How Can Students Be Motivated:
A Misplaced Question?
RICHARD F. BOWMAN JR.
Abstract: Great teachers understand the fundamental difference
between motivation and inspiration: motivation is self-focused and
inspiration is other focused. Exceptional teachers guide students to
greatness by inspiring them to discover where their talents and
passions intersect. For today’s besieged classroom teacher, the
desire to motivate students often springs from a place of self-
concern: “I want to change your behavior with a reward or
incentive so that, if you meet the targets or goals I set for you, this
will help me meet my own needs and goals.” Students are highly
motivated to perform when they first come to school. The question
is not “how can students be motivated?” but rather, “how can
educators be deterred from diminishing—even destroying—
student motivation and morale through their policies and
practices?”
Keywords: extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, motivation
G reat teachers understand the fundamental difference
between motivation and inspiration in the classroom:
“Motivation is self-focused; inspiration is other
focused” (Secretan 2005, 14). Characteristically, providing
motivation is something that a teacher does to a student;
inspiration is something that is a result of a trusting, caring,
mentoring relationship with a student. Inspiration is
something that an extraordinary individual lives, not
Winona State University, Minnesota. Copyright
© 2007 Heldref Publications
81
something that he or she simply does. The image of Lance
Armstrong streaking across the French countryside in search
of his seventh straight Tour de France title inspired millions
of cancer patients by giving new meaning and hope to their
lives. In The 8th Habit, Covey (2004) argues that the crucial
challenge for individuals and organizations in moving from
effectiveness to greatness is to discover one’s own voice and
to inspire others to find their’s. For the besieged classroom
teacher, however, the desire to motivate students often
springs from a place of self-concern: “I want to change your
behavior with a reward or incentive, so that, if you meet the
targets or goals I set for you, this will help me meet my own
needs and goals” (Secretan, 14).
In an era of accountability and high-stakes testing,
teachers are becoming adept at manipulating students’
personalities through extrinsic rewards and incentives. When
students are extrinsically motivated, external forces often
determine their emotions and behaviors. When students are
inspired, however, forces within determine their emotions
and behaviors. Anyone who has worked with a trusted
mentor, for example, senses deeply that the mentor is not
seeking personal gain but is offering a heartfelt gift of caring
and service (Secretan 2005). Relatedly, Schlechty (2002)
argues that the primary function of a teacher as a leader is to
“inspire others to do things that they might otherwise not do
and encourage others to go in directions they might not
otherwise pursue” (xviii).
Exceptional teachers guide students and colleagues to
greatness by inspiring them to discover where one’s talents
and passions intersect. Specifically, teachers inspire students
by channeling students’ energy and passion toward their
strengths. Although students need to be clear about their
weaknesses and what makes them afraid, they need to be
clearer about those personal strengths that will result “in an
increase in performance, service, and life-satisfaction”
(Secretan 2005, 14). In a truly productive classroom, a
generosity of spirit, a sense of perceived interdependence,
and a shared reverence for the gift of learning also inspire—
both teacher and student.
Yet, there is a pervasive institutional belief that
motivating one’s students and colleagues is an essential
role of teachers and administrators as leaders. Whether it is
merit pay, stickers placed on students’ papers, bonus
points, or formal recognition ceremonies, considerable
energy and organizational resources are expended to
execute this perceived leadership task. The refrain, “how
82 The Clearing House
can our students and staff be motivated?” punctuates
collegial conversations daily in diverse settings, including
staff lounges, in-service programs, and parentteacher
conferences.
Thirty years of research related to motivation and
performance, however, suggests that there is only one
problem with that question: “It is the wrong one” (Sirota,
Mischkind, and Meltzer 2005, 24). Although motivation and
morale are important to performance in the classroom and
the workplace, the query is misplaced because students,
faculty, and workers in diverse settings are already highly
motivated to perform well when they first come to school or
the workplace (Sirota, Mischkind, and Meltzer).
Kindergarten children, for example, are typically excited and
enthusiastic about going to school each day. Not so,
however, for many third and fourth graders. In studies,
researchers suggest, “something or someone is decreasing
the high levels of motivation” that students and employees
bring with them to the classroom and workplace (Sirota,
Mischkind, and Meltzer, 25). The pertinent question for
educators and parents is not “how can students be
motivated?” but rather, “how can educators be deterred from
diminishing—even destroying—student motivation and
morale through their policies and practices?” (Sirota,
Mischkind, and Meltzer).
What can teachers and administrators do to sustain initially
high levels of morale, motivation, and performance for
students and colleagues alike? First, educators must
understand what students and colleagues want; then, they
must give it to them (Sirota, Mischkind, and Meltzer 2005).
Researchers pinpoint three overarching factors that have the
most dramatic and positive impact on classroom and
workplace morale: equity, achievement, and camaraderie
(Sirota, Mischkind, and Meltzer). Students want to be treated
justly and respectfully in their classroom setting. Many
educators, for example, mistakenly apply restrictive
policies—meant to rein in toxic behaviors of 5 percent of
their students—to the 95 percent of students who are
motivated to achieve. Not surprisingly, doing so has a
negative impact on student morale and intrinsic motivation.
Vol. 81, No. 2 How Can Students Be Motivated?
Moreover, students want to take pride both in their individual
accomplishments and in the achievements of their classmates
by engaging collaboratively in a constant reorganizing and
reconstructing of meaningful experiences. Dewey (1916)
framed the challenge compellingly: “The aim of education is
to enable individuals to continue their education and that the
object and reward of learning is the continued capacity for
growth” (117). Additionally, students want to live out the
belief that learning is a relational event by having genuine,
interesting, and collaborative relationships with their peers
and teachers. Importantly, students sense that any process
that enhances learning has two sides: psychological and
sociological (Mason 1975). In Best Practice: New Standards
for Teaching and Learning in America’s Schools,
Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde (1998) discovered an
unrecognized consensus regarding learners’ needs for equity,
achievement, and camaraderie: “Virtually all the
authoritative voices in each field are calling for schools that
November/December 2007
are studentcentered, active, experiential, democratic,
collaborative, and yet rigorous and challenging” (viii).
Katzenbach (2006) argued that pride is what ultimately
motivates individuals both in the classroom and the
workplace to excel at what they do. Specifically, he contends
that more than half a century of clinical and academic
research by scholars such as Maslow, Herzberg, and
Csikszentmihalyi points the motivational compass in one
direction: pride in the work itself is the most powerful agent
of change and performance. Moreover, pride is the most
easily recognizable descriptor of what motivates artists,
musicians, athletes, executives, and students to excel at what
they do. Compellingly, Katzenbach asserts, “the peak
performers in life are seldom in pursuit of money or formal
advancement except as validation of the pride they feel in
their workplace achievements” (59).
From that perspective, the real work of teachers as leaders
is that of functioning as pride builders in the classroom.
Successful teachers, for instance, spontaneously instill pride
in students on a daily basis by honoring Csikszentmihalyi’s
“discovery that people are most highly energized about their
work when their mix of skills closely matches their
individual and teamwork challenges” (ctd. in Katzenbach
2006, 62). Relatedly, productive teachers are adept at getting
students to anticipate how proud they will be when their
behavior or achievements ultimately mirror class and
societal expectations. U.S. Marine Corps drill instructors, for
example, are masters of instilling pride in recruits on a daily
basis by making soldiers “anticipate how proud they will feel
when their behavior and results conform to the implications
of the USMC values” (Katzenbach, 60). The motivational
power of anticipation in daily life is hard to overestimate.
A growing number of contemporary educators,
nonetheless, are committed to the use of tangible classroom
rewards as a motivational strategy. Those rewards, however,
can ultimately limit students’ ability to unleash their
aspirations and excel at what is meaningful to them
individually and collectively. Specifically, when teachers
and students perceive daily class work as a source of points,
grades, and treats—as opposed to a source of learning and
83
deep fulfillment—they are blinded to the other reasons
students may want to excel, including an internal desire to
create meaning and significance. So, what happens when
educators provide both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards in the
classroom?
Designing a stimulating and productive learning
environment draws on one’s beliefs about human nature, the
nature of learning, and the passions, interests, and needs of
one’s students. Ironically, designing a successful video game
system draws on the same considerations. Admittedly,
analogies fall short because the resemblance between cases
is not inexhaustible. Resemblance between the motivational
supports in a productive learning environment and a video
game system are clearly constrained by differences in
mission, resources, and legal statue. Yet, the similarities are
striking. In truth, both academically engaging classrooms
and video game systems exhibit a common, unmistakable
ethos or ambiance:
 Each is steeped in (a) clarity of task, (b) clear awareness of
participant roles and responsibilities, (c) choice in the
selection and execution of problem-solving strategies, (d)
potentially-balanced systems of skills and challenges, and (e)
a progressive hierarchy of challenges to sustain interest.
Moreover, each reflects (a) unambiguous feedback, (b)
affirmation of the instructiveness of error, (c) seemingly
infinite opportunities for self-improvement, (d) provision for
active involvement in tasks which are rooted in the high
probability of success, (e) freedom from fear of reprisal,
ridicule, or rejection, and (f) an overarching recognition of
the need for learners to enjoy what they experience in the
classrooms of life. (Bowman 1982, 16)
Characteristically, the motivational supports of electronic
amusement systems and academically engaging classrooms
are both extrinsically and intrinsically rewarding. At the
cosmetic level, video games assault the senses with an
endless series of kaleidoscopic sights, sounds, and figures.
Video games provide players with an undeniable visual and
aural sense of momentary triumph and accomplishment.
Additionally, video games provide a socially uniting context
for displaying one’s evolving electronic prowess for friends
and family. Yet, these familiar extrinsic motivational
supports “fail to account fully for either the intense
concentration or the intoxicating sense of power that
arcadians experience. A more plausible explanation appears
grounded in the domain of intrinsic rewards” (Bowman
1982, 14). Probing the question of what makes a classroom
or video activity so enjoyable that it is intrinsically
rewarding, Csikzentmihalyi and Larson (1980) propose a
balanced state of interaction—a flow state. In this state,
students and players find themselves in a peculiar, dynamic
experience:
Flow is described as a condition in which one concentrates
on a task at hand to the exclusion of other internal and
external stimuli. Action and awareness merge, so that one
simply does what is to be done without a critical, dualistic
perspective on one’s actions. Goals tend to be clear, means
are coordinated to the goals, and feedback to one’s
performance is immediate and unambiguous. In such a
situation, a person has a strong feeling of control—or
personal causation—yet, paradoxically, ego involvement is
low or nonexistent, so that one experiences a sense of
transcendence of self, sometimes a feeling of union with the
environment. The passage of time appears to be distorted:
Some events seem to take a disproportionately long time, but
in general, hours seem to pass by in minutes. (64)
Although some researchers argue that intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards are negatively related and may impede one
another (Deci and Flaste 1995; Deci, Koestner, and Ryan
1999; Kohn 1993), there is arguably room for both intrinsic
and extrinsic rewards in a caring, engaged classroom in
which students respond productively to a variety of
incentives. Admittedly, in many instances, rewards in the
classroom have conflicting effects and can be experienced as
controlling (undercutting the learner’s need for autonomy) or
as informational (satisfying the learner’s need for
competence). In daily practice, however, effective teachers
can learn to use both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards in
personal, thoughtful, and complementary ways to heighten
students’ academic engagement.
Researchers in human motivation contrast two
motivational states—extrinsic and intrinsic (Deci and Flaste
1995). Students often perform in school, for example, to
receive rewards if they succeed or avoid punishment if they
fail. Acting a certain way because one feels compelled to by
social controls characterizes extrinsic motivation. In
contrast, acting a certain way because of an internal desire
constitutes intrinsic motivation. Research suggests that
“external motivation is more likely to create conditions of
compliance or defiance” and that individuals who “are
externally controlled are likely to stop trying once the
rewards or punishments are removed” (Kouzes and Posner
2002, 112). Researchers also suggest that self-motivated
individuals persist in working toward a meaningful goal in
diverse activities involving play, exploration, and challenge
seeking, even when little likelihood of an external reward
exists. Video game players, for example, typically derive
neither material gain nor profit from their activities.
Intrinsically motivated students, moreover, tend to have an
overarching sense of purpose that is larger than they and goes
beyond their classroom teacher. Tellingly, intrinsically
motivated students confront the uncertainties of life from the
inside out, as they search for what is rewarding rather than
what is rewarded.
To be successful in school, students need to feel that they
belong there, are accepted and valued, and have the skills and
inner resources needed to be productive (Kouzes and Posner
2002). Intrinsic rewards are personal gestures that deepen
students’ sense of belonging, accomplishment, and efficacy.
Intrinsic rewards invite students to develop a deeper
awareness of their work and how that work contributes to a
larger outcome. More important, intrinsic rewards in the
classroom speak to the human thirst for a coherent purpose
in daily classroom activities and school events. When
students sense that their work is not trivial, they become
reenergized in discovering what is worthy of their shared
attention (Wheatley 1999).
The art of good teaching, therefore, lies in designing
systems and incentives in such a way that students will
naturally do the right thing for themselves and for the
common good. Admittedly, motivating one’s students is as
simple as the components of the human body and as complex
as the spirit. At issue, then, is how educators can design
schools and classrooms so that students are intrinsically
motivated to be their best. The classroom-tested approaches
that follow represent neither a theoretical framework nor an
emergent motivational paradigm. Rather, they represent an
exposition of the insights and practices of classroom
practitioners in response to the question, “is it possible for
effective teachers to use both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
in personal, thoughtful, and complementary ways?”
Say thank you. Emotion deepens learning. Saying thank you
reveals a teacher’s genuine care and respect for students and
their work. Simple, sincere gratitude makes students feel
noticed, recognized, and appreciated. For students, a thank
you not only serves as a form of encouragement to sustain
performance but also deepens trust by shortening the
symbolic distance between teacher and student. Research
suggests that conveying appreciation for a task well done
with an occasional unexpected thank you enhances students’
intrinsic motivation and keeps them alert and interested in
84 The Clearing House
what the teacher and their peers have to say (Deci, Koestner,
and Ryan 1999).
Recognize students’ actions. Noticing students’ actions that
make a difference in attaining class or individual goals helps
learners understand how to achieve a high standard.
Moreover, providing specific examples helps students build
a cognitive map that they can draw on when facing similar
challenges or situations in the future. Public recognition or
praise signals to other students that their contributions also
will be noticed and appreciated.
Research suggests that recognition given informationally
has a more positive effect on intrinsic motivation than
recognition given in a controlling manner (Deci, Koestner,
Vol. 81, No. 2 How Can Students Be Motivated?
and Ryan 1999). Students can interpret classroom rewards as
controllers of their behavior or as indicators of their
competence. When rewards are given in a controlling
manner, those rewards thwart students’ needs for autonomy
and undermine intrinsic motivation. As much as students
value the intrinsic satisfaction of genuine accomplishment,
they also value noncontrolling extrinsic symbols of success,
such as a choice in how to approach tasks and projects (Deci,
Koestner, and Ryan). Choice deepens students’ perceived
self-determination and competence. The best kind of
recognition publicly and informationally celebrates the effort
and determination it took for a student to excel in a project
or activity and sustains intrinsic motivation. Specifically,
informational recognition satisfies the student’s need for
competence. In short, if educators use tangible rewards in the
classroom, they incur a professional obligation to be mindful
about the intrinsic motivation and task persistence of the
students they reward.
Foster positive expectations. Inviting students to take the
lead in setting their own goals develops positive student
expectations. It instills a belief in students that they can go
beyond what they once thought possible. Efforts to foster that
belief show students that their teacher has confidence in their
ability to shape their own destiny. For example, teachers who
use a Socratic method of leading students through a series of
questions allow students “to find their own way to the
answers and bolsters their confidence in decision making”
(Kouzes and Posner 2002, 343). Research suggests that
students act in ways that are consistent with teachers’
expectations of them. Adept teachers are aware that
reinforcing processes, such as the Pygmalion effect (self-
fulfilling prophecy), can amplify small actions into larger
consequences for students (Merton 1968). Effective teachers,
therefore, purposefully help students shatter belief barriers
and self-doubts. In a moment of disarming honesty, if a
teacher can genuinely support a student in making a “true
commitment not to lead a little life, then most other things
will fall into place” (Redmond, Tribbett, and Kasanoff 2004,
13).
Provide precise feedback incrementally. This helps students
sense their progress in reaching their goals and lessens stress
and anxiety. Purposeful feedback functions as recognition,
allowing students to sense that “I can do it” and that “the
November/December 2007
teacher knew I could do it.” Such feedback also shows
students that, much like learning to ride a bicycle, trial and
error are an inevitable part of a steep learning curve. More
important, research shows that teachers’ “best opportunity to
reinforce or change behavior is very close to the time that the
behavior occurs” (Allen and Allen 2004, 32). Timely
feedback, therefore, is a natural and necessary part of
learning.
Goals without feedback and feedback without goals,
however, have only a negligible effect on student motivation
(Bandura and Cervone 1983). Oral and written feedback
helps students become self-corrective as they pursue goals.
It also helps them feel interconnected as they reach out for
encouragement and assistance in building their capabilities.
85
In short, “the art of balance is essential to effective feedback”
(Allen and Allen 2004, 24). That is, suggestions for
improvement must be balanced with compliments. Allen and
Allen’s 2 + 2 feedback system, for example, has two equally
resonant objectives: “First, recognize successes so that they
can be reinforced and repeated, and second, encourage
improvement in areas that are most in need of change” (26).
The intent in the classroom is to make complimenting and
encouraging one another informationally the norm. In
contrast, teaching by primarily correcting problems without
informationally complimenting successes is not balanced
feedback. Moreover, to enhance credibility and trust,
teachers’ “compliments should not be used simply as a
prelude to suggestions for improvement” (Allen and Allen,
26).
Aid students in finding meaning. Getting students to work
productively is a key responsibility in a teacher’s
professional life. Rather than focus on what it is the student
is to do or how the student is to do it, the exemplary teacher
focuses on why the meaningful work is to be done (Collins
2001). Adept classroom teachers recognize that a student’s
commitment to learning is a product of confidence,
autonomy, and motivation. Self-assured students sense that
they have the ability to complete a project without significant
supervision. In addition, autonomously motivated students
feel driven to do their best in completing a particular task or
project. A student could, however, exude confidence in his
or her abilities but still lack enthusiasm for tackling an
assigned task. Without teacher support, the subsequent
disillusionment could undercut a student’s committed
performance (Zigarmi et al. 2005).
Put a human face on opportunities. Classroom stories create
a readiness for responsibility. They put challenges in a real-
life context. Stories make achievements visible to others and
enable students to share in the lessons learned. When
teachers share stories with a class, the stories provide
inspiration and direction to students facing complex,
challenging situations. A story is “not only easier to
remember and recall than a set of facts, it translates more
quickly into action” (Kouzes and Posner 2002, 363.) In his
research about how individuals make decisions in emergency
conditions, Klein (1998) discovered that the rational model
of decision making gives way to intuition, metaphors,
analogies, and stories. For students, well-told stories reach
inside them and pull them along.
Show values as a source of self-motivation. Values are
“deep-seated beliefs about the world and how it operates”
(Freiberg and Freiberg 1997, 146). Values are the emotional
rules that govern students’ attitudes, choices, and behavior in
the classroom. Contextually, values are the foundation of
rules that make a classroom work. Intrinsically motivated
behavior is a purposeful action that is intimately connected
to one’s core beliefs. Encouraging students to rediscover and
honor the beliefs that form the basis of their relationships,
such as a genuine care and concern for others and for the
common good, helps them to focus behavior and energy
toward a desired instructional end. Classroom norms are a
living expression of individual and collective values.
Without clear end values, however, “purposeful action is
limited to transitory adaptation to the environment” (Zigarmi
et al. 2005, 125).
Provide new perspectives. Diversity produces the healthiest
classroom environment. For students in an interconnected
world, a diversity of thought, belief, opinion, and cultural
perspective is essential to civic success and long-term
survival. In a classroom that embraces and cultivates
alternative perspectives, students are intrinsically motivated
to open up to various points of view in preparation for a
world that is endlessly multifaceted. Students who live out
the desire and willingness to open themselves to diverse
points of view are understandably better prepared to work
through the challenges of a multicultural environment. Thus,
the student “who embraces diversity is embracing
opportunity” (Redmond, Tribbett, and Kasanoff 2004, 179).
In conclusion, parents, teachers, and students sense that
the need for autonomy, encouragement, and recognition is a
fundamental human drive. Moreover, each senses that
success both in the classroom and life is kindled and
sustained through intrinsic motivation. To stimulate and
motivate students’ internal drive, exemplary teachers focus
on clear standards, high expectations, acknowledgment of
feelings, the provision of choice, and spontaneously
instilling pride in their students. Successful teachers
recognize that students’ values are a source of self-
motivation, classroom stories put a human face on
opportunities and propel students, balanced feedback,
including complimenting and encouraging, is central to self-
corrective learning, a diverse perspective is intrinsically
motivating in an interconnected world, and developing
students’ capacity for meaning making and discernment is
the motivating force in learning. In his stunning presentation
of logotherapy, Frankl (1959) underscored the core challenge
confronting teachers and students: “Man’s search for
meaning is the primary motivation in his life” (105).
Finally, for caring, competent, contemporary educators
who are committed to the use of tangible classroom rewards
as a motivational strategy, the issue is how to teach and
reward in ways that do not discourage capable students.
Research has shown that there are conditions in which
extrinsic rewards do not necessarily undercut intrinsic
motivation: provision of choice, unexpected and task-
noncontingent rewards (unrelated to the target activity),
rewards given informationally rather than in a controlling
manner, and emphasizing the interesting or challenging
aspects of a task (Deci, Koestner, and Ryan 1999).
Ultimately, great teaching is something that one lives; it is
not something that one does through rewards and incentives.
By focusing on the talents, passions, and natural curiosities
of one’s students, teachers inspire students to share with the
world the “music that lies inside them” (Secretan 2005, 14).
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