JoinesWilliamTB 2012 21UsefulTransmissionL MicrowaveTransmission

All rights reserved.
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Chapter 2
MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES
2.1 USEFUL TRANSMISSION LINE CONFIGURATIONS
Any configuration of two or more conductors will serve as a transmission line. The
configurations most often used consist of just two conductors of generally uniform
cross-section along the direction of wave propagation. Energy propagates within the
medium between conductors (dielectric or air) as transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
waves. This means that the vector electric field intensity E between conductors
(proportional to voltage) and the vector magnetic field intensity H surrounding
conductors (proportional to current) are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of wave propagation. Thus, the pattern of E and H fields will be the same
at any cross-section perpendicular to the direction of propagation on a transmission
line of uniform dimensions.
Shown in Figure 2.1 are cross-sections of some two-conductor transmission
lines that are used extensively in modern high-frequency and microwave applica-
tions. The two-wire line or twin-lead shown in Figure 2.1(a) also would represent a
twisted-pair transmission line. The planar transmission lines shown in Figure 2.1(b,
Copyright @ 2012. Artech House.
c, and d) may be constructed from sheets of low-loss dielectric (e.g., polyethylene)

that have a thin layer of copper cladding on each surface. The thickness of the
copper cladding is usually 0.0014 inch (1 ounce per square foot) or 0.0028 inch (2
ounces per square foot). Selected areas of the copper cladding are etched away to
form the desired transmission line circuit pattern. The planar lines also may be con-
structed by depositing layers of metal onto the dielectric substrate until the desired
conductor thickness is achieved.
23
EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/4/2018 5:25 PM via UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL ABIERTA Y
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
AN: 753581 ; Joines, William T., Bernhard, Jennifer Lyn Truman, Palmer, W. D..; Microwave Transmission
Line Circuits
Account: ns145102.main.eds
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
24 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS
a
w w
2h h h
(a) (b) (c)
b a
w
b
(d) (e)
Figure 2.1 Cross-sections of some two-conductor transmission lines: (a) Two-wire line or twin-lead;
(b) Parallel-plate line; (c) Microstrip; (d) Stripline; (e) Coaxial line. The conductors extend infinitely into
and out of the plane of the page, maintaining a constant geometry.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 25
2.2 WAVE EQUATION FOR VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
The equations describing the propagation of voltage and current waves (to be
derived) will be valid for any two-conductor transmission line. In the derivation,
certain parameters will be identified that are functions of the line geometry and
the materials used. As a model for the derivations, let a time-varying wave of
voltage and current be injected from the source onto the two-conductor line shown
in Figure 2.2(a). The waves will propagate from left to right along the distance l
between source and load. There may also be reflections from the load (at x = 0),
so that total voltage and current at some position and time will be represented
by v(x, t) and i(x, t), respectively. The current flowing toward the load in one
conductor and toward the source in the other causes a voltage drop along conductors
and a magnetic flux between conductors. For an incremental length ∆x, the voltage
drop divided by current may be represented by a series resistance R and the flux
density divided by current may be represented by a series inductance L. Also,
the voltage difference between conductors over an incremental length ∆x causes a
conduction current and a displacement current through the dielectric. This leakage
current gives rise to a shunt conductance G and capacitance C. The lumped-element
equivalent circuit representing the transmission line over the length ∆x is shown in
Figure 2.2b.
In Figure 2.2(a and b), consider a differential element of length ∆x, so small
that the time delay between x and x + ∆x is negligible. The voltage drop across
∆x is
di
v(x + ∆x, t) − v(x, t) = (Ri + L )∆x (2.1)
dt
Taking the limit as ∆x approaches zero yields:
v(x + ∆x, t) − v(x, t) dv di

lim = = Ri + L (2.2)
∆x→0 ∆x dx dt
Again, considering a length ∆x in Figure 2.2(a and b), the current through
capacitance C and conductance G is:
dv
i(x + ∆x, t) − i(x, t) = (Gv + C )∆x (2.3)
dt
and
i(x + ∆x, t) − i(x, t) di dv
lim = = Gv + C (2.4)
∆x→0 ∆x dx dt
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
l
ZS i(x, t) iL
VS v(x, t) vL ZL (a)
x 0
i(x + ∆ x, t) L R i(x, t)
v(x + ∆ x, t) C G v(x, t) (b)
∆x
Figure 2.2 (a) Model of two-conductor transmission line indicating propagating waves of voltage and
current. (b) Equivalent circuit for a length ∆x.
Assuming that voltage and current vary sinusoidally with time, we may
separate the variables in terms of x and t dependence as:
v(x, t) = V (x)ejωt (2.5)
and
i(x, t) = I(x)ejωt (2.6)
where ω = 2πf is the radian frequency and f is the frequency in hertz (Hz). More
accurately, for future calculations it is understood that we use the real part of the
above equations, or
v(x, t) = Re[V (x)ejωt ] (2.7)
and
i(x, t) = Re[I(x)ejωt ] (2.8)
Substituting (2.5) and (2.6) into (2.2) and (2.4), and canceling the common
ejωt term, yields:
dV
= (R + jωL)I (2.9)
dx
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
and
dI
= (G + jωC)V (2.10)
dx
Differentiating (2.9) and (2.10) with respect to x and substituting (2.9) and (2.10)
into the results yield the desired second-order differential equations as:
d2 V
= (R + jωL)(G + jωC)V (2.11)
dx2
and
d2 I
= (R + jωL)(G + jωC)I (2.12)
dx2
Let p
γ= (R + jωL)(G + jωC) = α + jβ (2.13)
where γ, α, and β are defined as the propagation, attenuation, and phase constants
respectively, then (2.11) and (2.12) become:
d2 V
= γ2 V (2.14)
dx2
and
d2 I
= γ2 I (2.15)
dx2
These equations are known as the Telegrapher’s Equations and were first developed
by Oliver Heaviside in the 1880s and applied to trans-Atlantic telegraphy. Since V
and I satisfy the same differential equation, we will first express the solution for
V (x), and then determine I(x) from previous equations.
The general solution for the voltage wave V (x) in (2.14) is:
V (x) = Aeγx + Be−γx (2.16)
Differentiating (2.16) and using (2.9) gives:

dV
= γAeγx − γBe−γx = (R + jωL)I(x) (2.17)
dx
Letting s
R + jωL R + jωL
= = Z0 (2.18)
γ G + jωC
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
we may express the current wave I(x) as:
A γx B −γx
I(x) = e − e (2.19)
Z0 Z0
where Z0 , as defined in (2.18), is the characteristic impedance (in ohms) of the

transmission line having the parameters R, L, C, and G at the frequency f = ω/2π.
The voltage wave V (x) in (2.16) and the current wave I(x) in (2.19) satisfy
the differential equations (2.14) and (2.15), respectively. They must also satisfy the
boundary conditions imposed at x = 0 (the load in Figure 2.1(f)). Thus, at x = 0
we have:
V (0) = VL = A + B (2.20)
A−B
I(0) = IL = (2.21)
Z0
Solving these two equations for A and B yields:
VL + Z0 IL VL Z0
A= = (1 + ) (2.22)
2 2 ZL
VL − Z0 IL VL Z0
B= = (1 − ) (2.23)
2 2 ZL
Substituting the solutions for A and B into the expressions for V (x) and I(x)
yields:
VL γx Z0 IL γx
V (x) = (e + e−γx ) + (e − e−γx ) (2.24)
2 2
and
IL γx VL γx
I(x) = (e + e−γx ) + (e − e−γx ) (2.25)
2 2Z0
or
V (x) = VL cosh γx + Z0 IL sinh γx (2.26)
and
VL
I(x) = IL cosh γx + sinh γx (2.27)
Z0
Putting (2.26) and (2.27) in matrix form gives

V (x) cosh γx Z0 sinh γx VL
= 1 (2.28)
I(x) Z0 sinh γx cosh γx IL
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
This two-by-two matrix fully describes the relationship between the voltage and
current on the transmission line, including both propagation and attenuation charac-
teristics. It is completely general for transmission lines with constant cross-section
and uniform material properties. This matrix is known as the ABCD matrix and
will be discussed in depth in Chapter 4.
Since V (x) and I(x) represent the total voltage and current at any point x
distance from the load, the impedance presented to waves at any point x is:
V (x) ZL cosh γx + Z0 sinh γx ZL + Z0 tanh γx

Z(x) = = Z0 = Z0 (2.29)
I(x) Z0 cosh γx + ZL sinh γx Z0 + ZL tanh γx
To express v(x, t) and i(x, t), we reinsert the ejωt term in (2.16) and (2.19)
to obtain,
v(x, t) = Aejωt+γx + Bejωt−γx = Aeαx ej(ωt+βx) + Be−αx ej(ωt−βx) (2.30)
and
A αx j(ωt+βx) B −αx j(ωt−βx)
i(x, t) = e e − e e (2.31)
Z0 Z0
where γ, α, and β are the propagation, attenuation, and phase constants, respec-
tively.
The two terms in the v(x, t) and i(x, t) equations represent waves incident
upon the load (from the source) and waves reflected from the load (toward the
source). To test this statement let the phase angle of the first term in (2.30) and
(2.31) be
θi = ωt + βx (2.32)
If we change position with time in such a way that θi stays constant, the position is
a fixed point on a moving wave. Thus, with θi constant:
dθi dx
=ω+β =0 (2.33)
dt dt
or
dx ω
− =v= (2.34)
dt β
and this wave moves in the −x direction (from source to load) at a velocity
v = ω/β. To test the remaining phase term in (2.30) and (2.31), let
θr = ωt − βx (2.35)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
and if we move with the wave to maintain a constant phase point
dθr dx
=ω−β =0 (2.36)
dt dt
or
dx ω
=v= (2.37)
dt β
Hence, the waves containing the θr term in (2.30) and (2.31) travel in the +x
direction (from load to source) at a velocity v = ω/β. The waves of voltage and
current will be similar in that they travel at the same velocity (ω/β), are attenuated
at the same rate (α) with distance, and they oscillate at the same frequency. Since
v(x, t) and i(x, t) are related by Z0 , if Z0 is complex, as Z0 = |Z0 |ejφ, then voltage
and current will oscillate out of time phase by φ degrees. In the expressions for
v(x, t) and i(x, t), A and B are complex (phasor) voltages representing the incident
voltage wave and the reflected voltage wave, respectively, at x = 0.
The distance that a sinusoidal wave travels in one time period (T = 1/f) is
related to the phase constant β by
v 2πv 2π
λ = vT = = = (2.38)
f ω β
Hence, if λ is expressed in meters, then β is in radians/meter.

As one observes from the development leading up to the expressions for
v(x, t) and i(x, t), the nature of the propagating waves ultimately depends upon
the distributed parameters R, L, C, and G. Unless we specifically wish to calculate
the attenuation constant α (considered later), we may assume for most practical
transmission lines that ωL R and ωC G. (Of course, if the conductors and
dielectrics are perfect and have no resistive or conductive losses, R = 0 and G = 0.)
Let us assume for now that R and G are small enough to be neglected, and we will
refer to this as the lossless case. The propagation constant becomes
p √
γ = (R + jωL)(G + jωC) = jω LC = jβ (2.39)
So, the phase constant is √

β = ω LC (2.40)
and the velocity of wave propagation is related to L and C by:
ω 1
v= = √ (2.41)
β LC
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
The characteristic impedance for this lossless case is:

s r
R + jωL L 1
Z0 = = = (2.42)
G + jωC C vC
Since α = 0 for this lossless case, the expressions for V (x), I(x), and Z(x) change
accordingly. From (2.16) and (2.19):
V (x) = Aejβx + Be−jβx = Vi (x) + Vr (x) (2.43)

A jβx B −jβx
I(x) = e − e = Ii (x) + Ir (x) (2.44)
Z0 Z0
Where Vi (x), Vr (x), Ii (x), and Ir (x) are the incident and reflected voltage and
current waves at the point x on the transmission line. From (2.26) and (2.27):
V (x) = VL cos βx + jZ0 IL sin βx (2.45)

VL
I(x) = IL cos βx + j sinβx (2.46)
Z0
where VL and IL are the voltage and current waves at the transmission line load,
and
V (x) ZL + jZ0 tan βx
Z(x) = = Z0 (2.47)
I(x) Z0 + jZL tan βx
2.3 INCIDENT, REFLECTED, AND STANDING WAVES
2.3.1 Voltage Reflection Coefficient
The voltage reflection coefficient at any point x on the transmission line is defined
as the ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage at x, and is expressed as
Vr (x) B
Γ(x) = = e−2αx e−j2βx = ΓLe−2αx e−j2βx (2.48)
Vi (x) A
where
B ZL − Z0
ΓL = = (2.49)
A ZL + Z0
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
is the reflection coefficient at the load (x = 0), which may be rearranged to solve
for ZL as,
1 + ΓL
ZL = Z0 (2.50)
1 − ΓL
Using Γ(x) in the equations for V (x) and I(x), we have
V (x) = Vi (x) [1 + Γ(x)] (2.51)

Vi (x)
I(x) = [1 − Γ(x)] (2.52)
Z0
and the wave impedance becomes
V (x) 1 + Γ(x)
Z(x) = = Z0 (2.53)
I(x) 1 − Γ(x)
The last equation may be solved for Γ(x) to obtain:
Z(x) − Z0
Γ(x) = = ΓL e−2αxe−j2βx (2.54)
Z(x) + Z0
For a lossless line, Z0 is real, but ZL , Z(x), ΓL , and Γ(x) generally are complex.
Example 2.1: At x = 0.965 cm from the load on a lossless transmission

line of characteristic impedance Z0 = 50 Ω, the measured reflection
◦
coefficient is Γ(x) = 0.817ej0 , and λ = 10 cm. Determine the load
impedance.
Solution: From (2.48), with α = 0,
ΓL = Γ(x)ej2βx
◦
= 0.817ej0 ej2π×2×0.0965
◦
= 0.817ej69.44
= 0.287 + j0.765
and from (2.50),
1 + ΓL 1.287 + j0.765
ZL = Z0 = 50 = 71.586 77.74◦ ∼
= 15+j70 Ω
1 − ΓL 0.713 − j0.765
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
2.3.2 Power Flow
The time-averaged power transmitted along the line at any point x is

1
P (x) = Re[V (x)I(x)∗ ] = Pi (x) − Pr (x) (2.55)
2
where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate, Pi (x) is the incident power
flowing from source to load, and Pr (x) is the reflected power flowing in the opposite
direction. Substituting (2.51) and (2.52), P (x) becomes,
Vi (x)∗

1 ∗
P (x) = Re Vi (x)[1 + Γ(x)] [1 − Γ(x) ] (2.56)
2 Z0∗
or
|Vi (x)|2

1 ∗ 2
P (x) = Re [1 + Γ(x) − Γ(x) − |Γ(x)| ] (2.57)
2 Z0∗
Expressing Γ(x) = |Γ(x)|ejφ, we observe that Γ(x) − Γ(x)∗ = j2|Γ(x)| sin φ is
purely imaginary. Thus,

1 2 2 1 1 Re [Z0 ]
P (x) = |Vi (x)| (1 − |Γ(x)| )Re = |Vi (x)|2 (1 − |Γ(x)|2)
2 Z0∗ 2 |Z0 |2
(2.58)
Of course, if Z0 is real,
1 |Vi (x)|2
P (x) = (1 − |Γ(x)|2 ) = Pi (x) − Pr (x) (2.59)
2 Z0
Dividing P (x) by Pi (x) = 12 |Vi (x)|2 /Z0 , the fractional power transmitted past the
point x is,
P (x) Pr (x)
= 1 − |Γ(x)|2 = 1 − (2.60)
Pi (x) Pi (x)
When ZL = Z0 in (2.49), ΓL = 0, and all incident energy is totally
transmitted to the load. When ZL = 0 (short circuit) or ZL = ∞ (open circuit), the

magnitude of Γ is 1, and all incident energy is totally reflected. For total reflection,
the reflected wave combines with the incident wave to form a purely standing wave.
For the more general case of partial reflection (0 < ZL < ∞, including complex
values), the smaller reflected wave combines with an equal amplitude of the incident
wave to form a standing wave. The remainder of the incident wave is a traveling
wave transmitting energy from source to load.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
Example 2.2: For a lossless transmission line, find V (x), I(x), Z(x),
and the average power flow toward the load, P (x) = 21 Re[V I ∗ ], if (a)
ZL = 0, (b) ZL = ∞, and (c) ZL = Z0 .
Solution: (a) For ZL = 0, since VL = 0, then
V (x) = jZ0 IL sin βx

I(x) = IL cos βx
Z(x) = jZ0 tan βx
1
P (x) = Re[jZ0 IL2 sin βx cos βx] = 0
2
(b) For ZL = ∞, since IL = 0, then
V (x) = VL cos βx
VL
I(x) = j sin βx
Z0
Z(x) = −jZ0 cot βx
1 V2
P (x) = Re[−j L sin βx cos βx] = 0
2 Z0
(c) For ZL = Z0 , since B = 0 and A = VL , then
V (x) = VL ejβx
VL jβx
I(x) = e
Z0
Z(x) = Z0
1 |VL |2
P (x) =
2 Z0
2.3.3 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
The voltage standing wave ratio, typically referred to as S or VSWR, is defined

as the ratio of the maximum-to-minimum value of the standing wave. The largest
value of V (x) on the line is
|V (x)|M AX = |A| + |B|, x = xM (2.61)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
and the smallest value is
|V (x)|M IN = |A| − |B|, x = xm (2.62)
where the distance from the load to a voltage-maximum point is xM , and to a

voltage-minimum point it is xm . Thus, the standing wave ratio is

ZL−Z0
1 +
B
|A| + |B| 1+ A ZL +Z0
S= = B = (2.63)
|A| − |B| 1 − A ZL−Z0
1 − Z L +Z0

For a lossless line, |Γ(x)| = |ΓL | = |B/A| does not change with distance x, so that
S also may be expressed as
1 + |Γ|
S= (2.64)
1 − |Γ|
or
S−1
|Γ| = (2.65)
S+1
and in (2.60), the fractional power transmitted past x becomes,
P (x) 4S
= (2.66)
Pi (x) (S + 1)2
Since 0 ≤ |Γ| ≤ 1, the range of S is from 1 to ∞. Note from (2.63) that if ZL
and Z0 are both real, then S = ZL /Z0 when ZL ≥ Z0 , and S = Z0 /ZL when
ZL ≤ Z0 .
Just as there will be a standing wave of voltage on the line when ZL 6= Z0 ,
there also will be a standing wave of current. From (2.19) and (2.62),
1 |V (x)|M IN
|I(x)|M IN = (|A| − |B|) = (2.67)
Z0 Z0
But this occurs at x = xM , a voltage-maximum point. Hence, the wave impedance
at a voltage-maximum point on the line is,
|V (x)|M AX |V (x)|M AX
Z(xM ) = = Z0 = SZ0 (2.68)
|I(x)|M IN |V (x)|M IN
In a similar manner, the impedance at a voltage-minimum point (current maximum)
is,
|V (x)|M IN |V (x)|M IN Z0
Z(xm ) = = Z0 = (2.69)
|I(x)|M AX |V (x)|M AX S
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
From (2.68) and (2.47) at x = xM , ZL may be expressed as,
S − j tan βxM
ZL = Z0 (2.70)
1 − jS tan βxM
Alternatively, using (2.69) and (2.47) at x = xm ,
1 − jS tan βxm
ZL = Z0 (2.71)
S − j tan βxm
Thus, since β = 2π/λ, if S, λ, Z0 , and xM or xm are known, the load impedance

is easily calculated using (2.70) or (2.71). In practice, S, λ, xM , and xm may be
measured and a voltage-minimum point may be more accurately determined. Thus,
a calculation using (2.71) may be the method of choice.
Example 2.3: On a lossless transmission line of characteristic impedance

Z0 = 50 Ω, the measured standing wave ratio is S = 10. The distance
from the load to the first voltage-maximum point is xM = 0.0965λ,
and λ = 10 cm. Determine the load impedance.
Solution: From (2.70), with βxM = 2π × 0.0965 = 0.606 = 34.74◦:
10 − j tan 34.74◦
ZL = 50 = 71.586 77.74◦ ∼
= 15 + j70 Ω
1 − j10 tan 34.74◦
The distance from the load to the first voltage-minimum point will be
xm = 0.0965λ + 0.25λ = 0.3465λ, or βxm = 34.74◦ + 90◦ =
124.74◦. From (2.71),
1 − j10 tan 124.74◦ ∼

ZL = 50 = 15 + j70 Ω
10 − j tan 124.74◦
2.4 TRANSMISSION LINES WITH LOSSES
For voltage and current waves on a transmission line, the propagation constant
(γ = α + jβ) and the characteristic impedance (Z0 ) will be altered by resistive
and conductive losses. All real transmission lines have losses, that is R 6= 0 and
G 6= 0, and these losses tend to increase with increasing frequency. The construction
materials and operating frequency of most transmission lines are such that R ωL
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
and G ωC, and thus the effects of non-zero R and G are negligible for many
practical applications. Also, contributions due to losses in conductors and losses in
the dielectric tend to cancel in the equations that are used to calculate β and Z0 .
Thus, the lossless line equations are often a good approximation even when the
total attenuation per unit length (α) is appreciable. We determine why and when the
lossless line equations apply by examining the general expressions for γ and Z0 .
From (2.13), γ may be expressed as,
12 12
√

R G
γ = α + jβ = jω LC 1 + 1+ (2.72)
jωL jωC
For the negligible loss case where R ωL and G ωC, we can use the binomial
series expansion
1 1 1
(1 + a) 2 = 1 + a − a2 + ..., a < 1 (2.73)
2 8
and approximate the two terms in γ as
21
R2

R R
1+ =1+ + (2.74)
jωL j2ωL 8ω2 L2
and 12
G2

G G
1+ = 1+ + (2.75)
jωC j2ωC 8ω2 C 2
Substituting the above approximations into the general expression for γ and collect-
ing terms, yields
" 2 #
√
r r
R C G L 1 R G
γ = α + jβ = + + jω LC 1 + − (2.76)
2 L 2 C 2 2ωL 2ωC
where the smallest imaginary term has been neglected. The attenuation constant α,
the real part of the above expression, is
r r
R C G L
α= + = αc + αd (2.77)
2 L 2 C
where αc is the attenuation due to the metallic conductors of the line, and αd is the
attenuation due to the dielectric material between conductors, or
r
R C
αc = (2.78)
2 L
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
and r
G L
αd = (2.79)
2 C
Again, R is the per-unit-length resistance in Ohms per meter (Ω/m) to current
flowing in the conductors, and G is the per-unit-length conductance in inverse
Ohms, or Siemens, per meter (S/m) for leakage current through the dielectric. The
units of α may be expressed in nepers per-unit-length (Np/m), or in decibels per-
unit-length (dB/m) by multiplying α in Np/m by 8.686. The parameters R and G in
the equations for α will be examined in more detail in a later section.
The imaginary part of γ in (2.76) is the phase constant β, or
" 2 #
√

1 R G
β = ω LC 1 + − (2.80)
2 2ωL 2ωC
The last two terms in (2.80) may also be expressed as

r
R R C 1 αc
= √ = √ (2.81)
2ωL 2 L ω LC ω LC
and r
G G L 1 αd
= √ = √ (2.82)
2ωC 2 C ω LC ω LC
and the phase constant β becomes,
√ (αc − αd )2

β = ω LC 1 + (2.83)
2ω2 LC
The phase constant β is seen to increase with losses contributed by R and G.
Consequently, line losses will cause wavelength (λ = 2π/β) and phase velocity
(v = ω/β) to decrease.
The general expression for characteristic impedance as defined in (2.18) may
also be expressed as
r 12 − 12
L R G
Z0 = 1+ 1+ (2.84)
C jωL jωC
Using the first two terms of the binomial series expansion, the characteristic
impedance with losses becomes
r
L R G
Z0 = 1+ 1− (2.85)
C j2ωL j2ωC
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
or, performing the indicated multiplication and neglecting the smallest term:
r r
L R G L (αc − αd)
Z0 = 1−j − = 1−j √ (2.86)
C 2ωL 2ωC C ω LC
In the final expressions for β and Z0 , αc and αd are usually small enough to be
neglected for most practical transmission lines. But in any event, the two terms are
opposite in sign and tend to cancel, √ so that even when plosses are present it is often
a good approximation to let β = ω LC and Z0 = L/C. Note that the square-
bracketed terms in (2.83) and (2.86) are functions of frequency. For appreciable
and noncanceling losses this would make the phase velocity vary with frequency (a
dispersive transmission line), and the characteristic impedance would not only vary
with frequency but would have an imaginary component as well.
A special situation occurs if αc = αd , or equivalently,
√ if R/L = p G/C. In this
situation, even if αc and αd are quite large, β = ω LC and Z0 = L/C. This
would eliminate frequency dispersion in that signals at different frequencies would
travel at the same velocity. Note also that the total attenuation for this so-called
distortionless line becomes, with R/L = G/C,
1√ 1√ √
r r
R C G L
α= + = RG + RG = RG (2.87)
2 L 2 C 2 2
Example 2.4: The parameters of a certain transmission line are adjusted
to yield
R/L = G/C = π × 106
where L = 10−6 H/m, C = 0.4 × 10−9 F/m, and R = π Ω/m.
Determine the characteristic impedance and attenuation of this line.
Solution: From (2.86),

r r
L R √
Z0 = = = 2500 = 50 Ω
C G
and from (2.87), the attenuation is,

1√ 1√ √ R π
α= RG + RG = RG = = = 0.0628 Np/m
2 2 Z0 50
or, in dB/m the attenuation is 8.686 × 0.0628 = 0.545 dB/m, where
the conversion factor comes from dB= 20 log eαl = 20αl log e =
8.686αl.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
2.5 TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETER CALCULATIONS
The per-unit-length parameters R, L, C, and G in the equivalent circuit of the

transmission line determine the nature of wave propagation in that these parameters,
along with frequency, make up the propagation constant (γ) and the characteristic
impedance (Z0 ). These four parameters are all functions of the geometry of the
particular transmission line as well as the electrical properties of the materials.
As we shall see, L, C, and G share a common function of geometry that is quite
different from the function used to determine R.
Consider the coaxial line in Figure 2.3, where are shown within the dielectric
between conductors, the radial electric field intensity (E in V/m) and the circumfer-
ential magnetic field intensity (H in A/m). Also shown are the current (I) flowing in
the inner and outer conductors, and the voltage drop per-unit-length (Exo , in V/m)
along the conductor surface caused by I flowing through a finite conductivity (σc ,
in S/m). The conductivity and permittivity of the dielectric are symbolized by σd
and , respectively.
The field quantities E and H for a typical cross-section of the coaxial line
are,
ql dV (r)
E= =− (2.88)
2πr dr
and
I
H= (2.89)
2πr
where ql is the charge-per-unit length on the inner conductor, r is the radial distance
from the center of the inner conductor, and V (r) the potential or voltage at any
point r between a and b. Since E is the negative gradient of potential as indicated
in (2.88), then the implied integration yields
ql
V (r) = − ln r + const. (2.90)
2π
The potential difference or voltage between the inner and outer conductors obtained
using (2.90) is
ql b
V = ln (2.91)
2π a
Thus, combining (2.88) and (2.91), E may be expressed as,
V
E= (2.92)
r ln ab
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
ε, σd
I
EXO
ql I
a σC
b r E
H
Figure 2.3 Cross section of coaxial line showing field quantities, material properties, and geometry
used to calculate the parameters R, L, C, and G.
The power flow from source to load along the line is carried by the field
quantities E and H within the dielectric. The time-averaged power flow per unit
area (W/m2 ) is
1
p(r) = Re[EH ∗ ] (2.93)
2
where ∗ denotes the complex conjugate. Substituting (2.92) and (2.89) into (2.93),
1 V I∗
p(r) = Re[ ] (2.94)
2 2πr 2 ln ab
Integrating p(r) over the cross-sectional area of the dielectric would yield the total
time-averaged power transmitted along the line as,
1
P = Re[V I ∗ ] (2.95)
2
a familiar result.
In a similar manner, the power flow into the surface of the inner conductor
(and therefore lost) may be determined from the surface field quantities Exo and
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
H(a) as
1
Re[ExoH(a)∗ ]
psa = (2.96)
2
Since psa is the power flow per-unit-area through any point on the inner conductor
surface, the power flow per-unit-length is obtained by multiplying psa by 2πa, or
P = psa2πa (2.97)
The surface fields are related by
Exo = ηcH(a) (2.98)
where ηc is the intrinsic impedance of the metallic inner conductor, given by

r
ωµ
ηc = (1 + j) (2.99)
2σc
Substituting yields
2
1 ωµ I 1 2
r
P = Re[ηcH(a)H(a)∗ ](2πa) = πa = |I| Ri (2.100)
2 2σc 2πa 2
where r
1 ωµ
Ri = (2.101)
2πa 2σc
is the resistance per-unit-length due to the inner conductor. In a similar manner,
the power flow into the inside surface of the outer conductor results in a resistance
per-unit-length due to the outer conductor of,
1 ωµ
r
Ro = (2.102)
2πb 2σc
Thus, for the coaxial line, the total resistance per-unit-length is


1 ωµ 1 1
r
R = Ri + Ro = + (2.103)
2π 2σc a b
The inductance per-unit-length, or magnetic flux-linkage per ampere, is given

by, R
Ψ µo S H · dS
L= = (2.104)
I I
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
where Ψ is the magnetic flux through the surface S of unit length and of width b − a
in Figure 2.3. Substituting H from (2.89), the inductance is,
b
µo dr(1) µo b
Z
L= = ln (2.105)
2π a r 2π a
which is the external inductance per-unit-length, since only the flux between or
external to the metallic conductors has been used.The capacitance per-unit-length
is the charge per-unit-length ql on the inner conductor divided by the potential
difference V between conductors, as
ql 2π
C= = (2.106)
V ln ab
where V was substituted from (2.91). Finally, the conductance per-unit-length is

the leakage current Id through the dielectric divided by the potential difference V .
The current density in A/m2 flowing between conductors is Jd = σd E. Thus, the
leakage current is
σd q l
Id = σd E(a) × 2πa × 1 = (2.107)

and
Id 2πσd
G= = (2.108)
V ln ab
Note that L, C, and G all contain the same function of the conductor geometry,
1 b
F (g) = ln (2.109)
2π a
such that,
L = µo F (g) (2.110)
C = /F (g) (2.111)
G = σd /F (g) (2.112)
Substituting (2.110), (2.111), and (2.112) into the general expressions for
propagation constant (γ) and characteristic impedance (Z0 ), we have,
s
p R
γ = (R + jωL)(G + jωC) = ( + jωµo )(σd + jω) (2.113)
F (g)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
and s
R
s
R + jωL F (g)
+ jωµo
Z0 = = F (g) (2.114)
G + jωC σd + jω
It is instructive to determine the altered forms of γ and Z0 in (2.113) and
(2.114) when the distortionless line requirement (R/L = C/G) is imposed. Using
(2.110), (2.111), and (2.112) in R/L = G/C yields:
R µ0
= σd (2.115)
F (g)
and when this expression is substituted into (2.113) and (2.114), γ and Z0 become:
r r
µ0 µ0 √
γ = α + jβ = (σd + jω) = σd + jω µ0 (2.116)

and r
µ0
Z0 =F (g) (2.117)

Thus, as required, v = ω/β is independent of frequency and Z0 is real. As implied,
r
σd µ0
αc = αd = (2.118)
2
Example 2.5: In a previous example the parameters of a transmission
line were adjusted to yield the distortionless condition,
R/L = G/C = π × 106
where L = 10−6 H/m and C = 0.4 × 10−9 F/m. Determine the con-
ductivity and relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the
metallic conductors of this line.
Solution: From the problem statement, (2.110), (2.111), and (2.112),

L 10−6 2.5
L = µ0 F (g) = 10−6 −→ F (g) = = −7
=
µ0 4π × 10 π
0.4 × 10−9 F (g)
C= = 0.4 × 10−9 −→ = = 36
F (g) 0 10−9 /(36π)
R/L = G/C = σd / = π × 106 −→ σd = π × 106 = 0.001 S/m
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
For most practical transmission lines operating at 1 MHz and above, ωµo
R/F (g) and ω σd . These are the conditions for a low-loss or lossless line, and
γ and Z0 become √ √
γ = jω LC = jω µo = jβ (2.119)
and r r
L µo
Z0 = = F (g) (2.120)
C
The functional relationship common to L, C, G, and Z0 is true for all
two-conductor transmission lines. While the function F (g) and R are given for
the coaxial line by (2.109) and (2.103), respectively, these two parameters are
different for different types of line. The parameters under discussion are displayed
in Tables 2.1 for coaxial line, 2.2 for two-wire line, and 2.3 for parallel-plate line,
in Tables 2.4 for stripline and 2.5 for microstrip, and in Tables 2.6 for coplanar
waveguide and 2.7 for coplanar stripline. These all are widely used forms of two-
conductor transmission line. Also shown in these tables are the attenuations αc and
αd expressed as,
R R
αc = = p µo (2.121)
2Z0 2 F (g)
and r r
GZ0 1 σd µo σd µo
αd = = F (g) = (2.122)
2 2 F (g) 2
2.6 IMPEDANCE MATCHING
Consider the network shown in Figure 2.4, where the subscript S refers to source
parameters and the subscript 1 refers to load parameters or to the input port of a
more elaborate network. The current flow through both ZS and Z1 is,
VS VS
I1 = = (2.123)
ZS + Z1 (RS + R1 ) + j(XS + X1 )
and the time-averaged power delivered to the load Z1 is,
1 1
P1 = Re[V1 I1∗ ] = |I1 |2 R1 (2.124)
2 2
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
b
a
Coaxial line
Table 2.1
Parameters for Coaxial Transmission Lines
Parameter Coaxial Line
1
F (g) 2π ln ab
L (H/m) µo F (g)
C (F/m) /F (g)
G (S/m) σd /F (g)
p µo
Z0 (Ω) ηF (g), η =
σd
αd (Np/m) 2 η
R Rs 1
+ 1b

αc = 2Z0 4πZ0 a
q
ωµo
(Np/m) Rs = 2σc
√
β = 2πλ ω µo
(radians/m)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
2a
2h ε
Two-wire line
Table 2.2
Parameters for Two-Wire Transmission Lines
Parameter Two-Wire Line
1
F (g) π ln 2h
a
L (H/m) µo F (g)
C (F/m) /F (g)
G (S/m) σd /F (g)
p µo
Z0 (Ω) ηF (g), η =
σd
αd (Np/m) 2 η
R Rs p 1 2
αc = 2Z0 2πaZ0
q 1−( h )
a
ωµo
(Np/m) Rs = 2σc
√
β = 2πλ ω µo
(radians/m)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
w ε0
εd 2h
Parallel-plate line
Table 2.3
Parameters for Parallel-Plate Transmission Lines
Parameter Parallel-Plate Line
1 8h w w

F (g) π ln w + 4h , h ≤1
2
,w
h ≥1
w
h +1.393+0.667 ln ( wh +1.444)
L (H/m) µo F (g)
C (F/m) /F (g), 2 = d + o + √d −12h

o
1+ w
G (S/m) σd /F (g)
p µo
Z0 (Ω) ηF (g), η =
σd
αd (Np/m) 2
η

R Rs Z0 (2+ πw
h ) w

αc = πη 2 h
1+
q h)
(
2Z0 1+ πw h
ωµo
(Np/m) Rs = 2σc
√
β = 2πλ ω µo
(radians/m)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
w
b
t εd , σd
Stripline
Table 2.4
Parameters for Stripline Transmission Lines
Parameter Stripline

1 8 w
F (g) ln , ≤ 0.35
b + b (1+ln )
2π πw t 4πw b−t
b
1 w
4w 4
b 2b−t t(2b−t)
, b−t ≥ 0.35
b−t + π b−t ln t +ln (b−t)2
L (H/m) µo F (g)
C (F/m) /F (g)

= d +
2
o
+ d −o
2
√ 1
1+ 12h
w
G (S/m) σd /F (g)
p µo
Z0 (Ω) ηF (g), η =
σd
p µo
αd (Np/m) 2
h i
R 4Rs Z0 b 2w b(b+t) 2b−t
αc = 2Z0 η2 b +1 + π(b−t)2 ln
qb−t b−t t
ωµo
(Np/m) Rs =
2σc
√
β = 2πλ
ω µo
(radians/m)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
w ε0
t=0
εd , σd h
Microstrip
Table 2.5
Parameters for Microstrip Transmission Lines
Parameter Microstrip
1 8h w w

F (g) 2π ln w + 4h , h ≤1
1 w
, ≥1
w
h +1.393+0.667 ln ( wh +1.444) h
L (H/m) µo F (g)
C (F/m) /F (g)

= d +
2
o
+ d −o
2
√ 1
1+ 12h
w
G (S/m) σd /F (g)
Z0 (Ω) ηF (g)
η = µo
p
σd
p µo
αd (Np/m) 2

R Rs Z0 (2+ πw
2h ) w

αc = 1+
η2 h
q 2h )
(
2Z0 1+ πw h
ωµo
(Np/m) Rs = 2σc
√
β = 2πλ ω µo
(radians/m)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
ε0 s w s
h
εd , σd
Coplanar waveguide
Table 2.6
Parameters for Coplanar Waveguide
Parameter Coplanar Waveguide
π/4
F (g) ln ( 4w
, ws ≥3
s +2)
1 8s w

2π ln w +4 , s ≤3
L (H/m) µo F (g)
C (F/m) /F (g)

= d +
2
o
,hs
G (S/m) σd /F (g)
Z0 (Ω) ηF (g)
η = µo
p
σd
p µo
αd (Np/m) 2
q
R 8Rs Z0 (w+s) w ωµo
αc = 2Z0 πη 2 s(2w+s) , s ≥ 3, Rs = 2σc
(Np/m) q
Rs (w+s) w ωµo
πZ0 w(w+2s) , s ≤ 3, Rs = 2σc
√
β = 2πλ ω µo
(radians/m)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
ε0 w s w
εd , σd h
Coplanar stripline
Table 2.7
Parameters for Coplanar Stripline
Parameter Coplanar Stripline
π/2
F (g) ln ( 8w
, ws ≥ 1/3
s +4)
1 4s w

π ln w +2 , s ≤ 1/3
L (H/m) µo F (g)
C (F/m) /F (g)

= d +
2 ,hs
o
G (S/m) σd /F (g)
Z0 (Ω) ηF (g)
η = µo
p
σd
p µo
αd (Np/m) 2
q
R 4Rs Z0 (w+s) w ωµo
αc = 2Z0 πη 2 s(2w+s) , s ≥ 1/3, Rs = 2σc
(Np/m) q
2Rs (w+s) w ωµo
πZ0 w(w+2s) , s ≤ 1/3, Rs = 2σc
√
β = 2πλ ω µo
(radians/m)
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
ZS = RS + jXS i1
VS Z1 = R1 + jX1
Figure 2.4 Network for which the load is to be matched to the source.
or,
1 |VS |2 R1 1 |VS |2 R1
P1 = 2
= (2.125)
2 |ZS + Z1 | 2 (RS + R1 )2 + (XS + X1 )2
If we are free to choose the load resistance (R1 ) and reactance (X1 ) such that
maximum power will be extracted from the source and delivered to the load, then at
the maximum value of P1 we require,
∂P1
=0 (2.126)
∂X1
∂P1
=0 (2.127)
∂R1
The first condition yields X1 = −XS , and the second condition yields R1 = RS
(since R1 cannot be negative). Thus, the load impedance must be the complex
conjugate of the source impedance, or Z1 = ZS∗ . Using this requirement in (2.125),
the maximum available power from the source, or the maximum that P1 can be is:
1 |VS |2
P1 (max) = P0 = (2.128)
2 4RS
It is convenient to normalize the actual value of P1 in (2.125) to the maximum value

P0 in (2.128), to obtain,
P1 4RS R1 4RS R1
= 2
= (2.129)
P0 |ZS + Z1 | (RS + R1 )2 + (XS + X1 )2
Thus, P1 /P0 in (2.129) is the fractional power transmitted to the load for any choice
of load impedance Z1 .
Conjugate impedance matching where Z1 = ZS∗ , yields P1 /P0 = 1 as
indicated above, or from (2.129). If the complex impedances are simply equalized
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
as Z1 = ZS , then P1 /P0 in (2.129) would be

P1 1
= X2
P0 1 + R2S
S
Thus, the fractional power delivered to the load would be diminished from unity
by the fractional power stored term in the denominator, which is just the ratio of
the power stored in reactance to the power delivered to the load or dissipated in
the source. Clearly then, it is the conjugate impedance match that yields maximum
power transfer between source and load. The situation most often encountered in
practice is where ZS = RS is real, and both types of impedance match become the
same, requiring R1 = RS and X1 = 0, and yielding P1 /PS = 1.
An extension of the input network of impedance Z1 might be as shown in
Figure 2.5. The transmission line is assumed to be lossless, and the input impedance
is
ZL + jZ0 tan βl
Z1 = Z0 = R1 + jX1 (2.130)
Z0 + jZL tan βl
where Z0 is real and the phase length βl may be expressed in various ways as
2π ω √ ωl √
βl = θ = l = l = ωl µo = r (2.131)
λ v c
Notice that when βl = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, ..., or l = nλ/2, then from (2.130)
Z1 = ZL . The load impedance is repeated at multiples of a half wavelength along
the line, no matter what the value of Z0 .
Also note from (2.130) and Figure 2.5 that when βl = (2n + 1) π2 , n =
0, 1, 2, ..., or l = (2n + 1) λ4 , then 1/ tan βl = 0 in (2.130) and Z1 = Z02 /ZL .
This quarter-wavelength transformer also is known as an impedance inverter and is
commonly used for impedance matching. For a conjugate impedance match we set
Z02
Z1 = ZS∗ = (2.132)
ZL
or, since Z0 is real:
Z02 = Re[ZS∗ ZL ] = Re[RS RL + j(RS XL − RL XS ) + XS XL ] (2.133)
Thus, for Z0 to be real requires

XS XL
= (2.134)
RS RL
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
ZS = RS + jXS l
VS Z0 ZL = RL + jXL
Z1 = R1 + jX1
Figure 2.5 A lossless transmission line between source and load.
yielding, s
2
p XS
Z0 = RS RL 1+ (2.135)
RS
Equation (2.134), requiring that ZS and ZL must have the same ratio of reactance
to resistance, is usually too restrictive to be practical. However, if ZS and ZL are
both real (XS = XL = 0), then from (2.135),
p
Z0 = RS RL (2.136)
and an impedance match is always practical if a quarter-wavelength section with

this value of Z0 is available.
Example 2.6: As in Figure 2.5, a lossless transmission line of char-

acteristic impedance Z0 and length l = λ/4 connects a real source
impedance ZS = RS = 50 Ω to a real load impedance ZL = RL =
200 Ω. (a) Determine the Z0 that yields an impedance match and max-
imum power transfer between the source and load. (b) Show that the
value of Z0 determined in (a) yields an impedance match and maximum
power transfer at both ends of the lossless line.
Solution: (a) Using RS and RL in (2.136),

√
Z0 = 50 × 200 = 100 Ω
(b) At the source end of the line, Z1 from (2.132) is,
Z1 = (100)2 /200 = 50 Ω
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
which matches the source impedance, and it is obvious from (2.129)

that P1 /P0 = 1. At the load end of the line, but looking back toward
the source, an impedance
Z2 = Z02 /ZS = (100)2 /50 = 200 Ω
is obtained from (2.132) with a slight change in subscript notation.

Thus, Z2 = ZL at the load end of the line. The fractional power
transmitted from the end of the line and into the load is obtained by
modifying (2.129) as
P2 4R2RL
= =1
P0 (R2 + RL)2
Thus, all of the source power entering the input of the lossless line is
delivered to the load.
If θ = βl in (2.130) is allowed to become one of the unknown variables

along with Z0 , a conjugate-impedance match is possible when both ZS and ZL are
complex. Setting Z1 = ZS∗ in (2.130) and equating real terms to real terms and
imaginary terms to imaginary terms, yields two equations in the two unknowns Z0
and θ. The two equations have the solutions
s
RL|ZS |2 − RS |ZL|2
Z0 = (2.137)
RS − RL
and
RS − RL
tan θ = Z0 (2.138)
RS XL − RL XS
The characteristic impedance in (2.137) must be real (lossless line), and this
restriction leads to the following conditions that must be met: If RS ≥ RL then
|XS | ≥ |XL|, or if RS ≤ RL then |XS | ≤ |XL |.
Example 2.7: Again referring to Figure 2.5 as a model, determine

the values of Z0 and l (in wavelengths) that make Z1 = ZS∗ if (a)
ZS = 500 + j60 Ω and ZL = 5 + j5 Ω, (b) ZS = 500 + j5 Ω and
ZL = 5 + j60 Ω, and (c) ZS = 500 + j60 Ω and ZL = 5 − j5 Ω.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
Solution: (a) These impedances meet the condition |XS | ≥ |XL | for
RS ≥ RL. From (2.137) and (2.138), we obtain Z0 = 50.11 Ω and
θ = 84.93◦ (or l = 0.236λ). (b) These impedances do not meet the
conditions |XS | ≥ |XL| for RS ≥ RL or |XS | ≤ |XL | for RS ≤
RL, and Z0 determined from (2.137) is purely imaginary. (c) These
impedances also meet the condition |XS | ≥ |XL | for RS ≥ RL. From
(2.137) and (2.138), we obtain Z0 = 50.11 Ω and the electrical length
θ = −83.56◦ or 96.44◦. Of course, θ = (2π/λ)l = (360◦ /λ)l =
96.44◦ (or l = 0.268λ) is the correct length, since l can not be negative.
The impedance-matching transformer considered here for matching complex
ZS and ZL is sometimes referred to as a short transformer since the phase length is
often less than 90◦ as in part (a) of the previous example.
2.7 IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATIONS AND THE SMITH CHART
The impedance Z1 in (2.130) and in Figure 2.5 is a transformation of the load

impedance ZL through the transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0 and
length l. It is convenient to normalize all impedances with respect to Z0 , so that
(2.130) becomes
Z1 zL + j tan βl
= z1 = = r1 + jx1 (2.139)
Z0 1 + jzL tan βl
where r1 and x1 are the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the normalized
impedance z1 . From (2.53) and (2.54), z1 is expressed in terms of the input
reflection coefficient Γ1 as
1 + Γ1 1 + ΓL e−j2βl
z1 = = = r1 + jx1 (2.140)
1 − Γ1 1 − ΓL e−j2βl
or
z1 − 1 r1 − 1 + jx1
Γ1 = = (2.141)
z1 + 1 r1 + 1 + jx1
Also, with zL real, the standing-wave ratio S = zL for zL ≥ 1, and S = 1/zL for
zL ≤ 1, yielding
S + j tan βl
z1 = zL ≥ 1 (2.142)
1 + jS tan βl
1 + jS tan βl
z1 = zL ≤ 1 (2.143)
S + j tan βl
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
Thus, a plot of z1 = r1 + jx1 in any coordinate system would involve βl, Γ1 , and
S.
On a rectangular impedance plot, lines of constant βl, |Γ1 |, and S form
families of non-concentric circles. On a polar plot of Γ1 = |Γ1 |ejφ , where |Γ1 | ≤ 1
for a passive load, the center of the circular plot corresponds to |Γ1 | = 0 and
z1 = 1 + j0, and the outermost circle corresponds to Γ1 = 1ejφ and z1 = 0 + jx1 .
Such a circular impedance plot is the Smith chart shown in Figure 2.6.
This chart is very convenient for solving transmission line problems because
constant βl is a straight radial line from the center, and constant |Γ1 | and S are
circles concentric with the center of the plot. These lines and circles are not shown,
but they may be sketched onto the chart as needed.
Movement between points on a lossless transmission line is represented
by movement along a concentric circle. Movement toward the load is counter-
clockwise on the chart and movement toward the source is clockwise, with the
distance of movement given in wavelengths on the periphery of the chart. The
usefulness of the Smith chart will be made clear by several examples.
Example 2.8: Find the magnitude and phase angle of the reflection co-
efficient corresponding to the Smith chart impedances (a) z = 0, (b)
z = ∞, (c) z = 1, (d) z = +j1, (e) z = −j1, (f) z = 3, and (g)
z = 1/3.
Solution: Reading the reflection coefficient magnitude as a linear vari-

ation from 0 to 1 in moving from the center to the perimeter of the
chart, and reading the angle directly from the scale on the perimeter,
we find for each impedance, (a) Γ = 16 180◦ , (b) Γ = 16 0◦ , (c)
Γ = 0, (d) Γ = 16 +90◦ , (e) Γ = 16 −90◦ , (f) Γ = 0.56 0◦ , and
(g) Γ = 0.56 180◦ .
Example 2.9: A lossless transmission of characteristic impedance Z0 =

50 Ω is terminated in ZL = 15 + j70 Ω. Use the Smith chart to de-
termine (a) the reflection coefficient at the load, (b) the standing-wave-
ratio on the line, and (c) the distance from the load to the nearest voltage
maximum point, if λ = 10 cm.
Solution: With Figure 2.5 as a model, normalize all impedances to

Z0 , so that z0 = 1 and zL = 0.3 + j1.4. (a) Enter the Smith chart
(Figure 2.6) with the value of zL and read ΓL = 0.8176 69.44◦. This
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
0.12 0.13
0.11 0.14
0.38 0.37 0.15
0.1 0.39 0.36
90
0.4 100 80 0.35 0.1
9
0.0 6
45
50
1 110 40 70 0.3
1.0
0.4 4
0.9
1.2
0.1
55
8
0.8
0.0 35
7
1.4
2 0.3
0.7
0.4 0 60 3
12
0.6 60
1.6
0.1
0 .07 o) 30 8
3 jB/Y 0.3
E (+
1.8
0.4 C 0.2 2
AN
65
0 50
13 PT
CE
2.0
US
0.5
6
0.1
ES
0.0
25
TIV
9
4
0.3
CI
0.4
PA
1
CA
70
R 0.4
), O
0
40
14
5
0.4
0.2
0.0
Zo
5
X/
20
0.3
0.4
+j
T(
3.0
EN
75
0.6
ON
MP
4
0.2
0.0
CO
0
6
0.2
0.3
1
30
15
0.4
CE
9
0.8 15
AN
80
4.0
CT
—>
REA
TOR
0.22
1.0
IVE
0.47
0.28
5.0
ERA
UCT
1.0
160
0.2
20
85
GEN
IND
0.8 10
ARD
0.23
S TOW
0.48
0.27
90
0.6
ENGTH
ANGLE
10
ANGLE
170
0.1
0.4
—> WAVEL
OF TRANSM
0.24
0.49
0.26
OF REFLECTION
20
0.2
50
ISSION COEFFICIENT IN D
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
10
20
50
0.25
0.25
± 180
0.0
0.0
COEFFICIENT IN DE
50
RESISTANCE COMPONENT (R/Zo), OR CONDUCTANCE COMPONENT (G/Yo)
0.2
<—
20
RD LOAD
0.24
0.49
0.26
GREES
EGREES
-170
0.1 0.4
TOWA
10
0.6
-90
0.23
GTHS
0.27
0.48
ELEN
0.8 -10
o)
-160
-85
WAV
-20
jB/Y
0.2
1.0
5.0
0.22
E (-
—
0.47
0.28
<
NC
1.0
TA
EP
-15 -80
4.0
SC
0.8 -15
SU
4
0.2
0
-30
0.0
0.3
6
0.2
TIV
1
0.4
UC
9
ND
0.6
-75
RI
3.0
), O
5
0.2
-20
o
0.0
/Z
5
0.3
jX
0.4
0.4
40
-4
(-
-1
NT 0.4
NE
-70
PO
6
0.1
OM
0.0
C
-25
4
0.3
CE
0.4
0.5
AN
1
2.0
CT 30 -5
EA 0
-65
ER -1 0.1
ITIV 7
1.8
0.2
AC 0.0 8
CAP
0.6
0.3
0.4
3 -30 2
1.6
-60
0 -60 0.1
-12 8
0.7
0.0 7
1.4
2 -35 0.3
0.8
0.4 3
1.2
-5 5
0.9
1.0
9 -70 0.1
-110 0.0
-4
0 6
0
-5
0.3
-4
1
0.1 0.4 -100 -80 0.15 4
-90
0.11 0.14 0.35
0.4 0.12 0.13
0.39 0.36
0.38 0.37
RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS

OE (CO dB CO ]
F
. C K SS [ SS [dB
EF
SM PEA LO LO EN.
TOWARD LOAD —> <— TOWARD GENERATOR

SW d S [d EFF , E o
. T
)
TR S.W RF S.W AT
RT R FL.
∞ 100 40 20 10 5 4 3 2.5 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1 15 10 7 5 4 3 2 1

.P
FF N ]
R BS B] , P r I
, P ST
N. FL CO
LO . C EF
∞ 40 30 20 15 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 3 4 5 10 20 ∞

S O
R
AN . L.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 20 30 ∞ 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 10 15 ∞

I
or
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01 0 0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.5 3 4 5 10 ∞
F
,E
FF
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 0.99 0.95 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
OE
.C
SM
CENTER
AN
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
TR
ORIGIN
Figure 2.6 The Smith chart. At the center, z = 1 and |Γ| = 0. Constant |Γ| and S are circles
concentric with the center.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
value is confirmed by calculation as,
ZL − Z0 zL − 1 −0.7 + j1.4
ΓL = = = = 0.8176 69.44◦
ZL + Z0 zL + 1 1.3 + j1.4
(b) Sketch a circle concentric with the center of the chart that passes
through the load point zL = 0.3 + j1.4. From zL , move clockwise
(toward source) on this circle to the point where it intersects the real
axis on the right of center. This is the maximum real value of impedance
presented to a wave on the line, and it is the impedance at a voltage-
maximum point. Thus, read z(xM ) = Z(xM )/Z0 = S = 10.
(c) Using the chart scale of wavelengths toward generator (source),
the distance from the load to the voltage-maximum point is, xM =
(0.25 − 0.1536)λ = 0.0964λ, or xM = 0.964 cm, since λ = 10 cm.
This value may be confirmed by calculation from,
V (x) = Aejβx + Be−jβx

= Aejβx (1 + ΓL e−j2βx)
h i
= Aejβx 1 + |ΓL |ej(φR−2βx)
◦
where ΓL = |ΓL |ejφR = 0.817ej69.44 . Thus, V (x) is maximum when
φR − 2βx = ±2πn. Solving yields,
φR λ λ 69.44◦ λ ∼
xM = ± n = = 0.0964λ
360◦ 2 2 360◦ 2
where n = 0 is the first maximum point.
Another convenient use of the Smith chart is in impedance matching a

complex load impedance to a real impedance source or transmission line by adding
just one shorted or opened section of transmission line either in series or in parallel
with the main line. The added section and the main line have the same characteristic
impedance (Z0 ), and this matching technique is called a single stub tuner, since
the added section is referred to as a stub. With Figure 2.5 as a reference model,
normalize all impedances to Z0 . Move from the load toward the source some
distance to be denoted by l1 where the normalized impedance looking back toward
the load is,
X(l1 )
z(l1 ) = 1 ± j (2.144)
Z0
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
At this point on the line that is l1 from the load we add a short-circuit or an open-
circuit terminated stub of length l2 in series or in parallel to exactly cancel the
±jX(l1 )/Z0 term and leave z(l1 ) = 1.
If the impedance-matching stub is added in parallel with the main line,
which is the more popular choice, it is better to work with admittances rather than
impedances. Thus, z0 = 1 is interpreted as y0 , yL = 1/zL , and the impedance
transformation equation,
zL + j tan βl
z(l) = (2.145)
1 + jzL tan βl
becomes,
1
1 yL + j tan βl 1 + jyL tan βl
= = (2.146)
y(l) 1 + j y1L tan βl yL + j tan βl
Inverting the last expression yields,
yL + j tan βl
y(l) = (2.147)
1 + jyL tan βl
which is identical in form to the impedance transformation equation. This means

that the Smith chart may be used for admittances in the same way that it is
used for impedances by simply re-labeling the real and imaginary impedances as
admittances.
A step-by-step procedure using the Smith chart for impedance matching with
a series-connected single stub tuner is as follows:
1. Enter the chart with the normalized load impedance zL .

2. Sketch a concentric circle that passes through the value of zL .
3. Move clockwise from zL on this circle the shortest distance l1 where
z(l1 ) = 1 ± j ZX0 .
4.(a). For z(l1 ) = 1 − j ZX0 , add a series shorted stub of length l2 and
inputimpedance z(l2 ) = j tan βl2 = j ZX0 , yielding l2 = 2π λ
tan−1 ZX0 .
4.(b). For z(l1 ) = 1 + j ZX0 , add a series opened stub of length l2

and inputimpedance z(l2 ) = −j cot βl2 = −j ZX0 , yielding l2 =
λ −1 X
2π cot Z0 .
Likewise, a step-by-step procedure for impedance matching with a parallel-

connected single stub tuner is as follows:
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
1. Enter the chart with the normalized load admittance yL .

2. Sketch a concentric circle that passes through the value of yL .
3. Move clockwise from yL on this circle the shortest distance l1 where
y(l1 ) = 1 ± j YB0 .
4(a). For y(l1 ) = 1 − j YB0 , add a parallel opened stub of length l2 and
input admittance y(l2 ) = j tan βl2 = j YB0 , yielding l2 = 2πλ
tan−1 YB0 .
4(b). For y(l1 ) = 1 + j YB0 , add a parallel shorted stub of length l2
and input admittance y(l2 ) = −j cot βl2 = −j YB0 , yielding l2 =
λ −1 B
2π cot Y0 .
These techniques are illustrated in the following example.
Example 2.10: A lossless transmission line of characteristic impedance

Z0 = 50 Ω is to be impedance-matched to a load ZL = 10 + j50 Ω.
Use the (a) series-connected and the (b) parallel-connected single stub
tuner with the Smith chart to accomplish the impedance match.
Solution: (a) Following the step-by-step procedure

1. Enter the chart with zL = 0.2 + j1.
2. Sketch concentric circle through zL .
3. Move CW on the circle a distance l1 = (0.202 − 0.127)λ = 0.075λ
where z(l1 ) = 1 + j2.85.
4. Add a series opened stub of length l2 and input impedance z(l2 ) =
λ
−j cot βl2 = −j2.85, yielding l2 = 2π cot−1 2.85 = 0.054λ.
(b) Again following the step-by-step procedure,

1. Enter the chart with yL = 1/zL = 0.196 − j0.981.
2. Sketch concentric circle through yL .
3. Move CW on the circle a distance l1 = 0.326λ where y(l1 ) =
1 + j2.85.
4. Add a parallel shorted stub of length l2 and input admittance y(l2 ) =
λ
−j cot βl2 = −j2.85, yielding l2 = 2π cot−1 2.85 = 0.054λ.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
PROBLEMS
1. A two-wire transmission line with negligible losses has the following param-
eters: L = 1.74 × 10−6 H/m, C = 6.59 × 10−12 F/m. What is the velocity
of propagation, and what is the characteristic impedance?
2. The total capacitance between the two conductors of a 100 m section of
a lossless transmission line is 5.09 × 10−9 F. The dielectric surrounding
the conductors is polyethylene ( = 2.320). (a) What is the characteristic
impedance of the line? (b) How long would it take for a microwave signal
to travel from one end of the line to the other? (c) How long is the line in
wavelengths at f = 1 GHz?
3. The electrical length of a certain lossless transmission line is θ = 90◦
with air as the dielectric medium (1 = 0 ). If the dielectric medium is
changed to obtain a new electrical length θ2 = 180◦ (physical length is held
constant), what should be the new value of relative dielectric constant r ,
where 2 = r 0 ?
4. For a fixed cross-section of lossless transmission line, if by some means µ
and are changed to new values µ0 and 0 , such that the new propagation
velocity is 1/2 of the original velocity, but the characteristic impedance
remains unchanged, determine µ0 and 0 in terms of µ and .
5. A coaxial transmission line of inner conductor radius a = 2.03 mm and outer
conductor radius b = 7.11 mm has resistance per meter given by,
r
1 1 1 ωµ0
R= + Ω/m (2.148)
2π a b 2σc
The inner and outer conductors are copper of conductivity σc = 5.8 ×

107 S/m, Determine R, G, L, C, and Z0 at f = 1 GHz, if the material
between conductors is (a) air, with = 0 and σd = 0, (b) polyethylene,
with = 2.320 and σd = 1.25 × 10−4 S/m, and (c) seawater, with = 780
and σd = 4 S/m.
6. The attenuation of a transmission line due to conductor and dielectric losses
is expressed as,
r r
R C G L
α = αc + αd = + Np/m (2.149)
2 L 2 C
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
Since R is frequency dependent, at low frequencies αc < αd , and at high

frequencies αc > αd . Determine the frequency at which αc = αd , for (a),
(b), and (c) of the coaxial line in problem 5.
7. Determine the reflection coefficient Γ(x) and the standing-wave-ratio S at (a)
x = 0, (b) x = λ/8, and (c) x = λ/4 on a Z0 = 50 Ω line terminated in
ZL = 20 + j50 Ω at x = 0.
8. With reference to Figure 2.7, determine Z01 and the shortest length l1 (in
wavelengths) to make Zin = 50 Ω.
9. With reference to Figure 2.8, determine the shortest lengths l1 and l2 (in
wavelengths) to make Zin = 50 Ω.
10. The optimum load impedance for a transistor is ZL = 25 + j25 Ω. If the
actual load is 50 Ω, use sections of transmission line of 50 Ω characteristic
impedance in conjunction with the 50 Ω load to present the optimum load
impedance to the output of the transistor.
11. For maximum power to be delivered from the ZS = 50 Ω source to the
ZL = (1 + j0.23)50 Ω load of the network in Figure 2.9, (a) what must be
the value of characteristic impedance Z01 ? (b) What is the standing-wave-
ratio S on the 0.366λ section?
12. Referring to Figure 2.10, (a) find the location and length of the shorted stub
such that no reflections occur to the left of the stub. (b) What is the standing-
wave-ratio S on the lines l1 , l2 , and to the left of the shorted stub?
ZS = 50 Ω λ/4 l1
VS Z0 = 50 Ω Z01 Z0 = 50 Ω
Zin ZL = 20 + j50 Ω
Figure 2.7 Determine Z01 and the shortest length l1 (in wavelengths) to make Zin = 50 Ω.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
ZS = 50 Ω Zin l1
VS Z0 = 50 Ω Z0 = 50 Ω
ZL = 20 + j50 Ω
Ω
50
=
Z
0
l
2
Figure 2.8 Determine the shortest lengths l1 and l2 (in wavelengths) to make Zin = 50 Ω.
50 Ω 0.250 λ 0.366 λ
VS 50 Ω Z01 50 Ω ZL
ZL = (1 + j0.23) 50 Ω
Figure 2.9 Determine the value of the characteristic impedance Z01 so that maximum power is
delivered from the source to the load using the values in Problem 11. What is the standing-wave-ratio S
on the 0.366λ section?
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
ZS = Z0 l1
VS Z0 Z0 ZL = 2Z0
Z
0
l 2
Figure 2.10 Find the location and length of the shorted stub such that no reflections occur to the left
of the stub. What is the standing-wave-ratio S on the lines l1 , l2 , and to the left of the shorted stub?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. L. Coren, Basic Engineering Electromagnetics: An Applied Approach. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989.
T. C. Edwards and M. B. Steer, Foundations of Interconnect and Microstrip Design,

3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2001.
V. F. Fusco, Microwave Circuits: Analysis and Computer-Aided Design. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987.
H. Howe, Stripline Circuit Design. Dedham, MA: Artech House, 1974.
J. D. Kraus and D. A. Fleisch, Electromagnetics: with Applications, 5th ed. New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.
G. F. Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers. New York: Oxford
University Press USA, 1996.
M. A. Plonus, Applied Electromagnetics, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
D. M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons,
2011.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits
P. A. Rizzi, Microwave Engineering: Passive Circuits. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Prentice-Hall, 1988.
P. H. Smith, Electronic Applications of the Smith Chart: in Waveguide, Circuit, and

Component Analysis. Malabar, FL: Krieger, 1983.
A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits

A DISTANCIA - UNAD
Line Circuits

JoinesWilliamTB 2012 21UsefulTransmissionL MicrowaveTransmission

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

JoinesWilliamTB 2012 21UsefulTransmissionL MicrowaveTransmission

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

All rights reserved.

c, and d) may be constructed from sheets of low-loss dielectric (e.g., polyethylene)

24 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

(a) (b) (c)

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 25

2.2 WAVE EQUATION FOR VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

v(x + ∆x, t) − v(x, t) dv di

26 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

v(x + ∆ x, t) C G v(x, t) (b)

v(x, t) = V (x)ejωt (2.5)

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 27

V (x) = Aeγx + Be−γx (2.16)

Differentiating (2.16) and using (2.9) gives:

28 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

we may express the current wave I(x) as:

where Z0 , as defined in (2.18), is the characteristic impedance (in ohms) of the

Solving these two equations for A and B yields:

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 29

V (x) ZL cosh γx + Z0 sinh γx ZL + Z0 tanh γx

v(x, t) = Aejωt+γx + Bejωt−γx = Aeαx ej(ωt+βx) + Be−αx ej(ωt−βx) (2.30)

30 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

and if we move with the wave to maintain a constant phase point

Hence, if λ is expressed in meters, then β is in radians/meter.

So, the phase constant is √

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 31

The characteristic impedance for this lossless case is:

V (x) = Aejβx + Be−jβx = Vi (x) + Vr (x) (2.43)

V (x) = VL cos βx + jZ0 IL sin βx (2.45)

2.3 INCIDENT, REFLECTED, AND STANDING WAVES

2.3.1 Voltage Reflection Coefficient

32 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

V (x) = Vi (x) [1 + Γ(x)] (2.51)

and the wave impedance becomes

The last equation may be solved for Γ(x) to obtain:

Example 2.1: At x = 0.965 cm from the load on a lossless transmission

Solution: From (2.48), with α = 0,

and from (2.50),

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 33

2.3.2 Power Flow

The time-averaged power transmitted along the line at any point x is

transmitted to the load. When ZL = 0 (short circuit) or ZL = ∞ (open circuit), the

34 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

Solution: (a) For ZL = 0, since VL = 0, then

V (x) = jZ0 IL sin βx

(b) For ZL = ∞, since IL = 0, then

(c) For ZL = Z0 , since B = 0 and A = VL , then

2.3.3 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

The voltage standing wave ratio, typically referred to as S or VSWR, is defined

|V (x)|M AX = |A| + |B|, x = xM (2.61)

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 35

and the smallest value is

|V (x)|M IN = |A| − |B|, x = xm (2.62)

where the distance from the load to a voltage-maximum point is xM , and to a

36 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

From (2.68) and (2.47) at x = xM , ZL may be expressed as,

Alternatively, using (2.69) and (2.47) at x = xm ,

Thus, since β = 2π/λ, if S, λ, Z0 , and xM or xm are known, the load impedance

Example 2.3: On a lossless transmission line of characteristic impedance

Solution: From (2.70), with βxM = 2π × 0.0965 = 0.606 = 34.74◦:

1 − j10 tan 124.74◦ ∼

2.4 TRANSMISSION LINES WITH LOSSES

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES 37

38 MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINE CIRCUITS

The last two terms in (2.80) may also be expressed as

C (F/m) /F (g)

C (F/m) /F (g)

C (F/m) /F (g), 2 = d + o + √d −12h

C (F/m) /F (g)

C (F/m) /F (g)

C (F/m) /F (g)

C (F/m) /F (g)