CHAPTER 5 the electrochemical potential

Membrane dynamics difference created by pumping ions

The body is constantly maintaining a
CHEMICAL DISEQUILIBRIUM (major
solutes are more concentrated in one
of the two body compartments than in
the other) as long as we are alive.
out of the cell is used.
Primary transporters – also called
direct active transport, directly uses
energy to transport molecules across
a membrane.

Law of mass action – the amt if subs in Conformational change – molecular

the bosy is to remain constant, any transition; change its shape in response to
gain must be offset by an equal loss changes in its environment or other
(Water gain from the external factors; such as a change in temperature, pH,
environment and from metabolism voltage, ion concentration, or the binding of
a ligand.
must be offset by water loss to the
external environment)
Clearance – measurement of the
disappearance of subs from the
Mass flow – rate of intake, production,
blood, expressed as milliliters of
or output of x:
plasma cleared of solute per unit
time
Mass concentr Volume
flow ation flow Diffusion – mov’t of molecules to an
= X
(amt (amt (vol/min) area of lower higher conc to an
x/min) x/vol) area of lower conc of molecules.

Bulk flow – mass mov’t of water or air Permeability – pass through

as the result of pressure
gradients Osmosis - the diffusion of water
through a semi-permeable
Facilitated diffusion – mov’t of membrane. It is the movement of
molecules across cell water across a semi-permeable
membranes in response to a membrane from an area of
conc gradient with the aid of a high water potential
membrane protein (low solute concentration) to an
area of low water potential (high
GLUT – glucose transporter. Family of solute concentration).
facilitated diffusion carriers for
glucose and other hexose Osmotic “dynamic equilibrium” =
sugars direction is equal

SGLT - Sodium-Glucose Linked Chemical disequilibrium - major

Transporter solutes are more concentrated in
one of the two body compartments
Secondary transporters - there is no than in the other
direct coupling of ATP; instead,
Symport molecules being transported
that moves in the same direction,
whether in or out of the cell.
Antiport – molecules being carried in
opposite direction
Active transport - transportation of
molecules from a region of lower
concentration to a higher
concentration. If the process uses
chemical energy, such as
from adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Membrane proteins
1. Structural proteins
2. membrane associated enzymes
3. receptor proteins
4. transport proteins
*recognition proteins (chapter 3:
cell recognition and immune
response)
*Cells and extracellular fluid maintain
homeostasis without having
equilibrium.
*Living usually means chemical
disequilibrium because things are
always changing.
HOMEWORK
1. Diff. PRIMARY vs.
SECONDARY transporters.
How they function
2. ability of our cells to
continue transport of
glucose into cells against
the concentration gradient
3. Channel protein vs. Carrier
protein
4. Example of membrane
Associated enzymes
5. Factors that influence RATE
of Diffusion.
Penetrating solute vs Non-
penetrating solute
Osmolarity – no. of particles (ions or
intact molecules) per liter solution.
conc.of expressed in osmol/L
Osmolarit molari no.of
y ty particles/mol
(osmol/L)
= (mol/L
X ecule
)
Isosmotic – 2 solutions contain the
same no. of solute particle/unit vol.
Hyperosmotic = sol’n A > osmolarity
(more particles/unit vol, more
concentrated)
Hyposmotic = sol’n B, fewer
osmoles/unit vol
CHAPTER 6
Cell to cell communication: 2 Major
modes – CHEMICAL or ELECTRICAL
Chemicals secreted into the ECF
►most common mechanism
a.) gap junctions : cardiac cells and
the intestines
b.) contact dependent signals,
actual touching of cells to each
other ►CAMS – cell adhesion
molecules
c.) autocrine/paracrine – signals
through interstitial fluid
►chemical signals
ex. Histamine, released from
damaged cells, inflammation
which leads to increased WBC
count, swelling, pain,
vasodilation

d.) Long distance communication –
maybe chemical or electrical –
Neurotransmitters.
Neurohormones – neurocrine
released by a neuron diffuses
into the blood for distribution
Ex. Cytokines.
Such as influence cell
development and immune
functions (cytokines are
made by T-helper cells and
influences (activate) other
immune cells to do their
jobs). Cytokines are different
than hormones, they have
broader spectrum of target
cells, not made by
specialized cells, made on
demand.
Hormones are made, then
stored in the cells that make
them.
Signal pathways
1. have ligands that bind to
receptor, they are the first
messenger.
2. ligand binding then activates
the receptor
3. the receptor then activates an
intracellular signal molecule
4. last signal molecule in the
pathway initiates synthesis
of a target protein or modifies
existing target proteins to
create a response.
Receptor proteins
1. Lipophilic inside the cells at the
nucleus or cytoplasm bind to a
gene influence mRNA
transcription or cytoplasm
receptors; the effect is to turn
on/off genes or turn on/off cell
activities
2. Lipophobic on the plasma
membrane, these ligands have a
faster response time than
lipophilic ones, (milliseconds
instead of minutes)
Receptor proteins
May be one of these categories
1. Chemical gated (ion channel)
2. receptor enzymes
3. G-protein coupled receptors –
have signal transduction
pathways
4. Integrin receptors
Chemical gated (ion channel) - The
opening and closing of ion-
channels either depends on the
voltage across the membrane
Receptor enzymes – membrane
proteins that bind ligands on the
extracellular side and activate
enzymes (tyrosine kinase or
guanylyl cyclase )
G-protein coupled receptors – have
signal transduction pathways
Integrin receptors
Integrin – membrane spanning
proteins that link the cytoskeleton
to extracellular matrix proteins or
ligands; involved in blood clotting,
wound repair, immune cell
adhesion and recognition, and cell
mov’t & dev’t
Most signal transduction pathways
use G proteins (know the steps done
in lab)
signal molecule binds to G
protein-linked receptor, which
activates the G protein
↓ myosin on actin
G protein then turns on
Adenylyl cyclase
↓ secretory vesicles
Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP
to cAMP
(cyclic AMP)
↓ activated Potassium channels in
cAMP then activates protein
kinase A
↓ egg and initiates the
Protein kinase A then
phosphorylates other proteins,
ultimately resulting in a
cellular response
Diff than the usual signal molecules
a. Calcium
b. Gases: Nitric oxide,
Carbon monoxide,
Hydrogen sulfide
c. Eicosanoids
Calcium is a very common ion
messengers, enters through voltage
gated calcium channels or through
ligand gated channels. And it can also
be stored in cells like the sarcoplasmic
reticulum (skeletal muscle)
Types of Calcium signaling events
1. calcium binds to protein
camodulin, found in all cells,
changes the enzyme or
transporter activity or gating of
ion channels
2. calcium ions binds to troponin in
skeletal muscle, changing the
shape of the troponin
uncovering the binding site for
3. calcium ions binds to regulatory
proteins to trigger exocytosis of
4. Calcium ions bind directly to ion
channels to alter their gating
state. Found in Calcium
nerve cells
5. Calcium ions enter a fertilized
development of the embryo
Gas – Nitric Oxide
A soluble gas that has short lived or
autocrine signal effects. Produced by
endothelial cells in blood vessels, it
causes muscle to relax and dilate the
blood vessels. It is rapidly broken
down with a half life of only 2-30
seconds
Eicosanoids - derivatives of
arachidonic acid, have paracrine
effects
a. leukotrienes – secreted by some
of the while blood cells
b. prostanoids – act on various
body tissues: kidneys, bone,
smooth mucle, platelets, on
type of prostanoid-
prostaglandins are involved in
sleep, inflammation, fever and
pain.
Signal pathway modulation:
physiological examples
Down regulation – a decrease in the
number of receptors because of a high
continued signal for instance drug
tolerance. If a person is abusing
certain “trendy chemical amusement
aids” the persons body will respond by
removing the number of receptors as
if to the “turn down the volume of the
stimulus”

Up- regulation – when the amount of

ligand decreases, the body may
respond by increasing the number of
receptors to maintain the signal and
maximize the decreasing amount of
ligand,
Ex. Type 1 Diabetes (person’s
pancreas is failing and slowing down
its capacity for insulin production is
decreased and the body increases the
number if insulin receptors on the
membranes to compensate)