in water or treated as acids or bases in certain processes. Some oxides and hydroxides are amphoteric, which means that they display both acidic and basic properties. As an example, Pb(OF), shows an amphoteric property by reacting with both acids and bases: see Chang page 706. Lead (II) ion produces insoluble chlorides and very insoluble sulfides so they can be precipitated by low amounts of sulfide ions. This is the reason why it is included in the analysis of Group | and Group I cations. In addition, lead and silver ions can be separated by adding hot water (as shown in Eq.) because PbCI, is more soluble in water. Balance equation of obtaining lead and silver ions Bond, T. & Hughes, C. Chemistry challenging practice solutions. United Kingdom, UK: Cosmic Services. Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. A. (2014). Chemistry. New York, NY: MeGraw-Hill Education. Muroy, S.L. (2007). Experiment in general chemistry, 6" edition, United Stater, US: Cengage Learning. Skoog, D.A., West, D.M., Holler, JF & Crouch, SR. Fundamentals of analytical chemistry, 9" edition. Philippines, PH: Cengage Leaming Asia Pte Ltd. A solution in contact with one of the silver halide precipitates will contain a very small concentration of dissolved silver ions. The effect of adding the ammonia is to lower this concentration still further. What happens if you multiply this new silver ion concentration by the halide ion concentration? If the answer is less than the solubility product, the precipitate wil dissolve, H+ decreases the concentration of the anion by shitting the equilibrium HA= H+ + Ato the left. Ifthe solution is quite basic from the addition of NH3, a substantial amount of HINO3 may be needed to precipitate AgCl Add a few drops of AgNO3 solution to cach. One sample will form a white precipitate, The other will not have a precipitate. The sample that produced a precipitate is HCI, the other HINO3 The reactions: HCIaq) + AgNO3(aq) + AgCKs) + HNO3(aq) HINOR + AgNO3 — NO reaction - no precipitateREACTIONS AND SEPARATIONS OF CATIONS One problem in qualitative analysis is to test for one ion in a mixture of many ions. The chemical reactions encountered here can be acid-base, precipitation, complex formation, and oxidation-reduction. Precipitation reactions are of particular importance in qualitative analysis. It is a common type of reaction that occurs in aqueous solution which results in the formation of an insoluble product, or precipitate (Chang, 2014). In this experiment, in order to separate one ion from the other, a precipitating agent was added and gives the following equations: Eq. 1 Pb Eq. 2 Ag Eq. 3 Hg To insure complete mixing and to generate the precipitate much faster, the solution that contains ions was allowed to occasional stisring, It was also done to avoid the wrong result with regards to the physical properties of the solution and the precipitate, These reactions are all in equilibrium and are reversible reactions. At equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction is the same as the rate of backward reaction when a reversible reaction takes place under the condition of high pressure and temperature. In the case of the following equations from the experiment: (See equations on manual) it has been proved that even at equilibrium, decomposition of the products into reactants and combination of reactants into product continues. This equilibrium is dynamic in nature and is therefore called dynamic equilibrium. After adding HC! to a solution with Group I cations, and after further cooling, Pb2+ is now present in the solution because the PbCI2 is the most soluble in HCl, How to predict whether a precipitate will form when two solutions were mixed? Well, it depends on the solubility of the solute, which is defined as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature. The solubility table guides us in classifying 4 number of ionic compounds as soluble or insoluble. To illustrate this, lead sulfate will form a white precipite when dissolved in water at 25C while lead nitrate will not. This is according to the rule that all nitrates are soluble and all sulfates are soluble except sulfates of Agt, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Hyg? 2+, and Pb2+. In this way, we can distinguish tead sulfate from lead nitrate. In the same way, aqueous silver nitrate can be used to distinguish between dilute nitric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid. Aqueous silver chloride reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid in a displacement ren which produces silver chloride, a white ppt: AgNO3 (aq) + HCI (ag) = AgCI(s) +HINO3 (aq)Experiment 3.0 In quantitative chemistry, it was often necessary to make volume measurements with high accuracy. Volumetric glassware was designed for this level of accuracy and precision. Four main types of volumetric glassware were common: the graduated cylinder, the volumetric flask, the buret and the pipet. All volumetric glassware was calibrated with markings used to determine a specific volume of liquid to varying degrees of accuracy. This involves using glassware that can contain or deliver a volume known to a few hundredths of a milliliter, or about +0.01 mL. Volumetric glasswares were marked by manufacturers to the temperature at which the calibration was made, Most volumetric glasswares were made of a glass container which expands and contracts with rising and falling temperatures. This is why heating volumetric glasswares should not be done in an oven because it was calibrated to 20°C and if done, hysteresis might occur. Hysteresis is a phenomenon in which an object that expands will not return to the same volume again on cooling. Calibration of volumetric glasswares must be temperature dependent so that there is no need for temperature corrections in volume measurements for aqueous solutions. The volumetric ware can be calibrated by measuring the mass of a liquid (usually a temperature-cquilibrated water) of known density and temperature that is contained in a volumetric ware. A buoyancy correction must be made before subjecting to calibration, Buoyancy error will affect data if the density of the object being weighed differs significantly from that of the standard masses (Skoog D.A., West, D.M., Holler, F.J., & Crouch S.R., 2014), REACTIONS AND SEPARATIONS OF CATIONS One problem in qualitative analysis is to test for one ion in a mixture of many ions, The chemical reactions encountered here can be acid-base, precipitation, complex formation, and oxidation-reduction. Precipitation reactions are of particular importance in qualitative analysis. It is a common type of reaction that occurs in aqueous solution which resalts in the formation of an insoluble product, or precipitate (Chang, 2014). In this experiment, in order fo separate one ion from the other, a precipitating agent was added and gives the following equations: Eq. 1Pb Eq.2Ag Eq. 3 Hg To insure complete mixing and to generate the precipitate much faster, the solution that contains ions was allowed to occasionalAgNO3 (aq) + HCI (aq) = AgCl(s) +HNO3 (aq) However, aqueous silver nitrate does not react with dilute nitric acid, thus does nat produce precipitate. Again, this is according to the rule that all nitrates are soluble and that halides of Ag+. Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Hg? 2+, and Pb2+ are insoluble. (Eq. 2) Complexation reactions involve a metal-ion M reacting with @ ligand L to form a complex ML, as shown in Equation: M + L= ML, The selectivity of a ligand for one metal ion over another refers to the stability of the complexes formed (Skoog, et. al.) For example, ammonium hydroxide was added to water containing silver chloride precipitate. The silver chloride which is soluble in NI¥(aq), dissolves to form the complex ion [Ag(NH,),] (aq) which is a more stable complex. (Eq. 2) When silver chloride was reacted with concentrated ammonia, the more concentrated ammonia lowers the silver ion concentration even more. When the anion of a precipitate is the conjugate base of a weak acid (e.g. chloride from hydrochloric acid) the precipitate can sometimes be dissolved by the addition of a strong acid, in this experiment, the nitric acid. The base neutralizes the acid thus giving a lower concentration of the base leading to the formation of the precipitate. On the other hand, the silver iodide is so insoluble that the ammonia would not be able to lower the silver ion concentration enough for the precipitate to dissolve. The basis of these differing solubilities is due to the increasing ‘umber of shells in the halide ions as the group is descended. As the halide ions become bigger, their silver salts become even less soluble. (Eq. |) The classification of most oxides as acidic or basic depends on whether they produce acids or bases when dissolved in water or treated as acids or bases in certain processes, Some oxides and hydroxides are amphoteric, which means that they display both avidie and basie properties. As an example, Pb(OID), shows an amphoteric property by reacting with both acids and bases: see Chang page 706, Lead (II) ion produces insoluble chlorides and very insoluble sulfides so they can be precipitated by low amounts of sulfide ions, This is the reason why it is included in the analysis of Group land Group Il cations. In addition, lead and silver ions can be separated by adding hot water (as shown in Eq.) because PbCl, is more soluble in water. Balance equation of obtaining lead and silver ions Bond, T. & Hughes, C. Chemistry challenging practice solutions. United Kingdom, UK: Cosmic Services, Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. A. (2014). Chemistry. New York, NY: