INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVE

1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Drives are employed for systems that require motion control – e.g. transportation system, fans,
robots, pumps, machine tools, etc. Prime movers are required in drive systems to provide the
movement or motion and energy that is used to provide the motion can come from various
sources: diesel engines, petrol engines, hydraulic motors, electric motors etc. Drives that use
electric motors as the prime movers are known as electrical drives. It is estimated that about half
of electricity generated is converted to mechanical energy and this conversion is performed using
electric drives. A typical conventional electric drive system for variable speed application
employing multi machine system is shown in Figure 1, which also known as the Ward-Leonard
system.

Fig1.1. Conventional variable speed electric drive system

The variable speed of the load is obtained by varying the terminal voltage of the DC motor,
which is fed by the DC generator. The AC motor is mechanically coupled to the DC generator
and hence runs at constant speed. Subsequently, the field excitation of the DC generator is
adjusted in order to provide the adjustable DC voltage to the DC machine. If the DC generator
voltage is adjusted to be lower than the back EMF voltage of the DC motor, the ‘motor’ will be
operated in regenerative braking mode. In other words, 4-quadrant operation is possible with this
configuration. Obviously, the system is bulky, expensive, inflexible and require regular
maintenance due to the present of the DC machines. In the past, for constant speed application,
induction and synchronous motors were widely. An efficient variable speed operation of AC
motors is only possible if both the frequency and magnitude of the 3-phase supply voltage are
adjustable; unfortunately this is used to be almost impossible. With the advancement in power

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electronics, microprocessors and digital electronics, typical electric drive systems nowadays are
becoming more compact, efficient, cheaper and versatile. The voltage and current (magnitude
and frequency) applied to the motor can be changed at will by employing power electronic
converters. AC motor is no longer limited to applications where only AC source is available,
however, it can also be used when the power source available is DC or vice versa Like other
power electronic systems, modern electric drives is a multi-disciplinary field.

Fig.1.2. Modern electric drive system employing power electronics devices

Nowadays, modern power electronics and drives are used in electrical as well as mechanical
industry. The power converter or power modulator circuits are used with electrical motor drives,
providing either DC or AC outputs, and working from either a DC (battery) supply or from the
conventional AC supply. Here we will highlight the most important aspects which are common
to all types of drive converters. Although there are many different types of converters, all except
very low-power ones are based on some form of electronic switching. The need to adopt a
switching strategy is emphasized in the Wrist example, where the consequences are explored in
some depth. We will see that switching is essential in order to achieve high-efficiency power
conversion, but that the resulting waveforms are inevitably less than ideal from the point of view
of the motor. The thyristor DC drive remains an important speed-controlled industrial drive,
especially where higher maintenance cost associated with the DC motor brushes (c.f. induction
motor) is tolerable. The controlled (thyristor) rectifier provides a low-impedance adjustable DC
voltage for the motor armature, thereby providing speed control.

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2. COMPONENTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

The main components of a modern electrical drive are the motor, power processor, control unit
electrical source and the mechanical load. These components are different from one drive system
to another drive system, depending upon the applications, cost, available electrical source, etc.
These are briefly discussed below.
2.1. MOTORS
Motors obtain power from electrical sources. They convert energy from electrical to mechanical
- therefore can be regarded as energy converters. In braking mode, the flow of power is reversed.
Depending upon the type of power converters used, it is also possible for the power to be fed
back to the sources (regenerative braking) rather than dissipated as heat (dynamic braking).
There are several types of motors used in electric drives – the choice of the type to be used
depends on applications, cost, environmental factors and also on the type of sources available.
Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or AC motors:
 DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)
 AC motors
i. Induction motors – squirrel cage, wound rotor
ii. Synchronous motors – wound field, permanent magnet
iii. Brushless DC motor – require power electronic converters
iv. Stepper motors – require power electronic converters
v. Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance motor – require power
electronic converters
2.2. POWER PROCESSOR OR POWER MODULATOR
Typically, electrical sources are uncontrollable. For instance, if it is an AC source, the frequency
and magnitude are fixed (from the utility company), or maybe both are varying randomly (such
as obtained from wind generator). It is therefore necessary to provide an interface between the
available electrical source and the motor so that the power flow between the source and the
motor, hence the speed of the motor or the torque can be systematically regulated and controlled
-– this is achieved by using power processor or power modulator. With controllable sources, the
motor can be reversed, brake or can even be operated with variable speed. Conventional power
processor (non- power electronics approached) used, for example, variable impedance or relays,

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to shape the voltage or current that is supplied to the motor – these methods are inflexible,
inefficient and have limited control capability. In modern electric drive systems, power
electronic converters are used to shape the desired voltage or current that is supplied to the
motor. The power converters are commonly used to convert one form of electrical power to
another (e.g. AC to DC, DC to AC, etc). The main advantage of using power electronic
converters is because of their high efficiency. With power electronic converters, characteristic of
the motors can be changed at will to adapt the load requirements. Power electronic converters
have several advantages over classical methods of power conversion, such as :
 More efficient – since ideally no losses occur in power electronic converters
 Flexible – voltage and current can be shaped by simply controlling the switching
functions of the power converter
 Compact – smaller, compact and higher ratings solid–state power electronic devices are
continuously being developed – the prices are getting cheaper.
DC-AC Conversion

AC-AC Conversion

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AC-DC Conversion

For example a conversion from AC to DC can be performed in two stages (AC→DC→DC) or it

can be performed with single stage conversion, i.e. AC→DC. The choice of which one to
choose, in general, depends on application requirements, such as control bandwidth, output
voltage or current ripples, cost, etc.
2.3. CONTROL UNIT
Control unit is used to generate the switching signals to the power switches of the power
converters. The switching signals are generated depending on the control scheme adopted, which
depends on the desired drive performance and the type of motors used. A controller can be as
simple as few op-amps and/or a few digital ICs, or it can be as complex as the combinations of
several ASICs and digital signal processors (DSPs). The controllers can be constructed
from/using:
 analog circuit - which is noisy, inflexible. However, analog circuit ideally can provide
infinite control bandwidth.
 digital circuit – immune to noise, configurable. The bandwidth is obviously limited that
depends on the sampling frequency. Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) devices
are gaining popularity due to their re-configurable features. However implementation of
sophisticated control algorithm and observers can be very difficult and complex.
 DSP/microprocessor – flexible, lower bandwidth compared to the digital circuit. DSPs
perform faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in a single cycle). With a
DSP/microprocessor, complex estimations and observers can be easily implemented.
Most of the time, the control unit has to be electrically isolated from the power converters
using opto-coupler or pulse transformers, for the following reasons:
i. Malfunction in power circuit may damage control circuit if no electrical isolation
is present.

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ii. Safety for the operator – the high voltage and/or high current faulty condition in
the power circuit can be conducted to the control circuit normally maintained by
an operator/user
iii. Avoid conduction of harmonic to control circuit. Power electronic converters
generate harmonics that can conduct to the control circuit thus interfering with its
operation.
2.4. SOURCE
Electrical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the electrical motors. Power sources
can be of AC or DC in nature and normally are uncontrollable, i.e. their magnitudes and
frequencies are either fixed or varying, depending on the sources of energy such as battery,
power utility, fuel cell, etc. Fixed frequency and fixed magnitude AC source is normally
obtained from power utility and can be either three-phase or single-phase; 3-phase sources are
normally for high power applications. In order to efficiently control the motor, regardless of
whether it is a DC or AC source (and depending on the type of the motor), it has to be regulated
using power electronics converters before being fed to the motor. Power electronics converters
typically have poor input power factor and it is sometimes necessary for the power converters to
be operated with high power factor; if this is needed, power factor correction circuit has to be
introduced.
2.5. SENSORS
Sensors for voltage, current, speed or torque are required for closed-loop operation and
protections in electrical drive systems. Signals from these sensors have to be isolated from the
control unit for the same reasons as explained before. Electrical isolation in voltage and current
sensors are obtained using, for example, Hall-effect sensors/devices. For high performance drive
system, the speed is obtained from high-resolution speed encoders or resolvers.
There can be several factors that affect the selection of different configuration of electrical drive
system such as:
a) Torque and speed profile - determine the ratings of converters and the quadrant of operation
required.
b) Capital and running cost – Drive systems will vary in terms of start-up cost and running cost.
c) Space and weight restrictions
d) Environment and location

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3. COMPARISON BETWEEN DC AND AC

DRIVES
MOTORS:
 DC require maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limited by mechanical construction
 AC less maintenance, light, cheaper, robust, high speed (esp. squirrel–cage type)
CONTROL UNIT:
 DC drives: Simple control – decoupling torque and flux by mechanical commutator – the
controller can be implemented using simple analog circuit even for high performance
torque control. This means that cheaper cost for the controller.
 AC drives, the types of controllers to be used depend on the required drive performance –
obviously, cost increases with performance. Scalar control drives technique does not
require fast processor DSP whereas in Field Oriented Control (FOC) or Direct Torque
Control (DTC) drives.
PERFORMANCE:
 In DC motors, flux and torque components are always magnetically perpendicular to one
another thanks to the mechanical commutator and brushes. The torque is controlled via
the armature current while maintaining the field component constant. Fast torque and
decouple control between flux and torque components can be achieved easily.
 In AC machines, in particular the induction machines, magnetic coupling between phases
and between stator and rotor windings makes the modeling and torque control difficult
and complex. Control of the steady state operating conditions is accomplished by
controlling the magnitude and the frequency of the applied voltage; which is known as
the scalar control technique. This is satisfactory for some applications, however for a
more demanding applications such as elevators, electric vehicles, machine tools, it
unacceptable because of the poor transient response and poor precision. The transient
response and precision can be improved by applying the vector control technique; the
decoupling between the torque and flux components is achieved through frame
transformations. Implementation of this control technique is complex thus requires fast
processors such as DSPs.

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4. FOUR-QUADRANT OPERATION OF A DRIVE

SYSTEM
The quadrant of operation of a drive system is defined by the speed and the torque of the motor.
The circles in each of the quadrant can be considered to represent the rotor or shaft of the
rotating machine. The plane is divided into 4 quadrants, thus 4 modes of operation, based on the
directions of the speed and torque. The quadrants are marked as I, II, III and IV. The positive or
forward speed is arbitrarily chosen in counterclockwise direction (it can also be chosen as
clockwise). The positive torque is in the direction that will produce acceleration in forward
speed. Most of the rotating electric motors can operate in all quadrants, i.e. capable of operating
in forward and reverse directions. On the other hand, not all power converters can operate in all
quadrants; some class of converters can operate only in single quadrant, some in 2 quadrants and
some in 4 quadrants. In order for a drive system to be able to operate in all 4 quadrants, both, the
motor and power converter, must be capable of operating in 4 quadrants. Quadrants of operation
for power converters are discussed in the next section.

Fig.4.1. Four quadrant operation of electric drive

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4.1. QUADRANT- I
Both torque and speed are positive – the motor rotates in forward direction, which is in the same
direction as the motor torque. The power of the motor is the product of the speed and torque (P
= Teω), therefore the power of the motor is positive. Energy is converted from electrical form to
mechanical form, which is used to rotate the motor. The mode of operation is known as forward
motoring.
4.2. QUADRANT II
The speed is in forward direction but the motor torque is in opposite direction or negative value.
The torque produced by the motor is used to ‘brake’ the forward rotation of the motor. The
mechanical energy accumulated during the braking, is converted to electrical energy – thus the
flow of energy is from the mechanical system to the electrical system. However the flow of
energy back to the source is only possible if the power converter is capable of doing so. The
product of the torque and speed is negative thus the power is negative, implying that the ‘motor’
operates as a generator, i.e. in braking mode. The mode of operation is known as forward
braking.
4.3. QUADRANT III
The speed and the torque of the motor are in the same direction but are both negative. The
reverse electrical torque is used to rotate the motor in reverse direction. The power, i.e. the
product of the torque and speed, is positive implying that the motor operates in motoring mode.
The energy is converted from electrical form to mechanical form. This mode of operation is
known as reverse motoring. Example: If the motor initially operates in quadrant 1 (forward
speed), it will have to operate in forward braking first before the speed can be reversed (quadrant
3). In order to move from quadrant 1 to quadrant 3, the voltage applied to the motor terminal has
to be reversed.
4.4. QUADRANT IV
The speed is in reverse direction but the torque is positive. The motor torque is used to ‘brake’
the reverse rotation of the motor. The mechanical energy gained during the braking is converted
to electrical form – thus power flow is from the mechanical system to the electrical system. The
product of the speed and torque is negative implying that the ‘motor’ operates as a generator,
i.e. in braking mode. This mode of operation is known as reverse braking.

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5. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

 Electric drives are used in boats, traction systems, lifts, cranes, electric car, etc.
 They have flexible control characteristics. The steady state and dynamic characteristics of
electric drives can be shaped to satisfy the load requirements.
 They are available in wide range of torque, speed, and power.
 They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.
 They can operate in all the four quadrants of the speed-torque plane.
 They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and radioactive
environments.

6. ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

 Cost is too low as compared to another system of the drive.
 The system is more simple and clean.
 The control is very easy and smooth.
 Flexible in the layout.
 Facility for remote control.
 Transmission of power from one place to other can be done with the help of cables
instead of long shafts, etc.
 Its maintenance cost is quite low.
 It can be started at any time without delay.

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7. REFERENCES
[I]. G.K. Dubey, “Fundamental of Electrical Drives”, Narosa, 1994.

[II]. W. Leonhard, “Control of Electrical Drives”, Springer-Verlag, 2001.

[III]. P.C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, and S. D. Sudhoff, “Analysis of Electric Machinery”,

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

[IV]. R. Krishnan, “Electric Motor Drives: Modeling, Analysis and Control”, Prentice

Hall.

[V]. P. S. Bhimbra, “Generalized Theory of Electric Machines”, Khanna Publication.

[VI]. B. K. Bose, “Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives”, Pearson Education.

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