact in the K feldspar pegmatite rim. The bundle of columbite-(Fe) plates grew post-kinematically. Hagendorf-North Pegmatite/
Meixner Mine, Germany (photograph: B. Weber). b. Dark plates of columbite-(Fe) developed at the contact between the albite rim (nf) and a muscovite (ms)–quartz (qz)-enriched
zone in the pegmatite rim. Part of the plates grew unaffected, part of the columbite plates are bent and developed late-synkinematically. Hagendorf-North Pegmatite/Meixner Mine,
Germany (photograph: B. Weber). c. Thortveitite intergrown with orthoclase, Evje–Iveland pegmatite district, Norway.

et al., 1995, 1996; Moore, 2000; Nizamoff et al., 2007; Wise and Brown,
2010). Even if some differences in the mineralogy between both sides of
the North Atlantic Ocean cannot be sidelined, the dominance of phos-
phates is striking and even over such a wide distance the mineralogical
resemblance between the Palermo Pegmatite—New Hampshire, USA
and the Hagendorf–Pleystein Province—Oberpfalz, Germany cannot be
ignored. By tracking this lateral facies change from East farther West
across the ocean, the New Hampshire subprovince comes close to
what we know from the Moldanubian Zone and the Maine Subprovince
comes close to the Saxo-Thuringian Zone, as far as the pegmatite-hosted
phosphate facies is concerned. Keeping in mind that the collisional belt
swang towards the SE in the Moroccan Little Atlas, the geodynamic
zonation in NE America is a mirror image of the Iberian Peninsula. The
geodynamic control of the distribution of phosphate in pegmatites by
quality and quantity points to a crustal origin of this rare element in
pegmatites. It was mobilized by anatectic processes along with thrustal
movements. Anatectic pegmatoids are at outcrop in the Věžná 5
pegmatoid, Czech Republic, and the Strontium Granite, Great Britain
(Fig. 21a, b). In-situ formation of pegmatites can also be observed in am-
phibolites, as exemplified by the pegmatoid schlieren produced by
anatectic processes between 910 Ma and 915 Ma near Iveland Village,
Norway (Fig. 21c). Rare-metal pegmatites frequently observed in or
near metabasic or even metaultrabasic rocks should come as no sur-
prise, and what started as an in-situ pegmatoid like that in the Fig. 21c
may end up as a (pseudo)pegmatite elsewhere in a nappe or a shear
zone, as recorded from many sites in this study — see also the rare-
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 487

60.00 90.00

Ta*100/(Nb+Ta)
tabular pegmatites magmatic D2
50.00 80.00
Reinhardts
-rieth II
D1
Pleystein
New Aplite

40.00

high C (meta)-pegmatites
B
A
FRACTIONATION

30.00

metamorphic
Silbergrube
Reinhardts
Hagendorf-
-rieth I
South

Trutzhofmühle
20.00
meta-pegmatites
Hagendorf- Püllersreuth
North

10.00
1 Pleystein-
D3
low Kreuzberg

2 stocklike pegmatites
3 4 Mn*100/(Mn+Fe)
0.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00

Fig. 26. Cross plot to show the Ta2O5 ∗ 100/(Ta2O5 + Nb2O5) vs. MnO ∗ 100 (MnO + FeO) of columbite s.s.s. from metamorphic to magmatic columbite mineralization (modified from Dill,
2015). The data arrays of the tabular and stock-like pegmatites of the HPPP are given in the rectangular boxes. The framed boxes and the data symbols are plotted in the same color (e.g.
Hagendorf-South in red). Area framed with dash-point lines terminated the data arrays of columbite s.s.s. included in “nigrine” (see Section 4.9) 1: Deggendorf “nigrine” in gneiss,
2: Deggendorf “nigrine” in alluvial–fluvial placer deposits, 3: Iglersreuth “nigrine” in alluvial–fluvial placer deposits, 4: Pingermühle: “nigrine” in alluvial–fluvial placer deposits. A gives
the Pleystein trend, B the Hagendorf trend, C shows the data array of the pegmatites in the Bayerische–Böhmer Wald including data from the Hühnerkobel, Pochermühle, Blötz,
Schwarzeck, Schwarzenbach, Birkhöhe, Pauliberg, Kautzenbach pegmatites (source: Schaaf et al., 2008). D1 and D2 are two discrete data arrays of columbite s.s.s. from Otov, Czech
Republic, immediately E of the Czech–German border. D2 is located above Ta2O5 ∗ 100/(Ta2O5 + Nb2O5) = 60.00 and fit into the base diagram as to the MnO ∗ 100 (MnO + FeO)
ratio 50.00 to 60.00. Data source: Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. The trend lines of the various data arrays in the diagram follow two different trends as far as the Nb–Ta min-
eralization is concerned. I) an anticlockwise trend from metamorphic to magmatic felsic mobilizates (metapegmatites, intermediate (meta)pegmatites and magmatic felsic mobilizates).
Such trends are recognized at Püllersreuth, Kreuzberg, Reinhardsrieth I, Trutzhofmühle (arranged in order of increasing magmatic impact, represented by the slope of the positive trend
lines. II) A magmatic trend showing the degree of fractionation from low to high. The most primitive columbites evolved in the “nigrine” aggregates, with 1 and 2 apparently derived from
metamorphic processes and 3 and 4 signaling the initial level of magmatic fractionation.

metal pegmatite at 910 to 915 Ma in sharp contact with the metabasic
country rocks in Fig. 4u.
4.6.2. Phosphate pegmatites reactivated in the Alpine Fold Belt
A study was conducted by Niedermayr and Göd (1992), listing the
various minerals of the Weinebene lithium deposit in the Austrian
Alps. The results obtained by both authors can shed some light on
the issue whether Li–P pegmatites (Mn–Fe–Li phosphate) of the
Moldanubian Zone in the Central European Variscides have left their im-
prints on the newly formed Li pseudopegmatite (spodumene–
holmquistite ≫ Mn–Fe–Li phosphate) in the Alpine Fold Belt.
The authors mentioned a series of secondary Fe–Mn–Be–Ca phos-
phates filling joints and fractures within the pegmatite and became of
particular interest for mineralogists. These minerals reflect a younger
stage of alteration under a HPO2−
4 -enriched regime within the pegma-
tite and therefore are meaningless as to the question raised above on a
reactivation. Green apatite, also widespread within the pegmatites of
the Oberpfalz, Germany, triphylite and ferrisicklerite are exclusive to
the massive amphibolite-hosted pegmatite that underwent only weak
deformation. The authors attribute these minerals to the so-called
“Altbestand” (relic or armored minerals) apart from spodumene,
quartz, feldspar and mica. In addition to these major minerals
some minor constituents such as beryl, schorl, galena, cassiterite,
pyrochlore, sphalerite, and columbite-(Fe) were also ranked among
the “Altbestand”. Niedermayr et al. (1988) emphasized in their paper
the abnormally high amounts of Mn in the phosphates which is also typ-
ical of the Moldanubian counterpart pegmatites. Garnet is present as
almandine-type in the mica schist-hosted pegmatite of the
Austrian lithium deposit. Spessartite-enriched end members associ-
ated with manganiferous apatite have not yet been reported. Based
upon this partitioning of Mn between silicate and phosphate in
favor of the last-mentioned mineral, a source pegmatite at a rather
shallow level of intrusion is assumed for the Weinebene pegmatite.
As far as the physical regime is concerned, the minerals of the
triphylite–lithiophyllite series, which form part of a high-
temperature series in pegmatites have a good preservation potential
in the reactivated pegmatitic rocks.
4.6.3. Phosphate pegmatites in the Proterozoic Metallotect in Africa and
South America
The East African fold belts are not characterized by a wealth of
phosphate-bearing pegmatites. In some cases phosphorus is present in
significant amounts but seldom forms the prevailing rare element in
the pegmatite, as it is the case with the (B–Sn–REE–Li–As–Th)–P–U–
488 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

100 100

50 50

I II
0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100

100 100

50 50

III IV
0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Fig. 27. Mn ∗ 100/(Mn + Fe) ratio versus the Ta ∗ 100/(Nb + Ta) plots from Melcher et al. (2013). See for orientation and labeling of x- and y axes also Fig. 26. I: Jos Plateau, Nigeria.
II: Damara Belt, Namibia. III: Alto Linghoau, Mozambique. IV: Orange River, Namibia + Kamativi, Zimbabwe. Hel, Helicon; KR, Klein Rössing; MR, Mon Repos; Otj, Otjimbingwe; Rub,
Rubikon; So, Somipe; Wdg, wodginite. Arrows indicate fractionation trends in subgroups of analyses.

Be–Nb pegmatite at Kobokobo in Sud-Kivu, Democratic Republic of
Congo (Safiannikoff and van Wambeke, 1967; Van Wambeke, 1987;
Piret and Deliens, 1987). Some smaller occurrences of phosphate peg-
matites are also found in Rwanda (Knorring von, 1969; Fransolet, 1995).
In western Africa, several phosphate-bearing pegmatites have been
investigated by Keller (1985), Fransolet et al. (1986) and Baldwin
et al. (2000). Although being worked for tin and lithium during the
waning stages of their mining period, the Sandamap (B–Nb/Ta)–Sn–
Li–P pegmatite, in the Erongo Region, Namibia, warrants mentioning
for its phosphate minerals. Primary and secondary phosphate minerals
endowed with Fe, Mn, Mg, Al, Ca and Li are of the same type as investi-
gated in detail in the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province only re-
cently by Dill (2015) even if they do not attain the variability and
quantity as in Germany. The mineralized pegmatites are bound to the
Damara Belt, the NE-trending inland branch of the Neoproterozoic
Pan-African Damara Orogen — 523 to 506 Ma (Ashworth, 2014). Trace
elements published by the above authors show that these pegmatites
resemble syn- to post-collisional granites using the common x–y dis-
crimination diagrams with Rb vs. Nb + Y on display. In the Damara
Orogen, granites, pegmatites and amphibolite facies regional metamor-
phism were interpreted as a direct response to the closing of the
Khomas Ocean as the Kalahari craton subducted beneath the Congo cra-
ton (Kinnaird and Nex, 2013). While the data collection is fine, the type
of geodynamic plate motion is hardly in context with the mineralization
associated with the proposed process. Pan-African pegmatites may
without any doubt stand out among the mineral deposits in Africa, but
why are some enriched in phosphates and others do not contain this el-
ement? Von Knorring (1970) has already pointed to the pegmatites' di-
versity in the Damara Belt, Namibia, the Kibaran Belt of Central Africa
and those of the Mozambique Fold Belt in eastern Africa. No timebound
chemical composition typical of the Pan-African pegmatites can be ob-
served when the entire southern Africa is considered.
Looking beyond the South Atlantic Ocean, the presence of phosphate
pegmatites is less striking than in western Africa, although one of the
pegmatite-hosted phosphate minerals was found in the Corrego Frio
mine at Linopolis, Brazil, and named brazilianite after the country
where the type locality is situated (Cassedanne, 1983). It is a (Be–B)–
U–P pegmatite tabular in shape and aligned parallel to the schistosity
of the Precambrian biotite–garnet schists. A tectono-thermal process
accompanied by the emplacement of granitic batholiths and pegmatites
took place at around 580 Ma in the Borborema Province creating about
50 phosphate minerals (Rodrigues da Silva, 1975; Beurlen, 1995; Da
Silva et al., 1995; Fetter et al., 2000). As reference localities for the
Borborema mineral province the Roncadeira pegmatite ((Zn–Be)–Sn–
Nb/Ta pegmatite) and the Boqueirão pegmatite (Boqueirãozinho),
Parelhas ((Be–F–U–Bi–Pb–Zn–Cu–B–Sn)–Li–Nb/Ta–P pegmatite) are
presented here to demonstrate the usefulness of the designed classifica-
tion scheme. But the ore minerals of interest are Nb/Ta-, Be-, Sn- and Li-
bearing chemical compounds. The Brazilian Shield is much more
endowed with tourmaline of gemological and showcase quality than
with phosphate deposits of similar standard (Dill and Weber, 2013).
In the Argentine part, the Tres Tetas Pegmatite in the El Quemado Dis-
trict is also enriched with phosphate and is placed in this section (U–
B–Be–Bi–Li–P pegmatite) (Galliski and Černý, 2006).
4.6.4. Synopsis of P pegmatites
The distribution of phosphate pegmatites in Paleozoic orogens
strongly contrasts with that of Neoproterozoic metallotects as exempli-
fied by the Variscides which welded together Laurussia and Gondwana
and the Pan-African or Brazilano Orogenies which acted in the same
way some hundred million years earlier contributing to the built-up of
Gondwana. The different erosional levels encountered in the pegmatites
are obviously accountable for the distribution of phosphorus and its
chemical affiliate boron.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 489

2cm a 2cm b

2cm

0.5 m e

Fig. 28. a. Native bismuth in a veinlet cutting through the topaz fels at Schneckenstein, Germany. It is a fluorine-enriched breccia in the exocontact of the Eibenstock Granite. It is genetically
related to the greisen-type Sn deposits nearby. b. Cassiterite-bearing Sn greisen in the strongly differentiated “Tin Granite” at Rudolphstein, Germany, with disseminated oxidized arse-
nopyrite (brown). c. Ferroan sphalerite (“marmatite”) in quartz at Kreuzberg Pegmatite in Pleystein, Germany. d. Molybdenite deposit in an aplite vein (below trenched). The close-up
view above shows the aplite with greisenized quartz veins (white + dark gray) mineralized with molybdenite. Allebouda, Sweden. e. Molybdenite pocket in a granitic aplite. Kataberget,
Sweden.

Phosphate-enriched metabiolites and metaphosphorites intercalat-
ed in some of the metasedimentary units cannot explain the presence
or absence of P-bearing pegmatites. Amphibolites intercalated into
metasedimentary units from the Central European Variscides have
been analyzed for their P2O5 contents, yielding a mean of 0.26 wt.% P2O5.
Apart from apatite with phosphorus contents around 40 wt.% P2O5,
another rock-forming mineral merits to be mentioned. Although it con-
tains P at a much lower level around 0.x wt.% P2O5 it is the most wide-
spread mineral in the earth crust. The feldspar group, with K feldspar
is more likely a source of P than albite, and has to be envisaged as a po-
tential source of P in pegmatites too (Breiter, 1998b).
The phosphorus variation in granitic rocks has been among others
studied by Broska et al. (2004) and treated in experiments by Tollari
et al. (2006). The influence of the iron content and oxidation state on
the saturation of phosphate minerals in magmatic systems have been
studied by the latter authors in the temperature range from 1030 to
1070 °C. For the Mid-European Variscides, Förster et al. (1999) put for-
ward a chemical subdivision of the granitic intrusive rocks into
490 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

c d

Fig. 29. a. Sacharoidal zone in the Las Cuevas Pegmatite, Argentina, composed of almost 90% albite, muscovite and manganiferous garnet. b. Border zone of the La Viquita Pegmatite,
Argentina in sharp contact to the micaceous wall rocks. The border zone consists of K feldspar, quartz and albite. Muscovite grew perpendicular to the contact plane. The feldspar-enriched
pegmatites penetrated in some kind of a horse-tailing the Paleozoic mica schist parallel to the foliation (arrowhead). c. Intermediate zone of the Santa Ana Pegmatite made up of K feldspar.
d. Sheared K feldspar zone, disrupted into phacoids of feldspar and quartz with muscovite as “lubricant” La Viquita Pegmatite.

(1) medium-F and low-P biotite granites (A-type), (2) high-F- and low
-P lithium mica granites (A-type), (3) high-F- and high-P lithium mica
granites (S-type), (4) low-F — two-mica granites (S/I-type). The various
granites enriched in P and Li failed to be correlated in time and space
with any large Li-phosphate pegmatite. The P content of garnet-group
minerals could also achieve rather high values of as much as 1.21 wt.%
P2O5, but to quote the authors themselves, “the partitioning of P
among garnet and its associated minerals in granitic systems remains
still unclear” (Breiter et al., 2005). It is a hint towards the role the lithol-
ogy in and underneath a pegmatitic ore field can play in the presence or
absence of phosphate-bearing pegmatites — see also the section on gar-
net pegmatites (Section 4.14). Contrasting crustal lithologies in Paleozo-
ic and Precambrian collisional orogens could plausibly account for the
prevalence of boron over phosphate in pegmatites.
4.7. Lithium–cesium–rubidium pegmatites (15 D)
Potassium and sodium are common elements in pegmatites and be-
long to the “top-ten-elements” in the crust with 20,900 ppm K and
23,600 ppm Na. Both elements are present in a wide range of rock-
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 491

forming minerals, in pegmatites, mainly in alkaline feldspar and mica.
The average grade in the earth's crust of three other alkaline elements
rubidium, lithium and cesium, also common to pegmatites, stands at
90 ppm Rb, 20 ppm Li and 2 ppm Cs, respectively. While Rb+ often sub-
stitutes for K+ in some of its minerals, rubidium minerals of its own
such as rubicline (Rb,K)AlSi3O8 and voloshinite RbLiAl1.5Al0.5Si3.5O10F2
are rarities. This is also true for Cs minerals excluding pollucite which
is common in some pegmatites (Fig. 22a). Lithium, however, occurs in
a wide range of silicates, the most well-known of which are spodumene
and holmquistite, a lithium amphibole, in Li tourmaline s.s.s. and in Li
mica s.s.s. (Fig. 22a, b, c, d). They rank as ore minerals for lithium. This is
true also for some Li-bearing phosphates such as triphylite and the mem-
bers of the montebrasite-amblygonite s.s.s (Fig. 22e, f). The abundance of
lithium in different magmatic rocks leaves little room for another source
than the crust: Ultrabasic rocks: 0.x ppm Li, basic rocks: 17 ppm Li, inter-
mediate rocks: 20 ppm Li, syenite: 28 ppm Li, granite: 40 ppm Li.
4.7.1. Li pegmatites in the Variscan Metallotect
The lion share of pegmatites under operation in the Bohemian Massif
in Central Europe is enriched in feldspar, quartz and mica and, conse-
quently these mineral deposits were exploited as a raw material in use
for ceramic products. Only lithium is known to have been mined as a
by-product in the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province. This element
is quite common in pegmatites from the Saxo-Thuringian through the
Moldanubian Zone in a wide range of host minerals, and we can find lith-
ium as a major component also in the ancient massifs, south of the
uplifted Variscan blocks, incorporated and reactivated in the Alpine
Mountain chain.
Along the northern rim of the Bohemian Massif, in the Saxo-
Thuringian zone, which is identical with the frontal part of the northward
moving nappes and the collision zone, the lithium micas lepidolite and
polylithionite are widespread in the granitic pegmatites and the town of
Zinnwald, Germany, became the namesake or locus typicus of zinnwaldite.

amp

10 cm

amp

b zoi

Fig. 30. a. Eclogite–amphibolites intersected by zoisite pegmatoids (white) at Weissenstein near Stammbach, Germany. b. Close-up view of the zoisite pegmatoid (zoi) surrounded by
eclogite amphibolite (amp). The green coating is made of lichen. c. Morphological expression of the feldspar pegmatoid–pegmatite at Shagaait uul in the Western Mongolian Steppe-(ar-
rowhead). d. Outcrop of the intermediate graphic zone of the Khar Chuluut 2 Pegmatite. e. Contact between to textural zones in the core part of the Khotol us Pegmatite. f. Shape and zo-
nation of the Shagait-uul quartz–feldspar pegmatoid-pegmatite in biotite–crystalline schists, gneiss, granite–gneiss and rarely amphibolite. g. Mphungu mica–quartz–feldspar pegmatoid,
Malawi.
492 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
gr
bl
Fig. 30 (continued).
The lithium contents in the northernmost part of the Bohemian Massif in-
crease at a steady rate in the course of granite differentiation from 60 ppm
Li in the oldest member of this granite suite through 306 ppm Li in the
most strongly fractionated “Tin Granite” (Richter and Stettner, 1979).
Heading further east towards the Erzgebirge/Krušne Hory Mts. shows a
moderate lithium increase in the Nejdek Pluton/Eibenstock and in a sim-
ilar way in the Slavkovský les/Kaiserwald, Czech Republic (Breiter,
1998a). Only the albite–Li–mica–granites with topaz are significantly
enriched in lithium, a fact that is mineralogically proved by the presence
of the Li ore mineral zinnwaldite. The ultimate Li level is reached in the
easternmost parts near Zinnwald, where medium-grained albite granites
with zinnwaldite and lepidolite are exposed.
Towards the South at the boundary between the Saxo-Thuringian
and Moldanubian Zones, lithium is still present yet in a different chem-
ical compound. It is accommodated into the lattice of montebrasite
[LiAl(PO4)(OH,F)] (Fig. 22f). There is no mineral any better to demon-
strate the transitional character between the Li granitic pegmatites (Li
bl = blocky central zone
gr = graphic intermediate zone
mica) in the Saxo-Thuringian and the Li pegmatites (Li phosphate)
(Fig. 22a, b, e, f). Fluorine is the marker element for the Li-bearing
granitic pegmatites and Li–Fe–Mn phosphate is typical of the
northern part of the Moldanubian zone. The Hagendorf–Pleystein Peg-
matite Province only contains Li phosphates, present as triphylite,
lithiophyllite, tavorite, and ferrisicklerite.
Approaching the central parts of the Moldanubian Zone, another level
is exposed where lithium forms a chemical compound with boron, giving
rise to the tourmaline s.s.s. elbaite and liddicoaite at Bližná I, Czech
Republic, a pegmatite dike which intersects a calcite–dolomite marble se-
ries (Novák et al., 1999a,b). The Rožná pegmatite near Bystřice nad
Pernštejnem, is a large lepidolite-bearing pegmatite dike (Novák and
Selway, 1997). The dike of the lepidolite pegmatite is located along the
contact of the Strážek Moldanubicum and the Svratka Unit and dominant-
ly hosted by leucocratic biotite paragneiss. Apart from Li-mica it gave also
host to a Li chlorite cookeite (Fig. 22c), together with elbaite, amblygonite,
and montebrasite. The deposits resides in granulitic to migmatitic biotite–
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 493

N Shagait uuluul
pegmatoid-pegmatite
Shagait pegmatite area
S

20 0 20 40m

Aplite vein
Blocky and graphic
pegmatite Quartz vein

Graphic pegmatite Quartz tourmaline vein

Blocky pegmatite Gneiss+amphibolite

Fig. 30 (continued).
494 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

b
columbite beryl

a deformed

8 cm

10 cm

deformed
10 cm
undeformed

Fig. 31. a. Columbite in elbaite from the metapegmatite at Otov u Pobezovic, Czech Republic. The columbite (dark) formed late synkinematically in the tourmaline s.s.s. b. Two different
varieties of beryl developed in the same metapegmatites yet at different sites. Pale green beryl has been broken perpendicular to the axis of the prism. The fracture is healed with quartz
(Meclov u Pobezovic). Another mega crystal of pale mottled beryl is undeformed (Otov u Pobezovic). All samples are from the Mineralogical Department of the Moravian Museum in Brno,
Czech Republic.

hornblende- and biotite gneisses. The Věžná I pegmatite dike cutting
through serpentinized lherzolite is abundant in elbaite, polylithionite,
trilithionite, and lepidolite (Dosbaba and Novák, 2012).
The Li accumulation and its chemical bonding is interpreted in terms
of an intracrustal process within an ensialic orogen where the Li mineral
assemblages vary as a function of thrusting, nappe stacking and anatectic
mobilization. Along with a deepening of the thrust the lithium used to
change its chemical compound as follows: Li mica ⇒ Li–Al
phosphate ⇒ Li–Fe–Mn phosphate. In the core zone of the Bohemian
Massif identical with the central part of the ensialic orogen, Li enters the
lattice of tourmaline to form Li boron-silicates. At the opposite side of
the Bohemian Massif we are faced with the same geodynamic setting. Un-
like the thrustal planes at the northern edge of the Bohemian Massif
which dip towards the South, those along the southern edge of the Bohe-
mian Massif dip towards the North. The lithium accumulation and
geodynamic setting in the Bohemian Massif along the northern collision
zone constitutes the mirror image of the southern boundary, with a slight
but striking difference. In the North, the gradient is moderate with a gent-
ly dipping thrust plane and the various diagnostic Li associations well split
apart from each other, in the south a more steeply dipping thrust caused
the various Li association with Li mica ⇒ Li–Al phosphate ⇒ Li boron sil-
icates to be telescoped into each other (Novák et al., 1999b). The accumu-
lation of the various Li minerals, strongly controlled by crustal processes,
reflects the inclination of the planar architectural element responsible for
the mobilization of the Li-bearing felsic melt.
The physical–chemical processes causing the mobilization of the el-
ements and accompanying the kinematic processes are described as fol-
lows (Dill, 2015). They are based on an extensive study perpendicular to
the strike of the geodynamic units: Anatexis and granitic fractionation
(Li mica), granitic fractionation and subcrustal mobilization along
deep-seated lineaments (Li–Al phosphate), subcrustal mobilization
along deep-seated lineaments and high-grade metamorphism in the
root zone of the nappes (Li phosphate), high-grade metamorphism (Li
borosilicates). It is an asymmetrical physical–chemical paired belt of
lithium concentration in the Bohemian Massif which well agrees with
the findings obtained for phosphorus (Section 4.6) and boron
(Section 4.5) both of which are recycled within the crust.
4.7.2. Li pegmatites in the Alpine Metallotect
From the Austrian Alps four Li-bearing pegmatitic deposits are de-
scribed in more detail (Angel, 1933; Angel and Meixner, 1953; Alker,
1972; Göd, 1978, 1989; Ucik, 2005). Near Spittal, at Erling a Li pegmatite
(spodumene) is intercalated into micaschists. The Wildbachgraben peg-
matite is a U–Sn–Nb–Be–Li pegmatite (spodumene) with beryl,
ilmenorutile and scheelite. At St. Radegund near Graz a B–Be–Li
pegmatoid (spodumene) formed within gneiss and micaschists. A varie-
gated spectrum of Be minerals such as beryl, bavenite, bertrandite, and
phenakite accompany the Li mineralization. In contrast to the Li occur-
rences mentioned above the Koralpe–Weinebene lithium deposit was
explored by underground tunneling and drilling operations which are
still going on (R. Göd pers. communication) (Figs. 22d, 23a, b, c). The
Koralpe lithium deposit is an unzoned (Nb–B–As–U)–REE–P–Be–Li
pseudopegmatite tabular (spodumene N holmquisite N Li phosphate) ac-
cording to the CMS classification scheme. The pegmatitic layers are inter-
calated into medium- to high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Koralpe
which based upon their lithology can be subdivided into eclogitic am-
phibolites and kyanite-bearing micaschists (Göd, 1989). Emplacement
of the pegmatites caused an alteration zone of several decimeter in thick-
ness in the hosting amphibolites, and is characterized by biotitization and
the formation of holmquistite. No contact phenomena exist along the
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 495

Fig. 32. a. Exhumed quartz core of pinkish rose quartz (see inset) of the Kreuzberg Pegmatite in the town of Pleystein, Germany. The feldspar rim has been eaten away by erosion. b. Shear
zone filled with milky quartz. It forms part of the “Bayerischer Pfahl” (Great Bavarian Quartz Lode). Similar in their outward appearance but smaller in size, quartz dikes of this type are also
found at the edge of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, some of which cross the border into the pegmatite provinces. c. Shear zone filled with quartz from the bird's-eye view
intersecting the Seigal Volcanics, Australia. d. Quartz dikes, aplites, pegmatites and granites in the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, the boundary of which is marked by a dashed
frame. e. The distribution of silica-bearing gemstone deposits related to pegmatites by country and by geology. It is extracted from the map “Gems and Gemstones by Country and
Geology — Silica” (modified from Dill and Weber, 2013). For legend see Fig. 10a.

mica schist-hosted dikes and no granitic intrusion is exposed in the area.
According to the author above, the pegmatites could have been displaced
from their source by tectonic events. Among the lithium minerals, apart
from spodumene and holmquistite, montebrasite, triphylite, lithiophyllite
and ferrosicklerite can be reported. Habler and Thöni (2001) dealt with
the metapelites and metapegmatites intercalated into the crystalline
basement of the Austroalpine nappe complex of the Eastern Alps. Their
geothermobarometric investigations on gneisses of this Alpine basement
section yielded temperatures around 600 °C at a pressure of 0.4 GPa. Ac-
cording to these authors the pegmatite formation can be correlated with
the low-pressure metamorphism in the metapelites, which based upon
Sm–Nd-dating of magmatic garnet from the pegmatite gneiss is placed
at 249 ± 3 Ma. Their geothermobarometric investigations are in harmony
with the quartz-saturated phase relationship of lithium aluminosilicates
showing at this dataset spodumene to be the stable Li-bearing silicate
(London, 2005). Subsequently, Thöni et al. (2008) fine-tuned their previ-
ous petrological and chronological investigations suggesting a multiple
emplacement of pegmatitic melts between 273 ± 2 and 258 ± 3 Ma, in
some sites even younger with ages down to 251 ± 7 and, in places,
around 230 Ma. Ensuing overprinting processes under eclogite-facies
496 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Fig. 32 (continued).
conditions with peak temperatures around 700 °C and a pressure at
2.2 GPa accompanied by intense deformation during Cretaceous time,
were unable to obliterate previous isotopic signals and to blur the mag-
matic nature of the aforementioned rocks. The chemical composition of
the Alpine pseudopegmatites resembles the chemical composition of peg-
matites in the Moldanubian Zone, being located to the North of the South
Bohemian Pluton (Dill, 2015). Presumably a crustal section of the
Moldanubian Zone similar in composition was reactivated in the Alpine
Fold Belt.
4.7.3. Li pegmatites in the Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic
metallotects
Judging by the outward appearance and by its structure, the
Koralpe Li pseudopegmatite closely resembles the Greenbushes
lithium pegmatite deposit ((U–REE)–Sn–Be–P–B–Cs–Li–Nb–Ta
pseudopegmatite), Australia (Partington, 1990; Partington et al.,
1995). The above deposit is described as a giant pegmatite
[pseudopegmatite] dike of Achaean age with a substantial Li–Sn–Ta
mineralization (Fig. 24a). It developed in a medium- to high-
temperature and medium pressure regime with country rocks
pertaining to the metabasic and metaultrabasic clan. Spodumene is
the main Li-bearing mineral. The pseudopegmatite, being emplaced
along a shear zone, was correlated with granitoids in the same
tectonized crustal section which were envisaged as the parental granite
but dated to be 90 m.y. older than the pseudopegmatite. The authors
listed three major events to have controlled the concentration of the
Li–Sn–Ta ore. At 2527 Ma the initial crystallization of the pegmatitic
rocks and the metasomatism of the country rocks took place. Around
2430 Ma synkinematic and synmetamorphic hydrothermal alteration
produced a second event, while during a subsequent deformation and
metamorphism at ca. 1100 Ma the latest remobilization took effect.
The spodumene mineralization within the Greenbushes deposit is the
latest one placed outside the Na and K pegmatites (Bettenay et al.,
1988). The often cited fractional crystallization as the way to pegmatites
does neither add to the explanation of the origin of the Li
pseudopegmatite at Koralpe, Austria (Section 4.7.2) nor to that of the
Greenbushes Li pegmatite. The ore body shown in the cross section of
Fig. 24a looks like a rootless intrafolial fold within the shear zone, a com-
mon feature of this type of deformation. Individual ore bodies found in
the ore zone are not the result of differentiation of molten material but
the result of folding and shearing. Another Nb–Ta–Li pegmatite is locat-
ed at Wodgina in Port Hedland Shire, Australia ((REE–W)–Be–P–Li–Nb–
Ta), in the Mount Cattlin Lithium Mine at Ravensthorpe ((F–Be–Sn)–
Nb/Ta–Li (LiS N LiP)) and in the Olary Province, South Australia, (Be–
REE–Li–P–Nb/Ta) (Lottermoser and Lu, 1997; Jacobson et al., 2007).
The Li–Cs–(Rb) pegmatite, Bikita, Zimbabwe, is besides Bernic Lake
(Lac-du-Bonnet), Canada, the only site where another alkaline element
rubidium was found at such a high level so as to make its recovery from
the ore feasible (Dixon, 1979) (Fig. 24b, c). A syncline made up of Archa-
ic ultrabasic and intermediate metavolcanic rocks in the Victoria Schist
Belt gave host to the above Li–Cs–(Rb) pegmatite deposit. In this tabular
strongly zoned deposit, whose mineral association is subdivided into 13
zones, spodumene is accompanied by zinnwaldite, lepidolite, petalite,
as well as pollucite. An especially large array of lithium minerals is pres-
ent in the pegmatite, with spodumene and abundant petalite in the
upper intermediate zones and lepidolite in the lower intermediate
zone as well as in the core, where it is of massive texture (Cooper,
1964; Kesler et al., 2012) (Fig. 24b). The host rocks surrounding the
Bikita deposit are metasediments, serpentinites, dolerites, ironstones
and epidiorites. Anatexis is the major mobilizing process during the
evolution of the pseudopegmatite and a shear zone-hosted emplace-
ment the most plausible way of accumulating lithium ore shoots of
this size. In Madagascar analogue Na–Li pegmatites with spodumene,
rubellite, a variety of the elbaite member of the tourmaline s.s.s. and
rhodizite occur near Manjaka, Madagascar.
The subhorizontal tabular Tanco pegmatite at Bernic Lake (Lac-du-
Bonnet), Canada, has been subdivided into nine zones (Be–B–P–Sn–
Li–Ta pseudopegmatite). The lower-intermediate zone is made up of
microcline, albite, quartz, spodumene and amblygonite, the upper-
intermediate zone of spodumene, quartz, amblygonite and petalite,
H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 497

Fig. 32 (continued).
498 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Fig. 32 (continued).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 499

b c

5 cm 2 cm

Fig. 33. a. Nepheline syenite (white) intersecting an alkaline gabbro complex. East Carpathian Mountains near Ditró (Ditrău), Romania. b. Nepheline syenite with sodalite. Bancroft Area-
Oka-Blue Mountain, Canada. c. Blue sodalite from the nepheline syenite pegmatite at Dungannon, Ontario, Canada.

the pollucite zone contains pollucite and the lepidolite zone bears lithi-
um mica (Selway et al., 2000, 2005). Zonation and structure have much
in common with the Bikita deposits from Zimbabwe described previ-
ously (Fig. 24b, c). Basaltic and andesitic volcanic rocks are widespread
in the area and form together with volcaniclastics the country rocks,
while gabbros and diorites make up the immediate wall rocks of the
pegmatite (Kremer and Lin, 2006). The Tanco gabbro, the Birse Lake
granodiorite and the volcanic rocks of the Bernic Lake Formation devel-
oped more or less contemporaneously and form part of a singular volca-
nic and subvolcanic complex ca. 2724 Ma (Kremer and Lin, 2006). Three
different deformational phases can be identified in the Bernic Lake
area, encompassing isoclinal folding. According to both authors, the
pegmatitic melt ascended from depth along the reactivated North
Bernic Lake Shear Zone and was emplaced both within the shear
zone and within rock units adjacent to it. The pegmatites intruded
while the rocks of the Bernic Lake Formation were at or near the brit-
tle–ductile transition, a situation quite common also in the ensialic
orogen of the Central European Variscides more than 2000 m.y.
later along the thrustal zones between the Saxo-Thuringian and
Moldanubian Zones. No strongly fractionated parental granitoid
has been localized in the immediate vicinity and a tectono-
metamorphic process seems the most plausible cause for the em-
placement of the pegmatite.
Separation Lake area hosts the Big Whopper and Big Mack petalite
pegmatites, the largest ore deposits among the 29 individual ore bodies
considered by Breaks and Tindle (1997) as a genetic analogue to
Bikita, Zimbabwe, which is classified as (P–REE–Be)–B–Sn–Nb/Ta–Li
pseudopegmatite (Li silicate). A detailed mineralogical investigation
has been performed by Tindle and Breaks focusing on the Nb–Ta
mineralization (2000a,b).
A similar type of pegmatitic deposit as to the chemical composition is
worked in the Koktokay No. 3 pegmatite (Altay No. 3 pegmatite), China
(Zhang et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2006; T. Wang et al., 2007; R.C. Wang
et al. 2007). There are, however, striking differences to the
500 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

a b

c 2 cm d 3cm

e f

2cm

Fig. 34. a. Andalusite from the Dolni Bory Pegmatite, Czech Republic. b. Sillimanite from the Marsikov metapegmatite, Czech Republic (specimen from the Moravian Museum, Brno). The
arrowhead points to chrysoberyl. c Kyanite lath intergrown with mica at the edge of a pegmatoid. Zillertal, Austria. d. Hexagonal prisms of blue opaque corundum disseminated within the
Dac Lac Pegmatite, Southern Vietnam. e. Sekaninaite (Fe-enriched cordierite) in a feldspar pegmatite, Dolny Bori, Czech Republic. f. Cordierite patches disseminated in an aploid
(migmatite), Böhmisch Bruck, Germany.

aforementioned Li-enriched pegmatitic deposits as to the age of forma-
tion, which is early Mesozoic (200 Ma) and testifies that the pegmatite
is genetically unrelated to the wall granite (409 Ma). The pegmatite is
one of the largest muscovite deposits in Asia and is most famous for its
concentric-ring structure. The No. 3 pegmatite was formed in an early
Mesozoic anorogenic extensional regime. A stable tectonic setting was as-
sumed for the formation of the large pegmatite (Wang et al., 2007b). Ac-
cording to the information released on this deposit, a classification as
(REE)–Be–B–Cs–Nb/Ta Li-mica pseudopegmatite. It shows some features
also found in rare-element deposits along the East African rift and fold
belts where pegmatites are closely associated with “glimmerites” and
may be taken as another example for the interfingering of mantle and
crustal element concentration processes.
In southern America a swarm of spodumene pegmatites makes up
the Cachoeira pegmatite group in the eastern Brazilian Pegmatite
Province and is mined for lithium (Romeiro, 1998; Romeiro and
Pedrosa-Soares, 2005). Concluding from the mineralogical association,
including montebrasite, spodumene, cookeite, columbite–tantalite,
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Granite
pegmatites
Pegmatoids>
metapegmatites
(kyanite) andalusite
NW Frankenwald MGC Fichtelgebirge
Fig. 35. A transect through the western edge of the Bohemian Massif to illustrate the variation of alumosilicates and aluminum oxides as a function of the geological setting. See for further
explanation and distribution of pegmatitic rocks also the cross section in Fig. 9f.
cassiterite and beryl and the morphology of the ore bodies, the pegma-
tite may be called an unzoned (Sn–Be–P–Nb/Ta)–Li pegmatite tabular
(Li silicate N Li phosphate). The individual pegmatitic ore bodies are ar-
ranged in an en echelon structural pattern within the Salinas Fm., where
the individual ore lenses form sharp contacts with the cordierite–bio-
tite–quartz schists and the subordinate intercalations of calcsilicate
rocks (Fig. 24d, e, f). The pegmatite ore shoots followed the cleavage
and discordant fractures of the metamorphic country rocks, whose de-
formation plan points to a strong lateral shear stress as the Li-enriched
siliceous melt intruded the basement (Fig. 24e, f). Fluids like water
and fluorine lowered the viscosity of the melt and provoked an increas-
ing crystal size from bottom to top (Fig. 24f). The photographs in
Fig. 24e and f showed lath-shaped spodumene crystals oriented parallel
to the contacts of the tabular bodies as a consequence of fluid migration,
the exocontact is characterized by boudinage and brittle deformation,
features well known from pegmatites that late- to post kinematically
were intruded into the HT-LP metamorphic rocks, as it is the case with
the much younger pegmatites in the Hagendorf–Pleystein-Province,
Germany. The results described by the authors and the personal impres-
sion obtained at subcrop attests to metamorpho-tectonic processes ac-
countable for the concentration of this lithium pegmatite.
Differentiation is caused by a rheological process and unrelated to frac-
tionation of a granitic batholith nearby.
The classical Varuträsk zoned Cs–Li pegmatite in Sweden crops out
in a metasedimentary series alternating with amphibolites (Quensel,
1952) (Fig. 24g). Its balloon-shaped body has different zones of Li con-
centration; several of its ore shoots in the external zone cross the
boundary to the intermediate zone and one rims the core where the
Cs content reached a maximum. Unfortunately, it cannot be deduced
from the image whether the individual ore bodies in the endocontact
zone have been affected by post-mineralizing faulting and so have
splitted up the pegmatite into separate entities.
In Finland, the Viitaniemi Nb–Be–Li–P pegmatite is hosted by a com-
plex series of leptites, leptite gneisses amphibolites, amphibole gneisses
surrounding granites, granodiorites, diorites and gabbros (Lahti, 1981,
2000; Teerstra et al., 1993). Phacolites of Li pegmatite are squeezed
into the surrounding micaschists. The micaschists are very rich in
boron too, locally, exceeding by 30 times as much the boron content
of common marine sediments.
501
Pegmatites+aplites
Pegmatite-
Metapegmatites> (skarn)
pegmatoids
(staurolite) sillimanite andalusite andalusite
(dumortierite) andalusite cordierite cordierite
corundum
ZEV Oberpfälzer W. Böhmer WaldSE
HPPP
The belt of spodumene pegmatites of the Carolina tin-spodumene belt
in the USA is one of the largest reserves of lithium in the world (Kesler,
1976; Evans, 1978). The spodumene-cassiterite mineralization in the
pegmatite resides in the Cherryville Quartz Monzonite, and in schists
and amphibolites around it — Foote Lithium King Mts. (U–Nb/Ta–Sn–
Be–Li–P pegmatite (LiSi N LiP)), Spruce Pine McHone Mine (B–Be–F–Li),
Spruce Pine Chalk Ray Mica Mine (W–Li)–REE–Be–Nb/Ta–mica pegma-
tite. Individual lithium pegmatites were intruded parallel to foliation in
the surrounding rocks with a surface dimensions from only a few meters
to 90 m wide and 1 km long (Kesler, 1976; Kesler et al., 2012). It is an
unzoned spodumene pegmatite with a spade of phosphate minerals
among others kingsmountite, which was named after the Kings Moun-
tains. The age of the pegmatites of the Foote Mineral Deposit falls in the
interval 260 to 375 Ma. The structural pattern showing the individual
pegmatites is not very much different from what has been described in
detail from the Brazilian spodumene deposits in the previous paragraph,
even if they are much older — see also Section 8.
The outward appearance of tabular Li pegmatites may often give a
different picture in plane view and cross sections drafted after mapping.
Motion along these faults is mainly that of transform faults, mirrored at
the surface by en echelon felsic dykes. Accommodation space however is
provided in the hinge areas and limbs of late anticlinal structures fol-
lowing the rules of mimic tectonics, irrespective whether they are of Pa-
leozoic or Precambrian age. As felsic to intermediate intrusive rocks are
often cut by the lithium ore shoots, these intrusive rocks can be attribut-
ed to a regional heat event together with the pegmatites but cannot be
claimed as the heat source or parental granite for the Li pegmatites.
The Manono–Kitolo and Kamativi spodumene-bearing pegmatites
are structurally controlled and were described as some sort of “mega
floors” in context with tin and tungsten in pegmatite together with
the Sn–W deposits in Section 4.1.2 (Fig. 8a).
4.7.4. Synopsis of Li pegmatites
The Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province is located at the heart
of a region in SE Germany underlain by metapsammopelitic rocks
whose age of metamorphism is older than 340 Ma. At the beginning
of the pathway of Li concentration lies the preconcentration of this alka-
line element in the basement of the Moldanubian zone (Dill, 2015).
While these metalliferous rocks or low-metal concentrations of lithium
502 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
are exhumed in the south, in the northern part, in the Saxo-Thuringian
Zone, they are concealed at depth absorbed and recycled underneath
the Li-bearing pegmatitic rocks at outcrop (Fig. 22g). In the course of
an anatectic conversion of crustal material into felsic magmas at depth
there are sporadic magmatic processes of subcrustal origin, e.g., the for-
mation of the redwitzites (intermediate intrusive igneous rocks) and
the remobilization of metapegmatites along the boundary between
the autochthonous and allochthonous units. These subcrustal basic
rocks attest to a subcrustal heat source to be involved in the mobiliza-
tion of the element from the metasediments. Bierlein et al. (2009) spec-
ulate on a large scale mantle–crust interaction in the lower crust. There
is a strong geodynamical zonation from the frontal parts of collision
zones to the root zones of nappes, where subcrustal heat may add up
to the mobilization of Li. From the lower crust to the upper crust the lith-
ium contents got gradually upgraded reaching its climax in the large
highly differentiated Sn–W-bearing granitic batholiths along the
Fichtelgebirge-Erzgebirge Anticline. Near the collision zone, lithium is
found in Li silicates hosted by granitic pegmatites, whereas heading to-
wards the core of the ensialic orogen, lithium became enriched in phos-
phates and borosilicates. Concentration of Li and the emplacement of its
pegmatites is closely linked to shear zones and thrusting, dismembered
pseudopegmatites represent the ultimate stage of Li concentration in
the course of reactivation in modern fold belts adjacent to ensialic
orogens or older equivalent environments of deposition (Figs. 23c,
24a, b. c).
Lithium has been derived from a crustal source and was also found
reactivated within Alpine-type orogens (Fig. 6b). The often quoted zo-
nation of pegmatite-related rare elements such as Li, Be, Cs and Nb/Ta
in an onion-shell style round a hypothetical granite is neither supported
by the cross sections of Sections 4.7.2 and 4.7.3 nor supported by map-
ping in the basement areas giving host to the Li pegmatites.
Tabular and stock-like lithium pseudopegmatites were discovered
frequently in metamorphic series composed of micaschists and mica
gneisses alternating with meta(ultra)basic rocks. Albitization is a com-
mon feature of these pegmatites. Currently the hard rock lithium de-
posits in pegmatites are challenged by salars and inland playas
enriched evaporites where lithium is recovered from brines. The idea
is tempting but needs further testing as to the true nature of the parent
material from which the meta(ultra)basic rocks have derived from. The
micaceous schists and gneisses of the country rocks can be accounted
for by claystones and mudstones. Magnesium- and calcium-enriched
rocks like amphibolites may have derived from a basic volcanic protolith
but can also be traced back to marls. The logic in this idea would point to
a metaplaya which the Li enriched pegmatites have derived from. If the
metabasic rocks proved to be igneous in origin, strong contrasts in the
rock strength between micaceous metasediments and massive
metabasic rocks are accountable for the emplacement of Li pegmatites
in these peculiar host rock suite.
4.8. Niobium–tantalum–scandium pegmatites (13 DE)
The average grade of niobium in the earth's crust is 20 ppm Nb,
while the average grade of tantalum stands at 2.4 ppm Ta. Both ele-
ments have great similarities in their ionic radii (Nb: 0.69 Å, Ta:
0.68 Å) and occur in the same pentavalent state. They form minerals
of complete solid solution series with the general formula AxByOz.
The position A can be occupied by Na, Ca, Ba, Th, Pb, REE, Zr, Mn 2 +,
and Fe 2+, position B by Nb, Ta, Ti, Fe 3+, Sn, Hf, W, and Al and position
C by O, OH, and F. Niobium and tantalum develop niobates and tanta-
lates, also containing considerable amounts of REE. The ionic radii of
Nb and Ta prevent them from being accommodated in the structure of
common rock-forming minerals such as feldspar or mica and leave
these elements in solutions until the pegmatitic stage of alkaline and
calc-alkaline magmas is reached, where they are accommodated in
the columbite–tantalite s.s.s. (Fig. 25a, b). The second string to the
bow in Nb and Ta exploitation is the pyrochlore–microlite group
which occurs mainly in alkaline magmatic rocks.
Scandium can substitute in columbite-group minerals and ixiolite to
considerable amounts for Nb (Wise et al., 1998). Trivalent scandium is
sometimes compared with Y3+ and the trivalent REE with respect to
its geochemical behavior (Wood and Samson, 2006). The most common
scandium mineral, the Sc silicate thortveitite is also known from pegma-
tite, e.g., the Evje–Iveland pegmatite district, Norway (Fig. 28c).
4.8.1. Nb/Ta pegmatites in the Variscan metallotect
Columbite–tantalite s.s.s. are common constituents among the min-
eral assemblages known from pegmatites and granitic pegmatites in the
Bohemian Massif. Along a NW–SE transect extending perpendicular to
the strike of the Moldanubian and Saxo-Thuringian Zones from the
Hagendorf–Pleystein pegmatites towards the granitic pegmatites of
the Erzgebirge–Fichtelgebirge Anticline, in other words, from the cen-
tral zone towards the collision zone, a conspicuous variation from
columbite-only assemblages to tapiolite-dominated mineral assem-
blages can be observed. Tantalum increases in the columbite–tantalite
s.s.s approaching the frontal parts of the collision zone or, in other
words, up-dip of the thrust planes intersecting the Central European
Variscides.
These observations in nature find also an outlet in some results elab-
orated during experimental work. According to Aleksandrov (1963) and
Linnen and Keppler (1997) columbite s.s.s. reveal characteristic changes
in their chemical composition upon evolution of their host pegmatites,
involving the Nb/Ta ratio to decrease along with fractionation. The ex-
perimental results of the aforementioned authors and the field relations
described from the frontal part of the Saxo-Thuringian Zone in the Cen-
tral European Variscides encouraged to a wider use the Fe + Mn- and
Nb + Ta ratios in the columbite s.s.s. for a geological environment anal-
ysis of pegmatitic rocks (Fig. 26) (Dill, 2015).
In the x–y plot of Fig. 26, displaying the Mn ∗ 100/(Mn + Fe) ratio
versus the Ta ∗ 100/(Nb + Ta) ratio two different trends called the
Pleystein- (A) and the Hagendorf Trends (B) can be observed. The
data arrays of the stock-like and tabular pegmatites and aplites plot
along these two steeply dipping trend lines. Both trend lines reflect
the magmatic fractionation in the Nb–Ta system of the columbite-(Fe)
s.s.s. Mineral assemblages creating the Pleystein Trend A are located
proximal to the thermal center, whereas those pegmatite mineral as-
semblages at a more distal position constitute the Hagendorf Trend B.
The outward appearance and morphology of columbite from pegmatite
sensu stricto can be deduced from (Fig. 25 a, b).
The Püllersreuth Trend D 3 expressed by the subhorizontal trend
line originated from the Fe–Mn fractionation in columbites hosted by
metapegmatites. There are some data arrays coming close to this
Püllersreuth Trend D 3 that were identified in the Pleystein and
Hagendorf data set (Fig. 26). Upon an extended examination of these
peculiar data, these data arrays create an anticlockwise trend from
metamorphic to magmatic felsic mobilizates (metapegmatites,
intermediate (meta) pegmatites and magmatic felsic mobilizates) and
they are recognized at Püllersreuth, Kreuzberg, Reinhardsrieth I,
Trutzhofmühle (arranged in order of increasing magmatic impact, rep-
resented by the slope of the positive trend lines) (Dill and Skoda,
2015). D1 and D2 are two discrete data arrays of columbite s.s.s. from
Otov, Czech Republic, immediately E of the Czech–German border. D2
is located above Ta2O5 ∗ 100/(Ta2O5 + Nb2O5) = 60.00 and was fit
into the base diagram as to the MnO ∗ 100/(MnO + FeO) ratio 50.00
to 60.00. These columbite trends from Otov belong to the metamor-
phic–magmatic trend illustrated in Fig. 26. The age of formation of the
columbite s.s.s from the Otov metapegmatite in the Domažlice Crystal-
line Complex was constrained to 482.2 ± 13 Ma (Glodny et al., 1998).
The host metapegmatite of the Czech pegmatite deposits belongs to
the same allochthonous nappe unit as the Püllersreuth metapegmatite
(Tepla–Barrandian Unit). Mega crystals of muscovite from Püllersreuth
dated by Glodny et al. (1995) yielded a cooling age of 481 ± 5 Ma which
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 503

a b

pyrope
almandine
spessartite
grossularite
(+andratite)
c
d

2 cm

2 cm f

5 cm
di

gr
ga

Fig. 36. a. Well-shaped orange Mn-enriched garnet from an aploid (see inset with chemical composition). It shows a dodecahedral morphology with the edges beveled by the attrition. The
garnet has been sampled in a drainage system intersecting the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province. b. Red Mn-bearing garnet infiltrated along grain boundaries the quartz mosaic of
the Ipe Pegmatite, Brazil. c. Feldspar with deep red spessartite and greenish opal (supergene alteration). Radkovice Pegmatite, Czech Republic (sample: Moravian Museum Brno, Czech
Republic). d. Red porphyroblast of almandine-enriched garnet accompanied by black porphyroblasts of schorl in a metaaplite at Fuchsenberg near Pleystein, Germany. e. Garnet–diopside
skarn at Žulová, Czech Republic (di = diopside, gr = garnet, ga = gabbro). The gabbro was formed from desilicification of diorite pegmatite (sample: Moravian Museum Brno, Czech
Republic). f. Well-shaped hessonite garnet from the garnet–diopside skarn at Žulová, Czech Republic (see Fig. 36e) (sample: Museum Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic).

agrees well with the age of formation of columbite from Domažlice
Crystalline Complex. A specimen of columbite s.s.s. from the
metapegmatites of the Domažlice Crystalline Complex is on display in
the Museum at Brno, Czech Republic (Fig. 29a). Columbite precipitated
late synkinematically to post-kinematically in this metapegmatite.
How can the data arrays of the contemporaneous columbites from
the Püllersreuth and Otov metapegmatites interpreted in terms of
their geological environment? Püllersreuth is the most primitive colum-
bite s.s.s. which came into existence under true metamorphic conditions
in the metapegmatites. The columbite from the Otov metapegmatite is
more strongly fractionated and more evolved than the Püllersreuth co-
lumbite s.s.s. It is takes a transitional position from metamorphogenic to
magmatic. The strong differentiation within the Mn–Fe ratio in the
metamorphogenic columbite is supposedly affected also by the
504 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

presence of metamorphogenic minerals scavenging Fe from the sys-
tems, such as members of the tourmaline and garnet s.s.s. which are
common accessories in many metasedimentary rocks. The same conclu-
sion can be drawn from the data array of the columbite s.s.s. found in the
pegmatites sensu stricto of the Bayerische–Böhmer Wald including data
from the Hühnerkobel, Pochermühle, Blötz, Schwarzeck,
Schwarzenbach, Birkhöhe, Pauliberg, and Kautzenbach pegmatites
(source: Schaaf et al., 2008). The data array C framed with the stippled
line has a strong magmatic component like their equivalent minerals
from Pleystein and Hagendorf pegmatites in the northern part of the
Moldanubian Zone and a moderately well developed metamorphic
component.
The emplacement of the pegmatitic rocks in the Central European
Variscides is not a monophase process but runs the gamut from
metamorpho-tectonic syn- to late kinematic mobilization through
post-kinematic mobilization as far as the primary mineralization in
the rare-element pegmatitic rocks is concerned. The differentiation of
the Nb–Ta and Fe–Mn ratios in the columbite s.s.s. can be used as a
tool to localize the Nb–Ta concentration in terms of the geodynamic
evolution and geological environment. These data are in full agreement
with the evolution of the ensialic orogen and the geodynamic siting of
the various pegmatites in the Central European Variscides.
Even the formation Nb–Ta oxides in the predecessors or low-metal
concentrations of pegmatites found in the exocontact of the pegmatites
can be concluded from the x–y plot of Fig. 26. It is the columbite s.s.s in
“nigrine”, a mineral aggregate of Nb-bearing rutile and ilmenite exclu-
sive to the roof rocks and wall rocks of pegmatite-prone gneisses of
the NE Bavarian Basement (Dill et al., 2007, 2014a). There are three dif-
ferent types of “nigrine”, with type B being the most important one in
terms of the columbite evolution around pegmatites. Grains of
“nigrine”, categorized as type B, additionally contain inclusions of
columbite-(Fe), pyrochlore, betafite, ferroan sphalerite, pyrrhotite and
Fe oxides. Type A and type C “nigrine” are barren as to these inclusions
and cannot genetically correlated with rare-metal pegmatites. Type B is
early postkinematic and enriched in niobian rutile, rife with lots of in-
clusions, especially columbite-(Fe). It precipitated in the crystalline
country rocks at temperatures around 600 °C and is concomitant with
the nearby rare-element pegmatites between 302 and 311 Ma (Dill

Fig. 37. a. Plate of muscovite from the Irchenrieth Pegmatite, Germany. b. Muscovite booklets in the rim zone of the Ooldin tsaagan tolgoi feldspar pegmatite, Mongolia. c. The stocklike
mica pegmatite at Kragerö, Norway (redrawn from Richter-Bernburg, 1950). d. The bilaterally symmetrical mineralization in the mica pegmatite tabular at Holene, Norway (redrawn
from Richter-Bernburg, 1950). e. Layered pegmatites. Above: Unidirectional growth zones in the sill-like mica pegmatite at Hitterö, Norway. (redrawn from Richter-Bernburg, 1950).
Below: Layered structures (line rocks) made up of quartz, K feldspar, plagioclase, garnet and biotite Evje area, Norway. (photograph: courtesy of A. Müller, Geological Survey of
Norway). f. Quartz-, quartz–feldspar- and nepheline pegmatites in the carbonatite-hosted mica deposit (Dill, 2007). g. Biotit horse-tailing into K feldspar mega crystals near the hanging
wall contact of the core zone underneath. Evje area (photograph: courtesy of A. Müller, Geological Survey of Norway).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 505

Quartz+feldspar or quartz Labradorite

e
Aplite
Muscovite+biotite+tourmaline
K feldspar zone
Gneiss+mica schists Muscovite zone
Quartz zone
Plagioclas zone

15 m
c
10 m

Quartz+muscovite

Quartz or quartz+feldspar

Gneiss+mica schists

5m
d
f
Fault
Dolomite veins
g
Nepheline pegmatite
Quartz pegmatite
Aplite
Quartz-biotite gneiss
Garnet-hornblende gneiss
Vermiculite rocks
Glimmerite
Biotite gneiss

100 m

Fig. 37 (continued).
506 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
Fig. 38. Graphite deposit Bogala, Sri Lanka, with steeply dipping graphite veins (from Dill,
2010).
et al., 2014a). These gneissic wall rocks of the pegmatites, hosting
“nigrine”, contain the least fractionated or most primitive mineral
grains of columbite-(Fe) (Fig. 26). Areas framed with dashed lines in
Fig. 26 terminate the data arrays of columbite s.s.s. included in “nigrine”
which have derived from gneissic host rocks and alluvial–fluvial placer
deposits: 1: Deggendorf “nigrine” in gneiss, 2: Deggendorf “nigrine” in
alluvial–fluvial placer deposits, 3: Iglersreuth “nigrine” in alluvial–fluvi-
al placer deposits, and 4: Pingermühle: “nigrine” in alluvial–fluvial plac-
er deposits. When the pegmatites were stripped off their gneissic roof
rocks, columbite-bearing “nigrine” was released into the drainage sys-
tem today intersecting the pegmatites and their wall rocks. The Nb:Ta
ratio of columbite-(Fe) from carbonatites is typically high (Kressall
et al., 2010). Mackay and Simandl (2013) reported Nb:Ta ratios averag-
ing 50:1. It is accompanied by pyrochlore, a mineral rarely found in the
pegmatites, proper, in the NE Bavarian Basement. The Deggendorf 2 is
assumed to have derived from the mantle, while the remaining primi-
tive columbite-(Fe) s.s.s. have been moderately altered by magmatic
and/or metamorphic processes along with the emplacement of the ad-
jacent pegmatites within the crystalline basement rocks. As nowhere
manganiferous Nb–Ta oxide s.s.s. were found, a strong impact by meta-
morphic processes on the “nigrine”-hosted columbite s.s.s. can be ruled
out.
Based upon this chemical environment and geodynamic analysis the
evolution of these rare-element pegmatites can be postulated as fol-
lows. During an incipient stage mantle derived fluids similar to those re-
lated to alkaline and carbonatitic igneous rocks ascended and made
accountable for the Nb–Ta oxides in the external contact zone of pegma-
tites. Pegmatites evolved from the interplay of element mobilization re-
lated to metamorphogenic and magmatic processes. The data clustering
in the x–y plot of Fig. 26, their linear and anticlockwise trends are a mir-
ror image to what extent magmatism and metamorphism contributed
to the built-up of rare-metal pegmatites bearing Nb–Ta oxides.
Several pegmatites in the Central European Variscides have been in-
vestigated for their columbite s.s.s. and Nb, Ta, Fe and Mn plotted in
quadrilateral cross plots having FeNb2O6 and MnNb2O6 at the bottom
tie line and FeTa2O6 and MnTa2O6 forming the top tie line.
The diagrams cannot directly correlate with each other but the rela-
tive abundance and the trends may be concluded from these diagrams,
e.g., the Nb–Ta fractionation in columbite-group minerals from the
Scheibengraben beryl–columbite granitic pegmatite, Maršíkov, Czech
Republic (Novák et al., 2003). It has to be noted that these diagrams
were mostly designed for comparison of various pegmatite deposits
using one of the classification schemes published in Section 3.1. Many
of them show the “upside-down-negatively-skewed hammerhead”.
The subvertical trend at very high Nb/Ta ratio (“hammerhead”) marks
a variation in the Fe–Mn ratio at the beginning of the pegmatite em-
placement during the waning stages of the metamorphism. The “ham-
mer handle” steeply inclined towards the left is representative of the
more or less intensive fractionation. Clusters of such data without fur-
ther information on how and where the samples have been taken and
published in the literature are difficult to discuss.
The Scheibengraben pegmatite obviously has been more strongly af-
fected by metamorphic processes than the Hagendorf (Trend-B) and
Pleystein (Trend-A) pegmatites and is more akin to the pegmatites
from the Bayerischer–Böhmer Wald (Trend-C) (Fig. 26). Its Mn/Fe
ratio is much higher than in the western parts of the Bohemian Massif
and is controlled by the coexisting minerals capturing the Fe from the
pegmatitic system. The subsequent magmatic fractionation trend starts
off from this high Mn/Fe ratio. The coincidence of trends at
Scheibengraben, Czech Republic and the south-western Moldanubian
Zone is not a surprise, as both of them are representatives of the core
zone of the Bohemian Massif.
4.8.2. Nb/Ta pegmatites in the Precambrian Metallotect
The highest density of data points in x–y plots displaying the
Mn ∗ 100/(Mn + Fe) ratio versus the Ta ∗ 100/(Nb + Ta) ratio of Nb–
Ta oxides can be found in the publication of Melcher et al. (2015) for
the African pegmatite provinces. The authors provided mineralogical
and geochemical data for the most important Ta–Nb–Sn phases includ-
ing ca. 15,000 electron microprobe and 9000 LA–ICP-MS analyses in the
scope of a project devoted to fingerprinting of conflict minerals
(M. Melcher et al., 2008; F. Melcher et al., 2008). The aim was to identify
illegal behavior in trading COLTAN and blocking such trade routes using
a wide range of trace elements and chronological data. The approach
taken for Nb–Ta minerals resembles the efforts taken to stamp out
“blood diamonds”. Therefore the geology of pegmatites and the correla-
tion of the full chemical dataset with each mineral associations or the
evolution of the pegmatite fields was not paramount. In other words,
the data cannot be interpreted in the same way as done for the Central
European pegmatites, in the previous section.
Nevertheless some of the Precambrian pegmatitic counterparts in-
vestigated by the group of authors show some striking similarities to
the much younger pegmatites discussed in Section 4.8.1 and enable us
to apply the principles elaborated for the Central Europe analogues
which have also been studied in detail for their mineralogy and geology
also to some of the African pegmatite fields as well as try and find some
support for the interpretation of the data conducted in the Central
European pegmatite provinces (Figs. 26, 27).
The Jos Plateau, Nigeria, cannot be handled as a pegmatite province
in the strict sense and it is not in any case comparable to those in the
eastern parts of Africa or the European Variscides. However, its Nb–Ta
mineralization can contribute very much to the understanding of Nb–
Ta mineralization in pegmatites due to its unspoiled mantle derivation
of magmatic rocks. About 50 anorogenic peralkaline and alkaline ring
complexes came into being on the Jos Plateau, where these magmatic
edifices are representative of the Younger Granites. They were intruded
into Precambrian basement rocks (Wright et al., 1985; Woolley, 2001a,
b; Mücke and Neumann, 2006). The ore mineralization consists of Sn–
W minerals and columbite s.s.s. concentrated in greisen-type deposits
and albitites (Kinnaird, 1985). The chemical data obtained for the Nb–
Ta oxides from the Jos Plateau, Nigeria, cluster in the same territory as
the data array of the “nigrine”-hosted Nb–Ta oxides in NE Bavaria
(Fig. 27-I). In addition to this, there is a vertical trend of its data points
in the Mn ∗ 100/(Mn + Fe) versus Ta ∗ 100/(Nb + Ta) cross plot, fading
out around Ta ∗ 100/(Nb + Ta) = 50. This pattern resembles the
Pleystein Trend A (Fig. 26). The ideas put forward for the “nigrine”-
hosted columbites in NE Bavaria, Germany, get another support as to
their origin so as to be closely related to a subcrustal source. They
have derived from alkaline magmatic rocks. The vertical pattern at Jos
Plateau parallel to the y-axis is indicative of a strong magmatic fraction-
ation similar to the Pleystein Trend. The latter, however, did not sweep
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 507

its way through unspoiled. The slight inclination and its higher kick-off
point with data around Mn ∗ 100/(Mn + Fe) = 15 to 20 is caused by a
moderate contamination by metamorphic and metasomatic alteration.
The pegmatite belts of the Damara Orogen are located within an ensialic
orogen whose pegmatites formed between 490 and 510 Ma (Jung et al.,
2000; Tkachev, 2011). The Rubikon, Helikon (Cs–P–B)–Nb/Ta–Be–Li
pegmatite (LiP + LIS), Uis, and Sesam pegmatites demonstrate an al-
most un-contaminated magmatic differentiation (Fig. 27-II). Unlike
the columbites from the Jos Plateau and the “nigrine”-hosted columbite
the differentiation did not take place from an unspoiled mantle magma
but took place within a crustal section characterized by a high pristine
Mn background which lead in southern Africa to several Mn deposits
in Namibia (Schneider, 1992, 2008). Even the “Mandarin Garnet” or
“Kunene Garnet” which were mined in the Marienfluss–Hartmannberge
are attributable to such metamorphosed Mn-bearing rocks of probable
sedimentary-exhalative origin (Dill et al., 2012a,b). Neoproterozoic man-
ganese silicate ore horizons (manganese formations) are associated with
the well-known banded iron-formations (BIFs). This sequence is

b
Si1

Si2
A1
2 cm

2 cm
d

A2

10 cm

A1: Qtz+Msc>Kao
A 2: Kao+Msc+Qtz
Si1/Si2: Qtz
Fig. 39. a. Beneficiation plant with kaolin piled up in front of the crasher, Borborema Province, NE Brazil. b. Hypogene kaolinization affecting the footwall aplite underneath the quartz core
of the Kreuzberg Pegmatite at Pleystein, Germany. Qtz = quartz, Msc = muscovite, Kao = kaolinite. c. Kaolinized aplite granite at Premhof-Lohma, Germany. d. Kaolinized aplite at Weiss
Mine near Pleystein, Germany. e. Cross section through one of the Uralian pegmatite-related emerald deposit at the contact between granites and talc schists and talc–actinolite schists, to
illustrate the spatial variation of hypogene kaolinization (Redrawn from Fersmann, 1940 in Schneiderhöhn, 1961). f. Cross section through the Salpond Kaolin deposit (modified from
Kužvart, 1968), Ghana, derived from supergene alteration of a tabular pegmatite intercalated into mica schists.
508 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
e
Red weathered mica schist
White kaolinized pegmatite
Red-colored weathering
Fig. 39 (continued).
sandwiched between super mature metaquartzarenites interpreted as a
shoreface deposit derived from a cratonic basement and deposited
under high-energy conditions (Buehn et al., 1992). The source of manga-
nese and iron is proposed to have been situated in the deeper oceanic
parts of the associated basin, caused by initial spreading in the Khomas
sea and the formation of oceanic crust. In the reference area in Central
Europe – Section 4.8.1 – we do not find these discrete high-Mn and
high-Ta columbite s.s.s. In view of the paleogeographic background infor-
mation available, this magmatic differentiation in pegmatites is triggered
by a comparatively thin crust, where the oceanic stage must not go far
back in times. Manganese concentration, when traced back to its kick-
off point in a pegmatitic system can also tell us something about the rel-
ative thickness of the crust, in which the pegmatites were embedded. It
needs, however, to be viewed against scavenging process triggered by
minerals associated with or emplaced prior to the Nb–Ta oxides. In the
Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province the study on Mn in the various
minerals came to almost full circle, in some other regions the gap may
be considered still wide.
Pegmatite province in northern Mozambique, also known as the Alto
Ligonha Province forms part of the Pan-African orogeny (Fritz et al.,
2013). Several individual pegmatites are known from this province,
which according to Cronwright (2005) have been derived from late- to
Granite
Pegmatite kaolinized + albitite
Biotite schist bearing emeralds
Talc schist + talc actinolite schist
Granodiorite + intermediate rocks
25 m
post-orogenic subaluminous to peraluminous A-type granites of Pan-
African age, an interpretation which can hardly be corroborated by the
data published by Melcher et al. (2015) who have singled out some of
the deposits and plotted their trends (Fig. 27-III). The Somipe deposit
clustering in the field where A-type granites and mantle affiliates used
to form seems to be closest to the primitive mantle derived mineralizing
fluids — see previous examples from the Jos Plateau and the “nigrine”-
hosted columbite s.s.s. for comparison. The remaining data clusters
show a curved anti-clockwise trend also known from Central Europe
where it is interpreted as a manifesto for a magmato-metamorphic de-
velopment. Obviously the study as to the Mn distribution has not yet
“come to full circle” in this area.
The Kamativi pegmatite, Zimbabwe, developed in the Magondi Belt
around 1000 Ma (Fick, 1960; Gallagher, 1967; Rijks and Van der Veen,
1972; Petters, 1991 (see Section 4.1.2 for further structural details).
The chemical composition of its columbite s.s.s. is almost identical
with the columbite s.s.s named as the Pleystein Trend. It is a stacked pat-
tern of anticlines (stock-like pegmatites) with their limbs gently dip-
ping away from the hinge zone (tabular pegmatites), quite similar in
shape to the Paleozoic Pleystein deposits but not in size. The data pat-
tern heralds a strong magmatic fractionation with a moderate meta-
morphic impact (Fig. 27-IV).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 509

Benson No. 3 ((Be–F–REE–Sn–P)–Li–Nb/Ta pegmatite (LiS)) and the

a Casa Ventura pegmatite (Be–P–Li–Nb/Ta pegmatite) belong to the same
type.
The Homestead pegmatite, Namibia, although similar in age to the
Kamativi pegmatite, Zimbabwe, yielded quite a different pattern for
the columbite s.s.s. which are very rich in tantalite in places ((Bi)–Be–
Nb–Ta–Li–P pegmatite (amblygonite–spodumene). This is also true for
the Majayahan deposit, Somalia, (Sn–Li–Ta pegmatite) which formed
around 530 Ma and the deposits in the Man Shield in Sierra Leone
that were emplaced during a late- to post orogenic stage around 2600
to 2850 Ma (Sn–Nb–Ta pegmatite) (Morel, 1979; Patrick and Forward,
2005; Küster et al., 2009). Provided that the dataset represents a contin-
uous process, the trend would imply a magmatic–metamorphic evolu-
tion. I suspect a sequence of at least two processes of precipitation of
Nb–Ta oxides, with the most Mn-enriched similar to the Damara-type
(Fig. 27-IV). It is another hint to take caution that chemical analyses
b done without a proper link to the geological and mineralogical setting
are a hard nut to crack when it comes to the interpretation. For finger-
printing it may be sufficient, for genetic interpretation, however I cast
some doubt on it and are reluctant to go any further.
It has to be noted, data sets discussed for Nb–Ta oxides in
Sections 4.8.1 and 4.8.2 allow for placing constraints on the Nb–Ta sys-
tem but do not say anything about other elements in the pegmatite. The
element associations of the shear-zone-related or thrustbound pegma-
tites and pseudopegmatites can be pieced together in context with a
full-blown geological and geodynamic analysis.

Person for scale
Fig. 40. a. Pegmatite I runs conformably with the calcsilicate marbles. Pegmatite-skarn de-
posit at Naje, Nepal (photograph: courtesy of Mr. Tamrakar). b. Xenoliths of calcsilicate
skarn within the pegmatite. Pegmatite-skarn deposit at Naje, Nepal (photograph: courtesy
of Mr. Tamrakar).
4.8.3. Sc pegmatites
From the Central European group of pegmatites only a few examples
can be mentioned to contain scandium at an elevated but still minor and
subeconomic level, such as the Königshain (P–U–F–Ag–Li–Sn–W–Pb)–
Bi–Nb/Ta–Be–REE pegmatite, the Trutzhofmühle (Sc)–Nb–P aploid
and the (Sc–Li–Nb–F–B–U)–REE–Be–P pegmatite dike at Schöllnach
near Tittling, all of which are located in Germany. A quick look at

a c

Hematitzed granite Hematitzed episyenite

d
b
Older granites

Younger granites GRS = Grossschloppen U deposit

Precambrian-Paleozoic
metasediments
Paleozoic
Uranium occurrences
Episyenites
Faults (inferred and proven)
Mylonites

Fig. 41. a. Transition of a hematized granite into a hematized porous episyenite. Hebanz DDH 11, 144.2 m. b. Geological sketch map to show the episyenitization and structural geology at
the margin of granites near Hebanz in SE Germany (Saxo-Thuringian Zone). c. Porous graphic pegmatite converted into a talcized episyenite. Věžná I pegmatite, Czech Republic. d. Porous
red K feldspar pegmatite altered into an episyenite (quartz replaced by smectite?). Rozna, Czech Republic.
510 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

20,000 1,200

18,000 Sn (DR Congo) W (DR Congo)

1,000
16,000
Gross weight
14,000 Gross weight
800
12,000
metric tons

metric tons
10,000 600

8,000
400 Content
6,000
Content
4,000
200
2,000

0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
year year

140 140

120
Ta /COLTAN 120
Nb /COLTAN
(DR Congo) (DR Congo)
100 100

80 80
metric tons

metric tons
60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
year year

Fig. 42. Tin and tungsten mine output in comparison to COLTAN elements in the DR Congo, as an example for pegmatite-related rare element production (database: US Geological Survey,
2013).

Fig. 4b where the elements associated with scandium are plotted as a
function of their geodynamic position reveals that Sc has particular af-
finity to elements with mantle affiliation such as REE, Be and Nb. The
presence of elements such as P and Li being representative of a different
source furnish support that all of these pegmatites have gone through a
complex and multistage process of element concentration and consid-
ered of dual-source derivation. Even if this review is devoted to the ge-
ology of pegmatites, the mineralogy of Sc has to be addressed to some
degree. Scandium accommodation in the Nb–Ta oxides is favored by
the euxenite-type substitution which also involves REE and yttrium,
opening up a wide range of mineral s.s.s. and leading eventually to sa-
marskite (Warner and Ewing, 1993; Wise et al., 1998). Samarskite and
euxenite are both known from the sites mentioned above in Germany.
Scandium is an element which goes along with Nb within the Nb–Ta
couple and is more akin to the ensimatic orogens. There are several de-
posits in Norway and occurrences known from Madagascar (Bergstøl
and Juve, 1988; Raade and Erambert, 1999; Raade et al., 2002). At
Trutzhofmühle, Germany, a hitherto unknown Zr-Sc phosphate and sil-
icate was found among the primary minerals (Dill et al., 2008a). The
findings suggest that apart from the aforementioned elements, also zir-
conium is concentrated simultaneously with scandium. Basic magmatic
rooks are a favorable host and, in places, are country rocks of Sc-bearing
pegmatites. It would be a bit over-simplistic to consider these magmatic
rocks as source rocks as well. They may rather be taken as an aid in ex-
ploration and ore guide characterizing the geodynamic setting as one
with a thin crust in comparison with what is known from an ensialic
orogen, where only deep-seated lineamentary faults tap the subcrustal
level and provoke the ascent of fluids and melts provoking a moderate
increase of element such as scandium. The pegmatite at Crystal
Mountain in Montana, USA is one of the few pegmatites which in addi-
tion to fluorite also contains euclase and thortveitite. Thortveitite-rich
mine tailings can be used as a source of scandium.
4.8.4. Synopsis of Nb–Ta pegmatites
Niobium–tantalum oxides are a potential tool to contribute to the
geological siting of the Nb–Ta mineralization in pegmatites but does
not allow for a full blown classification of the entire pegmatite which
is much more complex because other rare elements are involved in
the built-up of the chemical composition of the pegmatite. The growth
of Nb–Ta minerals in pegmatites and in their external contact aureole
is of assistance in constraining the mantle–crustal impact on pegmatites
and its metamorphic–magmatic evolution. The use of LCT and NYF
makes no sense in practice anymore, in light of the variability of colum-
bite–tantalite s.s.s. and their relationship to the geological setting. Mag-
matic differentiation in pegmatites that starts off from an elevated Mn
level signals some kind of preconcentration of Mn in the crustal section
under consideration and characterizes a thin crust.
How does these Nb–Ta oxide s.s.s. in pre-existing pegmatites re-
spond to reactivation and the formation of pseudopegmatites? The an-
swer to this question may be found in the publication of Černý et al.
(1989) about the spodumene-bearing pegmatites at Weinebene,
Austria. The content of Nb–Ta oxides is small in pseudopegmatites in
the Austrian Alps. Grains of titanian ferrocolumbite described in this
paper of Černý et al. (1989) are relatively homogeneous with Mn/
(Mn + Fe) 0.24–0.33, Ta/(Ta + Nb) 0.09–0.13 (atomic ratios). It con-
tains abundant exsolved niobian rutile and scarce inclusions of primary
cassiterite. The data points plot outside the field of magmatic–metamor-
phic stability field between columbite from a true metapegmatite and
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 511

18,000 800

16,000 Be (Madagascar) 700 Be (Madagascar)

(metal) (emerald)
14,000
600
12,000

Quantity in kg
Reported exports
500
Quantiy in kg

10,000
400
8,000
300
6,000

200
4,000

2,000 100

0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
year year
80,000 7,000

70,000 6,000
Al (Madagascar)
60,000 (sapphire+ruby)
5,000
Quantity in kg

50,000

Quantity in kg
4,000
40,000
3,000
30,000
2,000
20,000

10,000 B (Madagascar) 1,000

(tourmaline)
0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
year year

Fig. 43. Beryllium exploited for the recovery of metallic beryllium and in colored gemstones, here emerald, in comparison to the mine output of tourmaline and precious corundum in
Madagascar, as an example for pegmatite-related rare element and colored gemstone production (database: Yager, 2012).

columbite sourced from the mantle. This chemical environment analysis in that Nb contents in columbite s.s.s. to increase near the root zone of
can well be understood as the cartoon in Fig. 6a and b is viewed, which nappes (closer to the subcrustal part) and Ta to increase away from it
describes an ensialic–ensimatic transitional environment. The database being enriched near the frontal or collisional parts. The abnormally
as to reactivated pseudopegmatites is, however, not yet well endowed high contents of Ta in the Greenbushes and Tanco pseudopegmatites
with data and results obtained from the test-site at the western edge support this idea and bear evidence of different processes which are
of the Bohemian Massif can only contribute to the Nb–Ta differentiation able to concentrate tantalum together with another crustal marker lith-
ium. Dismembered or rootless nappes (“klippen”) in a distal position
should have been the prime targets for tantalum exploration and
• Lanthanum (La) 50 ppm
those pegmatite-hosted elements prone to intracrustal concentration
• Cerium (Ce) 83 ppm processes. By contrast, the Koralpe Li pseudopegmatite, Austria, with lit-
• Praseodymium (Pr) 13 ppm tle Nb-dominated columbite s.s.s. is located in a proximal position rela-
tive to its primary source or root zone. Although being chemically next
• Neodymium (Nd) 44 ppm
of kin to Nb, Ta goes its own way driven by the geodynamic evolution.
• Promethium (Pm) NA Intracrustal processes play a much stronger role for the enrichment of
• Samarium (Sm) 7.7 ppm Ta than for Nb which is sourced from lower crustal to subcrustal sources
• Europium (Eu) 2.2 ppm and not unexpectedly currently recovered much more from alkaline-
carbonatite suites than from pegmatites.
• Gadolinium (Gd) 6.3 ppm Scandium is chemically closer to trivalent Fe that can be replaced by
• Terbium (Tb) 1.0 ppm Sc in minerals like kolbeckite, but genetically it is seeking the nearness
• Dysprosium (Dy) 8.5 ppm of Nb with which it shares the same geological and geodynamic setting.
The type locality of kolbeckite is the Sadisdorf deposit in the Erzgebirge
• Holmium (Ho) 1.6 ppm
Mts., Germany.
• Erbium (Er) 3.6 ppm
• Thulium (Tm) 0.5 ppm 4.9. Arsenic–bismuth–zinc–molybdenum pegmatites and pegmatite skarns
• Ytterbium (Yb) 3.4 ppm
Arsenic is not high up on the agenda of exploration geologists and
• Lutetium (Lu) 0.8 ppm among those elements that attract not much attention. Bismuth is
won as a byproduct from some Cu-, Pb- and Mo ores and zinc is
Fig. 44. Abundance of rare earth elements in the earth's crust. known to be associated with lead in a wide spectrum of base metal
512 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

a b

c d

Fig. 45. a. Open pit mining operation for kaolinized feldspar arkose in the lower Triassic Bunter Series at Hirschau-Schnaittenbach, Germany. The inset is a close-up view of the kaolinized
feldspar arkose which is anything but a “granite wash” (see also inset of Fig. 45b). b. Open pit mining operation in the residual deposit on the pervasively weathered Tirschenreuth Granite,
Germany. “Tirschenreuth Pegmatit” is a trade name for a raw material used in the chinaware industry to produce the body. It has no meaning as to the grain size of the bedrock of the
residual deposit. The inset shows the “won” material (see also inset of Fig. 45a). c. The Cornelia Mine with open pit, inclined shaft, and roof-supporting pillar, operating on the
Hagendorf-South pegmatite, Germany (1982) (photograph: Rank). d. Underground operations with dump truck, shuffle and fork in the Getrude Mine near Wendersreuth for feldspar.
The feldspar deposit is located within a tabular metapegmatite. The run-off mine feldspar is delivered to the ceramic industry (photograph: Gottfried Feldspat GmbH).

deposits. Despite this gloomy prospect as to the economic geology of As,
Bi and Zn in pegmatites, these elements can play an important part to
better understand the genesis of pegmatites and may assist to place
the pegmatites within the metallogenesis of a certain crustal section.
Molybdenum goes a different way, as Mo contents may come up in
some pegmatites to an economic grade.
In pegmatites it is mainly arsenopyrite and loellingite which play a
significant part among the primary minerals while scorodite is a com-
mon mineral upon weathering of As-bearing primary minerals. In gen-
eral, arsenopyrite in pegmatite does not contain significant amounts of
gold as shown by EMPA. Given that the primary As minerals evolved
in a phosphate-bearing pegmatite as it is the case in the Miesbrunn Peg-
matite Aplite Swarm, Germany, the alteration product, pure scorodite is
seldom and mainly phosphoscorodite, a scorodite–strengite s.s.s. de-
velops instead (Dill et al., 2012b).
Bismuthinite and native bismuth are often associated with arseno-
pyrite in those mineral assemblages indicative of a high-temperature
hydrothermal regime. Like arsenopyrite and loellingite, primary bis-
muth minerals are also subjected to supergene alteration resulting in a
wide range of Bi oxide-hydrates and Bi phosphates. It is won as by-
product in some sites (Section 7.9).
Zinc is rarely associated in time and space with Bi and As in pegma-
tites. Apart from sphalerite, zinc is accommodated in zincian spinel
(gahnite) and staurolite in the primary mineralization. This base metal
re-appears rather late in the mineral succession incorporated into
smithsonite and hemimorphite as the pegmatites undergo chemical
weathering. Of particular interest for the evolution of the pegmatite, a
spade of Zn phosphates warrant mentioning (Dill, 2015). They are the
missing link between the Zn minerals mentioned previously, provided
the activity of HPO2−4 is sufficiently high in the pegmatite system, as at
Hagendorf.
The most conspicuous Zn sulfide in pegmatites is the Fe-enriched
sphalerite (marmatite, christophite) which is of utmost importance for
the localization of the “hot spot” within the pegmatite field. Abnormally
high values of indium in the ZnS can also help in delineating this heat
center in the pegmatite ore field.
Numerous other elements commonly found in base metal deposits
such as antimony, or lead can be analyzed or found by minerals of their
own such as stibnite, or incorporated in stibiotantalite, galena and mo-
lybdenite. In the majority of cases the element contents are too small
and their host minerals only randomly distributed, so that their value
for a geological and geodynamic environment analysis is rather limited.
Due to the scarcity of these elements in the various pegmatites, they
are not treated by their regional distribution in some selected
metallotects as done in previous sections but handled in Section 4.9
material-minded. Arsenic, bismuth, zinc and molybdenum are looked
at from a chemical point of view and directly correlated with the refer-
ence types of pegmatites singled out in the preceding sections. Typical
massive ore with predominantly As, Zn, Bi and Mo from pegmatitic
and aplitic host rocks are shown in Fig. 28a, b, c, d, e.
4.9.1. As pegmatites (21 D)
Arsenic and its primary minerals bridge the gap between the sub-
and supercritical part of the pegmatite system and not to a surprise
are very common together with Sn and W minerals in greisen-type min-
eral associations (Fig. 28b).
Among the various pegmatites under consideration in this review
those pegmatites containing increased amounts of phosphate minerals
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
a b
Pegmatite
Mica schist
Hornblende schist
Fig. 46. a. Block diagram to illustrate the various morphological types of pegmatites in relation to the basement rocks of the Appalachian Mts. (Griffitts et al., 1953). b. Geological setting in
the pegmatite field of the Crystal Mountains District in Colorado, USA (after Thursten, 1955). c. Geological map of the Li–Sn pegmatite ore field NW Kings Mountains District, North Car-
olina, USA (after Kesler, 1961).
and thus named phosphate pegmatites have also elevated arsenic con-
tents. The top scorer among these phosphate pegmatites has been identi-
fied at Bendada, in the Guarda District, Portugal ((Sn–Nb/Ta–Be–As–Li)–
U–P pegmatite). Second in the row is the Palermo pegmatite in New
Hampshire, USA ((REE–B–Bi–As–Nb/Ta–Cu–Zn–Li–U)–P). Similar to the
phosphate pegmatites of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province
these pegmatites pertain to the Paleozoic Variscan–Alleghanian Orogen —
see also Branchville, Fairfield Co., Connecticut, USA ((F–REE–Zn–Bi–Nb/
Ta)–Li–U–P pegmatite), Middletown, Middlesex Co., Connecticut, USA
((W–As–Bi–Cu–Mo–F–REE)–B–Nb/Ta–Li–Be–P pegmatite), Ruggles
Mine, Grafton, New Hampshire, USA (REE–B–Bi–As–Nb/Ta–Cu–Zn–Li–
U)–P, Schoonmaker Mine Strickland pegmatite Connecticut, USA ((Zn–
REE–F–U)–Be–P–B–Li pegmatite (LiP b LiS), Dunton pegmatite, Maine,
USA ((Sn–As–Nb–Ta–Li)–B–Be–U–P pegmatite (LiS–LiP)), Mount Mica,
Maine, USA ((Sn–As/Zn–)Tb/Nb–U–B–Be–P pegmatite).
In the supergene alteration zone the presence of (PO4)3 + and
(AsO4)3+ does not cause any bother as shown in the preface to this sec-
tion. In the primary mineralization of the pegmatite as shown in the
Hagendorf area, both elements P and As are split apart from each
other although forming both under reducing conditions. Phosphate
forms a wide range of minerals together with bivalent Fe and Mn, in
places also with Li during the initial stages of pegmatite emplacement,
whereas arsenic enters the mineralogical scene in the aftermaths of
phosphate precipitation under high-temperature hydrothermal condi-
tions at the brink of the subcritical to the supercritical state (Dill,
2015). It is certainly not concentrated from a local As-enriched
513
Pegmatite
Granite dikes
Biotite granite
Crystalline schists
Hyatt
Pegmatite
Granite
Metapelites
Metacarbonates
Pegmatites
hydrothermal fluid that might have been superimposed on the pegma-
tite long after its emplacement but an intrinsic element of the pegmatite
mineralization. As the pegmatite is a self-sufficient system in the area
under study in the Central European Variscides, arsenic was incorporat-
ed into the felsic melt together with bismuth from gold–arsenic–bis-
muth mineralization embedded as stratiform layers prior to the
emplacement of the pegmatite in the cordierite–sillimanite gneisses
(Herzog et al., 1997; Morávek and Lehrberger, 1997). Presumably,
both elements P and As were absorbed from crustal rocks during the
early stages of the pegmatite's intrusion. The process is not any different
from that during reactivation into pseudopegmatites as shown by the
Koralpe–Weinebene mineralization and in the pegmatites near Villach
in Austria. It is difficult to make general statements on the behavior of
As in pegmatites. The element tends to be preferably accumulated in
granitic pegmatites than in pegmatites s.st.
4.9.2. Bi pegmatites (18 D)
Bismuth is frequently intergrown with primary As minerals in the
high-temperature sulfide mineral assemblages in pegmatites and as
shown in Section 4.9.1 can be accounted for by a contamination of the peg-
matitic melt upon reaction with the country rocks. Its concentration in the
pegmatite is not as simple as that of arsenic in the sulfide stage.
Bismutomicrolite and bismutotantalite in pegmatites reveal a going to-
gether also with elements of the Nb–Ta couple, particularly tantalum. Con-
siderable amounts of native bismuth and bismuthinite accompanying
cassiterite, wolframite and even gold is known from Kigesi, SW Uganda
514 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
and also encountered in some of the granitic pegmatites and greisen
(Gallagher, 1967) (Fig. 28a). It can be mined from pegmatites (Section 7.9).
4.9.3. Zn pegmatites (16 D)
In the Arga Pegmatite Field, Northern Portugal, peraluminous
pegmatoids developed as a result of anatectic mobilization of elements,
containing abnormally high amounts of Be and Zn (Dias and Gomes,
2013). Silurian host rocks enriched in fluxing constituents underwent
partial melting at temperatures of 650 to 710 °C and under pressure
conditions in the range 2.9 to 4.2 kbar near the andalusite and silliman-
ite isogrades. Zinc and beryllium have some striking similarities. Both
start off from subcrustal sources, where they occur in rather exotic asso-
ciations such as genthelvite [Zn4Be3(SiO4)3S] and willemite [Zn2(SiO4)].
These minerals were also recorded from the alkaline magmatic rocks of
the Motzfeld Alkaline Complex, South Greenland (Finch, 1990). The
protolith of both metals is held to be of (ultra)basic origin. On the way
up of Zn- and Be-bearing solutions, the interaction with crustal rocks
by, e.g., metasomatism affected beryllium much more than zinc.
Genthelvite was investigated by Colombo and González del Tánago
(2011) in samples from the Criollo Pegmatite, Córdoba, Argentina (Bi–
Mo–Cu–F–Be–Nb/Ta–U–P pegmatite).
Unlike beryllium, zinc forms only a few primary minerals of its own
relevant for the formation of pegmatites. It is sphalerite and gahnite
s.s.s. and to a lesser extent also zincian staurolite which reflect an inter-
mediate repository of zinc in crustal rocks such as metasediments
(Fig. 28c). This intermediate crustal repository with non-sulfidic Zn
paragenesis can almost neglected for the metamorphic rocks in and
around the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, in the northern
Moldanubian Zone, where Fe-bearing sphalerite is present in its place.
Moving further north into the frontal parts of the collision zone of the
Saxo-Thuringian Zone, the granitic pegmatites are devoid of Zn mineral
associations. Moving in the opposite direction into the heartland of the
ensialic orogen, both non-sulfidic Zn minerals, Zn spinel and staurolite
are of widespread occurrence.
Zinc sulfide is concentrated near the “hot spot” in the pegmatite
field and does not show up anywhere else in the ensialic orogen. As ex-
emplified in NE Bavaria, Germany, Zn sulfide occurs in two different
mineral associations, both attesting to two distinct processes. Sphalerite
enriched in Fe, associated with pegmatitic minerals in the stock-like
pegmatites mark the heat center which is also backed up by its
trace element contents (indium rather high). Sphalerite in “nigrine” ac-
companied by uraniferous pyrochlore-group minerals and columbite-
(Fe) is representative of the primary subcrustal source of Zn. There are
some other pegmatites in the world where such Zn minerals occur,
e.g., the New England Province with the Palermo No. 1 pegmatite,
North Groton, New Hampshire, USA (Kampf et al., 2012). However
they have not yet been looked at from this angle and interpreted as to
their geological setting. Sphalerite poor in Fe and barren as to In is not
part of the pegmatite system but connected with later hydrothermal
ore mineralization.
4.9.4. Mo pegmatites (11 D)
The Altenberg Sn deposit is a pegmatite deposit which apart from its
main ore minerals cassiterite, wolframite also contains molybdenite
(Baumann et al., 1986). There are also many Mo-bearing aplites and
pegmatites mainly present as dikes in the Precambrian rocks of Scandi-
navia (Fig. 28d, e). The Moss molybdenite deposit, Canada, which was
mined during both world wars, is hosted in late Grenvillian granitic peg-
matite dikes (Lentz and Creaser, 2005). These dikes are locally aplitic,
and were intruded into the late tectonic Onslow syenite (probably cor-
relative with the ~1090–1070 Ma Kensington suite). The Mo-rich gra-
nitic dikes at the Moss deposit are similar to other Mo-rich A-type
pegmatite–aplite granitic dike systems that formed immediately after
the peak of the Ottawan orogeny (1070–1090 Ma).
Molybdenum stands out by another geological peculiarity; it is one
of the few rare elements in the pegmatite system which shows a strong
preference to pegmatite-related skarns. The Hunt Mo skarn deposit is
one of the best examples of a late tectonic, granitic pegmatite-related
skarn system in the Grenville province (Lentz and Suzuki, 2000). The
emplacement of the 1069 ± 11 m.y. old molybdenite with Re contents
of up to 6.4 ppm Re in the proximal skarn is consistent with a contact
metasomatic origin related a granitic body. It is a low-temperature, A-
type intrusion, with moderate redox characteristics. In contrast to
many Mo-bearing skarns in the region, this deposit has low U, Th, REE,
F, and P contents (Lentz and Suzuki, 2000). The reduced marginal mag-
nesian skarn evolved from a calc-silicate–calcite–dolomite marble. A
narrow zone of endoskarn with scapolite-K feldspar-Ca clinopyroxene
is found adjacent to a wider zone of an exoskarn with scapolite–
Ca clinopyroxene (proximal), Ca clinopyroxene–phlogopite, Ca
clinopyroxene–tremolite–phlogopite, tremolite–phlogopite (distal),
marble. It hosts the bulk of the primary molybdenite (± pyrrhotite).
Overall, the deposition of Mo evolved in the temperature range 650 to
500 °C according to the above authors. Other Mo-bearing skarns de-
posits in this region show an element association typical of A-type
magmatism with U, Th and REE. Molybdenite is found frequently in ap-
lite veins and granite aplites (Fig. 28d, e). The major source of molybde-
num lies outside the “geodynamic stability field” of pegmatites in the
“barren zone”, to be more precise, in porphyry-type Au–Cu–Mo de-
posits in the Andean-type setting, which are well-represented in the
modern fold belt along the West coast of both Americas. Molybdenum
is a pegmatite-hosted, rift-related element (Fig. 6a, b). The crustal situ-
ation can depicted at its best by the transition between “Rift-type” and
“Andean-Type” — see stippled line of arrowhead in Fig. 6a.
4.9.5. Chemical qualifiers in the classification of pegmatites
Chemical qualifiers are applicable in the field and in the office to
classify pegmatites. For applied economic geology the number of
chemical symbols can be reduced to the commodities won as a profit
and confined to the value-increasing byproducts, an approach suc-
cessfully taken to pegmatitic rocks in Finland (Simonen, 1980;
Lahti et al., 1989). The selection of target areas and chance of finding
blind ore bodies can be enhanced as these elements are used in con-
text with the regional geological environment and the geodynamic
setting. For genetic studies in economic geology it may be wise to
add also elements like arsenic, bismuth or zinc discussed in
Sections 4.9.1 through 4.9.3 to the classification code, so as to see
whether value-increasing or elements detrimental to the beneficia-
tion and processing may be expect during exploitation of these de-
posits. Moreover these minor elements can facilitate create a model
of the pegmatite and assist in interpreting the geological environ-
ment of deposition and geodynamic setting of pegmatitization. Min-
eralogical qualifiers added to the structural type in curved brackets
increase the value in the field of applied economic geology because
it provides a first-hand information as to the method of beneficiation
used for separating the ore mineral from the gangue. In the
succeeding sections the so-called “gangue” or “trash” minerals in
rare-element pegmatites are given priority and chemical qualifiers
need not be used anymore. In a region wide survey, where rare-
element and so-called barren pegmatites are to be expected side-
by-side a homogeneous classification scheme can be adopted in a
way like this combining chemical and mineralogical qualifiers, Be–
Li–Nb/Ta pegmatites (beryl–spodumene), Al–Na–K pegmatite (an-
dalusite-albite-K feldspar).
4.10. Feldspar pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (41 D)
Feldspars is the most abundant group of rock-forming minerals in
the earth's crust, being present in more than 60% of magmatic, meta-
morphic and sedimentary rocks. In combination with quartz, feldspar
has been used for the classification of magmatic rocks in the double-
triangle diagram (Streckeisen, 1980). In the pegmatitic rocks, in the ma-
jority of cases only the alkaline feldspars, the potassium and the sodium
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
feldspars, play an important role. To be more precise, as far as the Na-
enriched end members are concerned, it is the albite to oligoclase of
the continuous plagioclase solid solution series. Potassium-enriched
feldspar occurs in different types which can be differentiated by the
Si/Al disorder with microcline being perfectly ordered, orthoclase
showing an intermediate state of ordering and sanidine and
anorthoclase being fully disordered. O'Donoghue (2006) outlines the
wide spectrum of feldspar group minerals suitable for gemological
products. The hardness qualifies all of them for the group of gemstones
but only a few of them end up on the jeweler's shelves or in the show-
room due to their special color or optical characteristics. The current re-
view cannot at all offer a complete overview of the feldspar pegmatites
in the areas which were selected as reference for the rare-element peg-
matites in the Paleozoic Variscan–Alleghanian Orogen and the Precam-
brian Orogens of Gondwana. On the other hand it does not make sense
to try and classify the feldspar pegmatites based upon the Na- and K
contents since in one pegmatite field the quantity of Na- and K feldspar
pegmatites may significantly vary among the various deposits and the
more so in individual pegmatite bodies. This is shown by the composi-
tion of the various types of pegmatitic rocks in and around the
Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Germany (Table 10). As feld-
spar prevails among the rock-forming minerals in many pegmatites,
the various images in Fig. 4 can be taken for references in terms of the
outward appearance of feldspar pegmatites sensu lato. To illustrate
the internal zonation, the reaction at the contact with the wall rocks
and the internal deformational structures of feldspar pegmatites a series
of images taken at pegmatites in Argentina, are on display in Fig. 29.
4.10.1. Feldspar granitic and syenitic pegmatites
Syenites, locally, containing feldspar in excess of 80%, granites and all
the more their pegmatitic and aplitic derivates become the prime target
in the search of primary feldspar deposits (Dill, 2010 — code 41a DE).
The Spruce Pine pegmatite in the Micaville area, USA, is closely associat-
ed with alaskite bodies. Mica and amphibole gneisses with subordinate
amounts of dolomitic marble form the country rocks. These rocks are
intersected by dunites, alaskites and intruded by pegmatites of Early Pa-
leozoic age. The alaskite consists of 40% oligoclase feldspar, 25% quartz,
20% microcline, and 15% muscovite and were derived from the same pa-
rental magma as the alaskite (Olson, 1944; Parker, 1952; Brobst, 1962).
There are several granitic and syenitic intrusive bodies elsewhere in the
world grading into rock sections with a more pegmatitic structure.
Some of them also show compositional changes into albitized granites
and albitites, e.g. Aksoran, Kazakhstan, leucocratic granites, e.g., Takob,
Tajikistan, two-mica granites, e.g., Lyangar, Uzbekistan and nepheline
granites in Norway and Canada (Harben and Kužvart, 1996; Potter,
2007).
4.10.2. Feldspar pegmatoids
Plagioclase and alkaline feldspar are abundant at all stages, from the
low grade to the high-grade regionally metamorphosed rocks and, to-
gether with quartz, they constitute the granular, light colored layers in
gneissic rocks (Winkler, 1976). The combination of melanosome
(gneissic part) and leucosome (felsic mobilizate/pegmatoid/aploid)
gives a heterogeneous basement rock called “migmatite”. Despite its
abundance in gneisses, feldspar in metamorphic rock is rarely a prime
target for feldspar exploitation, unless it is concentrated in metamor-
phic mobilizates according to the CMS classification scheme and termed
pegmatoids and aploids, dependent upon the grain size of the sialic
rock-forming minerals. There is a predominance of K-bearing feldspar
in pegmatoids and aploids in and around the Hagendorf–Pleystein Peg-
matite Province, Germany, in the autochthonous basement rocks of the
Moldanubian Zone along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif
(Table 10).
Only the metapegmatites in the allochthonous parts of the
Moldanubian Zone, called the Zone of Erbendorf–Vohenstrauss, contain
albite or Na-enriched alkaline feldspar as the only one. In the
515
Münchberg Gneiss Complex, Germany, more than 30 sites were
mined for soda feldspar (albite–oligoclase pegmatoids) (Bauberger,
1957). All of them have plagioclase (An8 to An20) prevailing over quartz
and muscovite. In the metamorphic mobilizates feldspar has the same
anorthite content as the plagioclase s.s.s of the surrounding gneisses
and amphibolites. More than 75% of the albite–oligoclase pegmatoids
form layers and schlieren in metabasic rocks (banded hornblende
gneisses and amphibolites, eclogite amphibolite and eclogite), the re-
maining part resides in ortho- and paragneisses. Feldspar in these
mobilizates several meters thick is accompanied by little muscovite
and quartz while minerals containing rare elements typical of many
granite-related pegmatites were not spotted in these pegmatitic
mobilizates. Physico-chemical investigations centered on these pegma-
titic mobilizates and their metabasic country rocks (banded amphibole
gneisses) were carried out by Okrusch et al. (1990, 1991). The maxi-
mum temperature of formation was determined to be 620 ± 30 °C.
Based upon the white mica that crystallized interstitially to the frame-
work silicates of the pegmatites a temperature of formation higher
than 400 °C may be inferred for the quartz–feldspar association. The
structural conformity between these pegmatitic mobilizates and the
enclosing country rocks suggest that pegmatitization went along with
deformation of the country rocks.
Liebscher et al. (2007) investigated zoisite-bearing high-pressure
pegmatites in the same allochthonous unit, providing a striking exam-
ple of metabasites melting under eclogite-facies conditions (Fig. 30a,
b). The zoisite pegmatites are encountered in eclogites and eclogite–
amphibolites. The pegmatites were derived by partial melting of a
mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB)-like eclogite at T ≥ 680 °C/2.3 GPa to
750 °C/3.1 GPa, which produced small amounts of tonalitic to
trondhjemitic melt. Resorption textures indicate reheating and thermal
perturbation of the whole system prior to each successive crystallization
event. Final solidification of zoisite–pegmatites occurred at 0.9 ±
0.1 GPa/620–650 °C, taking place over a depth range of 45–60 km. For
comparison, the temperature of pegmatite crystallization lies below
the feldspar solvus crest (b700 °C) but can even be lower as shown by
the example from eastern Africa. The Alto Linghoa Pegmatite,
Mozambique, based upon the two-feldspar geothermometry gives at a
pressure of 3 kbar a temperature from 405 °C in the wall zone to 333–
289 °C in the core zone (Neiva, 2013). It is a striking example for the
temperature range across which feldspar-bearing pegmatitic rocks can
form and, in my opinion, another good example against the idea of peg-
matites to simply complete the fractionation of a granitic body stimulat-
ed by fluxing material.
The entire pegmatite-forming process was probably fluid conserv-
ing: fluid present during melt formation was trapped by fully or nearly
water-saturated siliceous melts, whereas fluid liberated during pegma-
tite crystallization interacted with dehydrated eclogite-facies assem-
blages to form amphibolite-facies hydrous minerals. The amphibolites
constitute the host rocks of the soda pegmatoids. The pegmatoids and
pseudopegmatites found within metabasic rocks or in successions of
gneisses alternating with amphibolites are often rimmed by Na-
enriched feldspar aplites. It should be considered also in view of these
petrological processes, as rocks transformed into a felsic melt, bearing
Ca silicates at depth became exhumed along shear zones like those en-
countered in the Münchberg Gneiss Complex, Germany.
The age of formation of these eclogite-hosted pegmatites lies be-
tween 370 and 380 Ma (Kreuzer et al., 1993). The Na pegmatoid at
Oberkotzau, a member of the albite–oligoclase pegmatoids in the
Münchberg Gneiss Complex discussed at the beginning of this section
developed between 372.5 and 377.0 Ma (Kreuzer et al., 1993). Both
types of pegmatitic rocks are only two sides of the same coin, marking
the incipient stages of the nappe emplacement and high-pressure re-
gional metamorphism along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif.
Both pegmatoids, the simple albite pegmatoid and the more complex
zoisite-bearing modification of these pegmatoids were dated. Radio-
metric age dating constrained the interval of the blocking temperature
516 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
of muscovite between 325 and 425 °C. The true age of formation is as-
sumed to be slightly higher, considering the temperatures determined
for both pegmatitic rocks.
The Bayan nuur and the Lun pegmatite fields, Mongolia, 170 km
west of Ulaanbaatar encompasses numerous pegmatite deposits, with
the major deposits at Shagait-uul and Zakhiin-tsohio (Baljinnyam
et al., 1993) (Fig. 30c, d, e). Unlike the pegmatitic mobilizates in the
Münchberg Gneiss Complex, K feldspar is the major component. There
is only one site in the pegmatite province where small crystals of
beryl were found in the graphic pegmatites. The pegmatites are transi-
tional between granitic metapegmatites and pegmatitic mobilizates
(pegmatoids) that came into being during retrograde metamorphism,
leading to unzoned pegmatitic schlieren with albite in excess of ortho-
clase but without any rare-element minerals of economic interest
(Fig. 30f). Schmidt and Dandar (1995) studied fluid inclusions in feld-
spar formed during the early stages of pegmatite emplacement. They
found an average temperature of homogenization of as much as
675 °C and determined the pressure of pegmatite formation to be
350 MPa. Other pegmatitic mobilizates with no obvious link to granites
occur in Malawi, e.g., Mphungu mica–quartz–feldspar pegmatoid,
Malawi (Fig. 30g).
4.10.3. Feldspar metapegmatites
It has already been mentioned in Section 4.10.2 and documented in
Table 10 that many metapegmatites contain Na-enriched alkaline feld-
spar to prevail over K-enriched feldspar in the allochthonous nappes
of the Moldanubian Zone. Similar to the pegmatoids related to the HP
metamorphism of the Variscan Orogeny, the absolute age of formation
of the metapegmatites and the relative age of their mineral associations
are crucial as to the understanding of their origin and how these
metapegmatites are related geodynamically and chronologically to the
pegmatoids and pegmatites sensu stricto which were discussed at dif-
ferent places in this book as to the role that they play during the concen-
tration of rare elements such as Nb, Ta, Li or Be.
In NE Bavaria, Germany, the metapegmatites (479 ± 5 Ma) are older
than the orthogneisses or, in other words, metagranites (404 ± 30 Ma)
which was proved in the field by mapping and backed by radiometric
age dating (Glodny et al., 1995). These felsic layers are intercalated
into a series of alternating paragneisses and amphibolites, a lithological
setting known from many tabular pegmatitic rocks. The meta-
pegmatites are a separate entity with no parental granitic magma.
Glodny et al. (1995, 1998) carried out some age dating in
metapegmatites also straddling the Czech–German political border
and crossing the lithological boundary between metapegmatites and
pegmatites. The authors investigated in some metapegmatites two pop-
ulations of crystals, porphyroblastic mega crystals and normal crystals
or matrix crystals which they treated separately as to their K/Ar age
dating. The age data obtained for muscovite in various types of
metapegmatites are very homogeneous as shown by the following
examples: Oedental metapegmatite mega crystals 479 ± 5 Ma,
Wildenreuth mega crystal 476 ± 5 Ma–normal crystal 352 ± 5 Ma,
Störnstein metapegmatite mega crystal 440 ± 4 Ma–normal crystal
355 ± 3 Ma, Wendersreuth metapegmatite mega crystal 473 ± 5 Ma–
normal crystal 446 ± 5 Ma, accessory monazite 480 + 7/− 9 Ma. At
Menzelhof the mega crystals aged 474 ± 5 Ma and normal crystals
aged 464 ± 5 Ma yielded more or less the same age with their
error bars overlapping each other. Columbite was found in this
metapegmatite too and was discussed as to its Mn ∗ 100/(Mn + Fe)
ratio versus the Ta ∗ 100/(Nb + Ta) ratio in Section 4.8.1 (Fig. 26). Ra-
diometric age dating carried out by the above authors yielded an age
of 475 Ma which coincides with the age obtained for the muscovite as
they went through the 325–425 °C interval. Columbite from the Otov
metapegmatite in the Domažlice Crystalline Complex, Czech Republic,
which is geodynamically equivalent to the metapegmatites in
Germany and also situated within an allochthonous complex, gave an
age of 482.2 ± 13 Ma. Columbite developed late synkinematically
in the metapegmatites of these nappe complexes located on both
sides of the Czech-German border during the medium pressure–
high-temperature regional metamorphism (Fig. 31a). The feldspar
metapegmatites are located within the klippen of the nappe, while
the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province with its pegmatites
sensu stricto are located in the window between the two klippen.
While the columbite remained rather stable throughout the ensuing
nappe emplacement, with no response to the varying P–T conditions
the rock-forming minerals feldspar and mica got gradually adjusted
to these new physical–chemical conditions reaching their final ad-
justment around 352 ± 5 Ma in the Störnstein metapegmatite. Com-
minution of the rock-forming micaceous minerals affected one
generation of the beryl, suffering from brittle deformation, while an-
other one survived totally unharmed this process or more likely to
have formed in the aftermaths of the deformation (Fig. 31b). The
age of formation recorded for the rock-forming minerals, e.g. musco-
vite, and rare minerals, e.g. beryl and columbite s.s.s, furnish clear
evidence that there is a continuous transition from a muscovite–
feldspar metapegmatite into a muscovite–feldspar Be–Nb/Ta
metapegmatite in the klippen of the nappe with its minerals
responding in quite a different way to the changes of the physi-
cal–chemical conditions. In the window of the nappe, represented
by the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Be- and Nb-
bearing minerals are found in pegmatites s.tr. which reside in the
autochthonous footwall of the nappe complex — see also Fig. 9f.
It is far from being only of academic interest but also of economic
significance to get at least a rough idea of the intertonguing of kine-
matic and metamorphic processes. Differentiation of felsic constitu-
ents during the pegmatitic state might have reached an economic
level but suffered a blow during subsequent metamorphism and de-
formation, when the differentiation of feldspar and quartz into large
mineable (mega)crystals and separate bodies of economic size was
undone by the metamorphic processes superimposed on the parent
material leading to a comminution of the newly formed mega crys-
tals and rendering the pegmatitic differentiation null and void.
Therefore all those metapegmatites undergoing strong structural defor-
mation in the aftermaths of metamorphic processes are viewed with cau-
tion when it comes to a decision whether they are worth to be operated
for industrial minerals or not. Their rare metals may respond, as docu-
mented above, in a different way and the verdict handed down on the
feasibility of mining industrial minerals, like feldspar, cannot be applied
immediately to rare elements but has to be tested for Nb, Ta or Be during
a separate trial.
4.10.4. Feldspar pegmatites and aplites sensu stricto
How pegmatites and aplites sensu stricto were emplaced has been
discussed in context with the concentration of rare elements in previous
sections extensively. Excluding the simple pegmatites which are devoid
of any zonation, the zoned pegmatites enriched in feldspar often show a
similar evolution as to the zonation. The matrix minerals feldspar are ac-
cumulated in various zones, mostly starting off at the contact with the
various country rocks with a thin rim of aplite enriched in sodium feld-
spar and followed towards the center by a broad zone of potassium feld-
spar which may surround a siliceous core — see also Fig. 36c. Where
micaceous country rocks predominate among the country rocks, this
grain-size differentiation of feldspar might fail to come into being and
a band of muscovite formed instead (Fig. 31b). There are numerous feld-
spar pegmatite deposits worked in Scandinavia, Russia and along the
Variscan Belt from Central through Western Europe which fit into this
structural pattern.
4.10.5. Pegmatitic rocks with semiprecious feldspar varieties
4.10.5.1. Amazonite pegmatite. Some varieties of feldspar are mined for
their esthetic value only and do not qualify as a source of industrial min-
eral for ceramic purposes or abrasives described in Dill (2010). They are
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
often of smaller size as to their “ore bodies” than the large-tonnage de-
posits of common massive feldspar aggregates. Only a few examples of
the most well-known species of semiprecious feldspar in pegmatites are
mentioned here. Their concentration is not at variance with what has
been said about the various structural types of rare mineral pegmatites
in previous sections. The special mineral color and luster of feldspar,
however, requires further processes to make a gemstone. Processes pro-
viding these chromophores for semiprecious feldspar varieties can often
also be related to the accumulation of rare elements in pegmatites.
The green variety of microcline and intermediate stages between
orthoclase and microcline designated as amazonites are used as semi-
precious stones (Čech et al., 1971). Its pale bluish green (Chinese Ama-
zonite) to deep turquoise green (Russian Amazonite) color is attributed
to the presence of lead, structural water and the natural decay of potas-
sium (Hofmeister and Rossman, 1986). It develops in pegmatites and
pegmatitic mobilizates emplaced in a wide range of environments. In
the pegmatites related to the Pb–Zn mineralization of the large ore de-
posit at Broken Hill, N.S.W., Australia, amazonite has originated by the
same metamorphic processes which produced the surrounding
gneisses and which were also responsible for the metamorphism of
the Broken Hill ore deposit (Čech et al., 1971). Outstanding examples
of amazonite are recorded from the Orlovka amazonite granite and its
pegmatitic associates in Eastern Transbaikalia, Russia, which is also a
large Nb–Ta deposit (Thomas et al., 2009a). The type of deposit is
coded 41e D–41f D in Dill (2010). Pegmatites occur in the high-grade
metamorphic rocks, called Potosi Gneiss of the Broken Hill deposit,
Australia (Phillips et al., 1972). The pegmatitic rocks, which themselves
were subjected to deformation, fall into the category pegmatoid and
metapegmatite discussed as to their origin in Sections 4.10.2 and
4.10.3 and the rocks are consequently called amazonite pegmatoids
and amazonite metapegmatites, respectively.
In the Luc Yen region, Vietnam, the mineral assemblages to whom
the amazonite pertains, are typical of the rare alkali metal pegmatite
type (Tuyet et al., 2006). Greenish amazonite is found also in syenitic
pegmatites in An Phu (Luc Yen District) and in Thach Khoan (Vinh
Phu Province) and may be called as an amazonite syenitic pegmatite ac-
cording to the discussion in Section 4.10.1.
At Anjahamiary, Madagascar, in a complexly zoned pegmatite de-
posit giant amazonite crystals associated with lepidolite and pink
elbaite were discovered in the core of the pegmatite (Pezzotta, 2001).
For gemological purposes or applied economy geology, only, the deposit
may be denominated as amazonite pegmatite; if emphasis is placed
upon the genetic part a mixed coding Li–B pegmatite (amazonite) is rec-
ommended. One can easily conclude from the term what the pegmatite
is operated for and what the chemical affiliation of the host rocks looks
like.
4.10.5.2. Moonstone pegmatites. The lapidary term moonstones describes
an optical effect that is observed in K feldspar varieties such as adularia
and peristerites of the plagioclase s.s.s (see albite–oligoclase). Most
moonstones from Africa, Australia and America formed in pegmatites,
excluding the Mogok mining district where moonstone occurs in meta-
morphic rocks such as marbles (O'Donoghue, 2006). Shallow-seated,
high-temperature sanidine pegmatites occur in the Black Range, Grant
County, New Mexico within a rhyolite porphyry plug that has been
injected into rhyolite tuffs of Tertiary age (Kelley and Branson, 1947).
The pegmatites consist of quartz and sanidine with minor quantities
of cleavelandite, biotite, sphene, magnetite, and ilmenite. The sanidine
occurs in the moonstone variety and is believed to have crystallized at
temperatures higher than those of the normal plutonic pegmatites
and developed prior to the enclosing rhyolite porphyry. Even in
this rather exceptional environment the CMS classification can be ap-
plied as it has done for the granitic and syenitic counterparts in
Section 4.10.1 and the pegmatitic deposit called a rhyolitic pegmatite
(moonstone). The near-ambient shallow environment can immediately
be deduced from the coding.
517
4.10.5.3. Sunstone (aventurine) pegmatites. The application of the term
sunstone also known by the name aventurine feldspar has changed
through times (O'Donoghue, 2006). Originally it was restricted to color-
less oligoclase with oriented inclusions of hematite and goethite but
now it has been extended also to labradorite and all aventurescent pla-
gioclase, some of which also containing Cu. Many of them are found in
pegmatites but emplacement in veins has also been known.
4.10.5.4. Feldspar pegmatite-(marble-skarn). Near Itrongay, Madagascar,
orthoclase of gem-quality is exploited from calcite marble that also con-
tains considerable amounts of diopside and phlogopite and is coded 41g
K in Dill (2010). In general, metacarbonates are not host of orthoclase
deposits. In this particular case pegmatites, which ramified in these
metacarbonates, are responsible for this extraordinary gemstone depos-
it. It is not a typical skarn deposit, although some skarn mineral such as
scapolite and diopside may be observed. The coloring of these golden
transparent gemstones is caused by a significant amount of Fe3 +
substituting for Al3+.
Serving as an example for the interaction of pegmatites with reactive
metacarbonates, Itrongay has to be classified as orthoclase pegmatite-
(marble-skarn) according to the CMS classification scheme. To highlight
the difference between a more precise description of the mineralogical
or chemical composition and the host rock–pegmatite interrelationship,
the lithology in curved brackets is linked to the type of pegmatite with a
dash — see below.
Pegmatite skarns of this kind are also known from the Central
European Variscides but with their minerals of only inferior quality
and falling short of what might be called a semiprecious gemstone. At
Wimhof near Vilshofen, SE Germany, a pegmatite came in contact
with marble resulting in the precipitation of anatase, titanite,
ilmenorutile, apatite, beryl, sphene, garnet, andalusite, tourmaline, and
magnetite. This mixed deposit has to be classified as (Ti–Fe)–B–Be–P
pegmatite-(marble) according to the CMS classification scheme.
4.11. Quartz pegmatites (40 D)
Quartz is ubiquitous in many pegmatitic rocks and, thus, we cannot
but to mention this mineral together with rare-element pegmatites in
Sections 4.1 through 4.9 and in the previous section upon dealing with
feldspar pegmatites. Considering the nature of many pegmatites and
the geochemical position of silica, being second most in abundance in
the earth's crust behind feldspar, this ubiquitousness of quartz in this
felsic rock types is not surprising. Quartz is common to many pegma-
tites, where it occurs in different varieties with some of them given spe-
cial names owing to their color or particular crystal morphology
(Rykart, 1989; Flörke et al., 1982). As this study is to outline the geology
of pegmatites, all those readers who want to know more about the min-
eralogy of quartz, are advised to consult special textbooks and journals
targeting upon mineral collectors for the special features of this mineral.
Only those varieties of quartz most widespread in pegmatites or of any
commercial value are discussed in this review. The common or milky
quartz is the most frequent quartz in pegmatitic rocks. Dark to black mod-
ifications are called morion or smoky quartz, while pinkish varieties are
called rose quartz (Fig. 32a). Even opal or chalcedony may appear in peg-
matites but only in zones undergoing supergene alteration (Fig. 35c).
Quartz in zoned pegmatites will not create much headache or spark
any discussion as to whether this silica concentration formed part of the
evolution of a pegmatite. Different tools and methods are available to
categorize these quartz accumulations within pegmatites. Attempts
have been made to get a better geological overview of pegmatite prov-
inces in Norway. Müller (2011) used in his study the Al, Ti, Li and Ge
concentrations in pegmatitic quartz from the Froland and Evje-Iveland
pegmatite fields which were formed during the Sveconorwegian oroge-
ny (1.14–0.90 Ga) at the western margin of the Fennoscandian shield.
The regional distribution of the Ti, Al, Li and Ge contents of pegmatitic
quartz are used to evaluate the differentiation pattern and
518 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
crystallization temperatures within both pegmatites fields. By means of
the Ti-in-quartz geothermometer elaborated by Wark and Watson
(2006), the temperature of formation of the quartz can be determined.
The same tool was also used for the internal subdivision of the quartz-
bearing pegmatites and aplites in the NE-Bavarian Province, SE
Germany (Dill et al., 2012b, 2013, 2014a,b).
Quartz dikes striking over several hundred or kilometers at the edge
of pegmatite fields or even far apart from them may cause some difficul-
ties as to correlate them with pegmatitic processes (Fig. 32b, c). Along
the western, the southern and the north-western edge of the
Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province swarms of quartz dikes strike
in NW–SE direction. They run parallel to some of the tabular aplites at
the endocontact of the province but they do not extend across the
boundary of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province into the core
zone of this cluster of pegmatites and aplites. The area occupied by the
zoned pegmatites at Pleystein, Hagendorf-North and -South is devoid
of any quartz dike (Fig. 32d). Instead of these quartz dikes at the periph-
ery, at Pleystein the quartz core is exhumed in the town center
(Fig. 32a). There are two different types of quartz accumulation in the
region. The most conspicuous one is the quartz reef standing out from
the hilly landscape resulting from the chemical weathering which has
eaten away the kaolinized feldspar rim of an original quartz–Na–K feld-
spar pegmatite and left behind a secondary quartz pegmatite, in mor-
phological terms a “pegmatite ruin”. On the other side we have
numerous quartz dikes where feldspar has not been found either in or
along the selvage of the dikes.
The quartz from the core of Hagendorf-South pegmatite stock
yielded a maximum temperature of formation of 557 °C, quartz
from Pleystein gave a maximum temperature of 526 °C and from
Hagendorf-North 499 °C. The most elevated temperature of formation
of the quartz dikes was obtained from the Weissenstein quartz dikes,
achieving a temperature of 708 °C. None of these quartz dikes is
known to intersect any of the pegmatites or aplites thereby attesting
to an emplacement subsequently to pegmatites or aplites.
The “missing link” between the quartz dikes and quartz core in peg-
matites is “nigrine”, a rutile-ilmenite intergrowth discussed in detail in
Section 4.8.1. For types A and B “nigrine”, the chemical and mineralogical
composition is given in Table 11a. Both “nigrine” types are enriched in ni-
obium. Type A is disseminated in the quartz dikes of the Weissenstein
swarm, whereas type B was concentrated in the roof rocks of the
Hagendorf–Pleystein pegmatites dikes (Fig. 32a). The quartz dikes form
part of the pegmatite system and they are considered as embryonic
high-temperature quartz pegmatites which were fed from a subcrustal
source prior to the emplacement of the true feldspar pegmatites — see
also Nb/Ta rare metal pegmatites in Section 4.8. “Nigrine” is the “miner-
alogical marker fossil” and niobium the chemical one for the genetic cor-
relation and pinpointing the source where the fluids came from.
The Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province can be taken as an ex-
ample for primary quartz pegmatites tabular, such as the Weissenstein
Swarm. The latter are cogenetic with the Na–K feldspar–quartz pegma-
tites stocklike. Pleystein is a case-in-point for a secondary quartz pegma-
tite that was formed by the hypogene alteration (kaolinization) and
subsequent chemical weathering and denudation of the feldspar rim.
On a smaller scale, the picture becomes more precise as to the distri-
bution of quartz and feldspar–quartz pegmatites. Along a NW–SE tran-
sect from the Saxothuringian through the Moldanubian Zone – see
Fig. 2 – more than 100 pegmatites have been investigated as to the
quartz–feldspar composition. Along the NNW section of the transect it
is a series of zoned feldspar–quartz pegmatites or unzoned feldspar peg-
matites which prevail over quartz pegmatites, in the SSE section, closer
to the core of the ensialic orogen quartz becomes more dominant. This is
also corroborated by the production figures of raw material from the
feldspar–quartz pegmatites. In the NNW section pegmatites were
mined as a raw material for the ceramic industry and abrasives (feld-
spar), in the SSE section for the glass industry and for aggregates
(quartz). By and large, quartz and feldspar pegmatites seem to be
randomly distributed but in essence were emplaced as a function of
the geodynamic subdivision of the ensialic orogen.
Silica-bearing pegmatites of gemological relevance are shown in the
maps of Fig. 32e and in Table 11b. They host amethyst, smoky quartz
and rock crystal, a transparent modification of quartz growing into
druses or miaroles and developing well-shaped crystals.
4.12. Feldspathoid pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (42 D + 43 D)
The feldspathoids are far less widespread than the feldspar group
minerals with which they are structurally related (Section 4.10). Only
nepheline and sodalite are more widespread among this group of min-
erals and, hence, deserve to be mentioned in context with pegmatites
(Fig. 33a, b, c). The multifaceted group of zeolites otherwise present in
many magmatic rocks and in sediments only plays a minor role in peg-
matites. Scapolite is a tectosilicate s.s.s. with two end members called
marialite and mejonite and found in pegmatites and in skarn deposits
along their exocontact where it attracted the attention of jewelers.
Feldspathoid pegmatites are found often closely related to
carbonatite and alkaline complexes where the exploitation of rare ele-
ments Nb, Ta, U, Zr and Th and quarrying of ornamental an dimension
stones are intertonguing with each other — see also the map in
Fig. 36f. The term pegmatite becomes a more and more descriptive
term for coarser-grained magmatic rocks, derived from the mantle
and/or resulting from strong metasomatism.
4.12.1. Scapolite pegmatoid-(skarn)
Scapolite is stable above 460 °C at an assumed pressure of 5 kbar, a
temperature well above the minimum temperature recorded for feld-
spar pegmatites in Section 4.10 (Kuhn et al., 2005). In Tajikistan, Li–B–
F–Be pegmatites with gem-quality scapolite occur in the Kukurt
antiform in the Rangkul (Kukurtskoe) district in the East Pamir Moun-
tains (Kievlenko, 2003). The Kukurt anticline is cored by Precambrian
quartzite, marble, granite–gneiss and migmatite. The gem-bearing peg-
matites are related to leucocratic biotite granite and two-mica granite of
the Mesozoic–Cenozoic Shatput Complex. Near the granitic pluton, the
pegmatites form schlieren and vein-like bodies with topaz. Away from
the pluton these pegmatite schlieren grade into microcline-beryl peg-
matite and topaz pegmatite. At a greater distance from the pluton, the
pegmatites form large microcline-albite pegmatites with cleavelandite,
lepidolite, colored tourmaline, morganite and topaz. It goes without
saying that the Li–B–F–Be pegmatites and the assumed parental gran-
ites alone cannot be held responsible for the formation of this gem-
stones and the interaction with the metasediments of the host
anticline is more likely to have played the most decisive part during pre-
cipitation of scapolite in such a superb quality. We can therefore assume
that in a pegmatite cutting chlorite schist in the Minas fault at McKay
Head, Nova Scotia, Canada, scapolite with interstitial analcite, also has
derived from a complex interaction of the pegmatite with the adjacent
country rocks (Owen and Oreenough, 1999). The McKay Head occur-
rence is enriched in chromium, contains interstitial rutile and hematite
rather than ilmenite indicative of the pegmatitic fluids to have been ox-
ygenated at a temperature around 400 °C. The pegmatite is interpreted
to be related to highly sodic fluids derived from early Carboniferous
evaporites. They are also responsible for a Carboniferous Na-
metasomatic event that altered a suite of alkaline granitoid intrusions
(Owen and Oreenough, 1999). A tabular pegmatite was intercalated
into metasediments, the body of which is in gradational contact with a
schistose, biotite-rich gneissic host-rock (Mittwede, 1994). The pegma-
tite has a rather calcic nature with andesine and scapolite as major com-
ponents and additional minor epidote, allanite, titanite and apatite. In
this case a reaction of metacarbonates (metasabkha) and a felsic melt
are a plausible explanation for the precipitation of scapolite in pegmatit-
ic rocks — see also Section 4.7.4 “metasabkha”. The classification as scap-
olite pegmatoid and scapolite pegmatoid-skarn is justified for these
extraordinary pegmatitic rocks.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
See also scapolite in pegmatite-related molybdenum skarn in
Canada — Section 4.9.4.
4.12.2. Nepheline and sodalite syenite pegmatites
Economic deposits of blue sodalite syenite were found in the South-
ern Bahia Alkaline Province, Brazil — see also Fig. 33b, c. This province
forms part of the Achaean to Paleoproterozoic São Francisco craton
(732 ± 8 Ma through 696 ± 3 Ma) (Fig. 3). The anorogenic alkaline
magmatism persisted for at least 58 Ma, demonstrating an extensional
tectonic environment at this time. In the magmatic rocks sodalite occurs
as disseminated and interstitial crystals among alkali feldspar crystals,
and is associated with calcite and cancrinite produced by the replace-
ment of nepheline. In the metasomatic process, discontinuous bands
of sodalite are in sharp contact with nepheline syenite pegmatite (Da
Silva Rosa et al., 2007). Nephelinized gneisses and pegmatites act as
host of corundum at Thambani, Malawi, Kishangarh, Rajasthan, India,
the Wolfe nepheline belt, Ontario, Canada, and the Amazonian gneiss
belt, Brazil (Appleyard, 1965; Niyogi, 1966; Lowell and Villas, 1983;
Dill, 2007) — see also Fig. 36. They are very widespread in the Bancroft
Area, Ontario, Canada (Reeve and Anderson, 1976; Sylvester and
Anderson, 1976) (Fig. 33b,c).
In Central Europe nepheline–syenite pegmatites with sodalite and en-
richments of Ditró (Ditrău), crop out in the East Carpathian Mountains
near Ditró (Ditrău), Romania (Fig. 33a) (Săbău, 2009). Syenite- and neph-
eline syenite pegmatites of Variscan age evolved from a mildly agpaitic
magma along the Oslo Graben, Norway, while Caledonian representatives
of this type occur on the Isle of Seiland (Bjørlykke, 1934, 1937; Andersen
et al., 2010) — see also Section 4.3.6 for Zr pegmatites. In Greenland, neph-
eline–zeolite–sodalite pegmatites reside within alkaline rocks (e.g. Isle of
Kekertausak, Narsarsuk) (Ussing, 1912). The nepheline syenite pegma-
tites at Chibina Tundra (Khibiny), Russia, rest within strongly fractionated
alkaline igneous rocks such as foyaite, nepheline syenite, chibinite, and
lujavrite (Pekov, 2000; Arzamastsev et al., 2008). The pegmatites are
also of interest for Zr and REE (Section 4.3). Outside the Baltic Shield at
the border of the Ukrainian Shield, this holds true for the nepheline sye-
nite pegmatite near Mariupol, Ukraine, which are also abundant in zircon.
The presence of sodalite and nepheline in pegmatite is causative related
to alkaline magmatism and desilication processes. Therefore the term
nepheline or sodalite syenite pegmatites is advisable. The transition into
carbonatites and alkaline igneous rocks of intrusive or effusive style is
gradational.
4.12.3. Zeolite pegmatites
Zeolites are extracted from a wide range of sedimentary and mag-
matic deposits, mainly volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. In pegmatitic
rocks, they are neither the prime target of exploration geologists nor is
this group of tectosilicates in the first place among mineralogists dealing
with pegmatite-hosted minerals. Zeolites used to form within the endo-
and the exocontact of pegmatites Tschernich (1992). There are different
processes which may spark zeolitization in pegmatites, in miaroles,
fractures and interstices of the pegmatite-forming minerals feldspar
and quartz. Xenoliths from the country rocks being engulfed by the mol-
ten magma may react to precipitate zeolites and low-temperature hy-
drothermal fluids can enter the pegmatites to give rise to another type
of zeolites. While the first-mentioned alteration resulted from the reac-
tion of the melt with the surrounding rocks in the course of a contact-
metasomatic process, in the second case the process of zeolitization is
often difficult to time and genetically related to the emplacement of
the pegmatitic rock.
Along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif the pegmatites in
the northern part of the Moldanubian zone and in the adjacent Saxo-
Thuringian Zone differ from the pegmatites located further south in
the central parts of the Moldanubian Zone with respect to the presence
and absence of zeolites. In the first-mentioned geodynamic zones, in-
cluding the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, zeolites are out,
whereas in the central parts of the Moldanubian Zone several
519
pegmatites feature a state of zeolites-in. In the Wimhof pegmatite-
(skarn) sporadic natrolite has been identified, in the Tittling granodio-
rite pegmatites veins with heulandite s.s.s., stilbite s.s.s., laumontite
and stellerite evolved in the contact zone to the adjacent granite and
at Kalkofen, where granites and pegmatites came in contact with mar-
ble a fracturebound mineral association with dolomite, stilbite and
laumontite occurs (Lindner, 1971; Habel and Habel, 1991a,b). At
Rinchnach aplites and pegmatites reside in a granite also hosting a zeo-
lite assemblage with chabazite, stilbite, laumontite and heulandite
(Obermüller, 1989, 1990, 1992). Zeolitization accompanied the em-
placement and the reaction of pegmatites at the contact with more
basic country rocks, but not in its primary stage when minerals such
as vesuvianite or zoisite formed. They reflect a later stage under hydro-
thermal conditions at temperatures between 140 °C and 260 °C (Dill
et al., 2007b). Pegmatite-skarn mineralization is much more common
in the south than in the northern part of the Bohemian Massif.
Zeolitization evolved in some of the pegmatites undergoing contact —
metasomatism, subsequently to the reaction between a felsic melt and
its more basic country rocks.
Pegmatites have brought about rather uncommon zeolites together
with semi-precious gemstones such as at Ambatovita, Madagascar.
Chiavennite a rare Be-bearing zeolite was reported to be associated
with amazonite, spodumene, Cs-bearing beryl and pezzottaite, Cs-rich
muscovite–lepidolite (Laurs et al., 2003; Warin and Jacques, 2003).
High-temperature zeolitization brings about pollucite at temperatures
between 400 and 300 °C, and in the range 250 to 150 °C, Cs-bearing
analcite and bikitaite. Natrolite, stilbite, edingtonite and laumontite
crystallized at T values of less than 250 °C.
While in the previous paragraph pegmatitization was described from
an area intruded by magmas of the calc-alkaline clan, the exampled re-
ported from Argentina refers to pegmatitization in context with true alka-
line intrusions. The ijolitic pegmatites of La Madera, Argentina, formed
dykes running through volcanic olivine melanephelinite of Late Creta-
ceous age (Galliski et al., 2004). The dykes are composed mainly of pyrox-
ene, nepheline, devitrified glass and zeolites (analcite, phillipsite–Na).
Nepheline is locally replaced by zeolites. Idiomorphic analcite is an impor-
tant hydrous phase, that is invariably replaced by phillipsite–Na. The
ijolitic pegmatites were formed by H2O-undersaturated, P2O5–, CO2–
and incompatible-element-bearing melts derived by fractional crystalli-
zation of a parent olivine melanephelinite. Syenite pegmatites of the Lar-
vik pluton, Norway, contain zeolites such as natrolite apart from many
other minerals (Petersen, 1978).
Zeolites although rather seldom in pegmatites and only of interest as
cesium source appear on the scene so as to be of assistance to detect
contact metasomatic reactions taking place in context with the em-
placement of pegmatites which used to be shown by the term “pegma-
tite-(skarn)” or “syenite pegmatite”. Only those zeolites endowed with
elements typical of granites and pegmatites, such as Be or Cs, can with-
out any doubt attributed to the pegmatite system. Other members of
this group of hydrous tectosilicates have to be carefully checked as to
their genetic positioning.
4.13. Alumosilicate and corundum pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (49
ACD + 50 ACD)
Aluminum trioxide is among the top ten chemical compounds mak-
ing up the earth crust. Despite this abundance in the earth crust, the
mineral corundum, which is chemically identical with aluminum triox-
ide, is very rare in magmatic, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. In
pegmatitic systems the presence of corundum causes a rather paradox
situation and raises the question, how such antagonistic chemical com-
pounds such as corundum and silica can co-exist side-by-side. One mole
Al2O3 and one mole SiO2 spark an immediate reaction between the two
compounds resulting in one mole Al2SiO5, or in mineralogical terms re-
sults in the formation of one of the three polymorphs andalusite, silli-
manite or kyanite (Fig. 34a, b, c). If FeO, MgO and H2O are present in
520 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
addition to the aforementioned chemical compounds staurolite will
come into existence. In dehydrated systems either cordierite or
sekaninaite can precipitate depending upon the availability of FeO and
MgO in the chemical system (Fig. 34e, f). Three varieties of precious co-
rundum deserve to be mentioned for their peculiar colors and the values
they may fetch as gemstones: ruby (red), sapphire (blue), padparadscha
(orange-yellow) (Fig. 34d).
4.13.1. Alumosilicate pegmatites
I cannot refrain from referring again to the often cited NW–SE
transect through the western edge of the Bohemian Massif –
Sections 4.6.1.2, 4.6.1.3, 4.8.1, and 4.11 – which allows for a wide
range of pegmatite-related issues to be attributed to the geodynamic
evolution of an ensialic orogen. All minerals looked at from a more gen-
eral perspective in the previous paragraphs occur in the various pegma-
titic rocks along this NW–SE transect, showing characteristic trends also
for the alumosilicates in pegmatitic rocks under consideration in
Section 4.13.1 (Fig. 35).
The pegmatoids within the klippen of the Münchberg Gneiss Com-
plex are impoverished in rare elements and in alumosilicates. Only
one kyanite eclogite pegmatoid near Falls – see also Section 4.10.2. –
has been encountered in the high-grade metamorphic terrain. The
Al2SiO5 polymorph found in this pegmatoid is a marker mineral for a
high pressure regime. Janák et al. (2011) determined the P–T regime
of these rocks in the Pirin Mountains, SW Bulgaria, part of the Rhodope
UHP Metamorphic Complex, to fall in the range from ∼ 2.5 GPa and
650 °C to ∼ 3 GPa and 700–750 °C. This indicates a moderately higher
P-T regime than obtained for the zoisite eclogite pegmatoids. The kya-
nite eclogite pegmatoids evolved in the waning stage of the HP meta-
morphism and were only encountered in the allochthonous gneiss
complex (Fig. 35).
In the Saxo-Thuringian autochthonous complex, andalusite
pegmatoids formed instead of kyanite at the Wintersberg–
Katharinenberg near Wunsiedel and at Dillenberg (Tillenberg) near
Waldsassen, close to the Czech border. Both pegmatoids formed as a re-
sult of a LP metamorphism as schlieren in micaschists with garnet as an
accessory mineral and no rare metal accumulation close-by. The pegma-
tites enriched in Be, B, Sn, U, and As at the SSE side of Fichtelgebirge An-
ticline, just at the opposite side of the collision zone, are barren as to
these alumosilicates. Andalusite pegmatites have been known and in-
vestigated since many decades from many sites elsewhere in the
world (Webb, 1943; Rose, 1957). Temperatures of ca. 650 °C are report-
ed by Thompson and Algor (1977). These (garnet)-andalusite
pegmatoids in the reference transect form the distal facies of the rare el-
ement pegmatites which mark the frontal part of the nappe system
(Figs. 9, 35).
The allochthonous complex of the Zone of Erbendorf–Vohenstrauss
(ZEV) is well endowed with metapegmatites and pegmatoids, but nei-
ther alumosilicates nor rare metals are common to this geodynamic
unit, a geological situation not at variance with what has been reported
from the Münchberg Gneiss Complex, the frontal equivalent to the Zone
of Erbendorf–Vohenstrauss (ZEV) (Figs. 9f, 35). The pegmatoids evolved
during the waning stages of a medium-pressure regional metamor-
phism. At the edge of this allochthonous unit, where it got in contact
with the autochthonous parts of the Moldanubian Zone, the Marchaney
pegmatite formed within biotite gneisses. It is a B–P staurolite pegma-
tite (dumortierite–schorl). The phosphates encompass apatite,
rockbridgeite, lazulite, strunzite, beraunite, vivianite, metavivianite,
and santabarbaraite. The maximum stability of staurolite in the pres-
ence of quartz, muscovite, and biotite common to these rocks has
been established at the following conditions: 675 ± 15 °C at 5.5 kb
and 575 ± 15 °C at 2 kb (Hoschek, 1969). The elevated Al- and B-con-
tents in this geodynamically critical shear zone favored the precipitation
of dumortierite, which can be considered as a “boron-bearing andalu-
site” from the geological and chemical point of view. Both minerals
are typical of this geodynamic part of the Moldanubian Zone, where
allochthonous and autochthonous units get in close touch with each
other, taking into account that dumortierite reflects the L–P part of the
autochthonous and staurolite the M–P part of the allochthonous units
along this thrust zone. Dumortierite has been derived from andalusite
along with a K metasomatism and introduction of boron, conducive to
dumortierite together with some muscovite. The pegmatites are critical
markers for the marginal facies of the allochthonous complex delineat-
ed by the shear zones. They have not yet been found within the alloch-
thonous units themselves.
Andalusite, already known as the diagnostic alumosilicate in pegma-
tites from the Fichtelgebirge shows up again in some pegmatites in the
Oberpfälzer Wald together with sillimanite (Fig. 35). The latter
alumosilicate becomes dominant in the pegmatites but is still an acces-
sory mineral and it is present at a quantity far below that of phosphates
and oxides in these pegmatites. The Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite
Province is situated in the sillimanite zone, where sillimanite develops
at temperature greater than 500 °C at any pressure and at T values
greater than 625 °C at 2 kbar (Holdaway, 1971). Andalusite is present
all the way down to the SE in some of the pegmatites of the
Moldanubian zone.
The pegmatites in the southern Oberpfälzer Wald and northern
Böhmer Wald saw another alumosilicate, cordierite to form instead of
sillimanite in some pegmatites (Fig. 34f). The appearance of cordierite
in these pegmatites can be accounted for by the melting of pelitic and
semipelitic rocks. Ellis and Obata (1992) determined the formation of
cordierite in a felsic melt in the migmatites at Cooma, SE Australia
under temperature conditions of 670 °C to 730 °C and a pressure regime
of 3.5 to 4.0 kbar that comes close to the environment of formation of
the migmatites displayed in Fig. 34f. More common to pegmatites, the
Fe-enriched variety of cordierite, sekaninaite was described from sever-
al localities after its first discovery in the Dolní Bory pegmatite, Czech
Republic (Černý et al., 1997) (Fig. 34e). Gottesmann and Förster (2004)
who investigated sekaninaite from the Satzung Granite, Germany, con-
cluded that sekaninaite together with hercynite, quartz, and brown bio-
tite was assimilated from the metamorphic basement by a chemically
evolved granite magma. The presence of accessory alumosilicates such
as cordierite s.s.s, and sillimanite in pegmatites need to be tested by pet-
rographic studies in thin sections for each case as to be a part of the peg-
matite assimilated from the country rocks or whether it has newly
formed in the course of mobilization of aplites and pegmatites.
A quick look at the distribution of alumosilicates in pegmatitic rocks
along strike of the NW–SE transect through the Central Variscides reveals
a trend which well accords with the change in the metamorphic facies in
the region under consideration (Dallmeyer et al., 1995). The
peraluminous marginal facies of rare metal pegmatites and the
peraluminous aplitic and pegmatitic rocks at the rim of larger pegmatite
provinces are the result of metamorphic and anatectic mobilization. It
goes along with the lithological–geodynamic evolution of a crustal slap,
signaling that at least the initial stages or marginal facies of the Central
European pegmatites sensu lato went through a metamorphic-anatectic
stage. In consequence of that conclusion, the incipient stages of pegma-
tites irrespective of their major element composition are controlled by
the geodynamic evolution of the ensialic orogen during the Paleozoic.
All metamorphic rocks creating these alumosilicates in pegmatitic
mobilizates require parent rocks of sufficiently high aluminum contents
or must undergo some desilification in the course of metasomatic pro-
cesses to achieve equal molar proportions of Al2O3 and SiO2 to form
the sillimanite-group minerals or their Fe- and Mg-bearing analogues.
High-temperature metamorphic systems fulfilling these chemical re-
quirements are the most favorable candidates to give rise to pegmatite.
These alumosilicates may locally, where shear zones favor the introduc-
tion of boron or fluorine accommodate these “pegmatitophile”
elements into their structure and convert into dumortierite (e.g. pegma-
tite at Marchaney) and/or topaz (e.g. pegmatite at Lam Schwarzeneck),
respectively. For the sake of completeness, the extraordinary high-
temperature pegmatoids bearing corundum, prismatine and tourmaline
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
have to be mentioned from the Waldheim granulite, Germany
(Schreyer et al., 1975).
How they sweep their way through these lithologies and eventually
end up in a rare metal pegmatite province is dictated by a wide range of
physical–chemical processes that were discussed in Sections 4.1
through 4.9 for the various element sets. Granitic pegmatites, such as
those in the western extension of the Moldanubian Zone, in the
Schwarzwald (Triberg, Germany — (Sn–U–As)–B–Be granite pegma-
tite) and Vosges Mts. (Rothau, France — (Sn–P)–B–Be granite pegma-
tite) lack this special facies. In some places contact-metamorphic rocks
such as hornfels with porphyroblasts of andalusite (chiastolite) form
around granites and their granitic pegmatites. The contacts are sharp
and the contact-metamorphic zonation is well defined. These structures
and textures of andalusite-bearing hornfels contrast with the initial
stages of pegmatites characterized by alumosilicate pegmatites whose
contacts are gradational and the ensuing rocks are granular massive
rather than spotted.
The question whether these alumosilicate pegmatites show up in
reactivated sections of an Alpine-type orogen as pseudopegmatites
cannot be answered definitely as to their genetic position in this study.
In St. Radegund and some pegmatites of the Angerkristallin, Austria, kya-
nite and staurolite appeared in rare metal-bearing pegmatoids,
metapegmatites and pseudopegmatites. Esterlus (1983) assumed that
the presence of staurolite resulted from a medium-grade overprinting of
the spodumene pegmatites during the Alpine orogeny which he held to
be Cretaceous in age in this study site in Austria.
There are many places where sillimanite-group minerals are accu-
mulated to economic grade in metamorphic rocks. The most-well-
known deposits of this kind were discussed in Dill (2010) as metamor-
phic deposits, what is certainly true and coded 49c IJ. But not all of them
are metamorphic in the strict sense and obviously owe their up-grading
to an economic size, particularly in case of the so-called sillimanite, ky-
anite or andalusite “quartzites”, by mobilization processes. Terms like
andalusite quartzite would imply something like a “clay-sandstone”,
hard to believe from the sedimentological point of view. In view of the
quartz pegmatites/pegmatoids – Section 4.11 – it is more in accordance
with the geological setting to invoke to a sillimanite–quartz pegmatoid
rather than a quartzite. Although not of commercial interest, the NE Ba-
varian Basement offers some sites where these rocks crop out and can
be taken as useful marker minerals to constrain the physical–chemical
regime of the host pegmatites. This idea is strongly supported by the in-
vestigations cited below. Shear zone-hosted or quartz-vein hosted kya-
nite mineralizations are reported from various sites inter alia by Allaz
et al. (2005) from the Simano nappe (Central Alps). Physicochemical in-
vestigations showed that these veins are closely related to the regional
metamorphism and not part of an independent fracturing processes
(630 ± 20 °C and 8.5 ± 1 kbar) (Fig. 34c).
4.13.2. Corundum pegmatites
In the previous Section 4.12 on feldspathoids, the focus has been
moved from the pegmatites, proper, to the surrounding country rocks,
while noting the significance of basic rocks as the most reactive ones
in the crystalline basement. This applies all the more so for the ultimate
stage of Al concentration in pegmatites, accumulating corundum, which
was found in the endo- and exocontact of pegmatites in the central
parts of the Moldanubian Zone of the Böhmer Wald (Fig. 35). Corun-
dum, often present in its blue, translucent variety and called sapphire,
is found in gneisses together with andalusite, and in pegmatites togeth-
er with vesuvianite and titanite in contact with marble and calcsilicate
rocks (e.g. Wimhof, Germany). A remarkable difference has to be
noted between the pegmatites bearing alumosilicates in the NW and
SE part of the Moldanubian Massif. In the SE, called Böhmer Wald,
these peraluminous pegmatites with andalusite, corundum and
cordierite are also enriched in rare metals and as such justify a mixed
classification according to the CMS classification scheme in a way
like that: P–F–B corundum–andalusite–garnet pegmatite-(marble) at
521
Schwarzeck, REE–Nb–P–B corundum–garnet–andalusite–cordierite
pegmatite-(gneiss) at Blötz, Nb–P garnet-andalusite pegmatite-
(gneiss–mylonite) at Drachselrieth, B–Be–P vesuvianite-andalusite–
cordierite–garnet pegmatite-(gneiss). There are only a few pegmatites
which stand out as pure rare metal pegmatites such as the Hühnerkobel
pegmatite stock which resembles the Li-free Hagendorf pegmatites
((Sn–As–F–U)–Be–Nb–P pegmatite (stocklike)-(granite–gneiss)) the
Reitenberg–Kaitersberg pegmatite (U–B pegmatite-(gneiss)) and the
Schöllnach pegmatite (Sc–Li–F–B)–REE–Be–P pegmatite (tabular)-
(granodiorite-granite). The unusual occurrence of corundum in sili-
ceous rock, like pegmatites, can hardly be explained by a normal
fractionation of a siliceous melt. Andalusite- and corundum-
bearing pegmatites in the Yosemite National Park, California, USA,
which have only scientific relevance are considered as true mag-
matic by Rose (1957) and were attributed by him to the Cretaceous
Sentinel granodiorite. Desilification resulted in these rocks from reac-
tion with the adjacent hornfels. It has been interpreted in terms of a
subsolidus potassium metasomatism of andalusite to muscovite which
leads to a local deficiency in silica in the fluids (Rose, 1957). The overall
reaction can be presented as follows: 6 andalusite + 2K + 3H2O ⇒ 2
muscovite + 2 corundum + 2H+. Mineral assemblages like that can
also be met in the Mazán Pegmatitic Field, Northwestern Argentina
(Sardi et al., 2009).
Corundum-bearing pegmatitic rocks are rarely corundum-only de-
posits and often associated with alumosilicates as shown in the
Moldanubian Zone of the Böhmer Wald and also many sites elsewhere
in the world, some of which are discussed here for their origin and to
constrain the physical–chemical regime of formation.
One of the striking examples is the plumasite pegmatite at Mangare,
Kenya, a tourmaline–ruby mineralization related to kyanite pegmatites
(plumasite: coarse-grained rock consisting of anhedral corundum crys-
tals in an oligoclase matrix) (Mercier et al., 1999). Plumasite, a
corundum-bearing plagioclasite widespread along the Mozambique
Belt in eastern Africa resulted from the desilication of pegmatites by ul-
tramafic rocks (Pohl and Horkel, 1980). Its origin lies in the field of
migmatization and metamorphic remobilization. Another typical
corundum-bearing pegmatite occurs at Dac Lac in southern Vietnam
(Fig. 34d). The answer to the question on the emplacement of plumasite
and their associated corundum deposits can more easily be given when
taking into consideration studies by Frost and Beard (2007).
Metaultrabasic rocks have the lowest silica activity of common crustal
rocks. The interaction of these fluids with adjacent rocks produced
rodingites, and the low silica activity also explains the occurrence of
low-silica minerals such as hydrogrossular, andradite, jadeite, diaspore,
and corundum within or in rocks adjacent to serpentinites. Sapphires in
the Andranondambo region, Madagascar, are bound to a granulite series
consisting of marble, gneiss and pyroxenite where sapphires preferably
formed in thin veins in the reaction zones between pegmatite dikes and
pyroxenite (Schwarz et al., 1996).
At the John Saul ruby mine, Kenya, rubies are recovered from peg-
matitic mobilizates in ultramafic rocks and in the Rockland ruby Mine,
Mangare area (SE part of Tsavo National Park), Kenya, productive peg-
matites line the boundary of ultramafic rocks, plagioclasites and
desilicified gneisses. The ruby-bearing rocks crystallized under
granulite-facies conditions (Mercier et al., 1999). At Umba River, NE
Tanzania, sapphire- and ruby-bearing pegmatites cross-cut ultrabasics
but not the surrounding country rocks (Solesbury, 1967). Ruby from
veins intersecting amphibolite and anorthosite provide P–T estimates
of 750–850 °C and 9–11.5 kbar (Mercier et al., 1999).
It is widely known that precious corundum deposits, mainly bearing
ruby, the red variety of corundum, are linked to metacarbonates, skarns
and calcsilicates. In some cases granites and pegmatites nearby suggest
the presence of a ruby pegmatite-(skarn) in other sites the genesis is
still a matter of conjecture, covering the wide spectrum from regional
metamorphism to metasomatism. The Jegdalek ruby deposit with signif-
icant quantities of spinel, Afghanistan is emplaced in skarns. Proterozoic
522 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
(1.5–1.97 Ma) dolomitic and calcitic marbles are intruded by leucocratic
granites and their aplitic and pegmatitic derivatives (Kievlenko, 2003).
The mineralized collisional zone of corundum extents into Tajikistan,
Pakistan (Hunza) and Kashmir (Azad). Pegmatitic processes are evident
in some deposits in Sri Lanka. Metasomatic hydrothermal processes
have been invoked for some of the deposits in Sri Lanka as demonstrated
for the Bakamuna deposit in the central granulite belt (Fernando et al.,
2005). Corundum and spinel were encountered together with taaffeite
and scheelite, all of which were precipitated from Be- and W enriched
fluids in the temperature range from 200 °C to 400 °C at a mid-crustal
level. The Bakamuna corundum-skarn, Sri Lanka, developed as a result
of a pegmatitic intrusion leading to metasomatic desilication of syenite
veins with subsequent transformation to corundum–scapolite rocks
(Silva and Siriwardena, 1988). At the very end, spinel is assumed to
have replaced corundum. Further examples of pegmatite interference
on the deposition of precious corundum in such a transitional setting
are mentioned in Dill (2010).
Gem-quality sapphire in Canada is recorded from syenite pegmatites
of the Haliburton–Bancroft alkaline complex. The pendant to the
Haliburton–Bancroft alkaline complex is the Ilmeny Gory in the Chelya-
binsk Oblast', Urals Region, Russia (Popov, and Popova, 2006). The sap-
phire deposit Dusi (Garba Tula), Central Kenya, is unique as it is hosted
by a more Ca-enriched intrusive rock of monzonitic composition
(Simonet et al., 2004). Desilicified pegmatitic mobilizates play an im-
portant part as host and as desilificating agent during concentration of
corundum. Corundum is a constituent of diorite-plumasite pegmatites
or found together with margarite in marundites. In Madagascar, the cir-
culation of fluids along discontinuities allowed in-situ alkaline metaso-
matism, forming corundum host rocks related to desilicified granites,
biotitites, and some peculiar rocks such as sakenites and corundumites
(Rakotondrazafy et al., 2008). Different ideas have been put forward
to explain the origin of these deposits. When silica-bearing pegmatites
intruded rocks undersaturated with silica, the silica is extracted or ex-
changed from the pegmatite and reacts with the undersaturated host
rocks producing new minerals that contain silica. Pegmatites may
have been desilicified by their fluids interacting with silica-
undersaturated country rocks, e.g., ultramafic country rocks. Depletion
in silica content that favors corundum formation may also be achieved
by interaction of mafic or ultramafic rocks with metapelites or by partial
melting of the pelitic country rocks. At Mahenge, Tanzania, rubies are
found in pegmatites bearing green tourmaline as well as in marbles
(Hauzenberger et al., 2005). Thrust of felsic rocks against ultramafic
rocks may create reaction zones leading to similar desilicification. In
plumasite and marundite, sapphires, rubies, showcase-quality or indus-
trial grade corundum may come into existence. At Barauta, Zimbabwe,
in Kashmir, India and in Moneragala and Okkampiitya, Sri Lanka, sap-
phire is encountered within pegmatites (Hughes, 1990). Shear zones
and lineamentary fault zones are instrumental as it comes to juxtapose
such contrasting rocks like pegmatites and ultrabasic/carbonate rocks
so that desilification can take effect and chromophores to make a pre-
cious corundum are made available.
4.14. Garnet pegmatites and pegmatite skarn (47 D)
The general formula of garnet s.s.s. may be expressed as X3Y2(SiO4)3
where the X site may be occupied by bivalent Fe, Ca, Mn or Mg and the Y
sites by cations of the trivalent and tetravalent elements Fe, Al, Cr, Zr and
Ti. The latter ensue a charge balance in the anion complex which in na-
ture is dominated by Si. Garnet group minerals have a large stability
field and were mainly found in the metamorphic realm, hosted by
paragneisses and micaschists derived from pelitic rocks. In contact
with metasomatic and contact metamorphic rocks garnets used to be
enriched in Fe and Ca, in the nearby pegmatites they are less common
and characterized by increased amounts of Mn.
Spessartite-enriched garnet with a significant component of alman-
dine has been recorded from many granite pegmatites and aplites, as
exemplified among others by the Hagendorf–Pleystein pegmatite prov-
ince, Germany and the Ljosland Pegmatite, Norway (Fig. 36a, b, c). The
Laghman pegmatites, a Be–Li-pegmatites in Nuristan, Afghanistan,
may serve as an example where Mn-enriched garnet from pegmatites
even attains gem-quality. The host pegmatite contains Li-tourmalines,
pink and blue beryl, spodumene (including kunzite) and spessartite
(Bariand and Poullen, 1978). Spessartite-enriched garnet is concentrat-
ed in Na–Li pegmatites, in marginal, aplitic and quartz–muscovite
zones, in albitized zones and even in the quartz core of some pegma-
tites. Garnets are encountered in simple as well as complex pegmatites
with garnet composition strongly varying with the type of pegmatite
(Kievlenko, 2003). Decreasing pressure and temperature of formation
result in decreasing pyrope and almandine components and increasing
spessartite content. Garnet in muscovite pegmatites is composed gener-
ally of almandine (57–75%), spessartite (14–26%) and pyrope (4–12%).
Garnet compositions in REE–Be–muscovite pegmatites typically have
a different composition with almandine (34–54%), pyrope (0.5–1.6%)
and spessartite (43–54%). In REE–Na–Li pegmatites, the garnets have
compositions in the range of spessartite (78–90%), almandine (5–17%)
and pyrope (up to 3%) (Kievlenko, 2003). The garnets in pegmatites
rarely attain gem quality, but often are categorized as showcase garnets.
As spessartite-enriched garnet s.s.s. have proved to preserve their crys-
tal habit best among all garnets even in alluvial–fluvial placer deposits,
they may be used as a pathfinder to different types of rare metal pegma-
tites (Dill et al., 2007a). For the pure spessartite composition the lower
reaction limit at pressures between 200 and 1500 atm is at 410 °C. For
spessartite-almandine mixed crystals the limit rose with increasing al-
mandine content from 410 °C (spess90alm10) to 500 °C (spess50alm10)
(Matthes, 1961). Kievlenko (2003) reports gem garnets to have been re-
covered from pegmatite deposits from Brazil, Madagascar, Myanmar
and Sri Lanka.
Roache et al. (2005) studied the synchronous deformation and
metamorphism at the Cannington Ag–Pb–Zn deposit, in northeastern
Australia, which involved a Ca and Mn mobilization that accounts for
the distribution of pyroxene- and garnet-bearing metapegmatites. The
Proterozoic upper-amphibolite-facies quartzofeldspathic migmatitic
gneiss, and lesser amphibolite are also host to pegmatites. Peak-
metamorphic migmatitic gneiss and anatectic pegmatite have ages be-
tween 1.6 and 1.58 Ga (Giles and Nutman, 2002). The assemblage of de-
formation D 1 includes besides garnet migmatitic gneiss also garnet
metapegmatites. High concentrations of Mn in D 1-related garnet
(12 mol% spessartite) have been derived from the surrounding gneiss
and concentrated at contacts with amphibolite as a result of metasoma-
tism in the wake of partial melting during migmatization and the forma-
tion of the pegmatitic rocks. Thrust shear-zone formation during D 1
was held responsible for the Mn-rich fluids surrounding the Core Am-
phibolite, as observed in the concentration of Mn-enriched garnet.
Moretz et al. (2013) investigated the composition of garnet as an in-
dicator of rare metal (Li) mineralization in pegmatites. Their statement
that Li-poor, NYF pegmatites have garnet with the lowest Mn and
highest Fe contents, whereas garnet in Li-rich, LCT pegmatites has the
highest Mn and lowest Fe contents cannot be proven by detailed analy-
ses in the pegmatite provinces at the western edge of the Bohemian
Massif. In this case, Hagendorf-South and Pleystein should have the
most elevated contents of spessartite-enriched garnet. They do not
have any, while Miesbrunn and Trutzhofmühle, devoid of Li have the
highest spessartite-contents in their garnets. Pegmatite-related garnet
is specialized in spessartite, but per se no marker for abnormally high
lithium contents in the host pegmatites as numerous examples reveal.
Garnet from the Bayerischer Wald with a composition in the range
Spess57 through Spess67 is unrelated to any lithium concentration
(Schaaf et al., 2008). By contrast the most elevated Li concentration at
Hagendorf is not correlated with Mn-dominated garnet. Manganiferous
garnet may be indicative of higher temperatures in the study area, but it
cannot be used as a stand-alone marker but has to be coupled with Mn-
bearing apatite in the marginal zone looked at vis-à-vis minerals like
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
biotite. There is more than one mineral in the pegmatite system striving
for accommodating Mn in its structure and therefore competitive min-
erals have scrutinized carefully. Spessartite-bearing almandine s.s.s.
coupled with the above phosphates and silicates is used as a marker
to assess the depth of formation or they might be used to predict the
presence of Mn-bearing phosphates in a pegmatite province.
4.15. Mica pegmatites and pegmatite skarn (59 D)
Muscovite is the most common phyllosilicate in many pegmatites,
metapegmatites and pegmatoids and thus, has been mentioned in
many sections of this book. In some pegmatites the booklets of musco-
vite are enriched to a considerable amount and they attain a size that
renders mica to be won as a by-product together with feldspar and
quartz mining (Fig. 37a, b).
Ihlen et al. (2002) came most closely to the ideas of the CMS classi-
fication scheme as they subdivided the syn-orogenic pegmatites in
Norway according to their major minerals. In addition to plagioclase-
dominant pegmatites and K-feldspar-dominant pegmatites they singled
out a third class, called white mica pegmatites. The mica is said to char-
acterize the degree of fractionation of the pegmatitic melt. Richter-
Bernburg (1950) conducted a subdivision of mica pegmatites in
Norway, from stock-like pegmatites (e.g. Kragerö) related to a small
pluton at depth through steeply dipping tabular (e.g. Holene) or
subhorizontal sill-like pegmatites (e.g. Hitterö) extending for kilome-
ters (Fig. 37c, d, e). Based upon his mapping, Richter-Bernburg (1950)
demonstrated that there is a gradual transition from tabular pure quartz
pegmatites or dikes (see Section 4.11), through quartz–feldspar pegma-
tites (Section 4.10) devoid of mica to pegmatites strongly enriched in
muscovite and biotite while getting more and more impoverished in
quartz. The author could not find any close link between the schistosity
and deformation of the metamorphic country rocks and the siting or
size of the mica pegmatites. Dyke swarms of mica pegmatite also
occur in the Uluguru Mts., Tanzania, where these strongly tectonized
tabular pegmatites intersect gneisses. As a byproduct they may, locally,
also contain uraninite, beryl and tourmaline and as such classified as
(U–Be–B)–mica pegmatites (Sampson, 1962).
Phlogopite-bearing pegmatoids mined at Ambatoabo, Madagascar,
formed in an environment completely different from what has been re-
ported for the Norwegian mica pegmatites (Ackermand et al., 1989). In
Precambrian medium- and high-grade paragneisses arranged in N–S di-
rection parallel to the trend of the Mozambique Fold Belt of eastern
Africa, diopsidites are intercalated into the gneisses as conformable
layers up to several meters thick. They contain pegmatoids with diop-
side, scapolite and phlogopite attaining a size of over one meter in
length. The metamorphic rocks of the Betroka–Beraketa Belt formed at
temperatures exceeding 850 °C and at a pressure of between 7 and
8 kbar. These phlogopite deposits are genetically related to the afore-
mentioned Pan-African Th–U skarn and orthoclase deposits at Itrongay,
Madagascar, which also contain phlogopite concentrations.
At Kapirikamodzi Hill, Malawi glimmerites within amphibolite-
facies metamorphic rocks have been mapped (Fig. 37f). The
vermiculite-enriched core was intruded by quartz–feldspar pegmatites
that contain among others vermiculitized phlogopite. It is a complex
rock, covering the full range from siliceous quartz pegmatites, through
quartz–feldspar pegmatites to nepheline pegmatites (Dill, 2007). The
original carbonatite was altered to pyroxenites and glimmerites and
last but not least ended up in a vermiculite mineralization with various
types of pegmatites reflecting a strong desilicification (Morel, 1988). It
is an example for the close genetic association between carbonatites
and some pegmatites. As the geological scenario resembles to some de-
gree what has been described from Madagascar, the origin of both type
localities abundant in phlogopite seems to be similar. In Malawi, a late
stage hydrothermal activity gave rise to vermiculite and paved the
way into the carbonatite suite at Palabora, South Africa.
523
Considering the muscovites pegmatites and their host rocks reveal,
that prospective deposits of mica pegmatites, with sizeable pods and
pockets within feldspar and quartz bodies, used to be intercalated into
mica schists or mica gneisses and encountered in granites. Phlogopite-
enriched types have been derived from melts of subcrustal origin
(Fig. 6c). Biotite-enriched types of pegmatite are shown in Fig. 37g.
4.16. Graphite pegmatites and pegmatite skarns (52 D)
Unlike its “brother” diamond which stands at the top of the Mohs
hardness scale, flakes of graphite are flexible, exhibit perfect basal cleav-
age parallel to {0001} and the mineral ranks very low in the Mohs hard-
ness scale (1–2). While diamond is totally absent from the mostly low-
pressure–high temperature regime of many pegmatites, graphite is a
rare constituent in pegmatite but nevertheless may attain in some coun-
tries ore-grade in pegmatitic rocks. The widely discussed model of
graphite to have been derived from peat via coal passing through differ-
ent coalification stages cannot be applied in this metamorpho-
magmatic setting where the pegmatitic rocks were emplaced. True
graphite forms at temperatures greater than 400 °C (Landis, 1971). Dif-
ferent ideas that may also be applied to pegmatitic rocks have been put
forward. Epigenetic graphite filling veins intersecting pegmatites may
have originated from lateral secretion and lead to their denomination
as graphite pegmatites (Erdosh, 1972). Carbon may be released from
pre-existing carbonate minerals by direct methanation through reac-
tion with elemental hydrogen (Salotti et al., 1971). Boudouard reaction
proceeds at 600 to 750 °C and falls into the temperature range in which
the emplacement of pegmatitic rocks may start forming
2 CO ⇒ C + CO2.
Graphite occurs in alkaline pegmatites at Hackman Valley, Mt.
Yukspor and Chibina Massif, Russia. It is associated with minerals in-
cluding aegirite, apatite, albite, nepheline and natrolite (Jaszczak et al.,
2007). Graphite-bearing pegmatitic dikes with abundant CO2-rich in-
clusions occur side-by-side with wollastonite-bearing calcsilicates and
gneiss–charnockite horizons in the supracrustal terrain of the Kerala
Khondalite Belt attesting to the transfer of carbonic fluids through mag-
matic conduits (Satish-Kumar and Santosh, 1998).
A second type of graphite which was found in Mongolia may be
brought in the reaches of pegmatitization during an early stage of mag-
matic activity and supposed to be transitional into a skarn-type graphite
mineralization. The mineralization is akin to mineralizations described
from the Botogol deposit in eastern Russia (Fogg and Boyle, 1987),
where the graphite formed as early as the syenite.
Only in the graphite syenite pegmatites a deep subcrustal source is
evident. In many other pegmatite bodies with graphite such as in Que-
bec, Canada, their origin is dubious.
Referring again to the quartz pegmatites, discussed in Section 4.11,
solid hydrocarbons concentrated along fractures in quartz dikes and fre-
quently associated with uranium black ore minerals such as along the
western edge of the Bohemian Massif at Wäldel, Germany, and at
Dylen, Czech Republic, gain importance as to the origin of graphite in
pegmatites (Dill, 1983a, 1983b). There are many different categories
of native allochthonous bituminous substances found as vein deposits
and defined as mineral wax (ozocerite), asphaltite (gilsonite, glance
pitch, grahamite), and asphaltitic pyrobitumen (wurtzilite, albertite,
impsonite) (Jacob, 1993). The solid bitumen with the most elevated re-
flectance is called impsonite (Levine, 1987; Levine et al.,1991).
Cataimpsonite is shown to gradually pass into semi-graphite and even-
tually into graphite. Unless bituminous matter is found in the basement
rocks around graphite deposits the source of graphite in quartz–feldspar
pegmatites sensu lato is likely to have been at a subcrustal level. This is
strikingly demonstrated by the paper of Silva (1987). The vein-type
graphite mineralization in the Bulathkohupitiya area with the main de-
posit at Bogala, Sri Lanka occurs in the zones of deep-seated fractures in
524 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
supracrustal stratiform metasedimentary rocks resulting from the dif-
ferential rise of subcrustal migmatites (Silva, 1987). Several veins of
graphite intersect the syenite pegmatite (Fig. 37). Mineralogical and
geochemical study of the wall rocks reveals a well-zoned alteration
halo about the deposit. Chemical zoning in the altered wall rock and
the relict mineral replacement textures indicate deep-seated hydro-
thermal activity.
4.17. Kaolin in pegmatites (55 DH)
It is widely known, kaolin is a rock with kaolinite-group minerals
prevailing over mica-group phyllosilicates, quartz and feldspar. The
kaolinite-group minerals can involve kaolinite, dickite, nacrite with dif-
ferent degrees of Si/Al disorder and halloysite, present also in its
metaforms. Quartz and feldspar and, to some extent mica, are relic min-
erals of hypogene and supergene alteration processes (Dill et al., 1997,
2014b, 2015). Considering the effect of both types of alteration in gran-
ites and pegmatites, in principle no difference may be recognized as far
as the conversion of minerals is concerned. In Cornwall, Great Britain,
and in the granite-related kaolin deposits in Germany, there are pegma-
titic granites or pegmatitic pockets within the parental granite that do
not behave any different as to the kaolinization as the overall homoge-
neous or equigranular granite. There are, however, significant differ-
ences as to the morphology and size of the resultant kaolin deposits.
These features are highlighted by a comparison of kaolinization affect-
ing the Late Variscan granite near Tirschenreuth, currently mined as a
ceramic raw material and a late Variscan pegmatite, the often quoted
Kreuzberg Pegmatite in the town of Pleystein, which has never attracted
the interest of mining engineers as a kaolin deposit, as the kaolin in the
area was washed away almost completely as the drainage system in-
cised in its gneissic bedrocks, including the Kreuzberg Pegmatite.
During the waning stages of the Variscan Orogeny, two-mica gran-
ites were intruded near Tirschenreuth being part of the larger
Falkenberg Granite Massif. They were uplifted after the Variscan oroge-
ny when the entire basement was subjected to intensive chemical
weathering and erosion. This early stage is no longer to be recognized.
Another period of chemical weathering took place during the
Cretaceous and the Cenozoic, when a vast peneplain truncated
both the metamorphic country rocks and the granitic intrusions.
Only the youngest relics of this chemical weathering have been
preserved from erosion in some depressions, forming today disconnect-
ed blankets of kaolin with an unduluous basal contact on top of
the granite. They were subjected to a more precise dating and geomor-
phological investigation, using U/Pb isotope ratios of secondary U min-
erals and K/Ar isotope data of cryptomelane as a geological clock to
constrain the supergene alteration (Dill et al., 2010a,b). The age estimates
obtained from these secondary U and Mn minerals for the immediate
surroundings of the Tirschenreuth kaolin deposit range between
4.55 Ma and 3.99 Ma. Only Strobel (1969) claimed that a hydrothermal
kaolinization was operative at some points and also affected the granitic
parent rocks. All other students, such as Köster (1974), Kitagawa and
Köster (1991) backed the idea of a supergene nature of the kaolinization
which was most efficient under the tropical to subtropical paleoclimate
during the waning stages of the Neogene in this Central European
region.
In the Hagendorf area the chemical weathering was dated by means
of the K/Ar method applied to cryptomelane at 4.20 ± 0.33 Ma which
falls into the same age interval as mentioned above for the granite
(Dill et al., 2010b). In the stock-like pegmatite of Hagendorf-South and
Hagendorf-North the degree of kaolinization is weak and in the tab-
ular pegmatites almost absent. Although, the concentration of feld-
spar in the pegmatite is more massive than in any of the
surrounding granites the supergene impact on this vulnerable
tectosilicate was low, due to the comparatively small size of the sur-
face exposed to weathering at outcrop in both structural types of
pegmatites. On the other hand the question has to be raised, why
the same quartz–feldspar stock at Pleystein was deprived of almost
all of its feldspar and stands out today as a quartz pegmatite reef,
but its neighbor Hagendorf-South, almost of the same size, did not
suffer from such an alteration.
Prior to the post-pegmatitic weathering and erosion which affected
this pegmatite stock like its neighbors, there was an intensive hydro-
thermal kaolinization at depth eating away the massive Na–K feldspar
rim overlying the quartz core at Pleystein. It converted the stockwork-
like aplite veins in the hanging wall biotite–gneisses into kaolinite–feld-
spar–quartz aplite veins and the aplite underneath the quartz core into
a kaolinite–quartz aplite to kaolinite aplite tabular. This is also valid for
the feldspar rim which was completely argillized. The ascending hydro-
thermal fluids were impounded by the sealing quartz core and did their
job of alteration to full capacity, so that all degrees of hypogene
kaolinization may be observed in the exocontact of the quartz core, ex-
cluding the topmost parts. When the kaolin–quartz pegmatite stock
was uplifted, its gneissic roof rock was gradually destroyed by the fluvial
drainage system. Presumably, during the initial stages a sort of collapse-
breccia consisting of gneiss fragments supported by a soft kaolin matrix
came into existence. Upon further incision of the river the friable mate-
rial was denudated to completeness and left behind the quartz core,
standing out today from the landscape as a quartz reef (Fig. 32a). Only
those parts of the kaolinized rim were preserved from erosion, that
were protected by the intact gneissic roof rocks or by the sheltering ef-
fect of the flat-lying quartz core. Quartz reefs or quartz pegmatite ruins
have to be investigated as to their lateral and footwall facies of
kaolinization underneath the quartz core. It is aimed determining the
degree and to distinguish the type of hypogene from supergene
kaolinization which can be superimposed on the hydrothermal alter-
ation. Today the supergene kaolinization is present only as relic often
overestimated in relation to its predecessor.
In the Borborema Pegmatite Province, Brazil, mineral resources asso-
ciated with the rare element pegmatites comprise apart from Be, Nb–Ta,
Li, and Sn, gemstones, such as the rare Paraiba tourmaline. Among the
industrial minerals besides quartz and feldspar kaolin is of interest in
these pegmatites which were subjected to intense chemical weathering
under tropical climatic conditions (Beurlen et al., 2001) (Fig. 39a). In the
environs of Pleystein, the kaolinization is most strongly among the aplit-
ic and pegmatitic rocks of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province,
Germany (Fig. 39b, c, d). In the zone where kaolinization is most inten-
sive only muscovite/sericite and sporadic tantalite–columbite survived
in a matrix of kaolinite. There is conspicuous variation in the
kaolinization underneath the quartz core of the Kreuzberg Pegmatite
(Fig. 39b). Two subzones, separated from each other by a subparallel
quartz vein evolved in the footwall aplite. The lowermost zone of the
aplite was much stronger affected by the hypogene kaolinization than
the uppermost zone immediately underneath the quartz core
(Fig. 39b). This type of mineral association was also recognized in vari-
ous unzoned kaolinite aplites around Pleystein, Germany, devoid of any
quartz core impounding the ascending hydrothermal fluids (Fig. 39c, d).
In the aplite granites the original structure has been preserved much
better than in the aplites. Kaolinization in these reference aplites and
aplite granites resulted from the combined effect of hypogene and su-
pergene alteration.
Besides the above kaolinized pegmatites from Germany, the site
most well studied is the granitic cupola at Montebras, France, which be-
longs to the highly kaolinized Chanon Granite (Dudoignon et al., 1988).
The hydrothermal alteration was accompanied by different types
of greisen formation subsequently overprinted by an extensive
kaolinization process, which affected the entire granitic bodies. In the
Chanon granite, the greisens are characterized by a Li mica–quartz–
tourmaline assemblage which are surrounded by concentric alteration
zones. Strong hypogene kaolinization has also affected some of the
Be pegmatite (emerald) in the Ural Mountains, Russia (Fig. 39e)
(Fersmann, 1940 cited in Schneiderhöhn, 1961). For comparison the su-
pergene kaolinization of the Salpond Pegmatite, Southern Ghana, has
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
been shown in a cross section in Fig. 39f. The uppermost part of the peg-
matite and its surrounding wall rocks are affected by the tropical
weathering almost to the same extent down to the lower boundary of
the weathering front.
5. Processes in the exocontact of pegmatites and within pegmatites
5.1. Skarn mineralization and contact metamorphism
In rare-element pegmatite provinces with Sn–W-, REE-, U-Th-, B-, P-
and Mo-bearing pegmatites, skarn mineral associations occur at a distal
as well as proximal position relative to the pegmatites-for definition of
skarn see Section 4.1.1. This is also valid for some of the pegmatite prov-
inces containing predominantly industrial minerals and gemstones
such as feldspar, feldspathoids (scapolite), zeolite, corundum, garnet
or graphite (Table 2). Pegmatite-related skarn mineralization abundant
in rare elements or industrial minerals has been dealt with in the
pertinent subsections of Section 4 while placing the emphasis on the
accumulation of elements and minerals in the metacarbonates
(Table 2).
Another effect, denominated in the pertinent literature as contami-
nation of the felsic melt, is often very difficult to constrain, although
mineralogical evidence such as the presence of Ca,Mg,(Fe)-rich min-
erals clinopyroxene (diopside to hedenbergite), amphiboles (tremolite,
edenite, hastingsite), Mg-rich cordierite, phlogopite, scapolite, titanite,
epidote, and/or calcite are, in places, very common (Žáček, 2007;
Novák, 2013). Novák (2013) subdivided this kind of contamination
found in pegmatites corresponding to the temporal relationship be-
tween pegmatite formation and contamination. He published a tripar-
tite scheme into (1) pre-emplacement contamination of the melt,
(2) post-emplacement contamination of the melt, and (3) (3) post-em-
placement contamination of solid pegmatite. Based upon the current
studies it seems advisable to place another stage between (1) and
(2) which is synonymous with the skarn mineralization and syn-
genetic with the initial stages of pegmatite emplacement — see
Fig. 40a, b. This is the reason why it has been referred to in this context
and the term pegmatite-skarn was used as separate entity for a wide
range of mineralizations.
The pre-emplacement contamination of melt is the most difficult
one to come to grips with and well-documented examples, such as
the Bližná I pegmatite, Czech Republic, are rare (Novák et al., 2012).
Post-emplacement alteration involves in-situ contamination of a peg-
matite melt from the host rock. Hydrothermal (subsolidus) contamina-
tion is characterized by alteration of a solid pegmatite by fluids
infiltrating (or diffused) from host rocks after thermal and fluid
reequilibration of pegmatite and host rock.
In the Naje tourmaline deposit, Nepal, a syn-emplacement contami-
nation took place as a tabular zoned pegmatite was emplaced at the
contact between banded gneisses and overlying calcsilicate rocks
north of the Main Central Thrust in the Himalaya (Aryal, 2001)
(Fig. 40a, b). The felsic melt incorporated the calcsilicate rocks contain-
ing diopside (Fig. 40a, b). Apart from metacarbonates and the more sili-
ceous calcsilicate rocks, basic and ultrabasic rocks may also behave as
contaminants a exemplified by the Bližná I pegmatite, Czech Republic,
and the basic igneous rock slaps in the Tanco pegmatite, Canada (Van
Lichtervelde et al., 2006).
Another thermal effect which often went unnoticed in pegmatite
fields is contact metamorphism, which can directly be connected with
the skarn mineralization as well as the pegmatites. Porphyroblasts of
grossularite (hessonite), vesuvianite, zoisite, and minerals of the
diopside-hedenbergite s.s.s can easily be seen with the unaided eye in
the field and having a UV lamp at hands, even the scheelite dissemina-
tion associated often with them may be detected at site. These Ca min-
erals typical of skarn were only recently identified west of the
Hagendorf–Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Germany, associated with ag-
gregates of wollastonite, indicative of the high-grade contact
525
metamorphism. The classical metamorphic process leading to wollas-
tonite when CaO and SiO2 react with each other can be found in almost
each textbook of petrology. Observations in the field at Hagendorf,
Germany, suggest that the XCO2 was rather high and a temperature of
600 °C existed at a depth of 2 km below ground, corresponding to
500 bar. Doubling the depth needs temperatures of between 650 and
670 °C to produce wollastonite. Whatever temperature of formation
has been invoked in relation to depth, one thing is for sure. There is a
thermal anomaly in the exocontact to the west of the pegmatite prov-
ince. At the endocontact the chemical composition of the black Fe-
enriched sphalerite from the Kreuzberg Pegmatite lends mineralogical
support to this idea of a contact-metasomatic–contact-metamorphic
processes related to the emplacement of pegmatites in the study area.
The “hot spot” of the rare metal-bearing pegmatites of the Hagendorf–
Pleystein Pegmatite Province, Germany, lies in the environs of Pleystein
rather than in the Hagendorf area, asymmetrically to the entire pegma-
titic ore field. The thermal event should not be taken as the ultimate
heat source accountable for the entire process of emplacement and al-
teration of the pegmatites. As large complex pegmatite bodies formed
by multi-stage processes, it needs to single out the process in question
and correlate the heat event triggering the contact metamorphism in
the exocontact zone with the individual process inside the pegmatite,
proper (Dill, 2015). The above processes are intracrustal, but as far as
the heat source is concerned a subcrustal source cannot be excluded,
particularly in view of the highest grade of contact metamorphism
and the presence of intermediate to basic intrusive rocks related in
space with these alteration phenomena. In the Hagendorf–Pleystein
Province contact-metasomatic and contact-metamorphic processes at
its western exocontact is much more intensive than what has been ob-
served around the nearby Flossenbürg Granite which for quite a long
time has been considered as the parental granite for the pegmatites
and aplites of the Hagendorf–Pleystein Province. It is a major setback
in the attempt to link a nearby granite complex with a pegmatite prov-
ince nearby. Although both of them belong to the late Variscan thermal
event, the temperature regime was strikingly different for the granite
and the pegmatite.
In the CMS classification scheme, a rock like that may show up as
Nb–Be pegmatite-(skarn).
5.2. Episyenitization and albitization
Episyenitization and albitization affected granites and pegmatites
alike. These postgranitic or postpegmatitic alteration phenomena result
in a replacement of quartz while producing an igneous rock composed
almost entirely of sodic plagioclase. Using the double-triangle diagrams
the newly formed rock plots in the field of syenites or has to be called an
albitite (Streckeisen, 1980). The outward appearance is that of a porous
and highly permeable magmatic rock which behaves like a reservoir
rock in a hydrocarbon deposit as mineralizing fluids percolate through
these episyenites and precipitate ore minerals at an economic grade,
mainly U oxides, -titanates and -silicates (Dill, 1983a,b) (Fig. 41a, b).
Episyenitization has been recorded from different regions in Europe,
from Precambrian through Mesozoic felsic magmatic rocks (Dill,
1983a,b; Cathelineau, 1986; Petersson and Eliasson, 1997; Hecht et al.,
1999; Boulvais et al., 2007). While the initial stages of this alteration
are closely resembling each other, involving a desilicification or
dequartzification of the host rock to almost completeness, the replacing
products can significantly differ from each other. There are pure feldspar
episyenites and mica episyenites, which end up in muscovite-enriched
igneous rocks. The episyenites may also contain calcite and dolomite
and even zeolite (heulandite and stilbite). This is the case in the area
in NE Bavaria (Fig. 41b). Dosbaba and Novák (2012) recorded from
the Věžná I pegmatite, Czech Republic, quartz replacement by “kerolite”,
a variety of talc (Fig. 41c). The desilicated graphic pegmatite is hosted by
a serpentinized harzburgite and the source of Mg “just round the cor-
ner”. According to the authors, this alteration likely proceeded at
526 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

a
Accommodation
Shearing
space

Fig. 47. a. The zonation of the Greenbushes pseudopegmatite, Australia, and its relation to the host-shearzone (Partington et al., 1995). b. The fold-related metamorphogenic Ag-bearing
Pb–Zn vein-type deposits Ramsbeck in the Rheinisches Schiefergebirge, Germany. Steep and flat-lying Pb–Zn veins related to the folding of the Ramsbeck Quartzite. Movement parallel the
shear planes gave rise to the accommodation space for Pb–Zn mineralization (quoted in Dill, 2010).

temperatures in the range 100 to 300 °C and under a pressure regime of
below ~ 0.5 to 1.0 kbar, under high activity of alkalis but low tectonic
stress. While the physical conditions seem to be plausible and can also
be applied to similar types of alteration elsewhere, the tectonic setting
is different from what has been revealed during the U exploration in the
1980 in the granitic areas along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif
(Fig. 41a, b). The map of Fig. 41b illustrates a strongly fractured margin of
an uraniferous granite, with several criss-crossing faults, one set (NW–SE)
is unmineralized but strongly mylonized and the other set striking N–S to
NNW–SSE gave host to dolomitic episyenites. The metamorphic country
rocks of the granite are made up of metapelites with several horizons of
marbles and calcsilicates. The final product of episyenitization, be it a
phyllosilicate or a carbonate is closely controlled by the country rocks as
exemplified by the above sites undergoing intensive episyenitization. It
may be a contact or proximal episyenitization, e.g., Věžná-type or a distal
episyenitization, e.g., Hebanz-type.
The reader is also referred for physical–chemical discussion to the
paper published by Thomas and Davidson (2015).
Episyenitization is characterized by a replacement of quartz and ac-
companied by a strong increase of the albite component in the feldspar.
Unlike the aforementioned carbonate minerals and phyllosilicates
which originated from elements released from the host rocks and country
rocks of the granite and pegmatite, the sodium component cannot simply
be supplied by a decomposition of calcium–sodium feldspar. Sodium has
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 527

Run of
Flow sheet mine
for
Cassiterite
Tantalite Screen coarse Jaw
Wolframite crusher
fine

Cone
Screen > 10mm crusher

< 10mm

Concentrate
coarse Jig

tailings tailings

Concentrate Jig Rod mill

coarse

> 1mm
Screen
Taillings
concentrate
< 1mm
disposal

Spiral
tailings tailings

concentrate
Spiral tailings

Concentrate
Shaking table
fine

Fig. 48. Flow sheet to show the beneficiation scheme for metal oxides in pegmatites. (Redrawn from a flow sheet designed by H. Wotruba).

been derived from a deeper, subcrustal source, although albitites, particu-
larly those associated with uranium deposits can be found in S- as well as
A-type granites. The classical studies date back on the early investigations
in the former Sowjet Union (Dobretsov, 1963; Kalyaev, 1980). Metaso-
matic U deposits of this kind are situated at Espinharas, Brazil, Tete,
Mozambique, Zholtye Vody, Ukraine (for description see box under-
neath), Kitongo, Cameroon, and Valhalla near Mount Isa in Australia and
mostly are bound to deep-seated lineamentary fault zones which acted
as pathways for the hydrothermal fluids forming the albitites (Oesterlen
and Vetter, 1986; Connors and Page, 1995). Together with the albitization
and the emplacement of uranium, Th-, P- and REE-bearing minerals were
introduced into the altered host and wall rocks. In Section 4.2.3 emphasis
was placed on the role of albitites and episyenitization during the accu-
mulation of emeralds in the contact zone of basic schists, pegmatites
and granites (see also Fig. 39e).
The Nova Mine, near the town of Zholtye Vody, Ukraine worked a
polymetallic primarily iron ore enriched in scandium, uranium and rare
earth elements. The scandium resource was estimated to be 7.9 Mt grading
105 ppm scandium, and the mine was believed to be the only primary
scandium mine in operation in the world. Its mineralization is related to al-
kaline magmatic activity (Duyvesteyn and Putnam, 2014).
Albitized granites and albitites in Kazakhstan, Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, Norway and Canada are not only host or reservoir
rocks for rare-element concentrations but they are also worked for
feldspar, since natural processes have already done the job used
by done in a processing plant (Harben and Kužvart, 1996; Potter,
2007).
This alteration can also be addressed in the CMS classification
scheme, it is either a dolomite–feldspar pegmatite, as in the Hebanz-
type or a talc–feldspar pegmatite in case of Věžná-type.
5.3. Metamorphogenic, magmatogenic and hydrothermal pegmatitic
processes
The temporal relation between the enclosing country rocks and peg-
matitic rocks allows for a tripartite subdivision, a fact which is taken ad-
equate account in the CMS classification scheme of these felsic
mobilizates with the introduction of metapegmatites, pegmatoids and
528 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

pegmatites sensu stricto. They formed pre-, syn- and post-kinematic in
relation to the structural disturbances. The different processes, that
might be operative in aplites and pegmatites located in an ensialic
orogen are listed in Table 12.
At the beginning of pegmatitization sensu stricto discussed in this
book an initial metamorpho-tectonic stage is characterized by syn- to
late kinematic mobilizates. The transition from schlieren of pegmatoids
to pegmatites s.str. suggests that these melts were very mobile, and sep-
arated gradually from their site of formation through selective separa-
tion such as filter-pressing and seismic-pumping along with thrustal
motion. Intracrustal and subcrustal processes of element mobilization
have acted in the same direction by providing heat and mobilizing ele-
ments from different sources to create in a multistage process a complex
rock called pegmatite s.str. Accommodation space is provided for stock-
like bodies in the hinge areas, for tabular ones along the limbs of anticli-
nal structures following the rules of mimic tectonics and along shear-
zones where pegmatites got, in places, dismembered.
Multi-phase pegmatitization may involve late kinematic (to
postkinematic) subcrustal magmatic mobilization which affected the
“older granites” or “older pegmatites” and lead to ore-bearing alteration
zones such as greisen and stockscheiders — see Section 4.1. In the post-
kinematic stage advanced fractionation of the melt takes place, which
along the margin grades into contact metasomatic processes with the
crystalline country rocks – see Section 5.1 – and conduced to a reaction
rim and contamination of the melt. Autometasomatic retrograde reac-
tions were observed in large stocks or thick tabular bodies sealed off
from the country rocks. Small tabular bodies only show an interaction
of their melt with the crystalline country rocks whereas reactions with
preexisting minerals in the pegmatite itself are scarce. Mineralization
caused by younger individual granitic or subvolcanic stocks in the peg-
matite at shallow depth was called epithermal. These young granitic or
subvolcanic intrusives were intruded along deep-seated lineamentary
fault zones at the time when the basement block and the hosted pegma-
tite were going to be uplifted so that weathering and erosion could work
their way down to depth. Still underneath the level of erosion and prior
to the stage when the epithermal mineralization took full effect,
pockets, cavities and miaroles come into existence in granitic pegma-
tites under moderate pressure — see CMS classification scheme
(Section 3.2). The structural and environmental processes operative in
and around the pegmatites responsible for the epithermal mineraliza-
tion also paved the way to unconformity- or in geomorphological
terms, peneplain-related vein-type deposits which proven by radiomet-
ric age dating evolved near the surface, while at depth magmatic pro-
cesses were still at full swing. In the aftermaths of these processes

Fig. 49. Mining pegmatites small-scale and large scale: The Capoeira Mine exploited for Paraiba Tourmaline in Brazil and the Rössing Mine near Swakopmund, Namibia mined for uranium.
See drill rig, trucks and roads for scale (open pit photographs courtesy of Rio Tinto Rössing Uranium).
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
operative at the brink from the supercritical to the subcritical hydrolog-
ical regime, the hydrothermal alteration of the primary pegmatitic min-
erals played an ever increasing part in a rather mobile geodynamic
setting. Mineralization gradually converts from alteration intrinsic to
the pegmatite into an alteration driven by extrinsic factors, e.g., a super-
imposition of a distal mineralization of Alpine age onto a mineralization
pertaining to the Variscan one. The schematic pathway of the geological
evolution in a pegmatite is a mixtum compositum elaborated for the peg-
matites in the Central European Variscides, along the western edge of
the Bohemian Massif. Some processes may be more prominent in one
or the other pegmatite than described while others are missing (Dill,
2015).
The latest processes affecting the pegmatitic rocks forms part of the
supergene alteration which was extensively treated in Section 4.17.
6. Mineral deposits associated with pegmatitic rocks
6.1. Variscan-type metallogenic setting and pegmatites
In the Variscan-type, ensialic orogen, where most pegmatitic rocks
from metapegmatites, through pegmatoids and pegmatites s.st. to
plutonic pegmatites formed, a characteristic assemblage of non-
pegmatitic mineral deposits is associated with the various types of peg-
matitic rocks and their finer-grained aplitic equivalents. The varied
spectrum of mineral deposits has been subdivided into four groups, a
fifth category, is transitional into the adjacent geodynamic setting
denominated as ensimatic (Fig. 9a) (Dill, 1989; Dill et al., 2008b,c). A de-
tailed treatment of the non-pegmatitic mineral deposits in a particular
geodynamic setting may help delineate pegmatite fields of the afore-
mentioned structural types, vice versa the structural types of pegma-
tites can also be applied in terms of marker types for a special physical
regime and thus used as an ore guide for non-pegmatitic mineral de-
posits in the other way round. Pegmatites are closely interdigating
with non-pegmatitic deposits.
Type-I mineral deposits encompass stratabound and, in places, also
stratiform and timebound mineral deposits. Sediment-hosted massive
sulfides prevail over volcanic-hosted massive sulfides in basement sec-
tions prone to pegmatites. It is mainly pyrite-pyrrhotite-bearing Cu–Zn
deposits and sedimentary exhalative Fe deposits. There is a wide range
of U–Cu–Mo–Sb–Zn–REE-bearing low-grade-large-tonnage deposits,
the most remarkable of its kind are the black-shale-hosted ones. The
Early Paleozoic Graptolite Shales and Alum Shales are even timebound.
During the same period of time pegmatites evolved, which according to
their different geodynamic setting were subjected to a different type
and degree of regional metamorphism. Another commodity is graphite
which is one of the few minerals which owes its existence exclusively to
the high-grade regional metamorphism and also appears in pegmatitic
rocks (Section 4.16). The pertinent pegmatitic deposits for type-I miner-
al deposits belong to the group of metapegmatites — see also CMS clas-
sification scheme (Section 3.2.1).
Type-II mineral deposits are called thrustbound, fold-related and
metamorphogenic in origin. Activation of the continental margin result-
ed in the initiation of southward subduction in the early Late Devonian
in the Central European Variscides, where most of the examples cited
here have derived from. The structurally-controlled ore deposits con-
taining Sb, Pb, Zn, Cu sulfides, Au and siderite, show pervasive textural
distortion and strong mylonitization. Base metals, Sb, Au and siderite
are related to shear-zones and cleaved (meta)psammo-pelitic series,
that developed along the fold axes of the Variscan anticlines. The various
mineral associations in the faultbound deposits are subdivided
as follows: silver-bearing base metal, copper-bearing iron-oxide
and selenium, siderite–copper–lead–zinc-, gold–antimony–arsenic
(mesothermal Au–Sb vein-type), gold–tellurium veinlets, and gold–
tungsten vein deposits. Polymetallic gold–stibnite mineralization occurs
in a proximal position relative to the anticlines cored by the late
529
Variscan granites, whereas the monotonous stibnite veins, lacking Au
of economic grade, are located in a more distal position relative to
these “high-heat zones”. Besides these metal deposits thrust-bound
talc and asbestos deposits in (ultra)basic igneous rocks occur. Among
the pegmatitic deposits feldspar–quartz pegmatoids and quartz lodes
plus quartz pegmatites have to be attributed to these thrustbound,
fold-related and metamorphogenic deposits (Sections 4.10.2, 4.11).
The feldspar- and quartz-enriched pegmatitic rocks formed at greater
depth are equivalent to the metal thrustbound and fold-related deposits
emplaced at a more shallow level. This is demonstrated in pronounced
way as the non-pegmatitic mineral deposits in the Rhenohercynian
Zone, barren as to pegmatites, are compared with the pegmatitic de-
posits in the Saxo-Thuringian Zone — see also Section 2.1.
Type-III mineral deposits are collision (granite)-related deposits. By
the end of the Variscan orogeny the convergence in mid-Carboniferous
times resulted in the emplacement of abundant syn- and postorogenic
granites and the formation of granitic pegmatites and pegmatites
sensu stricto as separate entities (Section 4). The passage from the
shear- and thrustbound type-II to the granite-related type-III deposits
is the most decisive part for the emplacement of pegmatitic rocks
since it marks the metamorphogenic–magmatic initial stages during
the emplacement of the pegmatites in context with particular kinematic
effects. The granitic pegmatites are exclusive to the type-III deposits. In
the ensialic orogen the following mineral associations occur: Tin–tung-
sten–molybdenum vein-type, greisen and skarn deposits, lead–copper–
zinc–silver vein deposits, polymetallic and monotonous uranium vein-
type often in episyenitic deposits and talc (soapstone) replacement de-
posits in carbonate rocks — see Section 5.2. While type-II metal deposits
formed at a shallower level than the contemporaneous pegmatitic and
aplitic deposits, the feldspar–quartz and polymetallic (granitic) pegma-
tites during the Permo-Carboniferous came into being at a similar depth
as their non-metallic deposits. At the very end mineralizing processes
intrinsic to the pegmatites and mineralization close to the unconformity
are telescoped into each other — see Section 5.3. The transition from late
type-III deposits into early type-IV deposits, such as the uranium and
fluorite deposits with fetid fluorite is gradually with no sharp boundary
(Dill et al., 2008b,c).
Type-IV mineral deposits began forming simultaneously with the
mineral deposits of type III. Radiometric age dating of U oxides present
in types III and IV ore mineralization prove this idea. While the primary
mineralization of the rare element pegmatites faded out at depth
unconformity-related vein-type deposits evolved near the paleo-
peneplain which capped the uplifted basement blocks and gave host
to different types of supergene mineral deposits. Peneplanation and
etchplanation (Twidale, 2002) under arid to (sub) tropical climatic con-
ditions occurred during these late Variscan time. The late Variscan/early
Alpine unconformity has become a geohydraulic plane for a great vari-
ety of epigenetic deposits which were emplaced where this unconfor-
mity was intersected by (sub)vertical fault zones. Meso- to epithermal
polymetallic mercury-precious metal vein-type deposits, uranium–mo-
lybdenum–copper vein-type and stratiform deposits in volcano-
sedimentary series, uranium-bearing fluorite-barite and base metal
vein-type and sandstone-hosted deposits and iron-base metal-barite
vein-type and replacement deposits are bound to the post-Variscan un-
conformities — see also intra-pegmatitic epithermal mineralization in
Section 5.3. They are found within Upper Carboniferous through
Lower Jurassic igneous rocks and in platform sediments, or immediately
beneath the unconformity in Paleozoic basement rocks. Supergene de-
posits with kaolin, Sn and U are also related to this peneplanation. The
younger stages of this era of mineralization at shallow depth and across
the peneplain are contemporaneous with the onset of the secondary
mineralization in the rare-metal pegmatites.
In the stable cratonic shelf of the Paleozoic Variscides another type-V
mineralization evolved. This igneous-related-lineamentary bound min-
eralization with Bi–Co–Ni-, and Pb–Zn–Ba–F vein-type deposits cannot
immediately correlated with the secondary mineralization of the
530 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
pegmatites for lack of age data. Publications are scant and there is still a
considerable lack of information as to the geodynamic setting and the
age of formation of the pertinent mineral assemblages (Wagner and
Lorenz, 2002; Ondruš et al., 2003a,b). A Nb–REE mineralization during
the Cenozoic in the wake of some alkaline magmatic complexes and
carbonatites hallmarks a mantle-derived rare element mineralization
in Central Europe.
The driving force for this Alpine remobilization in the extra-Alpine
Region has not yet been fully understood in geodynamic terms. Initial
phases of extension in the Proto-Atlantic Ocean and mantle processes
in the Penninic Ocean of the Alpine Region (Alpine Tethys) are possible
candidates to explain this mineralization. Perhaps, the Cu–Co–Ni–Bi–Ag
mineralization at Grimentz, Switzerland, in the Permo-Carboniferous
Casanna Schists of the Middle Penninic Bernhard Nappe (Briançonnais)
may bridge the gap between the extra-Alpine Ag–Bi–Co–Ni formation
and the geodynamic–metallogenic evolution in the Alps (Halm, 1945).
It is a moderate or distal representative of the ensimatic metallotect
when compared with the carbonatite complexes and alkaline magmatic
complexes in, e.g., Brazil and Sub-Saharan Africa. And it can be considered
as a typical late-stage response of ore mineralization in the Variscan
ensialic or collisional orogen as it became reactivated in the course of
the newly formed Alpine orogen which shows a more ensimatic compo-
nent in its geodynamic evolution than the Variscan-type equivalent but
less pronounced than the Andean- or Arc-type. Pegmatites did not form
in Central Europe in connection with these intrusive rocks.
When discussing non-pegmatitic ore mineral deposits with pegma-
titic deposits, there is a logic for another question: Which mineral de-
posits are negative markers and exclude the presence of pegmatitic
deposits in the geodynamic setting? There are no porphyry-type Cu–
Au–Mo deposits, no podiform chromite deposits, no Ni–Co deposits,
no primary PGE deposits, no epithermal-type Cu–Au–Ag–Mo–(As–Sb–
Hg) deposits, no ophiolite-hosted Cu–Au deposits and only minor
VMS Pb–Zn–Cu–Ba deposits in crustal sections prone to pegmatite de-
posits. These metal deposits are common to Andean and Island-Arc set-
tings (Fig. 9a). Divergent plate boundaries as they have reached an
advanced level of spreading are detrimental to the accumulation of peg-
matitic rocks. Thinning of the crust taken to the extreme is not what
pegmatites like. Convergent plate boundaries are no favorable sites for
pegmatite deposits either. They neither form in the principle arcs or
its inner sides, nor show these deposits up in arc-related rifts. As
we have learnt in this section they like crustal thickening, when sub-
duction converts into a collision of plates, with nappes being stacked
and piled up, so turns an infertile setting into a fertile one. When the
stable craton or thickened crust start splitting up again, the early
stages of rifting or failed rifts, and triple junctions create another
birthplace of pegmatite deposits (Section 6.2, Fig. 9a). The chance
to create pegmatites diminishes the more advanced the level of
rifting is.
6.2. Rift-type metallogenic setting and pegmatites
The embryonic stage of rifting and intracontinental hotspots are the
second favorable geodynamic setting to emplace pegmatites of specific
types (Table 3, Fig. 6a, c). As these mineral deposits do not form in a
newly-generated oceanic crust or within a newly-emplaced arc but still
emplaced in a thickened crust, complex rare element pegmatites should
not be taken any longer as a surprise (see Eastern Africa, Brazil). It is the
relative speed of plate motion that counts in physical and chemical
terms as it comes to the emplacement of rift-type related pegmatites
and mineral deposits associated with them; the speed is crucial for the
feeding of mantle-derived material into the mineral deposits, including
the pegmatites and controls the lithospheric–asthenospheric interaction
and generation of heat driving the pegmatites to come into existence. If
the motion is too fast and a set of multiple vents fosters the formation
of basaltic lava flows across the preexisting basement rocks this crustal
section has no high potential to emplace pegmatites. But a young plateau
basalt does not exclude a slow motion during earlier periods (!). The most
favorable target areas are those with almost no motion of the hotspot and
the overriding crust. Peralkaline and peraluminous felsic igneous rocks
(A-type granite suite) are produced side-by-side with carbonatites. In
Uganda, Be–REE–Zr–Nb/Ta pegmatites are associated in space with
REE–Nb carbonatites (pyrochlore).
To correlate the rare-element pegmatites and the non-pegmatitic el-
ement associations in the above magmatic complexes located in an em-
bryonic or a failed rift, the various non-pegmatitic mineral deposits have
been cited with their coding according to Dill (2010):
1. Sn–W Post-granitic endo- and exogranitic greisen-vein in A-type
granites and breccia-pipe deposits (12b DE)
2. Be-bearing alkaline intrusive rocks (nepheline syenite) (14a E)
3. Be- and Y-bearing alkaline intrusive rocks (nepheline syenite) (24d
E)
4. REE–P–Nb–Ta–Y–F–(Be–Zr–Th) deposits related to carbonatites
(24a E)
5. REE–P–Ti deposits related to alkaline igneous complexes (24b E)
6. Th deposits related to alkaline intrusions and carbonatites (26b E)
7. Fluorite deposits related to U–REE carbonatites and alkaline intru-
sive rocks (32a E)
8. Cryolite deposit related to metasomatic A-type granites (32b E)
9. Nb-enriched deposits related to alkaline igneous complexes and
carbonatites
10. Pyrochlore-dominated concentric shell-type intrusions and
carbonatites (13a E)
11. Nb-perovskite-dominated laccolites (13b E).
For a more detailed treatment of these individual deposits and fur-
ther literature the reader is referred to Dill (2010).
6.3. Alpine-type metallogenic setting and pegmatites
The Central European–Himalayan Fold Belt can be taken as a case-in-
point for a geodynamic setting where elements have been incorporated
from the adjacent pre-consolidated stable crustal sections which suf-
fered from different orogenies prior to the Mesozoic–Cenozoic kinemat-
ic–metamorphic processes. For regions in the Far East, it would go far
beyond this review on pegmatites and it would be too premature to
make an attempt to show how rare-element pegmatites have been in-
corporated from the adjacent cratons into the newly formed Himalayan
fold belt. The evidencing situation for these Asian regions is too weak
and the area lacks any coverage almost similar to the Central
European Mesozoic–Cenozoic Alpine Mountain Chain, located immedi-
ately south of the Paleozoic Variscides, its predecessor (Figs. 2, 6a).
As an example for the reactivation of non-pegmatitic minerals, the
Bi–Co–Ni minerals assemblage has already been quoted in Section 6.2.
It has some kind of a transitional status and marking the onset of rifting,
or when a consolidated crustal section starts weakening again, while
true rift-related mineral deposits listed in Section 6.2 have not yet
been emplaced.
Besides the often discussed pseudopegmatites in the Austrian Alps,
there are some examples which can be referred to as reactivated de-
posits from the Central European Variscides. In the westernmost branch
of the Alps, the Salau W–Au skarn evolved (Fonteilles et al., 1989). The
skarn deposit is hosted in Devonian carbonates and was intruded by a
late Carboniferous stock. The Hercynian orogeny involved polyphase
deformation, regional metamorphism of greenschist facies, and late in-
trusions of granite–granodiorite. During the first stage (540 to 450 °C),
skarn formation was followed by pyrrhotite–scheelite–quartz–calcite
mineral assemblage. In the second stage (450 to 350 °C), the main ore
stage with scheelite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, sulfides and some gold
developed. It is a type-III granite-related deposit which may also be en-
countered within the collisional Variscan orogen outside the Alps. The
younger Alpine deformation and metamorphism had little imprint on
this incorporated deposit. The pendant as far as the pegmatite deposits
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
are concerned is the Albera pegmatite field in the Eastern Pyrenees,
France, with its (Nb/Ta–U)–Be–Li–P pegmatites (Malló et al., 1995).
The Central European Alpine Fold Belt has been investigated again
and again, and it is not really a surprise to see in some cases a back
and fro with regard to the principles of ore concentration. Many de-
posits formerly interpreted as epigenetic were re-interpreted as
stratabound and timebound to Paleozoic periods (Tufar, 1972;
Maucher, 1974). Not long after the pendulum has swung to the opposite
side again (Belocky et al., 1991; Pohl and Belocky, 1994). Nevertheless,
the deposits of Variscan age form an integral part of the metallogenic
evolution of the Alps.
In the Italian Alps S of Innsbruck, the Monteneve/Schneeberg
mine, Italy, forms part of a horizon mineralized with Zn–Pb minerals
that extend over about 20 km, within a paragneiss formation of pre-
Silurian age (Frizzo et al., 1982). Meta-pegmatites were recorded by
Thöni and Miller (2004) from the Ötztal Basement, in Tyrol (Eastern
Alps), Austria. Garnet-whole rock or garnet–feldspar Sm–Nd iso-
chrone ages span the interval 445 ± 3 through 473 ± 3 Ma, indicat-
ing a Middle to Late Ordovician heat event which lead to the
emplacement of these pegmatites. The Alpine Mountain Range has
metapegmatites similar to those from the western edge of the Bohe-
mian Massif — see allochthonous ZEV and Tepla Barrandian Zones.
Meta-pegmatites and type-I stratabound SMS deposits are found
side-by-side in a similar way to the Variscan basement blocks also
outside the Alps.
Two vein-type gold deposits in the Swiss Alps at Salanfe and
Astano, Switzerland are grouped under the heading of thrustbound
gold–tungsten deposits (type-III deposits). At Salanfe, sulfides and
arsenides associated with Au were found in a scheelite-bearing
skarn of the Aiguilles Rouges Massif (Chiaradia, 2003). Anatexis
and leucogranite formation occurred at peak metamorphic condi-
tions (P: 0.45 GPa; T: ~ 650–700 °C). This metamorphic event,
dated at 317 Ma in the adjacent Mont Blanc Massif, was related to
dextral transpression following Variscan continental collision.
Astano, Switzerland, is located within the Southern Alps and con-
tains a typical mesothermal Au–(Sb) vein-type mineralization with
a variegated spectrum of Sb sulfides. Here, the complicated poly-
phase metamorphic history inducing several stages of high-
temperature Alpine remobilization renders it difficult to derive any
information on the genesis of the deposit. This element combination
is similar to the Variscan thrust-bound Au–As–Sb vein-type deposits
in the extra-Alpine part of Central Europe and thus a Variscan age of
the Astano deposit seems plausible.
In the Western Alps in Switzerland and France, there are Variscan
deposits but equivalent Variscan-type pegmatites are absent. A quick
look at the map of Fig. 2a. will bring us a bit closer to the solution of
this enigmatic situation. At the western margin of the Alpine Fold Belt,
where this Mesozoic–Cenozoic orogeny fades out, pegmatitic
and non-pegmatitic rocks were incorporated with only moderate
overprinting, so that the same terminology can be applied as for the
Variscan-type predecessors outside the Alps. In the Western Alpine
Fold Belt, non-pegmatitic deposits have strongly been overprinted in
some sites, so that their origin can less clearly be determined due to
the adjustment of their original mineral assemblage to the subsequent
Alpine metamorphic events. Wolframite and scheelite mainly hosted
by amphibolites and found in quartz–tourmaline veins have been re-
ported from the Moldanubian Zone of the Black Forest (Gehlen von,
1989). Pegmatites do not occur in these Variscan massifs in front of
the Western Alpine Mountain Range and consequently do not show
up in the ancient massifs inside the Western Alps.
Reactivation may show up in different phases, dependent on var-
ious factors such as the temporal gap, and the depth relation, to men-
tion only the most significant factors. Therefore a protore–ore
correlation can much better be achieved in Europe than in some
other orogens of Precambrian age, but the stimulus-reaction princi-
ples are the same.
531
7. Economic geology of pegmatite-related elements and minerals
The economic geology of individual pegmatite deposits is often
difficult to assess, excluding some of the “giant deposits” sensu
Laznicka (2005, 2010, 2014). Laznicka (2014) did not discount peg-
matite deposits in his most recent study and mentioned the discov-
ery of Greenbushes in 1920 for Sn, but he was very cautious in
placing so-called granitic pegmatites among his group of giant de-
posits. Only some of the most exotic pegmatite deposits related to al-
kaline intrusions, greisens and skarns were among the listed of large
deposit some of which even called “giant” or “super-giant” deposits
(Lovozero, Russia, Ilimaussaq, Greenland, Shizhuyuan, China, Nui
Phao - Tam Dao District, Vietnam, Letitia Lake-Two Tom deposit,
Canada, Zholtye Vody, Ukraine (Vlasov et al., 1959; Miller, 1988;
Tarkhanov, 1991; Lu et al., 2003; Meinert et al., 2005)). According
to Laznicka's ranking (2014) these deposits may be described as fol-
lows: “Giant (and super-giant) metallic deposits are defined as those
that store the trace metal (and some major metal like Fe, Al) equiva-
lent in 1011 (1012) t of continental crust in Clarke (mean crust con-
tent) concentration”. The classical pegmatites and aplites cannot be
attributed to the so-called giant deposits, although they play a signif-
icant role in the supply of rare metals, as shown in the succeeding
paragraphs.
There is a wealth of books and papers dealing with the
geoscientific issues of rare element pegmatites, mainly mineralogical
in essence, whereas the number of studies about feldspar, quartz and
mica is comparatively small. The latter rock-forming minerals make
up the lion share of pegmatitic rocks and thus are mined all across
the world. Attempts to obtain reliable production figures for the col-
ored gemstones exploited from pegmatites, often fail, while the
number of papers is almost as big and multifaceted as for the group
of rare element pegmatites. Gemstones are high-unit value com-
modities, and if you have a bonanza of the right gemstone for the
market you will make a fortune with a pocket full of mineral grains
and not communicate site and output immediately to the public. So
economic data will hardly appear in any state official statistics or re-
ports, and if at all, filtered so as to do not spoil the ongoing mining
and trading activities. For a general overview of the various com-
modities the reader is referred to the “Chessboard classification
scheme of mineral deposits” where in the section “supply and use”
one can obtain updated information through a link to the US Geolog-
ical Survey Data Base for those commodities that did not by-pass the
official statistics. In the following sections only the pegmatitic frac-
tion of the commodities is distilled out of the database as far as it is
possible, taking into consideration what has been stated previously
for the high-unit value commodities. As far as the processing of
rare-element pegmatite ore is concerned basic information can be
found in the English translation of a Russian book by Zelikman
et al. (1966). A general scheme of processing is given for each com-
modity but it would go far beyond the current review of pegmatites
and aplites to illuminate the present state of unpublished innovation
in industry of this subject matter. It will be of little advantage either
to know that the addition of a certain dose of a flotation agent im-
proves the recovery of a special commodity in a particular case but
has no meaning for the rest of the deposits under consideration, a
fact especially true for the rather extraordinary pegmatite deposits.
To keep pace on reasonable level, the reader is referred to publica-
tions such as “Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy”
(Maney Publishing).
7.1. Tin–tungsten
7.1.1. Tin
The average grade of tin in the earth's crust stands at 35 ppm Sn.
Today Sn is used for tin plates, various alloys (bronzes, brass), sol-
der, babitt, in the glass and ceramic industry, for electronic devices
532 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
(LCD displays) and pigment. In hard rock deposits Sn may be feasible
for mining at a grade of greater than 0.3% Sn, in placer deposits it is
feasible even below that level as price-enhancing elements may
show up as by-product and the accessibility of the ore shoots is
much better than in a hard rock deposit (N0.01% Sn). Many trace el-
ements may decrease the value of Sn concentrate if present at too el-
evated a level (Fe N 5%, S N 1%, Pb N 1, As N 1, Cu N 0.5% Bi, Sb, W, S).
Gravity sorting and magnetic separation are normally used to enrich
cassiterite, which does not cause any bother as being associated
with Ta-enriched COLTAN minerals (pers. com. H. Wotruba). Grain
size may sometimes be an obstacle for the use of cassiterite since
ore particles of less than 0.04 mm are hard to process. Cassiterite,
and to a lesser extent stannite are operated from a wide range of de-
posits involving hydrothermal vein-type, subvolcanic deposits,
VHMS deposits, skarn and placer deposits. Only a smaller fraction
is derived from the deposits under consideration in this review.
Therefore some countries which have also been dealt with in this
book as reference types for rare element pegmatite containing the
metal under consideration are treated as an example for the econo-
my of tin in pegmatites. It has to be noted that this is only an approx-
imation, especially in those countries where artisanal mining or
small-scale operations are widespread. The main producer is
China, followed by Indonesia, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and DR Congo.
Among the top scorer, there are countries such as Bolivia that pro-
duce from deposits different from pegmatites. The production for
Sn and W has been given for the DR Congo where a great deal of
the commodities under consideration has been derived from peg-
matites (Fig. 42). The mining data of Sn and W are plotted side-by-
side with COLTAN. All data have been collected from the USGS Data-
base. Sainsbury (1969) reported for the Manono–Kitolo pegmatite
0.9 Mt of Sn metal. The largest hard rock Sn deposit with disseminat-
ed cassiterite in subvolcanic intrusions and veins at Llallagua,
Bolivia, contains 2 Mt metals (Laznicka, 2014).
7.1.2. Tungsten
Tungsten is less widespread than its “closest chemical ally” tin in the
crust and only attains 1 ppm W. Wolframite and scheelite is mined at an
ore grade of 0.2 to 0.4% WO3. Contents of Au, Ag, Sc, Nb, and Ta increase
the value of W ore. Tin N 1.5%, As N 0.2%, P N 0.03, S N 0.3% Sb, Pb, Cu, and
Mo when present in high amounts may be detrimental to the quality of
the ore. Tungsten is used for tungsten carbide to harden alloys (WIDIA),
ferrotungsten, stainless steel/high-grade steel and tungsten filaments
for lamps and thermionic applications. Secondary W originates from
recycling of steel alloyed with W and powder-metallurgical material
such as W carbide which is mainly used in heavy-duty tools e.g., drill
bits. The major producers by country are China, Peru, den USA, Korea,
Bolivia, Russia, Austria, Portugal, Ruanda and the DR. Congo. Only the
three countries at the bottom of this sequence produce form deposits
referred to in this review. China holds a top position with approx. 80%
of the global W production. In Fig. 42 Sn and W are plotted side-by-
side to allow for a comparison of the development of mining Sn and
W from similar deposits. Both diagrams are similar in shape, but W
reached its maximum one year earlier than Sn. Gravity sorting and mag-
netic separation are applied. Being associated with Ta-enriched COLTAN
mineral separation can be fraught with difficulties, whereas being asso-
ciated with cassiterite the separation is feasible (pers. com. H. Wotruba).
7.2. Beryllium
Beryllium contents average 3 ppm Be in the earth's crust. Beryllium
belongs to a group of elements in pegmatites whose minerals are used
to recover the metal beryllium from and in combination with special
chromophores may lead to gemstones of jeweler's quality, such as aqua-
marine, chrysoberyl/alexandrite or emerald. Chromium and vanadium
give emeralds their distinctive green color. Cr2O5 contents of 0.2 to
1.5% and V2O5 contents of 0.1 to 1% with 0.2 to 1.8% FeO are required
for emeralds. At an ore grade of 0.2 to 3% BeO, Be mineralization become
economic, provided there exist reasonable resources. The USA, China,
Mozambique, Madagascar and Portugal have the lion share in the pro-
duction of beryllium, lying between 120 t and 1 t per annum. The
major production is derived from the open pit operation in the Topaz-
Spor Mountain region of Juab County, USA. Bertrandite developed by
epithermal alteration of calcareous volcaniclastic rocks, where it is asso-
ciated with adularia, fluorite, and smectite. Pegmatite was the major
source of beryllium in the New England States where beryl was recov-
ered as a by-product during mining of feldspar and mica. Madagascar
has been taken reference to show besides each other the production
of beryllium metal and beryllium in the most precious gemstone of
this element group, emerald. The peaks in the production figures of em-
erald give an impression as to the reliability of such data for colored
gemstones which were produced and exported in a rather “gray zone”
(Fig. 43, Table 4). The major field of use is an indirect one of some of
its minerals in gemology and jewelry (emerald, aquamarine, heliodor,
goshenite, morganite, bixbite…). Beryllium metal finds application in
aerospace and defense due to its stiffness, light weight and dimensional
stability over a wide temperature range. Beryllium–copper alloys (CuBe,
CuCoBe) are looked for owing to their electrical and thermal conductiv-
ity, high strength and hardness, good corrosion, fatigue resistance and
nonmagnetic properties. Beryllium oxide is a good heat conductor, has
high strength and hardness and performs well as an electrical insulator.
The metal is also used in X-ray technique.
Beryl is either hand-picked, especially when its esthetic value is the
reason for mining it, or passed through an industrial beneficiation pro-
cesses, involving fine-grinding, flotation, optical sorting, and NIR sorting
(pers. comm. H. Wotruba).
7.3. Rare earth elements and zirconium
Today, the rare earth elements have gained a mysterious position
outside the world of science and technology, due to the shortage of
some of the REE, the trade dispute about this commodity with the
major producer China and their close relation to a wide range of
products in the “green technology” and electronic industry. Fig. 44
leaves no doubt that some of these elements are of more widespread
occurrence in the earth crust than many of those rare elements typ-
ical of pegmatites, dealt with in the previous Section 4. On the other
hand the risk of supply is not valid for the entire group of elements. It
is the group of MREE neodymium, europium, terbium and dysprosi-
um where supply–production deficits exist. Even the HREE, consid-
ered as “high-risk elements” come under increased pressure, as the
production of HREE-saving LEDs grow faster than expected and the
demand of yttrium, europium and terbium slumps (communication
during a conference by D. Kingsnorth, 2014). Currently the economic
situation gradually normalizes.
REE end up in a wide range of final goods and various industrial
branches. They are used for alloying light and base metals (Ce), coloring
of glasses and in nuclear technology. Lanthanum isotopes are applied as
source of radiation and Eu and Y are used in special cathode-ray tubes
(television). As to the reserve situation the “Big Three” are China,
Brazil and the USA. Considering the mine production, China is far
ahead of the USA, India, Australia and Russia. Considering the mine out-
put as a function of the type of deposit carbonatite- and alkaline-intru-
sion-related deposits prevail among the primary deposits. Pegmatites
may be present in some areas, e.g., Motzfeld or Ilímaussaq, but even if
the future project are taken into account it will be the ion-absorption-
type and the vast supergene REE deposits which have a stronger say
in the REE supply than the pegmatitic deposits. There are some projects
closely linked to uranium deposits which are re-investigated currently
for REE, such as Bokan Mountain, USA.
Zirconium ore is used for the recovery of Zr and is also of importance
for the recovery of Hf. Owing to its high refractory qualities, approx. 70%
of Zr is used for foundry sand to make melting pots and refractory stones
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
(zircon- and zirconium oxide stones). Apart from its chemical and ther-
mal stability it shows other qualities such as high thermal conductivity
(N cooling rate) and being unwetted by molten metals. It is pH-neutral
to slightly alkaline. These sands are used in steel-, glass and non-
ferrous metal production. About 20% of Zr is added to the raw material
to manufacture glass, glazes, porcelain insulators and chemical porce-
lain. The rest is used for Zr metal and alloys in the nuclear industry
and to produce special sorts of steel and getter (high vacuum pumps).
Due to the special requirements as to the thermal stability, refractory-
grade Zr must not contain free quartz, zircon grains should also be
clear and free from cracks. For Zr metal and Zr–Ti alloys, the Hf content
should be less than 0.02% and for the electrical industry less than 1.5%
Hf. Mining Zr is feasible only when Zr contents exceed 3% Zr and con-
fined to its placer deposits.
A new source has been open up by the company running the Strange
Lake pegmatite-hosted Zr deposit, Canada. The full-blown mine-output
of the anticipated annual zirconia production from its Strange Lake REE
deposit in northern Quebec is sold to New York-based TAM Ceramics
Group, a leading manufacturer of zirconia chemical products (The
Northern Miner Website, 2013).
A comprehensive overview of the extraction of REE has been
published by Gupta and Krishnamurthy (2004). Apart from the clas-
sical ways of gravity and flotation-based separation, there are two
different complex pathways to follow-up, dependent upon the
major minerals, the bastnaesite series on one side and monazite
plus xenotime on the other side. The first group of minerals is treat-
ed by hot froth flotation technique with dissolution of calcite in the
aftermaths by HCl. To obtain the pure REE, trivalent Ce is oxidized
to tetravalent Ce and the remaining elements concentrated by liq-
uid–liquid solvent extraction.
Monazite and xenotime are released from the ore by
decomposing it in an autoclave with NaOH at 150 °C. The cooled re-
mains are washed with water to remove the soluble Na3PO4 and get
rid of the Th in the residue. By a follow-up complex solvent extrac-
tion process the individual REE can be separated. Mixed-REE-
chloride is reduced to provide the “Mischmetall”. To recover the in-
dividual elements, further reduction of the fluorides and sublima-
tion will be necessary.
The complex Strange Lake REE- and Zr-pegmatite deposit uses
an acid bake at 220 °C for 1 h on the REO-bearing granites and peg-
matites resulting in the production of 77–93% REO slurries. There
is no need for further physical beneficiation beyond initial
crushing and grinding of the feed stocks, thus avoiding potential
REO losses via early pre-concentration steps (source: http://
www.techmetalsresearch.com).
7.4. Uranium–thorium
The average grade of uranium in the earth's crust is 2 ppm U. Thori-
um is more widespread than U and averages 6 ppm Th. The ore grade is
highly dependent on the type of deposits and may go down to 100 ppm
U in low-grade-large tonnage deposits. Grades greater than 1000 ppm
are common to most types of U deposits. Ca- and Mg carbonates, sulfate,
sulfide (N 0.5%) and in places Ca-phosphate may worsen the recovery of
U in the processing plant. Apart from its use in the nuclear energy indus-
try there is little other use today. Uranium colors were used in the past.
Depleted U may be used for ammunition. Thorium may find a much
wider application outside its use as a nuclear energy resource for
some alloys, glasses with high refractive indices and a source of neu-
trons. The biggest producer of uranium in 2013 was Kazakhstan
(22,451), followed by Canada (9331), Australia (6350), Niger (4518)
and Namibia (4323) (source: World Nuclear Association—tons per
annum in brackets). In the majority of cases the top five recover urani-
um from unconformity-related, sandstone-hosted, hematite-breccia-
type. In Namibia, apart from the calcrete U deposits, the Rössing U de-
posit is the major producer. It is a low-grade-large tonnage deposit
533
with U contents in the range 60 to 500 ppm U (British Geological Sur-
vey). Extraction is aggravated due to the uranium bound to pyrochlore
and refractory minerals. Rössing (Rio Tinto) had a mine output of
3449 t per year in 2008, accounting for 7.8% of the world production
(British Geological Survey). The uranium concentration at Rössing,
Namibia, has been discussed at length in the genetic part of the review
(Section 4.4.2).
Both radioactive elements U and Th are ranked in pegmatites
mainly as value-decreasing elements when intergrown with W, Sn,
Nb, Ta or Zr. As there is only one world-class operation of this type of
uranium deposit at Rössing, processing there can be taken as ref-
erence for a low-grade-large-tonnage deposit (source: mining
technology.com). The run-of-mine U ore is transported from the pri-
mary crusher to a coarse ore stockpile and further on comminuted to
a grain size smaller than 19 mm. Subsequently a rod mill does the
final job and crushes the ore down to mud particle size. This mechanical
decomposition is followed up by leaching and oxidation with ferric sul-
fate and the pulped ore dissolved in sulfuric acid. The slimes are washed
so as to obtain a clear uranium-bearing solution. A continuous ion ex-
change process results in the uranium ions to get absorbed from the solu-
tion. During the following two-stage solvent extraction the eluate is
mixed with an organic solvent that takes the uranium-bearing compo-
nent and then is mixed with ammonium sulfate solution. At the end,
after precipitation of the yellow slurry and filtration the yellow cake
comes into existence after drying.
7.5. Fluorine–boron
7.5.1. Fluorine
Fluorine and the basic chemical compound hydrofluoric acid are
produced from fluorite which is found, locally, in pegmatites, develop-
ing nice crystals but not concentrated to ore grade there. Primary de-
posits of acid, ceramic or metallurgical grade fluorite are located
outside pegmatites (Dill, 2010). Cryolite important in the Al production
(Hall–Heroult Process), can be recovered from pegmatitic ore, but the
most well-known occurrence of its kind Ivigtut, Greenland, is exhausted
now. Moreover pegmatites are a target area for colored gemstones con-
taining fluorine, particularly in topaz which is the leading member of
this group (Table 7a, Fig. 18).
7.5.2. Boron
From the economic point of view, boron is not very much different
from fluorine with respect to the pegmatitic deposits. The deposits
where boron is recovered from are abundant in borate of (volcano)sed-
imentary origin and located mainly in Turkey one of the leading pro-
ducers of this commodity. A different view can be offered for
gemstones accommodating boron in their lattice. Tourmaline-group
minerals are among the most looked-for colored gemstones containing
boron and known to be concentrated in its best quality in pegmatites
(Tables 6, 7b, Figs. 18b, 43). The “rising star” among these tourmaline
s.s.s. is the Cu-bearing blue “Paraiba Tourmaline” which can fetch a
high price on the market and has been found in its best quality in four
deposits Batalha, Qunitos, Clorious and Capoeira mines of the
Borborema Pegmatite Province, Brazil (Beurlen et al., 2011) (Fig. 17c).
A similar tourmaline resembling the Paraiba tourmaline from the type
locality was discovered in pegmatites at Mavuco in the Nampula Prov-
ince, Mozambique. From 2004 to 2008 the annual production of tour-
maline in Brazil was 80,000 kg, compared with 50,000 kg of topaz
(USGS database 2009).
As both elements are targeted upon in pegmatites for the esthetic
value of their host minerals topaz and tourmaline, respectively, indus-
trial methods of mineral processing other than the classical wet tech-
niques used for the concentration of heavy minerals need not be
discussed here.
534 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
7.6. Phosphorus
The economic situation depicted in the previous Section 7.5 for
fluorine and boron with respect to pegmatites as a source of both el-
ements, applies even more for phosphate. The lion share of phos-
phate, with apatite s.s.s as the major host, has been derived from
sedimentary phosphorite deposits (Dill and Kantor, 1997). Pegma-
tites may have a more diverse phosphate mineralogy than sedimen-
tary phosphorites but they are no match to the phosphorite deposits
as to size and grade. Phosphate minerals, albeit not rated as high as
aquamarine or emerald among gemologists for their softness and
ubiquitousness, may arouse attention, especially for their exception-
al colors like the green apatite from Spain called asparagus stone, the
variety trilliumite from Ontario, Canada or the blue-green apatite,
closely resembling the costly tourmaline from Paraiba, Brazil.
Suspending the aforementioned hydrated Li-, Cu- and Be phosphates
from the present discussion of gem-quality phosphates, it is mainly
the lazulite–scorzalite s.s.s, brazilianite and phosphophyllite which
may attract notice especially among lapidaries. Production figures
are hard to publish for these phosphate-bearing gemstones as they
are not listed country-wise in the statistics.
Like fluorine and boron, phosphate is recovered economically
from deposits, different from pegmatites. Only the Li phosphates of
the amblygonite-montebrasite s.s.s. were mined and used for the
production of Li carbonate and Li fluoride in Brazil (see next
Section 7.7).
7.7. Lithium–cesium–rubidium
Spodumene (8.03% Li2O), lepidolite (7.7% Li2O), zinnwaldite (3.4%
Li2O), petalite (4.5% Li2O) and amblygonite (7.4% Li2O) are the most
looked-for minerals to recover Li. Concentrations exceeding 0.5% Li2O
are feasible. Lithium is used for light metal alloys, as a flux in the ceramic
industry and Al plants, a lubricant additive in chemical processes, for
batteries, solder, rocket propellants, catalysts during production of rub-
ber and in the nuclear industry and medicine. Substitution of Li by Ca,
Mg and Zn is common.
Cesium plays a vital role in GPS technique, Internet and cellular
telephone transmissions, and aircraft guidance systems. Cesium
clocks are well-known for their accuracy and the cesium atomic
clock is used for the international definition of a second based on
the cesium atom. Radioactive cesium is used to treat cancer. The al-
kaline element is widely used in industrial gauges, in mining and
geophysical instruments. It plays an important part to sterilize
food, sewage, and surgical equipment. Cesium is also used in ferrous
and non-ferrous metallurgy.
Applications for rubidium-bearing compounds are known from bio-
medical research, electronics, and pyrotechnics. The element also sees
application in photocells (solar panels, motion sensor devices). Similar
to cesium it is also found in some atomic clocks, being an essential
part of global positioning systems (GPS).
Lithium, cesium and rubidium are recovered from siliceous and from
the phosphatic types of Li ore in pegmatite deposits. However, it is a
highly competitive market, with two types of deposits challenging
each other. Kesler et al. (2012) emphasized this issue in their mono-
graph on “Global lithium resources”. The average brine deposit
(1.45 Mt Li) is more than an order of magnitude larger than the average
pegmatite deposit (0.11 Mt Li) and brine deposits, especially those from
the large Atacama (Chile) and Uyuni (Bolivia) deposits, have a much
larger total lithium resource (21.6 Mt Li) than the hard rock deposits.
Brine deposits clearly have a much greater capacity for large-scale,
long-term production than do pegmatite deposits.
The Cinovec–Zinnwald deposit (Germany/Czech Republic) clas-
sified as a large deposit by Laznicka (2014) contains Li in
zinnwaldite together with Sn, Rb, and Cs amounting to 1.43 Mt of
Li metal at a grade of 0.25% Li (Štemprok et al., 1995). The grade
should be above 0.5 wt.% Li 2O. At Greenbushes, Australia, the larg-
est producer of lithium from hard rocks, the resources are estimat-
ed to be 70.4 Mt of Li2O at 2.6% Li, while its reserves stand at 31 Mt
of Li2 O at 3.1% Li (www.talisonlithium.com). This does not sound
good but it shows a trend from high-grade towards low-grade-
large tonnage deposits. Cesium and rubidium are found in both
types of deposits.
Mineral processing is done for petalite and Li mica ore by means of
fine grinding, flotation, manual sorting, optical sorting, or NIR sorting
(pers. com. H. Wotruba). At Greenbushes, Australia, a mill on site grinds
the spodumene prior to undergoing gravity and magnetic separation
(www.talisonlithium.com).
7.8. Niobium–tantalum–scandium
While lithium, cesium and rubidium face a strong challenge from
a varied spectrum of sediment-hosted lithium deposits, pegmatitic
and sedimentary niobium and tantalum deposits complement each
other ideally. Columbite and pyrochlore need to be upgraded in ex-
cess of 0.5% Nb–Ta oxide in hard rock deposits and 200 g/m3 Nb–Ta
oxide in placer deposits where they show up as heavy minerals in
the alluvial and fluvial drainage systems around the parental pegma-
tites. Rare earth elements and scandium increase the value of the
Nb–Ta ore, whereas P N 0.1%, Ti, Zr, and Sn (total amount should be
b4 to 8%) have a negative effect on the ore assessment. It is used
for stainless steel/high-grade steel, Nb carbide, high-temperature al-
loys and within the nuclear fuel circle (atomic reactor). World re-
sources of niobium are more than adequate to supply projected
demand. There is one challenge to the pegmatite-hosted niobium
by the much larger resources of niobium as pyrochlore in
carbonatites across the world. Brazil and Canada are the leading pro-
ducers of this rare metal.
The final use of Ta slightly deviates from that of Nb in that it is also
used for catalysts, electrolyte condensers, cathodes, spinning nozzle
and in medical technique (implants and instruments). Substitution of
Ta is carried out by Nb, Al, ceramics, Pt, Ti, Zr for some goods, but limited
recycling. The known resources of tantalum, most of which are in
Australia and Brazil, are adequate to meet the demand. The mine pro-
duction for 2013 (USGS database) lists Rwanda slight ahead of Brazil
followed by the DR Congo. Nigeria, Canada, Mozambique and Burundi
are trailing behind them by a considerable margin. In Fig. 42 the Nb
and Ta mine output has been compared with the output of the classical
elements Sn and W from the pegmatites. The new technology forces to
intensify the mining of the Nb and Ta, whereas the accompanying ele-
ments go down.
Mineral processing of COLTAN is attractive in pegmatites if tantalum
is concentrated well above the level of niobium (concentrate N 30%
Ta2O5). The radiation of the ore should be of low level. That is, why
microlite being enriched in Ta, too often strongly contaminated with U
and Th does not sell on the market (pers. comm. Wotruba). Niobium
and tantalum pyrochlore ore is processed using flotation and magnetic
separation, while columbite and tantalite are beneficiated by magnetic,
electrostatic and gravity methods used to be applied to heavy mineral
concentrates so as to obtain a concentrate of 60% Nb–Ta pentoxide
(Fig. 48).
Scandium finds little industrial application except in nuclear tech-
nology, the production of lighting devices and laser crystal rods. Scandi-
um is mainly produced as a byproduct during processing of various ores
or recovered from tailings and residues. Like its associates, mentioned
previously, the resources of scandium are abundant to satisfy projected
demand.
For all three rare elements the geogenic setting across the globe
should not render us to panic.
Similar to other mineral commodities such as diamonds attempts
have been made to bar illegal trading of COLTAN by building up a highly
sophisticated chemical test system. I cast some doubt on the workability
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
of these methods outside the laboratory and I fear of being only balm for
the politicians' soul.
7.9. Arsenic–bismuth–zinc–molybdenum
None of these elements referred to mainly for genetic reasons in
Section 4.9 is concentrated to such a level to compete with other
mines working porphyry copper deposits, subvolcanic or SMS and
VMS deposits, so that we are not in need of a detailed economic
treatment of them in context with pegmatites. Only as a by-
product bismuth and molybdenum are recovered along with other
commodities as shown by Galliski (2009). During a period of mining
lasting for 80 years, the Pampean Pegmatite Province, Argentina,
produced in excess of 1 Mt of feldspar of ceramic grade, 1 Mt of
quartz, 50,000 t of mica, 25,000 t of beryl, 10,000 t of spodumene,
45 t of tantalum minerals, and only 10 t of bismuth minerals.
Of this quartet of elements only bismuth and molybdenum deserve
further treatment as to their beneficiation to achieve a saleable concen-
trate. Bismuth should grade between 0.1 and 1% Bi to be recovered for a
profit from the pegmatites. It is mainly done by gravity sorting and flo-
tation. This is true also for molybdenum, whose ore is subjected to fine
grinding to a particle size of less than 100 mm after that undergoes flo-
tation (pers. comm. H. Wotruba). The grade should be between 0.2 and
1% Mo at the lowest level.
7.10. Feldspar
Only a small fraction of the feldspar quarried in pegmatites is
used for ornamental or dimension stones (Fig. 19b). For gemological
products pegmatites may be a bit more attractive but certainly come
close to what has been mentioned for tourmaline and beryl, includ-
ing its multicolored varieties. The majority of feldspar is used as filler
in plastics, paint, sealants, adhesives, abrasives, flame damper in the
match industry, cosmetics, fiberglass insulation, welding rods and
especially for ceramics (porcelain) and glass. The sodium and potash
feldspar won from pegmatites may see some different applications.
Feldspar powders (10–15% alkali (K 2 O + Na 2O)) melt at medium
to high temperatures and used as a flux yielding a good glaze (ce-
ramic feldspar N 9% K 2 O, glazes N 4% Na 2O). Potash feldspars are
used in bodies where they promote nitrification. Sodium feldspars
in glazes used mainly as a source of alkalis. No other raw material
comes closer to being a complete glaze on its own than feldspar.
Identified resources of feldspar are large enough to meet the world
demand. Pegmatites have to compete with feldspar arkoses and al-
tered granites where open pit mining and the friability of the rocks
under operation give its competitors an edge over hardrock deposits
like feldspar pegmatite (Fig. 45a, b, c, d). A comparison of the differ-
ent photographs in Fig. 45 underscores why underground operations
on feldspar are placed on a disadvantage in some cases as high-
quality competitors are close-by. Considering the mine output,
Turkey lies ahead of Italy and China. The reserves of Brazil are esti-
mated to be higher than those of Turkey but for a number of coun-
tries the true reserves cannot be listed.
7.11. Quartz
Quality requirements for silica are very different and as with many
raw materials, they are a function of the final use. Compilations by
Harben and Kužvart (1996) reveal what mining engineers and geolo-
gists have to pay attention to, as they explore and exploit raw materials
used in the production of glass, ceramics, refractories, chemicals, fillers
and extender or in metallurgy, as blasting, filter and propant sands. In
addition to high SiO2 contents, it is the whiteness, hardness, inertness
low concentration or absence of deleterious trace elements (Fe, P, S,
Pb, Zn, As, Sb, B, Cd, V). High-purity and ultra-high quartz reaching al-
most 100% SiO2 are required for the production of silica glass, optical
535
glass and electronic-grade material. This holds true also for semiconduc-
tors and ferrosilica and chromiumsilica compounds. Only a few deposits
of vein quartz in the world can meet with these demands so that flaw-
less quartz from natural occurrences are outnumbered by cultured
quartz being produced synthetically from rock crystals of inferior qual-
ity (“lascas”).
For siliceous semiprecious-gemstones, the “Four Cs” do not have the
same importance as for diamonds. It is first and foremost the color,
splendor and size that matter or the habit and crystal shape, if the silica
minerals amethyst or smoky quartz are picked out of the pegmatites to
end up in the showroom (Fig. 32e, Table 11b).
Feldspar and quartz are the major components of the pegmatitic
rocks and treated in this section together. Their beneficiation covers
the entire spectrum from hand-picking done by trained technicians
being alongside the conveyor belt to technical methods also men-
tioned above for the concentration of rare metals. It encompasses se-
lective flotation, different types of wet and dry high-power magnetic
separation and electrostatic separation (Jakobs and Dobias, 1991;
Jakobs, 1996; Dorfner et al., 2000; Jakobs and Sherrell, 2008). In ad-
dition to the separation of the two major components and cleaning
from phyllosilicates, the grinding and sieving is an important task
to provide tailor-mode final products for the ceramic industry. For
the grain size in the range 20 to 100 μm ball mills with air separator
are applied. To prevent contamination with heavy metals and guar-
antee Fe-free milling aluminum oxide or silex are used (Max Schmidt
Silbergrube Waidhaus, Germany). A centrifugal grinder in combina-
tion with a special sieving system is used for the grain size range
100 μm through 1 mm. Amberger Kaolinwerke (AKW) sold three dif-
ferent classes of products from their Hagendorf deposit named
“Spezial”, “H” and “I” which are arranged in decreasing order of puri-
ty grade:
“Spezial”: K feldspar 69%, Na feldspar 25% Quartz 6% Fe content 0.05%
“H”: K feldspar 68%, Na feldspar 24% Quartz 8% Fe content 0.10%
“I”: K feldspar 67%, Na feldspar 23% Quartz 10% Fe content 0.18%.
For both commodities the resources are large as far as the ceramic
final products are concerned. For high-purity and ultrahigh-purity
quartz the resources are less widespread and a great deal of quartz crys-
tals, especially for the electronic industry is based on cultured rather
than natural products (Dolley, 2011).
7.12. Feldspathoid
Feldspathoids almost exclusively are used for their esthetic value, ei-
ther as single crystals or within the host rock. Sodalite, hauyne, scapolite
and “lapis lazuli” are, locally, of gem-quality, inferior qualities may be
looked for by collectors. Many of the blue speckled syenitic rocks are
quarried as dimension stones (Fig. 33). Only nepheline syenite and sye-
nite pegmatites are used for ceramic products, filler and glass in Canada,
Norway and Russia (Potter, 2007).
7.13. Alumosilicate and corundum
The three polymorphs of alumosilicates are used in the industry in
order to produce refractory material according to the following reaction
3 (Al2O3·SiO2) ⇒ 3 Al2O3·2 SiO2 + SiO2. At temperature between 1350°
and 1550° kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite turn into mullite and
quartz along with an increase in volume. As an alternative to bauxite
neither alumosilicates nor corundum from pegmatites are currently
used due to the limited size of the deposits. Opaque corundum is used
as abrasives but often eclipsed by colored varieties of precious corun-
dum from different countries. Corundum-bearing pegmatites (mainly
the so-called desilicified types) and associated skarns are known from
many countries such as Vietnam and Madagascar. Due to its density, co-
rundum is also worked in the alluvial–fluvial placer deposits of the clas-
tic apron around these primary pegmatite deposits or found in eluvial
536 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
and residual placers on top of the primary deposits, which used to con-
tain the better flawless gemmy quality, whereas the primary deposits
are abundant in showcase-quality precious corundum that attract the
attention of mineral collectors. Corundum offers a good example for a
dual use. The high-quality types of precious corundum are sold across
the counter of a jeweler, the showcase-quality attracts the attention
mineral dealer and collector and the inferior quality and opaque ma-
terial can still be used as an abrasive. Considering the export figures
it is difficult to decide how much of them has to be attributed to the
various types of mineral deposits, including primary and secondary
deposits in and around pegmatites, but it may give the reader an im-
pression of the economic importance of corundum varieties for
Madagascar and Sri Lanka. Madagascar produced an estimated 50%
of world sapphire output mainly from Ilakaka and Sakara mines;
ruby is exploited at Andilamena and Vatomandry. From 1998 to
2002, exports of rough sapphire increased to 9326 kilograms (kg)
from 2547 kg; ruby, to 889 kg from 30 kg. In 2003 a new deposit
was discovered at Monombo Voavoa, which is located 38 km west
of Ilakaka. Small amounts of sapphire were produced at Amboasary,
Andrebabe, and Fenerive Est in north-central Madagascar and at an
alluvial deposit in the Manatenina area near the southeastern coast
(Yager, 2003). Another country which jewelers have a keen eye on
is Sri Lanka (Kuo, 2005). Gemstone mining activity in Sri Lanka in-
creased slightly in 2005. The Bagawanthalawa gemstone deposits
are among the richest sources of blue, orange-yellow, and yellow
sapphires and alexandrite and chrysoberyl cat's eye. The Elahera
gem field currently provides approximately 35% of the gemstones
exported from Sri Lanka mainly gem-quality sapphire, spinel, garnet,
chrysoberyl, zircon and tourmaline. Apart from the aforementioned
countries, precious corundum is also mined in Afghanistan, Brazil,
and Burma (Myanmar) in small-scale mining operations, often in re-
mote regions with little information on the production figures. Ac-
cording to the US Geological Service Database the value of
production of natural gemstones other than diamond was estimated
globally to be more than $2.5 billion in 2012. Precious corundum is
manually separated or in case of pervasive weathering won by hy-
draulic mining, washing the gemstones out of the argillaceous
matrix.
7.14. Garnet
Around 80% of garnet, mainly almandine followed by pyrope, is
used as industrial garnet for sand blasting, water filtration, water
jet cutting, coated abrasives and polishing. Almandine is sometimes
given local trade names such as “Oberpfaelzer Schmirgel” (emery
from Upper Palatinate, Germany) referring to the mining site
which is a saprolite overlying metasedimentary rocks as well as to
its preferred use for polishing glassware. Its subhedral to euhedral
shape in placer and crushed garnet resources, its low contents of
heavy metals and its high resistance to abrasion and chemical agents
which make garnet an ideal placer mineral in nature are also excel-
lent characteristics for various industrial applications. In places,
these garnet varieties also occur in pegmatoids and metapegmatites
(Fig. 36). Garnet (grossularite-dominated) may occur in pegmatite-
skarn (Fig. 36e, f) or in the marginal parts of pegmatites and
pegmatoids (Fig. 36d). The latter often has spessartite prevailing
over almandine and pyrope and stands out by its pinkish to red min-
eral color. They may reach showcase but seldom jeweler's quality. It
is difficult to give reliable figure for garnet derived from the exploita-
tion of pegmatites. Well-shaped and -colored garnet, enriched in
spessartite is expected to have derived from pegmatites, whereas
the majority of industrial garnet has been mined from metamorphic
rocks. If recovered from felsic rocks, owing to its higher specific grav-
ity than feldspar and quartz, wet and dry methods normally applied
in heavy minerals separation are suitable for creating pure garnet
concentrates.
7.15. Mica
Mica often attains a large crystal size in pegmatites, so that it can
even be separated manually as a by-product from feldspar–quartz
pegmatites, pegmatoids and metapegmatites. It is prevalently mus-
covite and the Mg-enriched end member of the biotite s.s.s., phlogo-
pite, both of which mark the crustal or subcrustal origin of
pegmatites. Muscovite and phlogopite are used, because they are
chemically inert, dielectric, elastic, insulating and lightweight, only
to record a few of their characteristics which make them of interest
to a wide range of applications. Phlogopite has an edge over musco-
vite in all applications in which a combination of the above charac-
teristics with a high temperature-stability is required but is rarely
observed in pegmatitic rocks and mainly bound to carbonatites and
ultrabasic igneous rocks. Mica finds an outlet in sealants, resins, ad-
hesives, tires, greases, lubricants, insulators, ceramics, automobile
parts such as brakes, in the oil industry, and welding rods. The mica-
ceous products are subdivided into two principal classes, according
to their size and thickness as well as structural defects and
denominated as high-quality “sheet mica” or as low-quality “ground
mica”, which derives as a by-product from processing of run-off-
mine ore of feldspar and quartz pegmatites. Ground muscovite is
mined from pegmatites in the USA and Brazil, whereas India is the
leading country for “sheet mica”, mainly muscovite from unzoned
and zoned mica–quartz–feldspar pegmatites that have been intrud-
ed into Achaean gneisses (Skow, 1962). In the USA, by the beginning
of the last century, the New England States were the leading produc-
er of mica, mined from pegmatites mainly in metasedimentary rocks.
Other countries producing sheet mica from pegmatites are Brazil and
Madagascar. Scrap or ground mica is available to meet with the de-
mands in the future, while for sheet mica precise prognosis cannot
be given based upon the US GS Database.
Mica plates larger than 10 cm2 can be sorted and separated by hand
from the pegmatitic ore.
7.16. Graphite
Commercial graphite is traded as graphite flakes. They are flat,
plate-like with an average size of 0.25 cm. High-crystalline (“lump
or vein-type”) graphite lumps of high crystallinity derive from
veins and “amorphous” graphite whose tiny crystals are only visible
under the microscope derive from mainly thermally metamor-
phosed coal seams. Pegmatites are involved in the graphite deposits
in Sri Lanka from which the lump and chippy dust varieties have
been derived. Crystalline graphite in pegmatite deposits should be
enriched at a level exceeding 22–35% C. After crushing and milling
the graphite ore which is done in a water slurry, the fine-grained ma-
terial is passed into the froth floatation cells.
7.17. Kaolin
High-quality Fe-free kaolin is a widely looked-for raw material in
manufacturing porcelain. Apart from ceramic goods (wall and floor
tiles, china ware, sanitary ceramics), kaolin is also used as filler, paper
coating or the production of refractories (chamotte, bonding clays). Re-
sidual kaolin evolving on pegmatites is known from the, e.g., Spruce
Pine District in the USA and the Borborema District, Brazil (Fig. 39a).
The main source of kaolin lies within residual kaolin deposit on parent
rocks different from pegmatite.
The beneficiation of kaolin has much in common with what has
been recorded for quartz and feldspar in pegmatite ore. The process-
ing deviates from the common family tree of processes as the fine
grain size of kaolin takes effect. The kaolin is washed from the
value-decreasing gangue and passed several times through hydro-
cyclones to achieve the quality required by the client. The water is
removed from the kaolin slurry hydraulic-mechanically and later
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
on dried resulting in a fine kaolin powder to be transported in big-
packs to the client.
8. Structural geology of pegmatites
Studies about the structural geology of pegmatites are rare com-
pared with the wealth of publications available on the petrography
and mineralogy of pegmatites, including the experimental studies. De-
scriptions of the internal zonation are common and used to be referred
to in context with the mineralogical studies of the different mineral as-
semblages. Therefore only some few examples are presented here, di-
rectly related to the case studies in Section 4.
8.1. Pegmatites and the architectural elements of the country rocks
Based upon the monographic studies of Griffitts et al. (1953)
and Griffitts and Olson (1953a, b) a block diagram has been de-
signed for the various morphological types of pegmatites in rela-
tion to the crystalline basement rocks of the south-eastern
Appalachian Mountains, USA (Fig. 46a). The pegmatites were
emplaced along the limbs of the anticlines and synclines as coher-
ent tabular or lens-shaped pegmatites. Pinching and swelling in
these tabular pegmatites eventually leads to a boudinage of the
limb-hosted pegmatite bodies and ends up in individual lenses
along with the stress–strain relations along the limbs (Fig. 24e).
The size of the pegmatites used to increase in the hinge zone of
the folded crystalline schists, which are made up of mica- and
hornblende schists (Fig. 4n). Apart from these fold-related pegma-
tite deposits another set of late-stage sheet-like pegmatite dikes
cut through the metamorphic rocks, displacing the fold-related as
well as older fault-related pegmatite dikes. Similar fold-related
sets of pegmatites may be found elsewhere, e.g., in NE Bavaria,
Germany, where stocks reside within the hinge zone of major anti-
clines and parasite folds and tabular pegmatite evolved along the
limbs of anticlines. Sufficient accommodation space was provided
in the hinge areas and reduced room left only for the tabular peg-
matites along the limbs of late Variscan anticlinal structures. Both
types follow the rules of mimic tectonics, owing to the late syn-
to posttectonic emplacement of the pegmatites. Faults cross-
cutting the folded basement rocks and their pegmatites are miner-
alized with pegmatitic and aplitic dikes and quartz dikes. According to
the deformation pattern, common to the quartz dikes/quartz pegma-
tites and quartz–feldspar pegmatites dikes, both mineralizations are
paragenetic with only compositional differences between the two. It is
not unusual to find mineral assemblages in the central zone of the peg-
matites again as faultbound mineralization in the external zone of the
pegmatites as a consequence of kinematic variation.
In the Kings Mountains Region in North Carolina, USA, Sn–Li pegma-
tites tabular (spodumene) occur and show in the map lens-shaped but a
slightly distorted morphology (Fig. 46b, c). The micaschists surrounding
the granites are cut through by several shear zones which acted as con-
trolling planar architectural elements for the emplacement of the Mis-
sissippian (360 to 325 Ma) spodumene-bearing pegmatites (Horton,
1981) (Fig. 46b, c). The pegmatites omit the metacarbonates and only
sporadically show up in the endocontact zone of the granites, attesting
to a younger shearing of the micaschists and a later emplacement of
the pegmatites than the intrusion of the granite. Keeping off the
metacarbonates is due to the different rock competence and rock
strength. Metaargillic rocks are more susceptible to thrusting and
shearing than massive metalimestones. This type of mineralization
has also a structural counterpart in the Variscides across the Atlantic
Ocean along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif. It is the thrust
plain-related part of the Sn–Li mineralization which in this case
changes from Li pegmatite (Li phosphate) to a Li–Sn granite pegma-
tite (Li mica) instead of a Li–Sn pegmatite (spodumene) in the US
reference area. Contrasting physical conditions are held to be
537
responsible for the different composition while the structural regime
is similar in both ensialic orogens during the waning stages of the
Variscan/Alleghanian Orogeny. The US part is more thrustbound
while the German and the Cornubian part (see next paragraph) is
more collisional-related.
In his map produced for the Hyatt Region in the Crystal Mountain
District, Thursten (1955) showed a similar tectonic scenario as
illustrated in a more ideal scheme in the block diagram of Fig. 46a
(Fig. 46b, c). In the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains Precambrian
metasedimentary rocks, lithological present as quartzites, muscovite–
biotite schists and biotite–sillimanite schists numerous irregularly-
shaped pegmatites are exposed. They run parallel to granitic dikes and
intersect biotite granites preserving a similar structural pattern which
they follow outside the granite. It is a common view often seen in peg-
matite districts, that granitic and pegmatites follow the same genetic
blueprint and give rise to a set of concordant felsic mobilizates. The ac-
tivity of pegmatites lasts longer and they are undoubtedly younger than
the granites, showing up again in a set of late-stage cross-cutting peg-
matite veins. From the chemical point of view it is a series of zoned B-
quartz–Na feldspar–K feldspar pegmatites (tourmaline). Among the
rare elements Li, Nb, Ta, Bi, U and Be prevail. Lithium seems to be the
most significant element whereas Be comes as last in the row. As no
quantification can be done for the entire district for these elements
and industrial minerals are paramount, they are not used here for clas-
sification. Even in this case a comparison with some of the pegmatites
along the western edge of the Bohemian Massif, Central Europe, is pos-
sible and forces us to think of a crustal-derived pegmatite system which
was, in places, influenced by subcrustal processes — see discussion of in-
dividual elements in Section 4.
8.2. Plutonic pegmatites and the architectural elements of their country
rocks
A detailed investigation of the structural geology and ore miner-
alization of granite pegmatites was carried out in the Cornubian
Orefield, Great Britain (Section 4.1.1). The granite-related Sn–W
mineralization in SW Cornwall, was emplaced very late during the
Variscan orogeny at the transition from the orogenic collapse to the
extension, in the wake of the Variscan collision (Chesley et al.,
1993). Exhumation and uplift brought the rocks into the brittle
zone and folding and thrusting waned while brittle shear zones
and extensional faults became more prominent (LeBoutillier,
2002). The emplacement of the Late Variscan granites occurred in a
pull-apart-setting, accompanied by strike-slip faults. The Sn–W min-
eralization along the Variscan mountain chain from Portugal through
the Erzgebirge/Krušne Hory Mts. (Germany–Czech Republic) took
place in this rather shallow environment (Section 4.11). The Urucum
Suite granitoids, southeastern Brazil, contains among others a peg-
matitic facies that evolved in staurolite–garnet–muscovite–biotite
schists. Detailed structural studies by Nalini et al. (2000) suggest
that the Urucum Suite was emplaced during an important dextral
strike-slip movement of the Brasiliano orogeny (650 to 450 Ma).
The evolution from the peraluminous megafeldspar-facies granites
to pegmatite-facies granites took place in a syn-collisional structural
environment by partial melting of older intermediate to felsic crustal
source rocks.
8.3. Pseudopegmatites and the architectural elements of their country rocks
The Greenbushes pseudopegmatite was intruded as a series of
linear dikes, varying from hundreds of meters to kilometers in length
(Partington et al., 1995) (Fig. 47a). According to the authors, the peg-
matite dikes and en echelon pods are clustered around an intrusive
center located within a D2 high strain zone at the boundary between
amphibolite and granofels units. The interpretatory cartoon added
atop of Fig. 47a highlights where the maximum accommodation
538 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
space has been created in the course of shearing and, consequently,
the K-, Na- and Li zones were emplaced. Although the chemical and
mineralogical compositions are different, in principal, pegmatites
do not differ very much from shear veins giving host to base metal
or gold ores and found across the globe in different setting running
the gamut from deep syn-metamorphic through shallow unconfor-
mity related veins — see compilation for the Central European
Variscides with references to individual examples in Dill et al.
(2008b) as well as Dill (2015). The Greenbushes shear-zone hosted
pseudopegmatite is kinematically equivalent to the fold-related
metamorphogenic Ag-bearing Pb–Zn vein-type deposits Ramsbeck
in the Rheinisches Schiefergebirge, Germany (Fig. 47b). Steep and
flat-lying Pb–Zn veins are related to the folding of the Ramsbeck
Quartzite in very-low grade metamorphic environment. Movements
parallel the shear planes gave rise to the accommodation space for
Pb–Zn accumulation (Fig. 47b). This thrustbound type-II base metal
mineralization at shallow depth in a very-low grade metamorphic
environment is kinematically analogous to the shear zone-hosted
pseudopegmatite which formed under medium- to high-grade
metamorphic conditions at depth — see also Section 6.3 about asso-
ciated mineral deposits.
Such a depth-related variation of kinematically analogous and
chemical similar mineral deposits is known from many shear zone-re-
lated ore deposits. The most-striking example is the orogenic gold de-
posits forming a succession of ore deposits from Au–As deposits with
skarns next to the intrusive rocks at approximately 20 km depth (e.g.
Kolar) through to shear-zone hosted Hg–Sb deposits (e.g. New
Almaden) at a depth of between 3 and 2 km.
The recently investigated Whabouchi Li pegmatite, Quebec,
Canada (2577 + 14 Ma) provides us with another example of a Li
pegmatite synkinematically emplaced along a shear zone (Bynoe,
2014). The pegmatite lies within a transpressional high-strain zone
of a metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary belt. A subvertical trans-
position foliation and a subvertical stretching lineation are present
in this zone. The main body of the Whabouchi pegmatite is parallel
to the transposition foliation and branching veinlets from this body
have been folded and boudinaged by shear zone deformation. The
Whabouchi pegmatite is linked geochemically and geochronologi-
cally to a large pegmatite body yielding an age of 2595 + 14 Ma.
The Whabouchi pegmatite was likely formed along with anatectic
mobilization. The situation resembles to some extent the reactivated
spodumene pegmatites in the Alpine Mountain Range which may be
connected primarily to Paleozoic Li pegmatites in the Central
European Variscides (Sections 4.7.1–4.7.2).
As far as the crustal derivation of rare elements such as Li in peg-
matites is concerned some chemical investigation can be added to
these considerations in structural geology (Cuney and Barbey,
2014). During granulite-facies metamorphism dominated by car-
bonic waves in a deep segment of the continental crust, these
shear zones control, the percolation of F-, LILE-, rare metal-rich
fluids liberated primarily by the breakdown of biotite; the en-
hancement of partial melting by F-rich fluids at intermediate
crustal levels with the generation of F-, LILE-, rare metal-rich gra-
nitic melts; their transfer through the crust with protracted frac-
tionation facilitated by their low viscosity due to high F–Li
contents; and finally their emplacement as rare metal intrusions
at shallow crust levels. The side-by-side of granites enriched on
one side and on, e.g., Li pegmatites on the other side, confined to
shear zones finds thereby support.
9. Genetic and economic conclusions and outlook
The present review of pegmatites and aplites is to be under-
stood as a supplement in terms of genetic and applied economic ge-
ology to the numerous mineralogical and chemical studies, where
often the three-dimensionally part of earth sciences is ignored for
whatever reasons. The most recent comprehensive petrologic pub-
lication on pegmatites shows the pegmatite mostly on a hand spec-
imen scale or as an intergrowth of giant crystals added up with
colorful cartoons depicting the models on how they are likely to
have developed according to the author's ideas (London, 2014).
There are countless cartoons and sketches designed by geoscien-
tists to show the differentiation, internal zonation and mineraliza-
tion. By contrast, not many possibilities are offered to consult in
modern publications a longitudinal or cross section or a large-
scale geological map so as to get more information on the size
and morphology of the pegmatite. Therefore some of the maps
and cross sections were copied from the classical works done main-
ly in the USA by field geologists early during the last century
(Fig. 46). An integration of aplites and pegmatites into the geo-
dynamic setting is still missing at all and performed in the current
study, using the elements, e.g., Nb, Ta, Li and minerals, e.g., nepheline,
mica common to particular pegmatites and aplites as chemical and min-
eralogical links, respectively (Fig. 6).
The chemical qualifiers (Sections 4.1 through 4.9) and the mineral-
ogical qualifiers (Sections 4.10 through 4.17) of the CMS classification
scheme are the guidelines for the current study on pegmatitic rocks. It
is to show that this simple and open access classification scheme –
Section 3.2 – can meet with the needs and wants of those taking a ge-
netic approach (Section 4) when dealing with pegmatites as well as
those economic geologists being directly involved in the extraction
and processing of pegmatite-related commodities of high-unit value
(gemstones) and of high-place value (feldspar) (Section 7). On princi-
ple, the proposed classification scheme can be taken as a second supple-
ment to the “Chessboard classification scheme of mineral deposits”
(Dill, 2010). The first one of these supplements was prepared for gems
and gemstones, placing emphasis on the distribution of gems and gem-
stones on the globe by country, by geology, and by geomorphology (Dill
and Weber, 2013).
Therefore each commodity (group) in Section 4 is added up with the
code used in the “Chessboard classification scheme of mineral deposits”
to ease a better correlation with other commodities that cannot be re-
ferred to in this text to avoid this paper of getting unfocused (Dill,
2010). It goes without saying that pegmatites are not a special type of
stand-alone deposits as perhaps some might consider them, evolving
independent from the rest of the “mineral kingdom” but they are an in-
tegral part of the metamorphic and magmatic lithogenesis. Moreover
these pegmatitic rocks are subjected to the rules of rock mechanics
and structural geology as any other rock. It is hoped that by linking
the pegmatitic deposit under consideration in a way like that with
other ones an integration of the pegmatites into the overall
metallogenesis can be achieved.
It cannot be ignored that during this global review some of the items
essential for the CMS classification scheme had to be left blank upon cat-
egorizing the mineral deposits (Table 1). A new classification scheme
should not be build up on deficiencies or a weak database, but uncover
where the deficiencies are and where we have to fill in the blanks. Geol-
ogy of pegmatites is such a blank. For a first approximation the classifi-
cation used here may be sufficient for a handling at an advanced level
the database is currently still too weak. This is especially true for the
symbol “S” in the classification scheme, which means structure. Only a
few examples were given in Section 8 to show where and how the tec-
tonic setting of pegmatites has been investigated. Company reports,
containing proprietary data, have not been considered in this assess-
ment and therefore this point may be not up-to-date in all respects.
There is a backlog in the 3-dimensional representation and structural
geology of pegmatites that has increased in the last decades, because
dealing with this subject matter is time-consuming. Understanding
the structural geology and the morphology of pegmatite bodies in re-
lation to the country and wall rocks is, however, a key element for a
genetic and/or exploration model targeting upon pegmatite
deposits.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
9.1. Genetic conclusions
The ore body and the ore composition of pegmatites sensu lato
are inherent parts of the classification scheme. Both tell us the
story of the formation of pegmatites (Table 1). It may be subjected
to a tripartite subdivision being focused on the geodynamic evolu-
tion of the host setting and by analogy to tripartite subdivision con-
sidering the mineral deposition in relation to the kinematic
processes in the crust where the pegmatites eventually were
emplaced.
The entire process of pegmatization is connected with mobiliza-
tion and emplacement of feldspar-, quartz- and mica-enriched in
bodies within an ensialic orogen characterized by an abnormally
thick crust (Variscan-type orogen). There are two environments of
formation with a rather thick crust where pegmatites are either
reactivated (Alpine-type) or “refueled” from the mantle (Rift-
type); the more ensimatic these neighboring geodynamic settings
are, the less likely the occurrence of finding pegmatites in these en-
vironments (Fig. 6a). The three geodynamic environments are repre-
sentative of the three principal processes responsible of forming a
pegmatitic ore body and controlling its ore composition:
(1) intracrustal mobilization, (2) subcrustal mobilization, and
(3) physico-chemical reactivation (Table 2). Pegmatitic ore may
have originated by one of these processes or owing its structure
and composition to all three processes. The complexity of a pegma-
tite is the mirror image of the involvement of these three processes
by quantity and quality. The spectrum covers a wide range from sim-
ple unzoned feldspar–quartz pegmatoids in metamorphic rocks
(migmatites) to dismembered zoned multi-element/multi-mineral
pseudopegmatites along shear zones.
A similar tripartite subdivision as performed for the geodynamic po-
sition of the host environment can also be done for the pegmatites
themselves. They are part of the thrustbound and fold-related
metamorphogenic deposits (type II), collision and intrusive-related de-
posits (type III) and deep-seated lineamentary remobilization (type
V) see for types Section 6.
The 1st order term or type of pegmatitic/aplitic rocks controls the
temporal relationship between the pegmatitic rocks and the country
rocks. The term “granitic pegmatites” is downgraded to a type of
pegmatite and no longer plays the key role as the father of all things.
It has to share its compartment in the classification scheme with “sy-
enitic pegmatites” and is hierarchically placed at the same level as
metapegmatites or pegmatoids. Pegmatites and granites are two
sides of the same coin, being related to a heat event in a crustal sec-
tion, triggered either by crustal or subcrustal processes. It has to be
noted that the role of the subcrustal sources in terms of heat and el-
ement input has been underrated for too long a time whereas the
role of so-called parental granites for the generation of pegmatites
has been overestimated during the past. The mantle may either by
tapped by (sub)vertical deep-seated lineamentary fault zones or by
(sub)horizontal thrust planes which along with a steepening of
their planar element lead to a mantle detachment at depth. Such
mantle slaps may be exposed as it is the case with the Lizard Com-
plex juxtaposed to the Cornubian Sn–W Orefield or they may left
concealed as shown for the NE Bavarian Basement in the cross sec-
tion of Fig. 9f.
The role of parental granites has been taken rather dogmatic but
left untested in the field and other processes of mobilization have
been denied. Pegmatites and granites may resemble each other,
like two brothers, yet neither of them will become the other's father.
Why is one of them successful and the other is not good at handling
things?. Pegmatites, the successful off-springs, are (1) focused and
guided by structures, (2) open to crustal and subcrustal sources,
(3) smaller in size with their elements concentrated more intensive-
ly, and (4) open for interaction with their environment around
(skarn, episyenites, albitites). The latter set of processes may be
539
present near granites too but is only restricted to the contact of gran-
ites. The paramount factors making pegmatites so successful in con-
centrating rare elements are the geodynamic setting and the
structural geology. The approach taken in this study to explain how
the pegmatites evolved through time closely resembles the approach
taken by petroleum geologists who have been dealing with petro-
leum systems since decades. It involves a source rock which may
gas prone or oil prone, it needs a migration pathway described at
its best by structural geologists, and last but not least a trap and a
seal (Magoon and Dow, 1990). Delineating a petroleum play/pegma-
tite field starts up with a “basin analysis” encompassing all kinds of
applied geosciences from geology to geophysics conducted at the
surface and in the underground. There are five “basins” or
geodynamic settings, out of which only three are pegmatite-prone
(Fig. 6a). The Variscan-, Alpine- and Rift types are the only
geodynamic settings held to be pegmatite-prone, because they
have “source rocks” for elements which are going to be concentrated
in pegmatites, they provide physical regimes to allow for an ascent
and pathways such as deep-seated lineamentary rifts or shallow
thrust and shear planes for felsic melts to migrate into the traps.
Both planar architectural elements are used by A- and S-type gran-
ites, respectively, and by pegmatites as well. Pegmatites are concen-
trated as being trapped in a structure sealed off by metamorphic or
magmatic roof rocks (Figs. 1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 23, 24, 46, and 47). It is the
pegmatites s.str., plutonic pegmatites and pseudopegmatites that
are found mobilized, and immigrating into an environment differ-
ent from their birthplace. There are also “oil shows” close the
source rock, which find an analogue in the in-situ anatectic
pegmatoids where the felsic mobilizates did not travel far off the
place of mobilization (Figs. 21, 35, Table 1). And what about “oil
and gas seeps”, where hydrocarbons enter the near-ambient envi-
ronments? It is the various types of hydrothermal alteration
whose textures and minerals can be found in some pegmatite sys-
tems. The deposit-conservative to enhancing types are described
in Table 12, some destructive types, such as episyenites are
depicted in Fig. 41. The change from the hypogene to the supergene
stages can be gradational (Table 12) or can be marked by a hiatus.
Granites and pegmatites are only two sides of the same coin; the
granite is often a mirror image of diffusion and dissemination, the
pegmatite of trapping and concentration. Dissemination of ele-
ments does not exclude the formation of an economic target, as ex-
emplified by intragranitic low-grade-large-tonnage deposits of U
(e.g. Rössing, Namibia), Ta–Nb–Li–W (e.g. Yichun, China), and
REE–U–Nb (e.g. Aktiuz, Kyrgyzstan) which can, in places, be transi-
tional into pegmatites or limited to the granite, proper, as it is the
case with some intragranitic greisen deposits of Sn and W where
the adjacent pegmatites are barren. To keep on emphasizing the
similarities between rare-metal pegmatites and the petroleum
system, the intragranitic rare-metal concentration with no
seal can be compared with the so-called “unconventional hydro-
carbon” deposits, representatives of which are found in the
Athabascan Basin, where oil sands are exploited in open pit mining
operations.
Sparking a discussion of pegmatites and granites in connection
with a petroleum system may be held to be a bit provocative but
it is intended to leave the beaten tracks of conventional fixed think-
ing which is too strongly entrenched in mineralogy. Opposed to the
study by Dill (2015), in which mineralogy has an equal share be-
sides geology and geophysics when it comes to account for the evo-
lution of a pegmatite system, in the current study emphasis is
placed upon the genetic and applied parts of ore geology. It is nec-
essary, to look occasionally over the edge of a test tube or PC and
leave the office and take a look at the target area where pegmatites
and granites developed embedded into the country of a particular
geodynamic setting. Even if the P–T regime of the current
object of study is different from that of a petroleum system a
540 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561
change from a fixed towards a more flexible mindset is necessary in
the study of pegmatites and most adequately approximated
through these natural processes well studied by petroleum
geologists.
The 2nd order term shape and structure enable us to fine-tune the
positioning of the pegmatitic rock. Its morphology, size and siting with-
in the country rocks is of assistance for the attribution of the pegmatites
to one of the aforementioned types II, III and V that were mentioned as
reference deposits.
A more detailed attribution and interpretation of the pegmatite can
be achieved by disentangling the element association (3rd order
term = chemical qualifier of rare metal pegmatites sensu lato) and min-
eral assemblage (4th order term = mineralogical qualifier of industrial
mineral pegmatites) (Fig. 6b, c, Table 2).
For example, lithium pegmatites are characteristic of
intracrustal processes as shown in Fig. 6b and Table 2. The presence
of columbite-(Fe) in the pegmatite is indicative of a deep-seated
structure which tapped a subcrustal source. Stable cratonic condi-
tions with a persistent refueling from the mantle may pave the
way from a pegmatitic rare element deposit eventually into a
carbonatitic deposit (see Brazil, and Subsaharan Africa).
The often quoted zonation of elements and minerals in pegma-
tites around a hypothetical parental granite is a remake of
“Breithaupt's succession of element associations” claimed to be rep-
resentative of a decrease in temperature (katathermal to
telethermal) and the depth of formation: Au–Ag ⇒ Cu
sulfide ⇒ Pb–Zn–Ag ⇒ Ag–Bi–Co–Ni–U ⇒ Sn–Ag–Bi–W ⇒ Sb–Hg–
As–Se ⇒ oxidic Fe–Mn–Mg minerals ⇒ non–metallic stage with B
and F. Nobody will apply today such a rigid scheme of classification
anymore. The practical work in the field with pegmatites does not
allow us pigeonholing these felsic rocks into a rigid scheme of classi-
fication using marker minerals or typomorphic element associations
pointing to a certain depth or physical–chemical regime around a hy-
pothetical granite.
The larger the size and the more variegated the element spectrum of
the pegmatites become the lesser the applicability of inflexible classifi-
cation schemes devoid of any outlet into the genetic and applied eco-
nomic geology.
9.2. Economic outlook
Pegmatites and their clastic aprons will be left unchallenged as far
as the exploitation of colored gemstones is concerned (Fig. 49). The
hardrock deposits will still have a say when the requirements for
the raw material are very strict (ultra-high-purity quartz) and a
shortage of electronic and strategic elements or nuclear energy is
looming (Fig. 49). Exploitation of industrial minerals from hardrocks
is competitive if no easy-to access deposits of similar quality are
close-by and the labor costs are moderate. Low-grade large tonnage
deposits are a challenge particularly for lithium. The pegmatites will
maintain their position as a source for those elements which make
up the lion share in the mineral association quartz and feldspar.
Acknowledgments
I acknowledge with thanks the support of the following institu-
tions and companies: Wasserwirtschaftsamt Weiden [Water au-
thority] Weiden, Fa. Eder Brunnenbau Deutschland GmbH,
Ingenieurbüro GolHo, Gottfried Feldspat GmbH, and Amberger
Kaolinwerke AKW. I would like to extend my gratitude also to, R.
Göd, S. Lahti for their hints to literature and photographs. A. Müller
(Geological Survey of Norway) provided some photographs. H.
Wotruba (RWTH Aachen — Department of Mineral Processing)
provided some helpful information as to the processing of some
rare metals in pegmatites. I extend my gratitude also to Rio Tinto
Rössing Uranium Limited (Swakopmund, Namibia) for kindly providing
photographs of its mining operation. I would like to express my thanks
to R. Thomas and an anonymous reviewer for their comments made to
this paper. I would like extend my gratitude also to the editor-in-chief F.
Pirajno for his editorial handling of this paper for ORE GEOLOGY
REVIEWS and to T.J. Horscroft for initiating this invited review. I
would like to thank also H. Moorthy and her team for their technical
support. S. Glück. and C. Vinnemann redrafted the digital maps on gem-
stones in pegmatites. H.J. Sturm made some colored drawings.
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Harald G. Dill studied (economic) geology, mineralogy and
geography at Würzburg, Erlangen and Aachen universities.
He was awarded a Diploma/M.Sc (geology), Dr. (mineralo-
gy), Dr. habil. (applied geology/economic geology) and a
Dr. honoris causa while he was appointed Assoc. Prof. and
awarded honorary professor and professor invitado. During
more than 35 years, working as junior researcher in soil sci-
ences (Bayreuth University), senior researcher (economic
geology, applied sedimentology, technical mineralogy) at
the Federal Institute of Geosciences and Natural Resources
(Hannover) and in a management position with the Ger-
man Continental Deep Drilling Program he gathered practi-
cal experience in about 87 regions/countries on 6
continents. In addition, he teaches/taught at 4 German uni-
versities and 20 abroad. His "paperwork" consists of 326 publications (219 reviewed, 289
senior-authored), 101 abstracts and 1 patent and led to 5 discoveries of mineral
occurences and 1 oil show. He is an Assoc. Editor of OGR. He was awarded the
Quintino-Sella Prize at the 32nd Geological Congress, Florence and a scholar of the Ger-
man National Merit Foundation. From 1969 to 2006 he was as volunteer and part-time
soldier with the artillery and MilGeoService holding a final rank of a colonel of the Ger-
man Army Reserve. Riding the hobbyhorse means for him archeometallury, history, aeri-
al warfare/aviation and collecting postal letters. In 2014 he retired from office.
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 551

Table x
index of sites.

Site Country CMS classification Status Page

(Short version)

Adun-Tschilon Mountain Russia Be-aquamarine Gem site 448

Aksoran Kazakhstan Feldspar Deposit 514
Alba Spain Si-quartz Gem site 469
Albera Region France (Nb/Ta–U)–Be–Li–P Deposit 469
Almendra Portugal Li–F–P 484
Altai Russia F–B–Si–tourmaline–amethyst–topaz Gem site 463
Altenberg Germany Mo–W–Sn Deposit 435,445,447,448,480,514
Alto Ligonha Mozambique Li–Nb/Ta–Be–B–beryl–tourmaline Deposit 448,463,470,473,506
Alvarrões Pegmatite Portugal Li–F–P 477,484
Amarante Portugal Sn–W Deposit 450,545
Ambatoabo Madagascar feldspar–mica Deposit 523
Ambatofotsikely Madagascar (Be)–Nb/Ta–U–Th Deposit 475
Ambatohasana Madagascar (Be)–Nb/Ta–U–Th Deposit 475
Ambatondrazaka Madagascar B–Be Deposit 470
Ambatovita Madagascar Cs–Li–zeolite 519
Amorican Massif France Be 463
Ampangabe Madagascar (Be)–Nb/Ta–U–Th Deposit 475
An Phu Vietnam feldspar (amazonite) Deposit 516
Analalava District Madagascar Be–beryl Gem site 439
Andapa District Madagascar Be–beryl Gem site 448
Andilamena Madagascar Be–beryl Gem site 448,535
Andranondambo Madagascar Al–sapphire Deposit 521
Andravory District Madagascar Be–beryl Gem site 448
Angerkristallin Austria kyanite–staurolite 520
Anjahamiary Madagascar Li–B–feldspar (amazonite) Deposit 516
Anjanabonoina Madagascar B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Ankazobe-Vohambohitra Madagascar Be-beryl Gem site 448
Antananarivo Madagascar (F–REE–Bi–Li)–Nb/Ta–Be–B Deposit 479,547
Antandrokomby Madagascar Be–rhodizite Gem site 448
Antsirabe Madagascar Si–quartz Gem site 541
Antsongombato Madagascar Be–rhodizite Gem site 448
Apaligun Pakistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Aquarius Range USA REE Deposit 471,548
Aracuai Brazil F–Be–B–aquamarine–topaz Gem site 429,463
Arga Portugal Zn–Be 513
Aries Zambia Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Assunção Mine Portugal (F–Mo–Bi–Cu–W–Sn–B)–Li–U–Nb/Ta–Be–P Deposit 484
Aukas Namibia B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Azad Kashmir (India–Pakistan) Al–ruby–sapphire–spinel 521
Baja California Mexico F–B–Si–tourmaline–quartz–topaz Gem site 463
Bakamuna Sri Lanka Be–W–Al–ruby–spinel Deposit 521
Bancroft Canada Th–U–nepheline Deposit 476,500,518
Baragoi District Kenya Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Barauta Zimbabwe Al–sapphire Deposit 522
Barra De Salinas Rubelita Brazil Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Barroso-Alvão pegmatite field Portugal (U–Zn–Be–REE)–Sn–Nb/Ta–Li–P 484
Barruecopardo Spain Sn–W Deposit 450
Bayan nuur Mongolia feldspar Deposit 515
Bayerischer Wald Germany B–P 522
Beauvoir France F 477
Bendada Portugal (Sn–Nb/Ta–Be–As–Li)–U–P Deposit 485,512
Benson No. 3 Zimbabwe (Be–F–REE–Sn–P)–Li–Nb/Ta–beryl Deposit 508
Bernic Lake (Lac-du-Bonnet) Tanco Canada Be–B–P–Sn–Li–Ta Deposit 485
Betafo-Antisabe Madagascar Be-beryl Gem site 448
Bikita Zimbabwe Cs–(Rb)–Be–Li–Nb/Ta Deposit 448,470,481,484,495,496
Birkhöhe Germany B–Nb/Ta–P 487,502
Black Hills USA Nb/Ta–Be–Li–Sn–Si–quartz Deposit 451
Black Mountain Dunton Mine USA B-tourmaline Gem site 463
Black Range/New Mexikco USA feldspar (moonstone) 517
Bližná I Czech Republic (Li–P–W–Nb/Ta)–B–REE 472,490,525
Blötz Germany REE–Nb–P–B corundum– 487,502,521
garnet–andalusite–cordierite
Bodmin (Cornwall) Great Britain Si–smoky quartz Gem site 469
Bogala Sri Lanka graphite Deposit 506,523
Bogd uul Mongolia Sn–W–As–Pb–Zn–Cu 471
Böhmer Wald Germany As–Sc–U–Li–Be–B–F–REE–Nb–P Deposits 481,487,502,506,520,521
Boise USA Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Bokan Mountain USA U–REE–Nb–Zr Deposit 462,476,532
Bom Futuro Brazil Li–F–W–Sn Deposit 452,478
Boqueirão Boroborema Province Brazil (Be–F–U–Bi–Pb–Zn–Cu–B–Sn)–Li–Nb/Ta–P Deposit 487
Borborema Brazil Be–B–kaolin Gem site 448,478,487,507,534,533,536
Bortschowotschnom Russia B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Botogol Russia graphite Deposit 523
(continued on
(continued on next
next page)
552 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table x (continued)

Site Country CMS classification Status Page

(Short version)

Branchville USA (F–REE–Zn–Bi–Nb/Ta)–Li–U–P 512

Brandberg Namibia B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Broken Hill Australia feldspar (amazonite) 516
Bulache (Gilgit) Pakistan Be–beryl Gem site 448
Bupo Ethiopia Be–Nb/Ta–Li–P Deposit 470
Burmado Brazil, Bahia Be–B–beryl Gem site 448,463
Cachoeira Brazil (Sn–Be–P–Nb/Ta)–Li Deposit 484,496
Cairngorm Great Britain Si–smoky quartz Gem site 469
Campbell Island Canada Th–U 476
Cañada Spain (U–REE–Sn)–Nb/Ta–B–Li–P Deposit 450,484
Cannington Australia garnet 522
Cap de Creus Spain (U–Sn–F–Nb/Ta–Li–Zn)–Be–B–P 477
Carnaiba Region Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Carrara Near Harar Ethiopia Be–beryl Gem site 448
Casa Ventura Zimbabwe Be–P–Li–Nb/Ta Deposit 508
Castelinho Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Caxias Brazil F–topaz Gem site 463
Chamachhu Pakistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Chibina Tundra (Khibiny) Russia Zr–REE–nepheline Deposit 518
Chipata Zambia B–F–tourmaline–topaz Gem site 463,479
Chitral Afghanistan Be–beryl Gem site 448
Cínovec Czech Republic Rb–Cs–Li–Sn Large deposit 440,447,461
Coimbatore India Be–beryl Gem site 32
Comechingones Argentina Be–Nb–Ta–P–U 476
Connecticut USA Be–P–feldspar–mica Deposit 485,512
Conselheiro Pena Brazil (Be–P–Sn–REE)–Nb/Ta–Li–B Deposit 473
Cooma Australia cordierite 520
Cornubian Great Britain B–Sn–W 445,449,460,461,477,480,537,539
Coronel Murta Brazil B 459,478
Corrego Frio Brazil (Be–B)–U–P 487
Criollo Argentina (Zn–Bi–Mo–Cu–F)–Be–Nb/Ta–U–P Deposit 513
Crystal Mountain USA Sc–Be–F 509,513,537
Dac Lac Vietnam Al–corundum 501,521
Danba China Be–beryl Gem site 448
Danie South Africa Be–beryl Gem site 448
Darra-I-Pech Afghanistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Dartmoor Great Britain Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Dillenberg (Tillenberg)/Waldsassen Germany andalusite 519
Ditró (Ditrău) Romania Ti–Zr–REE–sodalite Deposit 500,518
Doce Brazil Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Doko-Balistan-Gilgt Pakistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Dolní Bory Czech Republic sekaninaite–feldspar Deposit 501,520
Don Duong Vietnam Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Drachselrieth Germany Nb–P garnet–andalusite 521
Dunton pegmatite USA (Sn–As–Nb–Ta–Li)–B–Be–U–P 512
Dusi (Garba Tula) Kenya Al–sapphire Deposit 521
Dusserud Sweden REE–Nb/Ta 426,472
Dusso (Balistan-Gilgit) Pakistan Be–beryl Gem site 448
Dusso Nyit Bruk Pakistan F–topaz Gem site 478
Egbe area Nigeria Sn–Nb–Ta Deposit 454
Ehrenfriedersdorf Germany (Mo–Zn–Bi–U–F–As)–B–Be–Li–P–Sn–W Deposit 435,445,449
Embu-Meru Kenya Be–beryl Gem site 448
Erling near Spittal Austria P–Be–Be Deposit 441
Erongo Mountain Namibia Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Espirito Santo Brazil Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Etiro Namibia (Cs–REE–Bi–B–Li–Nb/Ta)–P Deposit 473
Eurajoki Finland Sn–Be–W–Zn Deposit 459
Evje-Iveland Norway Sc–quartz Deposit 86,500,517
Fianarantsoa Madagascar B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Fichtelgebirge Germany Sn 447,449,461,477,480,481,519,520
Flint Ridge USA Si–quartz Gem site 469
Foote Lithium Kings Mts. USA U–Nb/Ta–Sn–Be–Li–P Deposit 498
Forrestania Australia–Western Australia B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Franciscopolis North Brazil B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Froland Norway Si–quartz Deposit 517
Fugong China B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Fuji-San Japan Si–quartz Gem site 469
Gascoyne Australia–Western Australia Be–beryl Gem site 448
Glen Buchat Great Britain Si–smoky quartz Gem site 469
Godarpur Pakistan Be–beryl Gem site 448
Golpejas Spain As–Sn–W Deposit 435,450
Gonçalo Portugal F 477
Gone — Shirgar Valley Pakistan F–topaz Gem site 463
Gongshan China B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Goriko Zuun Bayan Mongolia F–topaz Gem site 463
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Table x (continued)

Site Country CMS classification Status Page

(Short version)

Gouesnach France Be–B 463

Governador Valadares Brazil Be–B–aquamarine–tourmaline Gem site 448,463
Greenbushes Australia (U–REE)–Sn–Be–P–B–Cs–Li–Nb–Ta Deposit 435,470,476,484,494,510,526,531,
534,537
Groote Spitzkopje Namibia F 478
Guangdong China F–topaz Gem site 463
Guangxi China F–topaz Gem site 463
Guarda-Belmonte area Portugal F 477
Gur-Salak Konar Province Afghanistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Gwantu Nigeria Be–emerald Gem site 448
Hackman Valley, Mt. Yukspor Russia graphite Deposit 523
Haddam USA Be–beryl Gem site 448
Hagendorf Germany Be–Nb–Li–P Deposit 431,487,502,506,511,512,521,522,
524,525,535
Hagendorf–Pleystein Province Germany (Sc–As–Be–Zn)–Li–Nb–P Deposit 485,498,525
Haliburton-Bancroft Canada Al–sapphire 521
Haramosh Pakistan F 478
Harris Great Britain Be–beryl Gem site 448
Helikon Namibia (Cs–P–B)–Nb/Ta–Be–Li Deposit 506
Hematita Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Hitterö Norway quartz–feldspar–mica Deposit 504,522
Hoh, Braldu Valley Pakistan B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Holene Norway quartz–feldspar–mica Deposit 504,522
Homestead Namibia (Bi)–Be–Nb–Ta–Li–P Deposit 508
Hornachuelos, Córdoba Spain (B–F)–Be–Nb/Ta–REE–U–P 485
Hühnerkobel Germany (Sn–As–F–U)–Be–Nb–P Deposit 487,502,521
Hunt Canada (Re)–Mo Deposit 514
Hunza Pakistan Al–ruby–spinel Deposit 448,521
Hunza Valley Nagar Pakistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Hushe Pakistan F–topaz Gem site 463
Hyakule Nepal B–F–tourmaline Gem site 463,479
Ijero area Nigeria Sn–Nb–Ta Deposit 454
Ikalamavony Madagascar (W–REE–Bi)–Be–P–Li–Nb/Ta Deposit 473
Ilimaussaq Greenland Ti–U–Y–REE–Zr–Nb Giant deposit 473,474,476,531,532
Ilmeny Gory Russia Al–sapphire Deposit 521
Imbert pegmatite at Montbrison France P–B 463
Irondro Madagascar Be–emerald Gem site 448
Isahara Madagascar B–F–Be Deposit 470
Itabira Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Itaguau Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Itrongay Madagascar feldspar (orthoclase) Deposit 517,523
Iveland Norway Be–aquamarine Gem site 448,461,485
Ivigtut Greenland Al–cryolite Deposit 477,533
Izumrudnye Kopi area, Ekaterinburg Russia (P–Li–B–Bi–Mo–Nb–Ta–F)–Be Deposit 471
Jaguaribe Area Brazil Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Jegdalek Afghanistan Al–ruby–spinel Deposit 521
Jequitinhonha Province Brazil B–tourmaline– Gem site 463
Johan Beetz Canada U–Th Prospect 476
John Saul ruby mine Kenya Al–ruby/sapphire Deposit 121
Jonas Mine (João Pinto mine) Brazil (Be–P–Sn–REE)–Nb/Ta–Li–B Deposit 479
Jos Plateau Nigeria F–Nb/Ta–W–Sn–topaz Deposit 488,506,507
Kafubu Area Zambia (F–Zn–P)–REE–B–Nb–Ta–Be Deposit 470
Kamativi Zimbabwe (B–REE–W–P)–Nb/Ta–Sn–Li Deposit 428,439,451,488,499,507,508
Kantiwa-Ye·lya Pakistan B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Kapiri Mposhi Zambia Be–beryl Gem site 448
Kapirikamodzi Hill Malawi Quartz–feldspar–mica Deposit 523
Karibib District Namibia (Bi)–B–Nb–Ta–Sn–Be–Li–P–tourmaline Deposit 473
Karlowa Namibia Nb/Ta–Sn–Li Deposit 452
Karoi-Miami Zimbabwe Be–beryl Gem site 448
Kashmir India B–tourmaline Gem site 463,521,522
Katlang Ghundao Hill Pakistan F–topaz Gem site 463
Keffi Nigeria B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Kekertausak, Narsarsuk Greenland Nepheline–zeolite–sodalite 518
Kenticha Ethiopia (Sn)–Be–Li–Ta Deposit 470
Kerala India graphite Deposit 523
Khaltaro-Gilgit Pakistan Be–emerald Gem site 448
Khumbu Nepal B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Kigesi Uganda Au–Bi–Sn–W Deposit 513
Kings Mountains USA Sn–Li Deposit 498,513,537
Kishangarh India Al–corundum–nepheline Gem site 518
Klein–Spitzkopje Namibia B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Knoydar Great Britain Be–beryl Gem site 448
Kobokobo DR Congo (B–Sn–REE–Li–As–Th)–P–U–Be–Nb Deposit- 448,473,486
Koktokay China B–tourmaline Gem site 463

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Table x (continued)

Site Country CMS classification Status Page

(Short version)

Koktokay No. 3 (Altay No. 3) China (REE)–Be–B–Cs–Nb/Ta Li–mica Deposit 496

Kol'Skiy Poluostrov Russia Si–quartz Gem site 469
Königshain Germany P–U–F–Ag–Li–Sn–W–Pb)–Bi–Nb/Ta–Be–REE 468,472,508
Koralpe Austria B–Nb/Ta–Be–Li–P–tourmaline Deposit 426,435,440,469,481,483,492,494,510
Korgal Afghanistan Cs–Sn–B–Nb/Ta–Li–Be–tourmaline Deposit 463,479
Kotokay China Be–aquamarine Gem site 448,518
Kožichovice II Czech Republic Be 470
Kragerö Norway quartz–feldspar–mica Deposit 504,522
Kuangding China Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Kukurt Tajikistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448,518
Kumkol Kazakhstan Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Kunar Afghanistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Kunar Province Afghanistan B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Kuortane Finland B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Kuru Úrte China B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Ky Son Vietnam Si–smoky quartz Gem site 469
La Canalita Spain Sn–W Deposit 450
La Madera Argentina zeolite 519
Lac Alaotra Madagascar Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Lagham Province Afghanistan B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Laghman Afghanistan Be–Li–garnet (kunzite) 463,522
Lake Alaotra District Madagascar Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Lalín Spain Sn–Li–Be–P Deposit 450
Lana Mine, Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais Brazil F–topaz Gem site 463
Lands End Great Britain Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Las Palomas–San Luis Argentina Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Leeuw Kop South Africa Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Leeuwspruit South Africa Be–beryl Gem site 448
Letitia Lake–Two Tom Canada Y–Th–REE–Nb–Zr–Be Medium deposit 531
Limoeiro Brazil F–topaz Gem site 463
Little Three Mine, Ramona USA Be–beryl Gem site 448
Ljosland Norway garnet 522
Loc Tan Vietnam F–topaz Gem site 463
Los Andes Chile Si–quartz Gem site 469
Lovozero Russia Ti–Zr–REE–Ta–Nb Super giant 473,531
deposit
Luc Yen Vietnam B–tourmaline Gem site 454,463,516
Lukusuzi Zambia B–tourmaline Gem site 47
Lun Mongolia feldspar Deposit 515
Lundazi Area Zambia Be–B–beryl Gem site 448
Luumõki Finland Be–beryl Gem site 448
Lyangar Uzbekistan feldspar Deposit 514
Madeira Brazil Nb/Ta–Y–REE–Li–Zr–U–Th–Sn Deposit 473
Mahajamba Madagascar Si–quartz Gem site 469
Mahenge Tanzania Al–ruby Deposit 522
Maine Province USA Be–P–feldspar–mica Deposit 513
Majayahan Somalia Sn–Li–Ta Deposit 508
Makanjior Tanzania Be–beryl Gem site 448
Malakialina Madagascar Be–beryl Gem site 448
Malkhan Russia B 479
Man Shield Sierra Leone Sn–Nb/Ta Deposit 508
Mananjary Madagascar (F–B–P–Mo)–Be Deposit 470
Mangare area Kenya B–kyanite–ruby Deposit 479,521
Mangualde Portugal (F–B–Zn–Pb–Mo–As–Cu)–Be–Li–U–P 484
Manjaka Madagascar Li Deposit 495
Manono-Kitolo DR Congo (Cs–Pb)–Nb/Ta–Li–Sn Deposit 23,35,83,115
Marambaia Brazil F–topaz Gem site 463
Marchaney Germany B–dumortierite 520
Mariupol Ukraine Zr–nepheline–sodalite 518
Markocice Poland REE–U–Th 475
Marropino Mozambique (REE–Bi)–Li–F–Be–Nb/Ta Deposit 473
Maršíkov I–III Czech Republic (Zn)–REE–Nb/Ta–Be 472
Masino-Bregaglia Italy Nb/Ta–Y–U–REE 472
Mavusi Mozambique REE–U Deposit 473
Mawi Afghanistan Cs–Sn–Nb/Ta–Li–Be–B–aquamarine–tourmaline Deposit 448,463,479
Mazán Argentina Al–corundum–andalusite 521
Mboro Madagascar (B)–Bi–REE–Nb/Ta Deposit 473
McKay Head Canada scapolite 518
Menez–Goaillou–en–Coray France (P–As–Cu)–Sn–Be 463
Menzelhof Germany feldspar Deposit 516
Miass Russia Be–F–Si–beryl–quartz–topaz Gem site 448,463
Middletown USA (W–As–Bi–Cu–Mo–F–REE)–B–Nb/Ta–Li–Be–P 512
Mid-German Crystalline Rise Germany (B–Li–Be–P)–REE–U 483
Miesbrunn Germany Zr–Nb–B–P 511,522
Modot Mongolia Sn–W–As–Pb–Zn–Cu 435,471
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Table x (continued)

Site Country CMS classification Status Page

(Short version)

Moldanubian Zone Germany B–Be–As–B–Zr–Nb–F–P Deposits 425,447,454,462,468,470,477,480,

481,482,483,484,485,489,490,494,
496,499,502,506,513,515,518,519,
520,521,531
Moneragala Sri Lanka Al–sapphire Deposit 522
Mont Saint-Hilaire Canada Zr 473
Montebras France Li–P–F–Sn–Nb/Ta–mica–kaolin Deposit 108
Monts d'Ambazac France Be 463
Morondava Madagascar Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Moss Canada Mo Deposit 514
Motzfeldt Sø Greenland Zr–Be–REE–Nb–Ta Giant deposit 56
Mount Auburn USA B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Mount Cattlin Lithium Mine, Australia (F–Be–Sn)–Nb/Ta–Li Deposit 494
Ravensthorpe
Mount Mica USA B–tourmaline Gem site 463,474,512
Mount Mica USA (Sn–As–Zn–Zr)–Tb/Nb–U–B–Be–P 463,474,512
Mphungu Malawi Mica–quartz–feldspar Deposit 491,515
Muiane Mozambique B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Münchberg Gneiss Complex Germany (kyanite)–feldspar sodium Deposit 426,481,482,483,515,519,520
Mursinska District Russia Be–beryl–aquamarine Gem site 448
Mursinska Mts Russia B 479
Murupane Murrua Mozambique B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Mwani Baboon Hill Zimbabwe Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Mwanza Malawi Zr 473
Nacala Mozambique B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Naegi Japan F–fluorite Gem site 463
Namecuna Mozambique B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Nassarawa Nigeria Be–emerald Gem site 448
Näverån Sweden Th–(U)–REE Prospect 472
Nilaw Pakistan B–Be–beryl Gem site 448,463,479
Nilaw Afghanistan Cs–Sn–Nb/Ta–Li–Be–B–tourmaline–beryl Deposit 448,463,479
Niyit-Bruk Pakistan F–topaz Gem site 463
Ntebeni Zimbabwe (Zr)–U–Th Deposit 475
Nui Phao–Tam Dao District Vietnam Sn–Mo–Bi–Be–F–W Large deposit 431
Nuristan Afghanistan B–tourmaline Gem site 463,479,522
Nyet Pakistan F–topaz Gem site 463
Odegi Nigeria (Th–Sn–Nb/Ta)–REE Deposit 473
Oedental Germany feldspar 516
Okkampiitya Sri Lanka Al–sapphire Deposit 522
Olary Province Australia Be–REE–Li–P–Nb/Ta 494
Older Granite Suite Nigeria Nb/Ta–Sn Deposits 443
Orissa India Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Orivesi India F–topaz Gem site 463
Orlovka Russia Nb/Ta–amazonite Deposit 516
Oslavice Czech Republic Nb/Ta–Be–REE 472
Otov Czech Republic Nb/Ta–feldspar 487,494,502,516
Ouro Preto Brazil F 463,478
Pabrok Afghanistan B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Pala USA (California) B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Palermo USA (REE–B–Bi–As–Nb/Ta–Cu–Zn–Li–U)– Deposit 485,512,513
P–feldspar–mica
Pampean Pegmatitic Province Argentina Bi–Nb/Ta–Li–Be Deposit 476
Panasqueira Portugal Sn–W Deposit 440,450,460,461
Paprok Pakistan B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Paraiba Brazil B–tourmaline Gem site 426,454,459,463,477,479,524,518,533
Paredes da Beira Portugal F 477
Pattalai India Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Pechtelsgrün Germany W–Sn Deposit 435,447
Phakuwa Nepal B–F–tourmaline–topaz Gem site 463,479
Pikes Peak USA Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Pingwu China Be–beryl Gem site 448
Pleystein Germany Be–Li–Nb–P 431,453,475,477,480,487,489,495,502,
503,506,507,517,518,522,523,524,525
Plössberg Germany Zr–As–Nb–Be–P–B 469
Ponte Segade Spain Sn–W Deposit 450
Prašivá Slovakia Be 470
Püllersreuth Germany Be–Nb Deposit 426,487,502
Quebec Canada graphite 476,517,532,537
Ramona USA B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Rangkul (Kukurtskoe) Tajikistan Li–B–F–Be–scapolite Deposit 518
Reinhardsrieth Germany Nb/Ta–P Deposit 487,502
Reitenberg–Kaitersberg Germany U–B 521
Ribaue Mozambique B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Rinchnach Germany zeolite 519

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Table x (continued)

Site Country CMS classification Status Page

(Short version)

Rio Doce Province Brazil B–tourmaline Gem site 463

Rio Grande Do Norte Brazil B–Be–aquamarine–tourmaline Gem site 448,463
Rocky Mountains Canada Si–quartz Gem site 537
Roncadeira Borborema province Brazil (Zn–Be)–Sn–Nb/Ta Deposit 488
Rondônia Province Brazil P–Li–F–Nb/Ta–Sn–W Deposits 452
Rössing Namibia (F–P–As–Mo–W)–Th–REE–U Deposit 453,462,475,476,488,528,533,539,540
Rothau France (Sn–P)–B–Be 520
Rožná Czech Republic Sn–Be–Nb/Ta–F–B–P–Li Deposit 491
Rubikon Namibia Nb/Ta Deposit 488,506
Ruda nad Moravou Czech Republic (P–Zr–U–Th)–Nb/Ta–REE 472
Ruggles Mine, Grafton USA (REE–B–Bi–As–Nb/Ta–Cu–Zn–Li–U)–P 512
Sadisdorf Germany W–Sn Deposit 434,445,31,32,64,510
Sahatany District Madagascar B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Salgadinho Brazil B 479
Salpond Ghana kaolin Deposit 507,524
Sambesi Graben Zambia Be–beryl Gem site 448
San Diego County USA B–tourmaline Gem site 463
San Luis Argentina Si–quartz Gem site 452
Sandamap Namibia (B–Nb/Ta)–Sn–Li–P 486
Santa Leopoldina Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Santa Tereza Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Satzung–Erzgebirge Germany sekaninaite 520
Saxo–Thuringian Germany B–Be–F–Li–Sn–U–P–As 445,469,477,480,481
Scaër–Langonnet France Be–B 463
Scheibengraben Czech Republic Be–Nb 504,506,468
Schneckenstein Germany F–topaz Gem site 489,463
Schöllnach–Tittling Germany (Sc–Li–Nb–F–B–U)–REE–Be–P–zeolite 509,519,544
Schoonmaker Mine Strickland USA (Zn–REE–F–U)–Be–P–B–Li 512
pegmatite
Schwarzeck Germany P–F–B corundum–andalusite–garnet 487,502,521
Segura Portugal F 477
Seiland Island Norway Zr–sodalite 452,473
Separation Lake Canada (P–REE–Be)–B–Sn–Nb/Ta–Li Deposit 499
Serra Da Mesa Brazil Si–quartz Gem site 469
Serro Brazil F–topaz Gem site 463
Shagait-uul Mongolia feldspar Deposit 491,515
Shengus Pakistan F–topaz Gem site 463
Sherlovaya Gora Russia Be–beryl Gem site 448
Shigar Valley Pakistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Shingus Pakistan F 478,448
Shingus–Dusso Kashmir–Pak Be–beryl Gem site 448
Shizhouyuan China (Pb–Zn–Ag)–Sn–Mo–Bi–Be–W Giant deposit 545
Sibweza Tanzania Be–beryl Gem site 448
Sichuan China Be–beryl Gem site 448
Sierra De Ancasti Argentina Be–beryl Gem site 448
Sierra De Cordoba Argentina Be–beryl Gem site 448
Sierra De San Luis Argentina Be–beryl Gem site 448
Sierra Morena Spain F 478,543
Sierra Velazco Argentina Be–beryl Gem site 448
Silbergrube Germany Nb–P Deposit 535,431
Sinceni Swaziland Be–REE–Th–B–Li–Nb/Ta–Sn Deposit 462
Skalna Brama Poland As–Nb/Ta–U–REE 472,549
Socoto Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
South Platte Area USA REE Deposit 472
Spittal a.d. Drau Austria P–Be–B Deposit 443
Spitzkopje Namibia Be–F–Si–beryl–quartz–topaz Gem site 478,448,463
Spruce Pine USA feldspar–kaolin Deposit 501,498,514,536
Spruce Pine Chalk Ray Mica Mine USA (W–Li)–REE–Be–Nb/Ta–mica Deposit 498
Spruce Pine McHone Mine USA (B–Be–F–Li) Deposit 498
St. Ann's Hurungwe District Zimbabwe F–topaz Gem site 463
St. Austell Moor Great Britain Si–amethyst Gem site 469
St. Radegund Austria B–Li–Be Deposit 441,492,520,540
Stak–Nala Pakistan Be–F–aquamarine Gem site 448,47
Störnstein Germany feldspar 516
Strange Lake Canada (Li–Zn–Th–F–Nb–Ta)–Be–REE–Zr Deposit 472,473,532
Strathmore Namibia Nb/Ta–Sn–Li Deposit 452
Suishoyoma Japan F–fluorite Gem site 47
Szklarska Poręba Poland REE–Nb–Ta–Be–B–Sc–F–W 421
Szklary Poland P–U–REE–Be–Nb/Ta 47
Takob Tajikistan feldspar Deposit 514
Talate China B–tourmaline Gem site 463,500
Taquaral Brazil B 459,478
Tchenzema–Uluguru Mts. Tanzania Si–rock crystal Gem site 469
Teofilo Otoni Brazil Be–aquamarine–beryl Gem site 448
Terra Branca Minas Gerais Brazil Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
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Table x (continued)

Site Country CMS classification Status Page

(Short version)

Thach Khoan Vietnam Be–Si–beryl–smoky quartz–amazonite Gem site 448,216

Thambani Malawi Al–corundum–nepheline Deposit 518
Thomas Range USA Be–beryl Gem site 448
Tisgtung Pakistan Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Topsham USA Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Třebíč Czech Republic (W–Sn–F–Li)–Be–Nb/Ta–REE 470
Tres Tetas Argentina (U–B)–Be–Bi–Li–P Deposit 487
Triberg Germany (Sn–U–As)–B–Be 468,520
Triunfo Brazil Be–chrysoberyl Gem site 448
Trutzhofmühle Germany Sc–Nb/Ta–P 58,487,502,508,509,522
Tsagaan davaa Mongolia Sn–W–As–Pb–Zn–Cu 471
Tsaratanana 2 Madagascar Be–beryl Gem site 448
Uis Namibia Nb/Ta–Sn–Li Deposit 448,452
Uluguru Mts. Tanzania (U–Be–B)–mica 522
Ural Mts. Russia Be–emerald–kaolin Deposit 471
Usakos Namibia B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Valadares Brazil Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Varuträsk Sweden Cs–Li Deposit 484,498,547
Věžná Czech Republic Cs–Nb–Be–W–B–Li–REE 461,485,491,509,525,526
Vidago Portugal F 477
Vieux Mayres (Le Château pegmatite) France P–B–Be 47
Viitaniemi Finland Nb–Be–Li–P Deposit 498
Virgem Da Lapa Brazil F–topaz Gem site 463
Vlastějovice Czech Republic (F–P–As–Sn–U)–Nb/Ta–B–REE 472
Vohemar Madagascar Si–amethyst Gem site 469
Voi–Taveta Kenya F–topaz Gem site 463,479
Voi–Taveta Kenya B 463,479
Volta Grande Brazil (U–B–F–Be)–Ta/Nb–Sn–Li Deposit 478
Vorondolo Madagascar Si–rose quartz Gem site 469
Wah Wah USA Be–beryl Gem site 463
Wah–Wah Mountains USA B–tourmaline Gem site 448
Wäldel–Mähring Germany graphite 523
Waldheim Germany B–corundum–prismatine 104
Warriedar Tourmaline Australia–Western Australia B–tourmaline Gem site 463
Weissenstadt Germany As–Sn 435,447
Weissenstein Germany Si–quartz 491,5147,518
Wendersreuth Germany feldspar Deposit 426,512,516
Whabouchi Canada Li Prospect 537,538
Wiborg Finland Be–Nb/Ta–B–F–REE Deposit 472
Wildbachgraben Austria Nb/Ta–Be–Li Deposit 492
Wildenreuth Germany feldspar Deposit 516
Willie South Africa Be–beryl Gem site 448
Wimhof–Vilshofen Germany (Ti–Fe)–B–Be–P 517,519,521
Winnipeng River Canada Si–quartz Gem site 469
Wodgina Australia ((REE–W)–Be–P–Li–Nb–Ta) Deposit 494
Wolfe/Ontario Canada nepheline 519,541
Wolodarsk Ukraine Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Wonder Well–Menzies Australia–Western Australia Be–emerald Gem site 448
Xilin Qagan Obo China F–topaz Gem site 463
Xuan Le Area Vietnam Be–Si–aquamarine–smoky quartz Gem site 448
Yekaterinburg Russia Si–quartz–amethyst Gem site 469
Yosemite USA Al–corundum–andalusite 521
Yuanyang China Be–beryl Gem site 448
Yunnan China F–topaz Gem site 463
Zakhiin–tsohio Mongolia Feldspar Deposit 515
Zambue Mozambique Be–aquamarine Gem site 448
Zholtye Vody Ukraine Sc–U–REE Deposit 525,526,531
Zinnwald Germany Rb–Cs–Li–Sn Large deposit 440
Zone of Erbendorf Vohenstrauß Germany Be–Nb–P–feldspar sodium 440,464,481,482,483,515
558 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table xx Table xx (continued)

index of terms.
Term Page
Term Page
Cancrinite 518
Achaean 536 Carbonatite 532,534,536
Achroite 473,893 Carlhintzeite 478
Aegirite 473,524 Cassiterite 435,445,447-451,453,454
Aeschynite 471 Cerianite 471,473
Agpaitic 473 Cerianite-(Ce) 473
Alaskite 475 Cerite 558
Albite 476 Cerussite 558
Albitization 433,449,462,471,472,473,477,502,525,527,541,547 Cesium 431,441,488,519,534
Albitite 109 Chabazite 519
Alexandrite 532 Chalcanthite 558
Alkaline 532 Chalcedony 517
Allanite 471 Chalcocite 558
Alleghanian 485 Chalcophanite 558
Alluaudite “huhnerkobelite” 466 Chalcopyrite 558
Alpine-type 499 Chalcosiderite 558
Alumosilicate 520 Chamosite 558
Amazonite 516 Cheralite 475
Amblygonite 533 Chernikovite 558
Analcite 518 Chiavennite 519
Anatase 517 Chibinite 518
Andalusite 517 Childrenite 558
Andean-type 445 Chlorite group 558
Andradite 475 Christophite 511
Apatite 475 Chrysoberyl 501,532,535
Aquamarine 469 Chrysocolla 562
Arfvedsonite 452 Churchite-(y) 558
Arrojadite 467 Cleavelandite 470,517,518
Arsenic 510 Clinopyroxene 514,524
Arsenopyrite 510 Coffinite 474
Arthurite 466 Collinsite 558
Asphaltite 523 COLTAN 506,510,532,534
A-type 525 Columbite-(Fe) 453,475,485,486,502-504,539
Audio-magnetotelluric 461 Connellite 558
(AMT) Controlled source audio magnetotelluric (CSAMT) 461
Autunite 453 Copper 479,534
Aventurine 517 Cordierite 461,468,471,475,477,478,501,519
Baltica 468 Corundum 519-522,524,535
Barbosalite 466 Corundum (sapphire) 518
Barite 529 Covellite 558
Bassetite 467 Crandallite 558
Bastnaesite-(Ce) 473 Cryolite 473,477,478,530,533
Bastnaesite-(La) 473 Cryptomelane 524
Bavenite 468 Cubanite 558
Bazzite 468 Cuprite 558
Behoite 470 Cuprobismutite 558
Benyacarite 558 Cyrilovite 460
Beraunite 520 Danburite 462,479,480
Bermanite 558 Davidite 473,474
Berthierine 558 Davidite-(La) 473
Bertrandite 463,468,470,492,532 Dessauite 474
Beryl 426,431,432,444,448,451 Devilline 558
Beryllium 444,448-450,462,463,469 Dewindtite 558
Betafite 475,476,503 Diadochite 558
Beudandite 558 Diaspore 521
Bikitaite 519 Dickinsonite 558
Biotite 426,448,460,461,475,476 Dickite 448,523
Bismite 558 Dickite 448,523
Bismuth 450,489,510-514,534 Digenite 558
Bismuthinite 479,511,513 Diopside 475,503,517,523-525
Bismutomicrolite 513 Diopside–hedenbergite 475,525
Bismutotantalite 513 Diorite 472,479,496,503,521
Bityite 468 Djurleite 558
Bixbite 462,532 Dravite 38,46,61,62
Black shale 529 Dufrénite 558
Bobierrite 558 Dumortierite 462,479,520,554
Boron 441,455,462,463,476-490,483 Durbachite 472
Boudinage 46,68,82,120 Earlshannonite 558
Brasiliano 473,478,537 Eclogite 482,491,515,519
Brazilianite 487,117 Edingtonite 519
Brochantite 558 Elbaite 426,454,462,470,477,479,490,491,494
Bromellite 470 Elpidite 473
Brookite 558 Emerald 448,449,462,470-472
Cacoxenite 558 Emplectite 558
Calcioferrite 518 Endoskarn 449,514
Calcite 471,476,518,524,525,532 Ensialic 417,424,427,442,443,445,462,463,474
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 559

Table xx (continued) Table xx (continued)

Term Page Term Page

Ensimatic 509,510,528,529,538 Isokite 465

Eosphorite 559 Ixiolite 500
Epidote 518,524 Jadeite 521
Epistolite 474 Jahnsite 466
Episyenite 418,509,525,539 Jeremejevite 462,479
Ernstite 559 Jungite 468
Euclase 462,470,509 Kaolin 507,523,524,536,551
Eudialyte 474 Kaolinite 448,507,524
Exoskarn 449,514 Kastningite 465
Fairfieldite 559 Keckite 466
Feldspar 102,103,106-110,113,114 Kidwellite 466
Fergusonite 426,471,472 Kingsmountite 498
Ferriallanite 559 Klippen 461,510,516,519
Ferrisicklerite 481,484,485,490 Knopite 471
Ferristrunzite 559 Kolbeckite 510
Ferrolaueite 559 Kornerupine 462,475
Ferrostrunzite 559 Kosnarite 474
Florencite 471 Kryzhanovskite 466
Fluellite 559 Kunzite 479,522
Fluocerite-(Ce) 473 Kyanite 492,501,519-521,535
Fluorellestadite 559 Lamprophyre 468,469,474
Fluorine 533,449,452,463,471,476-480,489 Landesite 467
Fluoroapatite 559 Lapis lazuli 535
Foyaite 474,518 Lascas 535
Frondelite 559 Laueite 466
Gabbro 435,473,475,476,496,498,500,503 Laumontite 519
Gagarinite-(Y) 473 Laurussia 427,468,482,487
Gahnite 432,511,513 Lazulite 520,533
Galena 451,485,511 LCT 430-432,441,509,522
Garnet 478,485,487,488,490,494,502-504 Lehnerite 467
Genthelvite 513 Lepidolite 454,489-491,495,496,516,518,519,533
Gibbsite 559 Leucogranite 463
Glass 102,103,115,116,117,118,119 Leucophosphite 466
Goethite 101 Leucosome 515
Gondwana 425,427,428,468,470,473,478,482,485,487,488,514 Lherzolite 491
Gorceixite 559 Libethenite 465
Gordonite 559 Lipscombite 466
Gormanite 559 Lithiophilite 467
Goshenite 462,532,533,559 Lithium 470,481,483-486,488-492,494-496,498,499,510,
Goyazite 559 522,533
Graftonite 559 Loellingite 449,451,510
Grandidierite 559 Lomonosovite 474
Granite 417,418,420,421-423,431,432,435,437,440-443,445, Loparite 474
447-452,459-463 Lorenzenite 474
Granodiorite 468,472,477,496,498,519,521,530 Ludlamite 466
Graphic 420,426,448,491,509,515,525 Lujavrite 474,518
Graphic intergrowth 420,426,448 Magnetite 470,474,517
Graphite 417,443,506,523,529,536 Magnetotellurics (MT) 461
Grayite 475 Malachite 465
Greisen 435,440,442,445,447-449,451-453,460,461,463,476 Mangangordonite 465
Grossularite 475,525,536 Marble 468,475,476,479,490,509,514,517-519,521,522,525
Hagendorfite 460 Margarite 521
Harzburgite 525 Marialite 518
Hauyne 535 Marmatite 489,511
Heliodor 462,532 Marundite 521,522
Helvine 468 Matulaite 465
Hematite 473,476,517,518,533 Medium-magnetotelluric 461
Hemimorphite 511 (MMT)
Hentschelite 466 Mejonite 518
Herderite 469,479 Melanosome 515
Heterosite 466 Messelite 465
Heulandite 519,525 Metaautunite 467
Hibonite 475 Metagraywacke 459,477,479
Hiortdahlite 474 Metallotect 418,419,445,451,462,469,470,472,473,475,477,478,
Holmquistite 426,440,470,478,481,485,488,492,494 479,480,486,487,488,492,494,500,506,512,529
Hopeite 468 Metapegmatite 418,420,426,427,434,435,442,443,472,480,487,494,
Hornblendite 470 499,501,502
Hureaulite 467 Metasabkha 518
Huttonite 475 Metaswitzerite 467
Hydrogrossular 521 Metatorbernite 467
Hydroxyl-herderite 469 Metavivianite 520
Ijolitic 519 Meurigite-k 466
Ilmenite 451,473,474,476,502,517,518 Miaskitic 473,474
Impsonite 523 Mica 500,501,503,504,506-508,514-516,518,522,523,525
Indigolite 477 Mica schist 448,468,479,485,490,492,507,523
Indium 511,513 Microcline 451,496,514,516,518
560 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561

Table xx (continued) Table xx (continued)

Term Page Term Page

Microlite 426,478,500,513,534 Pyromorphite 467

Migmatite 418,426,461,472,473,479,501,515,518,520,523,538 Pyrrhotite 468,503,514,529,530
Milky quartz 495,517 Quartz 496,498,503,504,506,507,509,514-518,520-526,529
Mitridatite 465 Quartzite 426,451,459,479,518,520,521,526,537
Moldanubian 518-521,531 Rapakivi granite 452,472
Molybdenite 426,448,489,511,514 Reactivation 424,442,443,445,469,483,485,499,510,512,530,
Molybdenum 510,512,514,518,529,534 531,538
Monazite 543,471-476,482,516,532 Reddingite 467
Montebrasite 479,481,484,485,488,490,491,494,496,533 REE/ 417,418,426,431,433,434,439,442,443,451,452,453,
Montgomeryite 465 rare earth elements 468,470,471,472,473,474,475,476,477,479,480,494,
Moonstone 517 496,499,500,501,502,509,510,513,514,519,521,522,
Morganite 444,462,471,518,532 525,527,530,532,533,534,539,541,542,543,544,545,
Morinite 465 547,548,552,553,554,555,556,557
Mosandrite 474 Rhenohercynian 477,481,529
Mrázekite 465 Rhyolite 442,452,460,478,517
Mullite 535 Riebeckite 462,476
Murmanite 474 Rift 417,442,443,470,471,473,481,482,496,514,530,
Muscovite 475,477-479,481-483,486,490,496,502,504, 538,539
507,514-516 Rift-type 417,445,462,470,514,530
Nacrite 523 Rinkite 474
Natrodufrenite 465 Rittmannite 467
(+dufrenite) Robertsite 467
Natrolite 519,523 Rockbridgeite 520
Nepheline 519,523,530,535,538 Roscherite 469
Nepheline syenite 452,472,473,474,500,518,530,535 Rose quartz 443
Neptunite 474 Rosterite 462
Nigrine 468,487,502-504,506,507,513,517,518 Rubellite 462,477,478,479,495
Ningyoite 471,475 Rubicline 488
Niobium 443,450,474,500,509,517,518,534 Rubidium 488,495,533,534
Nordgauite 465 Rutile 451,492,502,503,510,517,518
NYF 430-432,470,509,522 Sabugalite 467
Ongonite 460 Saleeite 467
Opal 503,517 Samarskite 473,509
Orthite 474,515 Samarskite-(Y) 473
Orthoclase 486,514-516,517,523 Santabarbaraite 518
Oxiberaunite 466 Sapphirine 475
Pachnolite 478 Sarcopside 466
Pan-African 428,473,475,476,478,479,486,487,506,523 Saxo-Thuringian 445,469,477,480-482,484,485,489,490,496,499,
Parahopeite 468 501,502,509
Paraiba tourmaline 426,454,459,477,479,524,528,533 Scandium 500,508-510,526,534
Parascholzite 468 Scapolite 514,517,518,521,523,524,535
Paravauxite 466 Scheelite 435,445,448,449,461,462,475,492,521,525,530-532
Parsonsite 468 Schlieren 426,436,449,485,515,518,519,527
Paulkerrite 467 Scholzite 468
Pegmatoid 417,418,420,426,427,434-436,442,443,441, Schoonerite 468
477-479,482, Schorl 454,459,461,477-479,485,503,520
483,485 Scorodite 510,511
Peralkaline 462,473,474,476,506,530 Scorzalite 533
Perloffite 466 Segelerite 465
Perovskite 474,530 Sekaninaite 501,519,520
Petalite 451,495,496,533,534 Sicklerite 481,484,485,490,494
Phenakite 468,470,492 Siderite 460,529
Phillipsite 519 Sillimanite 426,431,436,449,468,475,477,480,501,512,
Phlogopite 443,470,475,514,517,523,536 513,519,520
Phosphoferrite 466 Silver 529
Phosphophyllite 533 Skarn 521-525,529-531,535-537,539
Phosphorite 477,488,533 Sodalite 500,518,535
Phosphoscorodite 511 Souzalite 466
Phosphosiderite 466 Spessartite 426,481,483,485,503,522,536
Placer 418,473,487,503,504,522,531,532,534-536 Sphalerite 432,468,477,485,489,503,511,513,514,525
Plumasite 521,522 Sphene 473,474,517
Pollucite 443,482,488,495,496,519 Spinel 475,511,513,521,535
Porphyry 448,514,517,529,534 Spodumene 420,426,439,440,443,451,462,469,470,473,478,
Post-kinematic 472,486,502 479,481,484
Pre-kinematic 420,435 Stanĕkite 466
Proterozoic 506,518,521,522 Stannite 453,531,
Protolithionite 448 Staurolite 511,513,519,520,521,
Protore 476,531 Steenstrupin 474
Pseudolaueite 466 Stellerite 519
Pseudomalachite 465 Stewartite 466
Pseudopegmatite 417,418,420,426,435,438,440,442,483-485,492,494, Stibnite 511,529
537-539 Stilbite 519
Purpurite 467 Stockscheider 435,445,448,477,478,527
Pyrite 435,448,4489,451,453,472,489,510,511,529,530 Strengite 466
Pyrobitumen 523 Strunzite 466
Pyrochlore 468,473-476,485,500,503,504,513,530,533,534 S-type 417,431,443,449,451,462,480,488,539
 H.G. Dill / Ore Geology Reviews 69 (2015) 417–561 561

Table xx (continued)

Term Page

Sulfur 533
Switzerite 466
Syenite 442,443,452,472-475,488,500,509,514,518,519,521
Synkinematic 434,462,472,486,494,502,526,537
Tantalite 534
Tantalum 443,474,500,501,509,510,513,534
Tatric Unit 470
Tavorite 490
Thoreaulite 451
Thorianite 474,475
Thorite 474-476
Thorium 474,476,479,533
Thorogummite 474,475
Time domain 471
electromagnetic method
(LOTEM)
Tin 439,445,447,449,450,451,452,453,459,460,462,468,
477,488,489,492,501,510,529,532
Titanite 475,517,518,521,524
Topaz 435,443,448,449,452,453,460,461,463,477,478,518
Torbernite 453
Tourmaline 518-522,524,525,528,531,533,535,537
Tremolite 514,524
Triphylite 440,469,481,484-486,488,490,494
Triplite 449,460
Triploidite 466
Tungsten 445,449,450,460,462
Turquoise 516
Undercooling 420,422
Uralolite 469
Uralolite 469
Uraninite 453,472,474,475,476,522
Uranium 523,525,526,528,529,531,533,540
Uranocircite 467
Uranophane 467
Uranosphaerite 467
Uranpyrochlore 467
Urtite 474
Variscan 425-427,431,445,448-451,462,463,465,468-470,
474,475,477
Variscan-type 528
Variscite 460
Väyrynenite 465
Vesuvianite 449
VHMS 531
Vivianite 520
Voglite 475
Voloshinite 488
Wagnerite 466
Watermelon tourmaline 477
Wavellite 465
Whiteit 465
Whitlockite 466
Whitmoreite 466
Wilhelmvierlingite 467
Willemite 513
Wolfeite 466
Wolframite 445,447,448,449,453,513,514,531,532
Wollastonite 475
Xanthoxenite 465
Xenotime 532
Zeolite 419,442,518,519,524,525,551,553,554,555,556
Zinc 534
Zinnwaldite 533
Zircon 532
Zodacite 466
Zoisite 475,491,515
Zwieselite 466