Spondylus in Prehistory

New data and approaches

Contributions to the archaeology of shell technologies

Edited by

Fotis Ifantidis
Marianna Nikolaidou

BAR International Series 2216

2011
Published by

Archaeopress
Publishers of British Archaeological Reports
Gordon House
276 Banbury Road
Oxford OX2 7ED
England
bar@archaeopress.com
www.archaeopress.com

BAR S2216

Spondylus in Prehistory: New data and approaches. Contributions to the archaeology of shell
technologies

© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2011

ISBN 978 1 4073 0774 9

Printed in England by Blenheim Colour Ltd

All BAR titles are available from:

Hadrian Books Ltd

122 Banbury Road
Oxford
OX2 7BP
England
www.hadrianbooks.co.uk

The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available
free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com
 F. Ifantidis & M. Nikolaidou (eds.), Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies

C hapter 7

Spondylus gaederopus IN AEGEAN PREHISTORY:

DECIPHERING SHAPES FROM NORTHERN GREECE

Tatiana Theodoropoulou

Spondylus gaederopus artifacts are a common find in prehistoric sites, both coastal and inland, in Northern Greece. This paper
discusses the choice to use this raw material, its distribution in Northern Aegean sites, as well as the variability observed in the
transformation into objects. A review of shapes and possible uses is given. The existing repertoire points to a pronounced preference
of Spondylus shells for the manufacture of ornaments, with a more limited use for functional objects. This trend points to a special
attribute given to this marine raw material, bringing together natural properties and symbolic values shaped to social items within
Northern Aegean communities.

Introduction the tropical seas. It is distributed throughout a large portion of

Both coastal and inland prehistoric sites from Northern Greece
have produced numerous Spondylus remains. Although whole
Spondylus valves and fragments without any secondary modi-
fication are usual finds, artifacts made from Spondylus out-
number any other group of shell artifacts, thus implying a
focused exploitation of this shell in Greek prehistory. Spondy-
lus artifacts often feature among the most prestigious objects
found in Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements in Northern
Aegean, from Western Macedonia to Aegean Thrace1 (Karali
1999b; Miller 2003; Nikolaidou 2003; Pappa & Veropoulidou,
this volume; Theodoropoulou 2007) (Fig. 1). This paper re-
traces the routes of metamorphosis of Spondylus, from extrac-
tion of the raw material indigenous to the Aegean coasts, its
transport to the settlements, and subsequent transformation to
a variety of cultural shapes.
Fishing for Spondylus
The exploitation of raw materials generally involves an ability
to locate the source of these materials and transport them to a
place of transformation and production. Within this chain of
events, the presence of artifacts made from Spondylus gaed-
eropus cannot be seen independently from the environment of
acquisition, the route from a natural to a cultural environment,
to be finally incorporated as finished products within a given
human community.
Spondylus gaederopus (Linnaeus 1758), the sole genus of the
bivalve family Spondylidae2, is a commonly found shell in
1  Following a natural and cultural border, dividing Northern from Central
Greece (see also, Andreou et al. 1996).
2  Shells with unequal valves, with long or short spines on the ribs and
widely spaced umboes of unequal size. Attached to rocks and other ob-
the Mediterranean, the Atlantic Ocean, near Gibraltar, includ-
ing Madeira, the Azores, the Canaries, and the Cape Verde
Islands (Fischer et al. 1987: 492). In the Greek seas, it has
been recorded in the Saronic, Laconic, Messenian, Thermaic,
Euboean, Patraic, and Corinthian gulfs, the Peloponnese, the
Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, Astakos, Kymi (Eastern
Euboea), and the Chalkidiki peninsula (Delamotte & Vardala-
Theodorou 1994: 250). Its abundance in the Aegean, in close
distance to most prehistoric sites from Northern Greece, sug-
gests that Spondylus valves found in this region would have
been collected from these coasts3. Despite the close distance
of most settlements to the sea, its occurrence also in a number
of inland sites allows suggesting that small-scale expeditions
or exchanges of marine shells would have taken place in pre-
historic Northern Greece4, a practice dating back to the Upper
Palaeolithic in neighboring Epirus5. Such regional transports
would of course not be comparable in scale to broader, interre-
jects by the anterior edge of the right valve. Left (upper) valve with con-
spicuous “ears”, hinge with two large teeth on each side (isodont), mantle
edge free, with eye spots (Lamprell 1987; for more details on the palaeo-
biology of the species, see also Hladilová, this volume). Five species are
known in the Mediterranean.
3 This is not such a straightforward conclusion for the origin of Spondylus
artifacts from Northern Balkan sites. Although both the Aegean and the
Black Sea were likely alternatives for their origin, comparison of 18O/16O
values of archaeological specimens with modern ones suggested the Ae-
gean as being a more likely source (Shackleton & Renfrew 1970).
4 In some sites, Spondylus shells might have travelled a total direct dis-
tance of 100km (for instance, 80-120km from the Aegean to Dispilio),
although more common distance for N. Greece Neolithic sites is around
25km (for example, Sitagroi). For a number of sites, namely those on the
western part of the studied area, it has been suggested that Spondylus was
obtained from the Adriatic Sea instead (for a review, see Ifantidis 2006a:
69), yet if this was the case, the covered distance would be even greater.
5 For a discussion on the circulation of shell artifacts (not Spondylus) in
Upper Palaeolithic sites from Epirus (Boila, Katritsa, Klithi), see Kotja-
bopoulou & Adam (2004).
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
Figure 1. Map of Northern Greece with sites mentioned in the text
gional networks involving the transport of raw or transformed
Spondylus gaederopus from the Aegean coasts across Balkan
regions up to Central Europe, which has been put forward as
evidence of long-distance exchange (Dimitrijević & Tripković
2006; Renfrew 1973; Séfériadès 1995a, 1995b, 2000; Todor-
ova 2000).
Nevertheless, the symbolic value of the circulation of Spondy-
lus, and generally marine raw materials, even within a small-
scale transport network in Northern Greece is underlined by
a number of observations: although the presence of marine
shells used as raw materials is a common practice in coastal
sites and also found in inland sites, on the other hand, the use
of freshwater shells is only limited within a local scale of in-
land communities, thus indicating a differential value of ma-
rine and freshwater materials respectively (Theodoropoulou
2007: 487). In this case, it is the very nature of the material
rather than its distant origin which is put forward (on the super-
natural value attributed to long-distance materials and worked
items, see Paulsen 1974; Séfériadès 2000). The presence of
marine specimens in inland sites is occasionally accompanied
by marine food debris, thus implying a more complex concep-
tual approach of the marine environment as a whole (Theodo-
ropoulou 2007: 488, Theodoropoulou, in press).
With respect to the presence of marine shells in inland sites,
several possible transport scenarios can be addressed6: a) Spon-
6 Based on the general discussion on transport of raw materials in prehis-
tory, namely obsidian.
94
dylus and other shells would be collected directly by members
of inland communities, during expeditions destined for this or
other long-distance activities (direct access, Torrence 1986).
In this case, one assumes knowledge of fishing grounds/beach
shores and methods of procurement, what Taborin (2004: 70)
calls “the collective memory built upon repetition”. b) marine
raw materials would be part of exchanges or trade between
coastal and inland communities (down the line exchange, Ren-
frew et al. 1965, 1968), possibly through a more complex net-
work of itinerants middlemen (Perlès 1990)7. In the latter case,
the question of transport of raw Spondylus or finished artifacts
rises (see, for instance, Müller 1997), with subsequent social
implications regarding the choice of a group to exchange/trade
raw materials or finished items, the degree of specialization of
artisan production as well as surplus of either raw or worked
Spondylus within a community (Theodoropoulou 2007: 487).
Local or distant communities involved with the procurement
of live Spondylus gaederopus would have to take into con-
sideration the biological characteristics of the animal. The
Spondylus mollusc lives on rocky, coral or detritic bottoms of
the sublittoral zone from 1m to about 50m depth, permanently
cemented to hard surfaces by its right valve. It prefers exposed
positions on vertical rocks with slow but steadily moving cur-
rents (Delamotte & Vardala-Theodorou 1994: 250; Fischer
et al. 1987: 492; Katsanevakis et al. 2008). The species is
7 According to some scholars (Séfériadès 2000), this type of trade can be
assumed in Neolithic communities even within distances shorter than
50km.
 Tatiana Theodoropoulou – Spondylus gaederopus in Aegean Prehistory: Deciphering Shapes from Northern Greece
often accompanied by the sponge Crambe crambe that cov-
ers the upper valve and camouflages its shell. The encoding
of the ecological information on Spondylus reveals the pos-
sible methods of procurement. Modern and ethnographic data
on fishing of Spondylus include the use of rakes, trawls and
dredges (Fischer et al. 1987: 492; Katsanevakis et al. 2008).
In very shallow waters they can be gathered by hand or with
small rakes. In somewhat deeper water, long-handled rakes or
oyster tongs are used to reach the beds. In some areas a dredge
is used. Harvesting of Spondylus in deeper waters may also be
achieved by diving from boats and detaching the camouflaged
molluscs from their bed with the aid of a knife or pointed tool
(Lever 1963; Sims et al. 1990). This fishing method usually
involves time, skill and personal investment, which might add
social meanings and symbolisms to the fishing activity, the
persons involved, as well as the value of the fished shell (for
example, Malinowski 1922: 366-375). Coastal populations
would have probably been familiar with the aforementioned
methods, and it is likely that these latter would have been per-
meated with both social and symbolic values. On the other
hand, such a skilled activity might have been equally, if not
more, valued by distant groups, thus transmitted to the object.
In both cases, the individual or collective organization of the
activity would be subject to practical and social/symbolic con-
siderations (Theodoropoulou 2007: 487).
Although the described methods are likely to have been used
by prehistoric divers, acquisition of dead Spondylus valves
found shored on the beach is also possible by both coastal
and inland groups (on the uses of beach-worn shells in Ae-
gean Prehistory, see Theodoropoulou, forth.). The discrimina-
tion between fresh and water-worn specimens is possible on a
macroscopic level (worn exterior and interior surface, abraded
edges, erosion, natural holes, encrustation, see also Claassen
1998: 54-77), although it is sometimes extremely difficult to
distinguish the aforementioned traces, especially on worked
specimens. Fossil Spondylus-bearing geological deposits are
also present in Greece and might have been exploited in some
areas8. Macroscopic examination as well as chemical analy-
sis (87Sr/86Sr ratio, Shackleton & Elderfield 1990) are some
of the methods proposed to discriminate a recent from a fos-
sil Spondylus specimen (for a review of these methods, see
Douka, this volume), both methods not without drawbacks.
Yet, it has been suggested that fresh valves would have been
preferred, being less friable and breakable than beach-worn
and fossil specimens (Miller 2003). The suggested preference
seems to imply a direct link between the collector and the arti-
san, in some cases being the same person (either sedentary or
itinerant), yet this cannot be proved. On the other hand, more
symbolic attributes might be added to the aforementioned
technological choice of a certain raw material, namely fresh
vs. beach-worn, also transmitted to the final object (Theodo-
ropoulou 2007: 488).
8  Although the genus Spondylus is known since the Jurassic period,
Spondylus gaederopus is a recent species.
95
Why Spondylus?
Proximity to the source or, to a regional network of exchanges,
partly explains the presence of numerous Spondylus remains
in most prehistoric sites in Northern Greece. But why Spon-
dylus as a raw material rather than some other shell species?
Although focus is usually put on the Spondylus shell, one
should also review the possible uses of the flesh within an
archaeological study of Spondylus fragments. Like most
molluscs from the Greek seas, Spondylus is edible and suit-
able for human consumption, although its nutritional value
is questioned, as it contains important quantities of uric acid
(Katsanevakis et al. 2008). Modern harvesting by commercial
divers primarily involves the exploitation of its succulent ad-
ductor muscle, occasionally sold in local markets (Fischer et
al. 1987: 492). Spondylus is considered a delicacy in some
areas and for this same reason it is given the name “royal oys-
ter” (Katsanevakis et al. 2008)9. Yet, although unworked frag-
ments of Spondylus gaederopus are commonly found in many
Aegean sites, their exploitation for dietary purposes is rarely
brought forward (Becker 1996; Prummel 2000; Theodoropou-
lou 2007: 441; Veropoulidou, this volume).
What is then that makes Spondylus a better candidate for the
use of its shell as raw material? In the case of shells the materi-
al per se might offer a good explanation for its choice. Accord-
ing to Taborin (2004: 67), “nature has given to humans shells
as natural jewels, an available source, constantly renewed,
diversified and colored, offering species of multiple sizes and
shapes”. Indeed, shell shape and structure provided ancient
populations a valuable raw material for the manufacture of
ornaments and tools. Among shells, Spondylus gaederopus is
one of the most praised raw materials from prehistoric times
onwards. Its size can range from 40 to 150mm, making Spon-
dylus one of the well-sized shells from the Mediterranean
and one of the few shell shapes not limiting transformation
to minimal interventions. This observation explains in part
the most diversified repertoire of shapes among shell objects,
sometimes only created from Spondylus specimens. More-
over, thanks to its natural properties (hard, dense, light), it is
an excellent surface to work on. The shell offers a unique col-
ored surface. The left valve is colored from brownish to violet
and purple, whereas the right valve is usually white10.
Additional working of Spondylus shells by man leads to par-
tial or more important transformation of the raw material. The
colored surface may be darkened by heating or deliberately
removed by friction (Leight 2002). Sometimes, a deliberate
grey/black color is achieved by burning of the shell11. Further
artificial coloring of shells is possible12. Other attributes that
allow archaeologists to identify worked Spondylus objects as
9  A similar highly valued consumption has been suggested for Andean so-
cieties (Glowacki 2005; Hastorf 2003).
10 On the combination of white/red on Spondylus, see Chapman (2002).
Also, Cambell (1983); Mester (1989); Trubitt (2003).
11 This is the case of a single fragment of a Spondylus gaederopus annulet
from Promachon-Topolniča (Theodoropoulou 2007: 497).
12 Colored examples are only known from Crete (Evans 1921: fig. 21).
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
such, usually involve the degree of working, grounding down
the surface, as well as their reduced dimensions as compared
to the original valve size. Gouging, percussion or hammering,
abrasion or scratching, chipping, cutting or sawing, drilling or
grinding, polishing, are the most commonly used techniques
(see below; Bocquenet 1998; Francis 1991; Karali 1999b: 27;
Miller 1997: 115; Taborin 1993: 52-55).
The choice of the material as well as the selection of one or
more methods of working and the degree of transformation
would be pointed out by cognitive parameters, such as the
technical skill of the craftsman, the technological level of a
given human community, the desired object, as well as by less
tangible motivations, such as the perception of the material as
such13, the encoded message of both raw material and finished
object through a complex network of aesthetics and symbol-
isms (Claassen 1998: 203-209; Nikolaidou 2003; Theodoro-
poulou 2007: 522). In the case of Spondylus, one should not
forget that, although a marine shell may be preferred over a
freshwater one within an inland community as “speaking to a
fascination with the distant” (Nikolaidou 2003)14, yet its very
marine origin, different from the natural environment of man,
symbolically linked with water and the sea, involving an effort
and skill for its acquisition, would wrap it up with a remote
identity, even within coastal Aegean communities15.
From Shells to Shaped Objects: Some Examples from
Prehistoric Northern Greece
Deciphering the use of the finished artifact can be equally in-
triguing and complex as decoding the meanings behind the
transformation of a raw material. The unique or multi-dimen-
sional repertoire of shapes and uses related to a single raw ma-
terial, such as Spondylus gaederopus, may involve different
levels of perception of this latter. The archaeological record
from Northern Greece points to a rather diversified exploita-
tion of Spondylus as raw material for the manufacture of a
range of objects, namely ornaments.
In the following, the most frequent types of artifacts from
Neolithic Greece made of Spondylus gaederopus are present-
ed. This is not in any case an exhaustive listing of artifacts but
rather a general panorama of shapes and types found in North-
ern Aegean, with the aim of comprehending the role of this
shell in prehistoric craftsmanship, possibly indicating some
standardization in the choice and transformation of this raw
material to a finished object.
Beads, buttons, pendants
The valves of Spondylus provide an excellent raw material
for the manufacture of beads and pendants. The minimum re-
13 On the comparison of Spondylus with marble, see Chapman (2002).
14 The value of marine shells increases with distance from the coast in dif-
ferent cultures (see examples in Trubitt 2003).
15 The study of kula exchange in the Trobriand Islands (Papua New Guinea)
provides evidence for highly valued marine shell objects within these
island societies (for a review, see Trubitt 2003). On the perception of
seascapes by prehistoric coastal and inland communities, see Theodoro-
poulou, in press.
96
quirement for identifying a perforated test as a bead or pen-
dant is that the hole be properly placed for stringing (Francis
1991). Within this category, both naturally holed and artifi-
cially perforated examples can be included. On the other hand,
the utilitarian function of these objects can vary according to
the way they were used: pendants suspended by a string, beads
attached to a string forming a necklace to be worn around the
neck or a hairband, beads forming wrist- or ankle-bracelets
attached to a string, buttons and beads on different parts of
the body including the head and the shoulders, as well as for
the decoration of garments and tissues, belts, basketry, use of
beads as money (Borello & Micheli 2004; Leigh 2002; Lever
1963; Nikolaidou 2003; Novella 1995: 83; Velázquez et al.,
this volume; Woodford 1908).
Pendants usually are unique, non-repetitive pieces of adorn-
ment within a site. Pendants are defined as finished artifacts
with a suspension trimming (perforations, grooves, notches)
that is off-center, to be able to wear the ornament as a pendant
on a string (Lammers 2007: 61). The valve may be given a
rough shape to form a pendant, usually keeping the valve’s
original dimensions (typical single-holed valve from Limen-
aria and double-holed valve from Kitrini Limni-Megalo Nisi
Galanis: Theodoropoulou 2007: 532, 458 v. 2). It seems that all
types of Spondylus were collected for pendants: fresh-caught,
water-worn and fossil tests, with water-worn being the most
usual one. Shapes vary from semi-circular, oval or discoid
(Avgi: Theodoropoulou, study in progress; Dimitra: Karali
1997; Promachon-Topolniča: Theodoropoulou 2007: 401 v. 2;
Rodochori Cave: Rodden 1964; Servia: Mould et al. 2000;)
to triangular (Dimitra: Karali 1997), rectangular, cross-shaped
or other (Dikili Tash: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992; Dispilio:
Ifantidis 2006a: 114; Kryoneri: Theodoropoulou 2007: 286 v.
2; Makriyalos: Pappa & Veropoulidou, this volume; Megalo
Nisi Galanis: Theodoropoulou 2007: 504; Olynthos: Mylonas
1929; Poliochni: Bernabò Brea 1964: Tabl. xxxvi; Promachon-
Topolniča: Theodoropoulou 2007: 504; Sitagroi: Miller 2003)
(Fig. 2). In most cases, the desired shape is achieved by rough
cutting, then abrasion. In other instances fragments of dam-
aged annulets were modified into holed elongated pendants
(Ifantidis 2006a: 74; Pappa & Veropoulidou, this volume).
The surface could be either left intact, as in the case of Kryo-
neri (Theodoropoulou 2007: 504), or, most often get a more
or less intense abrasion; sometimes the natural growth lines of
the shell are intentionally preserved. Perforation is obtained
by drilling or cutting, usually on the weaker edge of the shell,
which is near the posterior margin of the valve. In the case of
multiple holes (for instance, Makriyalos: Pappa & Veropouli-
dou, this volume), they are most usually spotted on the same
side of the object; nevertheless, rectangular or elongated tests
are given one hole on each side, which makes their applica-
tion on clothes or other surfaces also possible. The shape of
the holes is usually round, but other types have also been re-
corded (for instance, Promachon-Topolniča: Theodoropoulou
2007: 504, 403 v. 2). Some of the specimens show use wear
on the inside of the hole indicating rubbing against a thread,
a string or a fabric (Ifantidis 2006a: 95; personal observations
on Koukonisi, Limenaria, Megalo Nisi Galanis, as well as
ornament or tool from Mikro Vouni: Theodoropoulou 2007:
505). In rare cases, namely at Dikili Tash, the thread would
 Tatiana Theodoropoulou – Spondylus gaederopus in Aegean Prehistory: Deciphering Shapes from Northern Greece
Figure 2. Pendants from: a. Servia b. Dispilio c. Poliochni d, f. Avgi
e. Sitagroi g. Promachon h. Kryoneri i. Limenaria
be attached with the help of notches on the inner surface of
the valves (Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992). Finally, a number of
Spondylus gaederopus specimens from prehistoric Northern
Greece bear traces of preliminary working (abrasion, cutting,
polishing), to note some: Kryoneri, Limenaria, Mikro Vouni,
Toumba (Veropoulidou 2002; Theodoropoulou 2007: 505). It
is likely that these shell fragments were also destined for the
manufacture of pendants.
Beads of Spondylus gaederopus are a common find in prehis-
toric sites from Northern Greece, although it is often difficult
to conclude on the raw material they were made of based on
macroscopic examination, since these objects are often heav-
ily modified and natural relief of the shell is removed. Beads
are defined as polished ornaments with a roughly central per-
foration, with a symmetry along the perforation’s longitudinal
axis (Lammers 2007: 61). Bead manufacture would undergo
a standardized operational sequence, including chipping the
shell fragment into smaller pieces to give it a rough shape
and reduce it to the desired size, perforating the specimen by
drilling, and sometimes polishing the outer surface (Francis
1991; Malinowski 1922: 371-372; Miller 2003; Tsuneki 1989;
Woodford 1908). Ethnographic record provides evidence of
heating beads on hot stones to turn them a different or deeper
color (Leigh 2002). The shapes of beads from the studied area
vary: cylindrical, elongated cylindrical, discoid, barrel-shaped,
rectangular or star-shaped (Fig. 3a-e). They are usually found
together in various quantities: 180 in Sitagroi (Miller 2003),
74 in Dimitra (Karali 1997), 42 in Dikili Tash (Karali-Yan-
nakopoulou 1992), more than 38 in Avgi (Theodoropoulou,
study in progress), 34 in Makriyalos (Pappa & Veropoulidou,
97
Figure 3. Beads from: a, d. Dispilio b. Sitagroi c. Avgi e. Sitagroi.
Buttons from: f. Makriyalos g. Avgi.
this volume), 25 in Dispilio (Ifantidis 2006a), 15 in Megalo
Nisi Galanis (Theodoropoulou 2007: 505), while only a hand-
ful in Kastri and Skala Sotiros (Karali 1999a, 1999b, 1999c),
Nea Nikomedeia (Karali-Yannakopoulou 1993), Poliochni
(Bernabò Brea 1964), Promachon-Topolniča (Theodoropou-
lou 2007: 505), Servia (Mould et al. 2000).
Other ornamental elements made of Spondylus gaederopus
are also known from this geographical area, given different
names, such as “buckles” and “buttons”, depending on the
shape of the object and type of perforation (Avgi: Theodoro-
poulou, study in progress; Dimitra: Karali 1997; Makriyalos:
Pappa & Veropoulidou, this volume; Kitrini Limni-Megalo
Nisi Galanis: Theodoropoulou 2007: 458 v. 2; for an unfin-
ished item from Promachon-Topolniča, see Theodoropoulou
2007: 403 v. 2) (Fig. 3f-g). The term “button” covers circular
or oval objects, flattened on one side, with a longitudinally
holed conical upper part. “Buckles” are discoid or oval arti-
facts with multiple perforations at each side. Although found
in smaller quantities than the bead-shaped objects, they seem
to have had similar uses, namely by being attached to a sur-
face or suspended by a string. A somewhat distinct group of
artifacts are the so called “earrings”, small and fine Spondylus
objects, incised in the median zone, bearing no hole (Makri-
yalos: Pappa & Veropoulidou, this volume). Their use remains
enigmatic, although they are also likely to have been attached
to a surface by a string.
Annulets
This term groups together artifacts in the shape of bangles, of
medium to large dimensions. Both valves of Spondylus pro-
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
Figure 4. Annulets from: a. Dikili Tash b. Sitagroi c. Dispilio
d. Promachon e. Kryoneri
vide a suitable raw material for the manufacture of bangles,
although the study of annulets from a number of Neolithic
sites from Greece indicates a certain preference for the left
valve, thinner and easier to ground16. This preference has been
linked to either a standardized operational sequence, the skill
of the craftsman or to aesthetic implications (Miller 2003;
Nikolaidou 2003)17. The procedure involved grounding of the
outer curved surface of the shell on a stone until a ring was
produced, then giving the inner edges their rough shape, fi-
nally refining the outer surface by further grounding (Shackle-
ton 2003). Most of the Spondylus annulets do not show a high
degree of polishing. This does not seem to be due to an unfin-
ished chaîne opératoire. It would rather be argued that it was a
deliberate choice to leave the growth lines of the shell visible,
thus producing a visual effect. One single annulet from Kryo-
neri is notched on the outer surface, thus producing a “wavy”
ornament (Malamidou 1997; Theodoropoulou 2007: 286 v. 2).
In some cases, the annulets were kept the colors of the origi-
nal shell, ranging from orange-reddish to violet, whereas, in
other instances, the specimens have been deliberately burned,
thus producing a grayish to blackish color (Karali 1999b: 164;
Theodoropoulou 2007: 497)18.
16 For comparison, see Spondylus hook-shaped objects shaped from right
valves, below.
17 On the deliberate choice of right/left valves, see also Siklósi & Csengeri,
this volume.
18 On the deliberate burning of Thessalian Spondylus bracelets leading to
disuse, see Halstead (1993).
98
Figure 5. Various objects from: a. Dispilio b, d. Mikro Vouni
c. Limenaria e. Dikili Tash f. Ayios Mamas
Whole objects are not common (for example, 4 in Dikili Tash:
Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992; 1 in Dispilio: Ifantidis 2006a:
75; 1 in Kryoneri: Theodoropoulou 2007: 286 v. 2; 1 in Makri-
yalos: Pappa & Veropoulidou, this volume), yet the numer-
ous elliptical fragments usually allow to suggest the presence
of whole annulets (more than 155 in Sitagroi: Miller 2003;
Nikolaidou 2003; Shackleton 2003; 85 in Dikili Tash: Karali-
Yannakopoulou 1992; 51 in Dispilio: Ifantidis 2006a: 73; 30
in Dimitra: Karali 1997; 28 in Stauroupoli: Karali 2002, 2004;
less than 10 items, usually 1-3 in other sites: Avgi: Stratouli
2004; Theodoropoulou, under study; Kitrini Limni: Fotiadis
& Hondroyanni-Metoki 1993; Theodoropoulou 2007: 458,
v. 2; Kryoneri: Malamidou 1997; Theodoropoulou 2007: 286
v. 2; Limenaria: Theodoropoulou 2007; Nea Nikomedeia:
Karali-Yannakopoulou 1993; Olynthos: Mylonas 1929: 81;
Paradeisos: Reese 1987; Promachon-Topolniča: Theodo-
ropoulou 2007: 403 v. 2; Servia: Mould et al. 2000; Vassi-
lika: Grammenos 1997; Thermi: Pappa et al. 2000) (Fig. 4).
In some cases, the presence of holes on both edges of these
fragments imply that they would have been attached to each
other (in groups of two, three, or more) to form a complete
circle. Alternatively, these holes would serve to repair and re-
use broken annulets (Sitagroi). The size of the original valve
seems to be a clearer factor for the choice of a piece of shell
rather than another. For instance, the mean inner diameter of
Dispilio Spondylus annulets is 6.2-7cm (Ifantidis 2006a: 74),
6.5-8.7cm at Sitagroi (Nikolaidou 2003), 6.3-7cm/7-9.5cm at
Dikili Tash (Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992), whereas less than
6cm at Makriyalos (Pappa & Veropoulidou, this volume) and
1.2cm in Promachon-Topolniča (Theodoropoulou 2007: 403
v. 2). The reconstructed size of annulets has been put for-
 Tatiana Theodoropoulou – Spondylus gaederopus in Aegean Prehistory: Deciphering Shapes from Northern Greece
ward as indication for their use: they could have been worn
as “rings” or “bracelets”, on the wrist or ankle of younger or
older members of the community (depending on their diam-
eter), suspended as pendants, used as decorative implements
on the body or woven onto garments (Marangou 1991; Miller
1997: 217; Nikolaidou 2003).
Belts and hooks, spools and plates
The fascinating repertoire of Spondylus artifacts from North-
ern Greece seems to always balance between the spheres of
utilitarian and symbolic, and these are not always easily dis-
sociated, especially when shapes go beyond the typical social
ornaments (based on a distinction by Trubitt 2003).
One of the most prestigious and discussed shapes has been
recovered from the Late Neolithic layers of Dispilio lakeside
settlement (Ifantidis, this volume). These are hook-shaped
objects made from whole, large Spondylus right valves, with
vivid red colors (Fig. 5). Although similar artifacts have been
found in few Neolithic sites in Greece (in Thessaly, in Franch-
thi Cave, in Alepotrypa Cave in the Peloponnese; for an over-
view, see Ifantidis 2006a: 101-104 and 2006b) and in Cen-
tral and Western Europe (Séfériadès 1995b; Todorova 2000),
the Dispilio assemblage is the most numerous to present day,
comprising eight objects. The manufacture centers of both the
Dispilio objects and similar artifacts from Europe remain un-
clear, with both an Aegean and a Central European origin be-
ing suggested in relevant literature (Ifantidis 2006b).
The functional use of these objects is not less complex. Due to
their distinct shape and important size (the whole ones mea-
suring more than 11cm long and weighing 140gr.; Ifantidis
2006a: 101), they have formerly received several interpreta-
tions, ranging from a use as fishhooks to more symbolic ones,
namely as imitating the heads of shepherd’s crooks, as sym-
bols of wealthy farmers and, gradually, of any authority (Pa-
pathanasopoulos 1996). Current research suggests that “these
objects had the ornamental function of impressive belt buckles
or other dress implements” (Ifantidis 2006b), a function im-
plied from analogous Spondylus burial finds in Europe (the so-
called “winged Spondylus” found in cemetery contexts near
the waist of the deceased, Séfériadès 1995b). Use-wear analy-
sis seems to support the aforementioned hypothesis. Beyond
their functional use, the importance of these objects would lie
on the impressive visual effect due to their impressive size,
weight, and coloration. Attempts to repair them with perfora-
tions further suggest a deliberate effort to maintain these ob-
jects within a community as functional and symbolic items.
The objects described above could be ascribed to a group of
Spondylus artifacts which might combine a functional and a
decorational use. Another unique object comes from Mikro
Vouni (Theodoropoulou 2007: 378-379 v. 2). The right valve
of Spondylus gaederopus has been given a concave elongated
shape (dimensions: 5.7 to 3.5cm), following the natural curves
of the valves, with a round hole (8mm) at the hinge (Fig. 5b).
The shape of this artifact reminds spoons or burnishers (Lam-
mers 2007: 91), but its use as pendant cannot be ruled out.
Although the perforation bears use wear, it is not clear at this
99
point whether this is the result of a thread or a wooden element
being attached to the hole. The holed valve from Limenaria
(Theodoropoulou 2007: 320) is another interesting example
(Fig. 2i). Although its use as pendant is not impossible, both
the location of the perforation and the weight of this artifact
bring to mind other possible functions, for instance as a loom-
or fishing weight, or a belt hook. Going a step further, the
Spondylus pendant with incised upper surface from Poliochni
(Bernabò Brea 1964: Tabl. xxxvi) might be destined for a use
as seal, possibly also worn by its owner (Fig. 2c).
Finally, the archaeological analysis of Spondylus shells should
not be limited to finished artifacts or partly modified speci-
mens. Moving from shaped objects back to shell shape, Spon-
dylus valves per se offer a natural tool, ready to use. Their
shape makes it easy to handle from the hinge, whereas their
stone-like structure offers a resistant tool, suitable for heavy
handling. With minimum or without any modification they
can be used in several activities, namely as plates or recipients
(on a burial find from Kastri: Karali 1999a; on 4 valves from
Stauroupoli and 1 from Dikili Tash interpreted as recipients:
Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992, 2002), as scraping tools (scrap-
ers or burnishers) (Charpentier et al. 2004; van der Leeuw
1993), cutting tools (knifes) (Toth & Woods 1989; Spondylus
valves from Ayios Mamas: Becker 1996; irregular Spondylus
fragments with use wear from Kryoneri, Limenaria and Mi-
kro Vouni: Theodoropoulou 20007: 526), or percussion tools
(axes) (on a broken conical “axe head” with use wear from
Dikili Tash: Jones O’Day & Keegan 2001; Karali-Yanna-
kopoulou 1992; Lammers 2007: 80) (Fig. 5c-f). Identifying
these uses is not always straightforward, as they do not display
regular break patterns and are difficult to identify amongst
food debris. For this reason, both macroscopic and micro-
scopic examination of edge damages has to be conducted in
order to define, among other, the types of motion conducted
by the user, the types of worked surfaces, as well as any inten-
tional retouch of the tools (Lammers 2007: 80). Nevertheless,
the distinction between practical technologies that respond to
basic problems of survival and human maintenance, and pres-
tige technologies that address social meanings, as defined by
Hayden (1998), may not always apply to Spondylus items. A
more detailed contextual approach might provide an insight
into the social uses of these unshaped, yet functional and
meaningful objects.
Conclusions
The above repertoire is far from being a final list of Spon-
dylus objects from prehistoric Northern Greece; as are the
possible uses during the life of these artifacts. Using a single
raw material, a multiplicity of techniques, shapes and uses
was achieved. Yet, within a conceivably sketchy picture, there
seems to be emerging a recurrent pattern across distant com-
munities and different environments. A closer look points to
a pronounced preference of Spondylus gaederopus for the
manufacture of body ornaments, and a more singular use for
a variety of more functional objects. It is difficult to draw the
line between the technological, functional, aesthetic and social
motivations of this choice. Whether these ornaments and ob-
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
jects encoded a high symbolic meaning and fulfilled a social
identification linked to the raw material itself rather than to the
form, it is a fascinating yet unclear subject. One would have
to decipher the symbolisms behind the choice of this marine
material, close and yet remote from Aegean prehistoric com-
munities. There might lie the key to understanding the choice
to transform a marine shell into a social object. In reality, the
social body may not seek highly diverse coding systems but
rather a corporeal bonding to the physical seascape.
Summing up, the story of Spondylus is far more complex than
a simple chain of technological events leading from a marine
raw material to a functional use of an object. For, as it has
been pointed out, every item detached from the natural envi-
ronment and incorporated in the cultural process is meant to
bear social and symbolic meanings, from the moment of pro-
curement of the raw material to the discard of the finished ob-
ject and beyond. Archaeological research may decipher some
steps of this chain, yet rarely will the full perception of matter
and object as messengers of a cultural language be revealed.
100
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank the editors for inviting me to contribute to
this volume. Special thanks to F. Ifantidis for tolerating re-
peated delays in submitting the manuscript. Parts of this paper
are based on work conducted during my PhD thesis (unpub-
lished). I am grateful to all excavators who have entrusted me
with the study of shell assemblages from Northern Greece, in
particular D. Malamidou for Kryoneri, D. Malamidou and S.
Papadopoulos, for Limenaria, Ch. Ziota and M. Fotiadis for
Megalo Nisi Galanis, D. Matsas for Mikro Vouni, Ch. Kouk-
ouli-Chrysanthaki for Promachon-Topolniča. For other data
from Northern Aegean, any errors and omissions of published
sites or projects in progress are the author’s sole responsibil-
ity.
 Tatiana Theodoropoulou – Spondylus gaederopus in Aegean Prehistory: Deciphering Shapes from Northern Greece
References
Becker, C.
1996 Nourriture, cuillères, ornements... les temoi-
gnages d’une exploitation variée des mol-
lusques marins à Ayios Mamas (Chalcidique,
Grèce). Anthropozoologica 24: 3-17.
Bernabò Brea, L.
1964 Poliochni I: Città preistorica nell’isola di
Lemnos. Roma.
Besios, M. & M. Pappa
1995 Pydna. Thessaloniki: Pieriki Anaptyxiaki.
Borrello, M. A. & R. Micheli
2004 Spondylus gaederopus, gioiello dell’Europa
preistorica. In Conchiglie e Archeologia (ed. M.
A. Borrello): 71-82. Preistoria Alpina 40 (sup-
pl. 1).
Bocquenet, J.-P.
1998 Les ateliers de perles en coquillages marins des
Pyrénées méditerranéenne: L’exemple de l’ate-
lier de perles du ’Moulin’ à Durban-Corbières
(Aude). In L’homme préhistorique et la mer:
Actes du 120ème congrès national des sociétés
historiques et scientifiques, Aix-en-Provence,
23-26 octobre 1995 (éd. G. Camps): 259-272.
Paris: Éditions du CTHS.
Campbell, S. F.
1983 Attaining rank: A classification of Kula shell
valuables. In The Kula: New Perspectives
on Massim Exchange (ed. J. W. Leach & E.
Leach): 229-249. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
Chapman, J. C.
2002 Colourful prehistories: The problem with the
Berlin and Kay colour paradigm. In Colour-
ing the Past: The Significance of Colour in Ar-
chaeological Research (ed. A. Jones & G. Mac-
Gregor): 45-72. Oxford: Berg.
Charpentier, V., S. Méry & C. Phillips
2004 Des coquillages... outillages des Ichtyophages?
Mise en évidence d’industries sur Veneridae,
du Néolithique à l’âge du Fer (Yémen, Oman,
E.A.U.). Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy
15: 1-10.
Claassen, C.
1998 Shells. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
[Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology].
Delamotte, M. & E. Vardala-Theodorou 2001 Expedient tools from the Northern West Indies.
1994 Shells from the Greek Seas. Athens: Goulandris
Museum of Natural History.
Dimitrijević, V. & B. Tripković
2006 Spondylus and Glycymeris bracelets: Trade re-
flections at Neolithic Vinča-Belo Brdo. Docu-
menta Praehistorica 33: 237-252.
Evans, A.
1921 The Palace of Minos at Knossos. Vol. I: The
Neolithic and Early and Middle Minoan Ages.
London: MacMillan and Co. Limited.
101
Francis Jr., P.
1991 Beadmaking at Arikamedu and beyond. World
Archaeology 23(1): 28-43.
Fischer, W., M. L. Bauchot & M. Schneider (eds.)
1987 Fiches FAO d’Identification des Espèces pour
les Besoins de la Pêche-Méditerranée et Mer
Noire-Zone de Pêche 37. Révision 1. Vol. I:
Végétaux et Invertébrés. Rome: FAO.
Fotiadis, N. & A. Hondroyanni-Metoki
1993 Kitrini Limni: Diachroniki synopsi, radio-
chronologiseis kai i anaskafi tou 1993. To Ar-
chaiologiko Ergo sti Makedonia kai Thraki 7:
19-32.
Glowacki, M.
2005 Food of the gods or mere mortals? Hallucino-
genic Spondylus and its interpretive implica-
tions for early Andean society. Antiquity 79:
257-268.
Grammenos, D. V.
1997 Neolithiki Makedonia. Athens: Ministry of Cul-
ture, Tameio Archaeologikon Poron kai Apal-
lotrioseon [Dimosieumata tou Archaeologikou
Deltiou, 56].
Halstead, P.
1993 Spondylus shell ornaments from Late Neolithic
Dimini, Greece: Specialized manufacture or un-
equal accumulation? Antiquity 67: 603-609.
Hastorf, C. A.
2003 Andean luxury foods: Special food for the an-
cestors, deities and the elite. Antiquity 77: 545-
554.
Hayden, B.
1998 Practical and prestige technologies: The evolu-
tion of material systems. Journal of Archaeo-
logical Method and Theory 5: 1-55.
Ifantidis, F.
2006a Ta Kosmimata tou Neolithikou Oikismou tou
Dispiliou Kastorias: Paragogi kai Chrisi mias
“Aisthitikis Ergaleiothikis”. Thessaloniki: Ar-
istotle University of Thessaloniki [MA Thesis].
2006b ‘Enigmatic’ notched Spondylus ornaments from
the Neolithic: New evidence from the Aegean.
The Archaeo+Malacology Group Newsletter 9
[URL: http://triton.anu.edu.au/issue_9.htm].
Jones O’Day, S. & W. F. Keegan
Latin American Antiquity 12(3): 274-290.
Karali, L.
1997 Dimitra: Matériel malacologique. In Neolithiki
Makedonia (ed. D. V. Grammenos): 200-211.
Athens: Ministry of Culture, Tameio Archae-
ologikon Poron kai Apallotrioseon [Dimosieu-
mata tou Archaeologikou Deltiou, 56].
1999a Meleti tou malakologikou ulikou apo ta nek-
rotafeia Kastri kai Larnaki. Parartima III. In
Proistoriki Thasos I: Ta Nekrotafeia tou Prois-
torikou Oikismou Kastri kai tis Thesis Larnaki
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
(ed. Ch. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki): 756-759.
Athens: Ministry of Culture, Tameio Archae-
ologikon Poron kai Apallotrioseon [Dimosieu-
mata tou Archaeologikou Deltiou, 45].
1999b Shells in Aegean Prehistory. Oxford: Archaeo-
press [British Archaeological Reports, Interna-
tional Series, 761].
1999c To malakologiko yliko tis Thasou: Ta ostrea os
proti yli. In THASOS: Matières premières et
technologie de la préhistoire à nos jours, Actes
du colloque international 26-29/9/1995 Thasos,
Limenaria (ed. Ch. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki):
389-400. Athènes: Editions de l’École Fran-
çaise d’Athènes.
2002 Anaskafi Stauroupolis: Malakologiko yliko.
In Sostikes Anaskafes sto Neolithiko Oikismo
Stauroupolis Thessalonikis (ed. D. V. Gram-
menos & S. Kotsos): 745-775. Thessaloniki:
Archaiologiko Institouto Boreias Elladas [Di-
mosieumata tou Archaiologikou Institoutou
Boreias Elladas, 2].
2004 Anaskafi Stauroupolis: Malakologiko yliko. In
Sostikes Anaskafes sto Neolithiko Oikismo Stau-
roupolis Thessalonikis: Meros II (1998-2003)
(ed. D. V. Grammenos & S. Kotsos): 527-603.
Thessaloniki: Archaiologiko Institouto Boreias
Elladas [Dimosieumata tou Archaiologikou In-
stitoutou Boreias Elladas, 6].
Karali-Yannakopoulou, L.
1992 Les mollusques au site de Dikili Tash, vil-
lage préhistorique de Macédoine Orientale;
La parure. In Dikili Tash, village préhisto-
rique de Macédoine Orientale, I: Fouilles de
Jean Deshayes 1961-1975 (éd. R. Treuil): 112
[outillage]; 153-157 [alimentation]; 159-164
[parure]. Athènes: École Française d’Athènes
[Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Suppl.
XXIV].
1993 La parure en coquillage en région Méditerra-
néenne. Archaiognosia 7: 41-63.
Katsanevakis, S., E. Lefkaditou, S. Galinou-Mitsoudi, D.
Koutsoubas & A. Zenetos
2008 Molluscan species of minor commercial inter-
est in Hellenic Seas: Distribution, exploitation
and conservation status. Mediterranean Marine
Science 9(1): 77-118.
Kinch, J.
2003 Marine mollusc use among the women of
Brooker Island, Louisiade Archipelago, Papua
New Guinea. SPC Women in Fisheries Informa-
tion Bulletin 13: 5-14.
Lammers, Y. M. J.
2007 Tracing Traces from Present to Past: A Func-
tional Analysis of Pre-Columbian Shell and
Stone Artifacts from Anse a la Gourde and Mo-
rel, Guadeloupe, FWI. Leiden: Leiden Univer-
sity Press [Archaeological Studies Leiden Uni-
versity, 15].
102
Lamprell, K. L.
1987 Spondylus: Spiny Oyster Shells of the World.
Leiden: Bill-Backhuys.
Leigh, C.
2002 Cutting shell disks: Langa Langa Lagoon, Solo-
mon Islands. Art-Pacific [URL: http://www.
art-pacific.com/artifacts/nuguinea/solomons/
cutshell.htm].
Lever, R. J. A. W.
1963 Monnaie de coquillages à Malaïta. Nouméa,
Nouvelle-Calédonie. Bulletin du Pacifique Sud
13(2): 49-50.
Malamidou, D.
1997 Anaskafi ston proistoriko oikismo “Kryoneri”
N. Kerdyllion. To Archaiologiko Ergo sti Make-
dona kai Thraki 11: 509-538.
Malinowski, B.
1922 Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of
Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archi-
pelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Marangou, Ch.
1991 Figurines néolithiques parées de Macédoine
orientale (Néolithique Récent, Grèce du Nord).
In Actes du XIIe congrès international des
sciences préhistoriques et protohistoriques,
Bratislava, 1-7 septembre 1991, vol. 2 (éd. J.
Pavúk): 327-334. Bratislava: Institut Archéo-
logique de l’Académie Slovaque des Sciences,
Nitra.
Mester, A. M.
1989 Marine shell symbolism in Andean culture. In
Proceedings of the 1986 Shell Bead Confer-
ence: Selected Papers (ed. I. C. F. Hayes, L.
Ceci & C. C. Bodner): 157-167. Rochester
(NY): Rochester Museum and Science Center
[Research Records, 20].
Miller, M. A.
1997 Jewels of Shell and Stone, Clay and Bone: The
Production, Function and Distribution of Ae-
gean Stone Age Ornaments. Boston: Boston
University [PhD Thesis].
2003 Technical aspects of ornament production at Si-
tagroi. In Prehistoric Sitagroi: Excavations in
Northeast Greece, 1968-1970. Vol. 2: The Final
Report (ed. E. Elster & C. Renfrew): 369-382.
Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology,
University of California [Monumenta Archaeo-
logica, 20].
Mould, C. A., C. Ridley & K. A. Wardle
2000 The shell small finds. In Servia I: Anglo-Hellen-
ic Rescue Excavations 1971-73 (ed. C. Ridley,
K. A. Wardle & C. A. Mould): 276-287. Lon-
don: British School at Athens [Supplementary
Vol., No. 32].
Müller, J.
1997 Neolithische und chalkolithische Spondylus-Ar-
tefakte: Anmerkungen zu Verbreitung, Tausch-
gebiet und sozialer Funktion. In ΧΡΟΝΟΣ:
 Tatiana Theodoropoulou – Spondylus gaederopus in Aegean Prehistory: Deciphering Shapes from Northern Greece
Festschrift für Bernard Hänsel (Hrsg. C. Be-
cker, M.-L. Dunkelmann, C. Metzner-Nebel-
sick, H. Peter-Röcher, M. Roeder & B. Teržan):
91-106. Espelkamp: Verlag Marie Leidorf [In-
ternationale Archäologie, Studia Honoraria, 1].
Mylonas, G.
1929 Excavations at Olynthus, I: The Neolithic Set-
tlement at Olynthos. Baltimore, Maryland: The
John Hopkins University Press [University
Studies in Archaeology, 6].
Nikolaidou, M.
2003 Items of adornment. In Prehistoric Sitagroi: Ex-
cavations in Northeast Greece, 1968-1970. Vol.
2: The Final Report (ed. E. Elster & C. Ren-
frew): 331-360. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute
of Archaeology, University of California [Mon-
umenta Archaeologica, 20].
Novella, R. A.
1995 Classification and Interpretation of Marine
Shell Artifacts from Western Mexico. Oxford:
British Archaeological Reports [International
Series, 622].
Papathanasopoulos, G. A.
1996 Catalogue entry no. 45. In Neolithic Culture
in Greece (ed. G. A. Papathanasopoulos): 228-
229. Athens: N. P. Goulandris Foundation &
Museum of Cycladic Art.
Pappa, M., S. Nanoglou & A. Nitsou
2000 Anaskafi neolithikou oikismou Thermis. To Ar-
chaiologiko Ergo sti Makedonia kai Thraki 14:
179-186.
Prummel, W.
2001 Spiny oyster (Spondylus gaederopus) consump-
tion during the Middle Bronze Age in Thessaly,
Greece. In Patina: Essays presented to Jay Jor-
dan Butler on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday
(ed. W. Metz, B. van Beek & H. Steegstra):
465-471. Groningen: W. H. Metz, B. L. van
Beek and H. Steegstra private publishers.
Reese, D. S.
1987 Marine and fresh-water molluscs. In Parade-
isos: A Late Neolithic Settlement in Aegean
Thrace (ed. P. Hellstrom): 119-133. Stockholm:
Medelhavsmuseet [Memoir, 7].
Renfrew, C.
1973 Trade and craft specialisation. In Neolithic
Greece (ed. D. R. Theocharis): 179-200. Ath-
ens: Cultural Foundation of National Bank of
Greece.
Rodden, R. J.
1964 Recent discoveries from Prehistoric Macedo-
nia. Balkan Studies 5: 109-124.
Séfériadès, M. L.
1995a Le commerce des spondyles de la mer Égée à la
Manche. Archéologia 309: 42-50.
1995b Spondylus Gaederopus: The earliest European
long distance exchange system. A symbolic and
structural approach to Neolithic societies. Doc-
umenta Praehistorica 22: 238-256.
103
2000 Spondylus Gaederopus: Some observations on
the earliest European long distance exchange
system. In Karanovo, Band III: Beiträge zum
Neolithikum in Südosteuropa (Hrsg. S. Hiller &
V. Nikolov): 423-437. Wien: Phoibos Verlag.
Shackleton, J. C. & H. Elderfield
1990 Strontium isotope dating of the source of
Neolithic European Spondylus shell artifacts.
Antiquity 64: 312-315.
Shackleton, N. J.
2003 Preliminary report on the molluscan remains at
Sitagroi. In Prehistoric Sitagroi: Excavations in
Northeast Greece, 1968-1970. Vol. 2: The Final
Report (ed. E. Elster & C. Renfrew): 361-368.
Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology,
University of California [Monumenta Archaeo-
logica, 20].
Shackleton, N. J. & C. Renfrew
1970 Neolithic trade routes realigned by oxygen iso-
tope analyses. Nature 228: 1062-1065.
Sims, N. A., G. L. Preston, B. M. Yeeting & R. Alfred
1990 Pearl Oysters in Christmas Island and the
Potential for Development of a Pearl Culture
Industry. Noumea (New Caledonia): South Pa-
cific Commission [Inshore Fisheries Research
Project Country Assignment Report].
Stratouli, G.
2004 Neolithiki Avgi Kastorias: Ena chorio prin apo
7.500 chronia. Archaiologia 91: 110-116.
Taborin, Y.
1993 La parure en coquillage au Paléolithique.
Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la
Recherche Scientifique [Gallia Préhistoire
XXIX Supplément].
2004 Langage sans parole: La parure aux temps pré-
historiques. Paris: La Maison des Roches.
Theodoropoulou, T.
2007 L’exploitation des ressources aquatiques en
Égée septentrionale aux périodes pré- et pro-
tohistoriques. Paris: Université Paris I Pathéon-
Sorbonne (2 volumes) [Phd Thesis].
in press Fishing (in) Aegean seascapes: Early Aegean
fishermen and their world. In The Seascape in
Aegean Prehistory: Interpretative Approach-
es to the Archaeological Remains of Human
Agency (ed. G. Vavouranakis). Aarhus: Aarhus
University Press [Monographs of the Danish In-
stitute at Athens Series].
forth. Dead from the sea: Sea-worn shells in Aegean
Prehistory. In Archaeomalacology: Shells in
the Archaeological Record, Proceedings of the
Archaeomalacology Session, 11th ICAZ Confer-
ence, Paris 2010 (ed. K. Szabo et al.). Oxford:
Archaeopress [British Archaeological Reports,
International Series].
Todorova, H.
2000 Die Spondylus-Problematic Heute. In Karano-
vo, Band III: Beiträge zum Neolithikum in Süd-
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies

osteuropa (Hrsg. S. Hiller & V. Nikolov): 415-

422. Wien: Phoibos Verlag.
Toth, N. & M. Woods
1989 Molluscan shell knives and experimental cut-
marks on bones. Journal of Field Archaeology
16(2): 250-255.
Trubitt, M. B. D.
2003 The production and exchange of marine shell
prestige goods. Journal of Archaeological Re-
search 11(3): 243-277.
Tsuneki, A.
1989 The manufacture of Spondylus shell objects at
Neolithic Dimini, Greece. Orient XXV: 1-21.
van der Leeuw, S. E.
1993 Giving the potter a choice: Conceptual aspects
of pottery techniques. In Technological Choic-
es: Transformation in Material Cultures since
the Neolithic (ed. P. Lemonnier): 227-237. Lon-
don: Routledge.
Veropoulidou, R.
2002 Ostrea apo to Ktirio A tis Toumbas Thessaloni-
kis. Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thes-
saloniki [MA Thesis].
Woodford, C. M.
1908 Notes on the manufacture of the Malaita shell
bead money of the Solomon Group. Man 8: 81-
84.

104