Semiconductors & PN Junction

Theory Questions and Answers

Q1. What is Fermi level?

The maximum energy that an electron in a metal has at the absolute zero
temperature is called the Fermi level of energy.

Q2. What is the basis for classifying a material as

a conductor, semiconductor, or a dielectric?
What is the conductivity of perfect dielectric?
Conductors possess high conductivity whereas the characteristic property of
insulating materials (or dielectrics) is poor conductivity. Semiconductors occupy
an intermediate position between conductors and insulators. Though there is no
rigid line separating the conductors from semiconductors and semiconductors
from insulators, but still according to resistivity the materials of resistivity of the
order from 10-8 to 10-3 , 10-13 to 106 and 106 to 1018 ohm-meters may be classified
as conductors, semiconductors and dielectrics respectively.
Another classification is based on temperature coefficient of resistivity. Metals
have positive temperature coefficient of resistivity. Semiconductors have small
negative temperature coefficient of resistivity and insulators have large negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity.

Q3. Differentiate semiconductors, conductors

and insulators on the basis of band gap.
The distinction between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is largely
concerned with the relative width of the forbidden energy gaps in their energy
band structures. There is a wide forbidden gap (more than 5eV) for insulators,
narrow forbidden gap (about 1eV) in case of semiconductors and no forbidden
gap in case of conductors.

Q4. What is the importance of valence shell and

valence electrons?
The outermost shell of an atom is called valence shell and the electrons in this
shell are called valence electrons. Formation of energy bands occur owing to
overlapping of energy levels of these valence electrons in valence shells. With the
decrease in interatomic distance between the atoms in a crystal, the energy levels
of electrons in outermost shells of atoms overlap to form energy bands.

Q5. What is the forbidden energy gap? How does

it occur? What is its magnitude for Ge and Si?
The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is known as
forbidden energy gap. It is a region in which no electron can stay as there is no
allowed energy state. Magnitude of forbidden energy gap in germanium and
silicon is 0.72 eV and 1.12 eV respectively at 300 K and 0.785 eV and 1.21 eV
respectively at absolute zero temperature.

Q6. Is a hole a fundamental particle in an atom?

Hole is not a fundamental particle in an atom. Holes may be thought of as positive
particles, and as such they move through an electric field in a direction opposite
to that of electrons.

Q7. Define a hole in a semiconductor.

When an energy is supplied to a semiconductor a valence electron is lifted to a
higher energy level. The departing electron leaves a vacancy in the valence band.
The vacancy is called a hole. Thus, a vacancy left in the valence band because of
lifting of an electron from the valence band to conduction band is known as a
hole.
Q8. What is hole current?
The movement of the hole (positively charged vacancy in the valence band) from
positive terminal of the supply to negative terminal through semiconductor
constitutes hole current.

Q9. What is intrinsic semiconductor ?

An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material
in the extremely pure form (impurity content not exceeding one part in 100
million parts of semiconductors).

Q10. Why silicon and germanium are the two

widely used semiconductor materials?
Because the energy required to release an electron from their valence band (i.e.
to break their covalent bonds ) is very small (1.12eV for Si and 0.72eV for Ge).

Q11. Which of the two semiconductor materials

Si or Ge has larger conductivity at room
temperature? Why?
Since energy required in transferring electrons from valence band to conduction
band is more in case of Si than that in case of germanium , the conductivity of Ge
will be more than that of Si at room temperature.

Q12. Why does a pure semiconductor behave

like an insulator at absolute zero temperature?
For a pure semiconductor at a temperature of absolute zero (-273.15oC)the
valence band is usually full and there are may be no electron in the conduction
band and it is difficult to provide additional energy required for lifting electron
from valence band to conduction band by applying electric field. Hence the
conductivity of a pure semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is zero and it
behaves like an insulator.
Q13. What is the main factor for controlling the
thermal generation and recombination?
Temperature, because with the increase in the temperature, concentrations of free
electrons and holes increase and the rate of recombination is proportional to the
product of concentration of free electrons and holes and also the rate of production
of electron-hole pairs (thermal generation) increases with the rise in temperature.

Q14. Define mean life of a carrier.

The amount of time between the creation and disappearance of a free electron is
called the life time. It varies from a few nanoseconds to several microseconds
depending how perfect the crystal is and other factors.

Q15. In which bands do the movement of

electrons and holes take place?
Free electrons move in valence band while holes in valence band.

Q16. What is the mechanism by which

conduction takes place inside the semiconductor?
Conduction occurs in any given material when an applied electric field causes
electrons to move in a desired direction within the material. This may be due to
one or both of two processes, electron motion and hole transfer. In case of former
process, free electrons in the conduction band move under the influence of the
applied electric field. Hole transfer involves electrons which are still attached to
the atoms i.e. those in valence band.
Q17. What do you mean by drift velocity and
mobility of a free electron?
The average velocity of an electron is known as drift velocity whereas mobility
of an electron is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field.

Q18. Define mobility of a carrier. Show that the

mobility constant of electron is larger than that of
a hole.
Mobility is defined as the average particle drift velocity per unit electric field.

The mobility of electrons is more than that of holes because the probability of an
electron having the energy required to move to an empty state n the conduction
band is much greater than the probability of an electron having the energy
required to move to the empty state in valence band. The mobility of electron is
about double that of a hole.

Q19. Define diffusion current in a

semiconductor.
The diffusion of charge carriers is a result of a gradient of carrier concentration
(i.e., the difference of carrier concentration from one region to another). In this
case concentrations of charge carriers (either electrons or holes ) tend to distribute
themselves uniformly throughout the semiconductor crystal. This movement
continues until all carriers are evenly distributed throughout the material. This
type of movement of charge carriers is called diffusion current.

Q20. Define drift current in a semiconductor.

The steady flow of electrons in one direction caused by applied electric field
constitutes an electric current, called the drift current.
Q21. What happens to the conductivity of
semiconductor with the rise in temperature?
Compare with the conductivity of metals.
With the increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers increases
resulting in increase in conductivity of semiconductors. The conductivity of metal
decreases with the increase in temperature.

Q22. Why temperature coefficient of resistance

of a semiconductor is negative?
With the increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers (electrons
and holes) increases. As more charge carriers are made available, the conductivity
of a pure semiconductor increases i.e. resistivity of a pure semiconductor
decreases with the rise in temperature i.e. semiconductors have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance.

Q23. What is meant by Fermi level in

semiconductor? Where does the Fermi level lie
in an intrinsic semiconductor?
Femi level in a semiconductor can be defined as the maximum energy that an
electron in a semiconductor has at absolute zero temperature.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies midway between the

conduction and valence bands.

Q24. Differentiate between intrinsic

semiconductors and intrinsic semiconductors?
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material
in its extremely pure form.
When a small amount of impurity is added to a pure semiconductor crystal during
the crystal growth in order to increase its conductivity, the resulting crystal is
called extrinsic semiconductor.

Q25. Why doping is done in semiconductors?

Intrinsic (or pure ) semiconductor by itself is of little significance as it has little
current conduction capability at ordinary room temperature. However, if very
small amount of impurity (of the order of one atom per million atoms of pure
semiconductor) is added to it in the process of crystallization, the electrical
conductivity is increased many times.

Q26. Describe the difference between P-type and

N-type semiconductor materials.
When a small amount of trivalent impurity (such as boron, gallium, indium or
aluminium) is added to a pure semiconductor crystal during crystal growth, the
resulting crystal is called a P-type semiconductor.

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (such as arsenic, antimony,

bismuth or phosphrous) is added to a pure semiconductor crystal during crystal
growth, the resulting crystal is called the N-type semiconductor.

Q27. What do you mean by donor and acceptor

impurities?
Donor impurities (such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or phosphorous) when
added to a pure semiconductor lattice , form N-type extrinsic semiconductor. The
pentavalent impurities are called donor impurities as such impurities donate
electrons to the lattice.

Acceptor impurities (such as boron, gallium, indium or aluminium) when added

to a semiconductor lattice form P-type extrinsic semiconductor. The trivalent
impurities are called acceptor impurities because such impurities accept electrons
from the lattice.
Q28. Explain the term doping and its need.
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor, which has little current
conducting capability at room temperature and so is of little use, can be increased
many times by adding very small amount of impurity (of the order of one atom
per million atoms of pure semiconductor) to it in the process of crystallization.
This process is called doping.

Q30. What is the effect of temperature on

extrinsic semiconductor?
With the increase in temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor, the number of
thermally generated carriers is increased resulting in increase in concentration of
minority carriers. At temperature exceeding critical temperature the extrinsic
semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor but with higher
conductivity.

Q31. What are the charge carriers in P-type and

N-type semiconductors?
Fee electrons in n-type semiconductors and holes in p-type semiconductors are
the charge carriers.

Q32. For the same order of doping, why does n-

type semiconductor exhibit larger conductivity
than p-type semiconductor?
Since the mobility of electrons is higher than that of holes, for same level of
doping, n-type semiconductor exhibits larger conductivity.
Q33. What is the ratio of majority and minority
carriers in intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors?
For intrinsic semiconductor the ratio of majority and minority carriers is Unity.

For extrinsic semiconductor the ratio of majority and minority carriers is Very
large.

Q34. What is a p-n junction?

The contact surface between the layers of p-type and n-type semiconductor pieces
placed together so as to form a p-n junction is called the p-n junction.

Q35. How do the transition region width and

contact potential across a p-n junction vary with
the applied bias voltage?
When the p-n junction is forward biased , the transition region width is reduced
and the contact potential is also reduced with the increase in applied bias voltage.

When the p-n junction is reverse biased, the transition is widened, and the contact
potential is increased and with the increase in applied bias voltage.

Q36. Which type of charges present on the two

opposite faces of the junction?
Positive charge on n-side and negative charge on p-side of the junction.

Q37. What types of carriers are present in space

charge region?
No mobile carrier is present in the space charge region.
Q38. Why is space region called the depletion
region?
The region around the junction is completely ionized on formation of p-n
junction. As a result, there are no free electrons on the n-side nor the holes on the
p-side. Since the region around the junction is depleted of mobile charges, it is
called the depletion region.

Q39. Why an electric field is produced in a

depletion region of a p-n junction?
The separation of positive and negative space charge densities in a p-n junction
results in an electric field.

Q40. What is space charge width?

The space charge region extends into the n and p-regions from the metallurgical
junction. The distance is known as the space charge width.

Q41. The electric field in the space charge region

decreases with forward bias and increases with
reverse bias. Why?
Because applied electric field opposes built-in field.

Q42. Define cut-in voltage of a p-n junction

diode?
The forward voltage, at which the current through the p-n junction starts
increasing rapidly, is called the cut-in voltage.
Q43. What do you understand by reverse
saturation current of a diode?
Reverse saturation current of a diode is due to minority carriers and is caused
when the diode is reverse biased. Only a very small voltage is required to direct
all minority carriers across the junction, and when all minority carriers are
flowing across, further increase in bias voltage will not cause increase in current.
This current is referred to as reverse saturation current.

Q44. What is the effect of temperature on the

reverse current of a p-n junction?
Reverse current of a p-n junction increases with the increase in junction
temperature.

Q45. Why is silicon preferred to germanium in

the manufacturing of semiconductor devices?
Silicon preferred to germanium in the manufacturing of semiconductor devices
because such devices have higher peak inverse voltage and current ratings and
wider temperature range than germanium ones.

Q46. Define peak inverse voltage?

Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that can be applied to the p-n
junction without damaging the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction
exceeds its peak inverse voltage(PIV), the junction may get destroyed owing to
excessive heat.

Q47. Define breakdown voltage.

Breakdown voltage is defined as the reverse voltage at which p-n junction breaks
down with sudden rise with reverse current.
Q48. Define the limitations in the operation
conditions of a p-n junction.
Every p-n junction has limiting values of :

 Maximum forward current

 Peak inverse voltage (PIV)
 Maximum power rating
The p-n junction provides satisfactory performance when operated within these
limiting values. The p-n junction diode may get destroyed due to excessive heat
if any of these values are exceeded.

Junction Diodes Questions and Answers

Q1. What is a pn junction?
The contact surface between the layers of p-type and n-type semiconductor pieces
plated together so as to form a p-n junction is called the p-n junction.

Q2. Why is silicon preferred over germanium in

the manufacture of semiconductor devices?
The silicon semiconductor devices have, in general, higher PIV and current
ratings and wider temperature range than germanium semiconductor devices,
that’s why silicon is preferred over germanium in the manufacture of
semiconductor devices.

Q3. What does the arrow head represent in the

schematic symbol of a p-n junction?
The arrow head in the schematic symbol of a p-n junction indicates the direction
of conventional current flow when the diode is forward biased.
Q4. What are the two mechanisms of breakdown
in a p-n junction?
Avalanche and zener breakdown.

Q5. Name the breakdown mechanism in a lightly

doped p-n junction under reverse biased
condition.
Avalanche breakdown.

Q6. Name the breakdown mechanism in a highly

doped p-n junction under reverse biased
condition.
Zener breakdown.

Q7. What is an ideal diode?

An ideal diode is a two terminal polarity sensitive device that has zero resistance
when it is forward biased and infinite resistance when reverse biased.

Q8. What is reverse saturation current?

Reverse current of a diode is due to minority carriers and is caused when the diode
is reverse biased. Only a very small voltage is required to direct all minority
carriers across the junction, and when all minority carriers are flowing across,
further increase in bias voltage will not cause increase in current. This current is
referred to as reverse saturation current.
Q9. Is reverse saturation current of a diode is
independent of reverse bias voltage?
Yes.

Q10. Why is germanium more temperature

dependant than silicon?
Because the reserve saturation current in case of a germanium diode is
approximately 1,000 times larger.

Q11. What is the effect of temperature on the

reverse saturation current of a diode?
Reverse saturation current , theoretically , increases by 8% per oC for silicon and
11% per oC for germanium. But from experimental data it is found that that
reverse saturation current increases by 7% per oC for both silicon and germanium.
This is because a surface leakage current component of reverse saturation current
is independent of temperature. Since (1.07)10 =2.0 (approx.), the reverse
saturation current approximately doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature.
Q12. What is static resistance of a diode?
The static or dc resistance of a diode is the resistance offered by it to the direct
current . It is defined as the ratio of the diode voltage and current at the point of
interest and is not sensitive to the shape of the V-I characteristic curve. It
decreases with the increase in diode current or voltage.

Q13. Define dynamic resistance of a p-n junction

diode in forward biased condition.
The resistance offered by a p-n junction diode to the changing forward current is
defined as the dynamic resistance.
AC or dynamic resistance, r = (Small change in forward voltage) /(Small change
in forward current)

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Questions and Answers
Q1. Explain why an ordinary junction transistor
is called bipolar?
Because the transistor operation is carried out by two types of charge carriers
(majority and minority carriers), an ordinary transistor is called bipolar.

Q2. Why transistor is called current controlled

device?
The output voltage, current or power is controlled by the input current in a
transistor. So it is called the current controlled device.

Q3. What is the significance of the arrow-head

in the transistor symbol?
Arrow head is always marked on the emitter. The direction indicated the
conventional direction of current flow( from emitter-to-base in case of p-n-p
transistor and from base-to-emitter in case of n-p-n transistor). Generally no
arrow head is marked for collector since its reverse leakage current is always
opposite to the direction of emitter current.

Q4. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor.

For normal operation, base-emitter junction should be forward biased and the
collector-base junction reverse biased. The amount of bias required is
significant for the establishment of the operating or the Q-point which is
dictated by the mode of operation desired.
In case the transistor is not biased properly, it would :

 work inefficiently
 produce distortion in the output signal
 with the change in transistor parameters or temperature rise, the operating
point may shift and the amplifier output will be unstable.
Q5. What are ‘emitter injection efficiently’ and
‘base transport factor’ and how do they
influence the transistor operation?
The ratio of current of injected carriers at emitter junction to the total emitter
current is called the emitter junction efficiency. The ratio of collector current to
base current is known as transport factor

i.e. β* = IC/IB
The larger the value of emitter injection efficiency, the larger the injected
carriers at emitter junction and this increases the collector current. The larger
the β* value the larger the injected carriers across collector junction and hence
collector current increases.

Q6. Which of the transistor currents is always

the largest? Which is always the smallest?
Which two currents are relatively close in
magnitude?
The emitter current IE is always the largest one. The base current IB is always the
smallest. The collector current IC and emitter current IE are relatively close in
magnitude.
Q7. Why silicon type transistors are more often
used than germanium type?
Because silicon transistor has smaller cut-off current ICBO, small variations in
ICBO due to variations in temperature and high operating temperature as
compared to those in case of germanium type.
Q8. Why collector is made larger than emitter
and base?
Collector is made physically larger than emitter and base because collector is to
dissipate much power.

Q9. Why the width of the base region of a

transistor is kept very small compared to other
regions?
Base region of a transistor is kept very small and very lightly doped so as to
pass most of the injected charge carriers to the collector.

Q10. Why emitter is always forward biased?

Emitter is always forward biased w.r.t base so as to supply majority charge
carriers to the base.

Q11. Why collector is always reverse-biased

w.r.t base?
Collector is always reverse-biased w.r.t baseso as to remove the charge carriers
from the base-collector junction.
Q12. Can a transistor be obtained by connecting
tow semiconductor diodes back-to-back?
No. Because in case of two discrete back-to-back connected diodes there are
four doped regions instead of three and there is nothing that resembles a thin
base region between an emitter and a collector.

Q13. How α and β are related to each other?

α and β are related as below:

α= β/(1+ β) or β= α/(1- α)

Q14. Define beta of a transistor.

The β factor transistor is the common emitter current gain of that transistor and
is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base current :

Β = IC/IB
Q15. Why is there a maximum limit of collector
supply voltage for a transistor?
Although collector current is practically independent of collector supply voltage
over the transistor operating range, but if VCB is increase beyond a certain vale
collector current IC is eventually increases rapidly and possibly destroys the
device.
Q16. Explain why ICEO >> ICBO?
The collector cut-off current denoted by ICBO is much larger than ICBO. ICEO is
given as :
ICEO = ICBO/(1-α)
Because α is nearly equal to unity (slightly less than unity), ICEO >> ICBO
Q17. Why CE configuration is most popular in
amplifier circuits?
CE configuration is mainly used because its current, voltage and power gains
are quite high and the ratio of output impedance and input impedance are quite
moderate.

Q18. Why CC configuration is called a voltage

buffer? What is other name?
Because of its high input impedance and low output impedance, the common
collector circuit finds wide application as a buffer amplifier between a high
impedance source and low impedance load. it is called a voltage buffer. Its other
name is emitter follower.

Q19. What are the main purposes for which a

CC amplifier may be used.
Because of its high input impedance and low output impedance, the common
collector circuit finds wide application as a buffer amplifier between a high
impedance source and low impedance load.

Q20.Which configuration among CE, CB, CC

gives highest input impedance and no voltage
gain?
Common collector configuration has the highest input impedance and has
voltage gain less than unity.
Q21. What do you understand by collector
reverse saturation? In which configuration does
it have a greater value?
When input current (IE in case of CB configuration and IB in case of CE
configuration) is zero, collector current IC is not zero although it is very small.
In fact this is the reverse leakage current or collector reverse saturation current
(ICBO or simply ICO in CB configuration and ICEO in CE configuration). In case
of CE configuration it is much more than that in case of CB configuration.
Q22. What is meant by operating point?
Quiescent point is a point on the dc load line which represents VCE and IC in the
absence of ac signal and variations in VCE and IC take place around this point
when ac signal is applied.
Q23. Explain how BJT can be used as an
amplifier.
A transistor operates as an amplifier by transfer of the current from low
impedance loop to high impedance loop.

Rectifiers Questions and Answers

Q1. What is a dc power supply?
The part of the equipment that converts ac into dc is called dc power supply.

Q2. What is a rectifier?

A rectifier is a device which converts alternating current (or voltage) into
unidirectional current (or voltage).
Q3. What is PIV of a diode in a rectifier circuit?
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum possible voltage that occurs across
a diode when it is reverse biased.

Q4. What is the importance of peak inverse

voltage?
If the applied voltage in reverse biased condition exceeds peak inverse voltage
(PIV) rating of the diode, then the diode may get damaged.

Q5. Why half-wave rectifiers are generally not

used in dc power supply?
The type of supply available from half-wave rectifier is not satisfactory for
general power supply. That is why it is generally not used in dc power supply.

Q6. Why diodes are not operated in the

breakdown region in rectifiers?
In breakdown region, a diode has a risk of getting damaged or burnt because the
magnitude of current flowing through it increases in an uncontrollable manner.
That is why didoes are not operated in the breakdown region in rectifiers.

Q7. Define ripple as referred to in a rectifier

circuit.
The ac component contained in the pulsating output of a rectifier is known as
ripple.

Q8. What is transformer utilization factor?

Transformer utilization factor is defined as the ratio of power delivered to the
load and ac rating of secondary of supply power transformer.
Q9. The output of a 60Hz full-wave bridge
rectifier has a 60 Hz ripple. It this circuit
working properly?
A full-wave rectifier with 60Hz input must have lowest ripple frequency equal
to twice the input frequency i.e. 120Hz. If the ripple frequency is 60Hz, it means
some diodes in the circuit are not working.

Q10. What is meant by filter?

Filter is a device that converts pulsating output of rectifier into a steady dc level.

Q11. Why series inductor and L-section filters

cannot be used with half-wave rectifiers?
Series inductor and L-section filters cannot be used with half-wave rectifiers
because operation of series inductor depends upon the current through it and
needs a minimum current to flow at all times.

Q12. Why capacitor input filter is preferred to

choke input filter?
In capacitor input filter, the dc output is much larger and ripples are less in
comparison to those in choke input filter. So, capacitor input filter is preferred
to choke input filter.

Q13. Why π-filters are not suitable for varying

loads?
Voltage regulation in case of π-filters is very poor and, therefore, π-filters are
not suitable for varying loads.
Q14. Why R-C filters are suitable only for light
loads?
R-C filters have poor voltage regulation and need adequate ventilation to
dissipate the heat developed in the resistor R. Thus R-C filters are suitable only
for light loads.

Q15. Why is bleeder resistance employed in a

filter circuit?
A resistance, called the bleeder resistance, is placed across the filter ouput, to
provide flow of necessary minimum current through the choke at all time.

Q16. What is the purpose of bleeder resistance

in a rectifier circuit using L-C filter?
Bleeder resistance RB is placed in parallel with the load so as to maintain a
certain minimum current through the choke, even the load resistor gets open-
circuited, and improves filtering action.
Q17. What is meant by voltage regulation of a
dc power supply?
The change in voltage from no-load to full-load condition is known as voltage
regulation.

Q18. Why is it necessary to include voltage

stabilizer in a power supply?
The magnitude of output dc voltage may vary with the variation of either the
input ac voltage or the magnitude of load current. So at the output of a rectifier-
filter combination a voltage stabilizer is required
Electrical Wave Filters Questions and
Answers
Q1. What are the commonly used filters?
The most commonly used filters are low-pass, high-pass band-pass, band-reject
and all-pass filters.

Q2. What is the difference between active and

passive filters?
A passive filter is formed with passive components, such as resistors, inductors
and capacitors while active filters make use of transistors or op-amps in addition
to resistors and capacitors.

Q3. Why are active filters preferred

Active filters are preferred over passive filters because they provide gain and
frequency adjustment flexibility. They pose no loading problem because of high
input impedance and low output impedance and they are comparatively less
expensive.

Q4. What is a low-pass filter?

A filter that provides a constant output from dc upto a cutoff frequency fC and
then passes no signal above that frequency is called a low-pass filter.
Q5. What is a high-pass filter?
A filter that provides or passes signals above a cutoff frequency fCis called a
high-pass filter. It has a zero gain starting from zero to a frequency fC and above
this frequency the gain is constant.
BJT Amplifiers Questions and Answers
Q1. What is an amplifier?
The device that amplifies the amplitude of the input signal is called the
amplifier. An amplifier may be defined as a device that increases the current,
voltage or power of an input signal with the help of a transistor by furnishing
the additional power from a separate source of supply.

Q2. What is meant by small signal amplifier?

When the input signal is quite weak and produces less small fluctuations in the
output current in comparison to its quiescent value, the amplifier is called the
small signal or voltage amplifier.

Q3. What is meant by phase reversal?

In a CE configuration, the output voltage increases in the negative direction
when the input signal voltage increases in the positive direction and vice-versa.
This is called the phase reversal and and causes a phase difference of
180o between the input signal and output voltage.
Q4. What is an ac emitter resistance?
The dynamic resistance of the emitter-base junction diode is called the ac
emitter resistance.

Q5. What do you mean by operating point?

The zero signal values of IC and VCEare known as the operating point. It is
called operating point beacue the variations of IC and VCE take place about this
point when signal is applied. It is also known as the quiescent or Q-point.
Q6. What is transistor biasing?
The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper
collector emitter voltage during the passage of signal is called the transistor
biasing.
Q7. What is faithful amplification?
The process of raising the strength of a weak signal without any change in its
general shape is referred to as faithful amplification.

Q8. What is the effect of removal of bypass

capacitor in a CE amplifier circuit?
Removal of bypass capacitor in a CE amplifier circuit causes excessive
degeneration in the amplifier circuit and therefore reduction in voltage gain.

Q9. Why common-collector circuit is known as

an emitter follower?
The CC circuit amplifier is called an emitter follower because in this circuit the
output voltage at the emitter terminal follows the input signal applied to the base
terminal.

Q10. What are the main purposes for which a

common-collector amplifier may be used?
For a common collector amplifier, current gain is as high as for CE amplifier,
voltage gain is less than unity, input resistance is the highest and the output
resistance is the lowest of all the three (CE, ,CC and CB) configurations. This
circuit finds wide applications as a buffer amplifier between a high impedance
source and a low load.
Electronic Meters Questions and Answers
Q1. What is the difference between an ammeter
and a voltmeter?
Ammeter is a low resistance indicating instrument while the voltmeter is a high
resistance one.

Q2. Why an ammeter should be of very low

resistance?
Ammeter, which is connected in series with the circuit carrying the current
under measurement, must be over very low resistance so that the voltage drop
across the ammeter and power absorbed from the circuit are as low as possible.

Q3. Why a voltmeter should be of very high

resistance?
Voltmeter, which is connected in parallel with the circuit across which the
voltage is to be measured, must be of very high resistance so that the current
flowing through the voltmeter and the power absorbed from the circuit are
minimum possible.

Q4. How an ammeter can be changed to a

voltmeter?
An ammeter or low range can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a
high resistance in series with it provided the current through the series
combination is within the range of the ammeter when connected across the
voltage under measurement.
Q5. What happens when an ammeter is
connected across the circuit?
If an ammeter is connected in parallel to the circuit like a voltmeter, a very high
current will flow through it which will produce such an excessive heat the
insulation of the wire carrying the current will be destroyed. The wire may itself
melt away. Thus the instrument will get damaged.

Q6. What happens when a voltmeter is

connected in series with the circuit?
If a voltmeter is connected in series with the circuit, the circuit resistance will
become too large and consequently a very small current will flow through it.
The instrument will, however, read almost the same emf acting on the circuit.

Q7. What do you understand by ammeter shunt?

An ammeter shunt is merely a low resistance that is placed across the coil circuit
of the instrument in order to measure fairly large currents.

Q8. What do you understand by voltmeter

multiplier?
Voltmeter multiplier is a high non-inductive resistance connected in series with
the voltmeter coil and is used for increasing the range of a voltmeter.

Q9. What is the advantage of using Ayrton or

universal shunt in multi-range ammeters?
The advantage of using Ayrton or universal shunt is that it eliminates the
possibility of the meter being in a circuit without a shunt.
Q10. What is VOM?
The volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) is another name of multimeter. It is also
called AVO meter.

Q11. What is a multimeter?

The instrument, which contains a function switch to connect the appropriate
circuits to the d’Arsonval movement, is often called a multimeter or ampere-
volt-ohm (AVO) meter or volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM).

Q12. Indicate the various quantities that can be

measured with a multimeter.
Multimeteris used for measument of current (dc as well as ac), voltage (dc as
well as ac) and resistance. With the external source, high resistance (exceeding
1MΩ),inductance and capacitance can be measured with this instrument.

Q13. What are the shortcomings of a

multimeter?
It may be noted that the ac sensitivity of a half-wave ac meter is only 45% of the
dc sensitivity, therefore, the loading effect is greater while measuring ac
voltages than while measuring corresponding dc voltages.

The rectifying action depends upon the frequency to some extent due to
capacitance effect and rectifier instruments show lower readings. Instrument
indications may be in error by as much as 0.5% decrease for every 1kHz rise in
frequency.

Q14. Where LCR meter is used?

LCR meters are used to measure the values of inductance (L), capacitance (C)
and resistance (R) directly.
Q15. What is Q-meter?
The Q-meter is an instrument designed for measurement of Q-factor of a coil as
well as for the measurement of electrical properties of coils and capacitors.

Q16. On what principle does a Q-meter operate?

The Q-meter operates on the principle of series resonance i.e, under resonant
condition of an acseries, circuit voltage across the capacitor is equal to the
applied voltage times of Q of the circuit.

Q17. What is Q-factor of the coil?

The ratio of the inductive reactance to the effective resistance of the coil is
called the Q-factor of the coil.

Q18. What are the different parameters that can

be measured using a Q-meter?
The Q-meter is used for measuring Q-factor, inductance, effective resistance,
self-capacitance, bandwidth and capacitance.

Q19. What are the factors which the

measurement accuracy of Q-meter?
 Factors affecting measurement accuracy are:
 Distributed capacitance or self capacitance of the coil.
 Residual inductance of the instrument.
 Conductance of voltmeter.
 Shunt resistor of Q-meter.
Q20. Why the actual Q-factor of the coil is
somewhat larger than the calculated Q-factor?
Calculated value of Q-factor is somewhat smaller than its actual value because
Q-factor measurement includes the losses of the resonating capacitor, voltmeter
and the shunt resistance Rsh.
Operational Amplifiers Questions and
Answers
Q1. What is an operational amplifier?
An operational amplifier, abbreviated as op-amp, is basically a multi-stage, very
high gain, direct-coupled, negative feedback amplifier that uses voltage shunt
feedback to provide a stabilized voltage gain.

Q2. State assumptions made for analyzing ideal

op-amp.
Assumptions made for analyzing ideal op-amp are :

 Infinite open-loop gain

 Infinite input impedance
 Zero output impedance
 Perfect balance
 Infinite frequency bandwidth
 Infinite slew rate
 Infinite common-mode rejection ratio
 Nil drift of characteristics with temperature
Q3. What is a voltage transfer curve of an op-
amp?
The curve drawn between output voltage and input differential voltage, for an
op-amp, keeping voltage gain A constant is known as voltage transfer curve.
Q4. What are differential gain and common-
mode gain of a differential amplifier?
When the difference of the two inputs applied to the two terminals of a
differential amplifier is amplified, the resultant gain is termed as differential
gain. But when the two input terminals are connected to the same input source
then the gain established by the differential amplifier is called the common
mode gain.

Q5. Define CMRR.

CMRR is defined as the ration of differential voltage gain to common-mode
voltage gain and it is given as CMRR = Ad/Acm
Q6. Why does an op-amp have high CMRR?
High CMRR ensures that the common mode signals such as noise are rejected
successfully and the output voltage is proportional only to the differential input
voltage.

Q7. Why open-loop op-amp configurations are

not used in linear applications?
When an op-amp is operated in the open-loop configuration, the output either
goes to positive saturation or negative saturation levels or switches between
positive and negative saturation levels and thus clips the output above these
levels. So open-loop op-amp configurations are not used in linear applications.

Q8. List the parameters that should be

considered for ac and dc applications.
The parameters to be considered for dc applications are:

 Input offset voltage

 Input offset current
 Input bias current
 Drift
The parameters to be considered for ac applications are:

 Gain bandwidth product (GBW)

 Rise time
 Slew rate
 Full-power response
 AC noise
Q9. Define offset voltage as applied to an op-
amp.
Input offset voltage may be defined as that voltage which is to be applied
between the input terminals to balance the amplifier.

Q10. Give the typical value of bias current for

CA741 operational amplifier.
80nA

Q11. Define slew rate.

Slew rate of an op-amp is defined as the maximum rate of change of output
voltage per unit time and is expresses in V/µs.

Q12. What kind of negative feedback is present

in a noninverting op-amp.
Negative voltage-series feedback.

Q13. What is a voltage follower?

Voltage follower is an electronic circuit in which output voltage tracts the input
voltage both in sign and magnitude.
Q14. What are the advantages of using a voltage
follower amplifier?
Voltage follower has three unique characteristics viz. extremely high input
impedance, extremely low output impedance and unity transmission gain and is
, therefore, an ideal circuit device for use as a buffer amplifier.

Q15. In what way is the voltage follower a

special case of the non-inverting amplifier?
If feedback resistor is made zero or R1 is made ∞(by keeping it open-circuited)
in a noninverting amplifier circuit, voltage follower is obtained.
Q16. What is an inverting amplifier?
In an inverting amplifier, the input is connected to the minus or inverting
terminal of op-amp.

Q17. What are the applications of an inverting

amplifier?
Inverting amplifier is a very versatile component and can be used for
performing number of mathematical stimulation such as analog inverter,
paraphrase amplifier, phase shifter, adder, integrator, differentiator.

Q18. What is a differential amplifier?

Differential amplifier is a combination of inverting and noninverting amplifiers
and amplifies the voltage difference between input lines neither of which is
grounded.

Q19. Give examples of linear circuits.

Adder, subtractor, differentiator, integrator fall under the category of linear
circuits.
Q20. What is an adder or summing amplifier?
Adder or summing amplifier is a circuit that provides an output voltage
proportional to or equal to the algebraic sum of two or more input voltages
multiplied by a constant gain factor.

Q21. What is an integrator?

An integrator is a circuit that performs a mathematical operation called
integration.

Q22. What are the applications of integrators?

Integrators are widely used in ramp or sweep generators, filters, analog
computers etc.

Q23. Op-amp is used mostly as an integrator

than a differentiator. Why?
Op-amp is used mostly as an integrator than a differentiator because in
differentiator at high frequency, gain is high and so high-frequency noise is also
amplified which absolutely abstract the differentiated signal.