ES 3: Introduction to Electrical Systems

Laboratory 3: Thevenin Equivalent Circuits and Maximum

Power Transfer

I. GOALS:

In this laboratory experiment, you will learn how to determine the Thevenin equivalent
circuit of a complex instrument, a battery, and an acoustic sensor. In addition, you will
experimentally investigate the Maximum Power Transfer theorem. Understanding these
two concepts is very important if you are combining sensors, electronics, and actuators
to form an engineering system. You will also expand your repertoire of commonly used
lab devices by learning how to use a breadboard to build circuits.

II. PRELAB QUESTIONS:

In this lab a breadboard is used to quicky prototype and test several circuits. Please
read how the breadboard is used to build circuits without soldering in Section V
(Supplementary Information) before coming to the lab.

Question 1: After reading Section V, look at Figure 1 and demonstrate that you
understand the breadboard by drawing the circuit schematic (wiring diagram) for the
circuit shown. The circuit consists of (1) a 9 volt battery, (2) an LED, (3) a photoresistor,
(4) a 10kΩ resistor, and (5) an ammeter. The ammeter is not shown in the photo, but
the black and red alligator clips are connected to the meter.
9 volt
battery

LED

Photoresistor

mA
Figure 1. A simple circuit built on a breadboard. The wires have been enhanced with black lines
to improve visibility. Pre-lab assignment: determine and sketch the circuit schematic.

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 1 of 13
Pre-lab Question 2

Throughout this lab experiment, you will be asked to model complex devices as
Thevenin equivalent circuits. This is a very powerful concept because it allows us to
simplify circuits containing millions of components by representing that circuit using only
two components: a voltage source and a resistor.

Consider an automotive sound system. When the speakers are disconnected, the open
circuit voltage produced by the sound system is measured by an oscilloscope and found
to be

voc(t) = 16sinωt (volts).

Automotive
Sound
System

Next, an 8 Ω speaker is connected to the sound system and the voltage across the
speaker is

Vspkr(t) = 8sinωt (volts).

Automotive
Sound
System

What is the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the sound system (excluding the speaker)?
VTH = _____sinωt (volts) RTH = ________Ω

If we connected two 8 Ω speakers in parallel to the output of this sound system, what
voltage would appear across these two speakers? (Hint: use the Thevenin equivalent
circuit!)

Important point: Notice how a Thevenin equivalent circuit allows us to predict the
behavior of the sound system, even though we don’t have any idea what the actual
internal circuit is!

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 2 of 13
III. EXPERIMENTS:

A. Thevenin Equivalent Circuit of the Function Generator

The function generator is a complex electronic instrument, but it is possible to model the
function generator with a simple Thevenin equivalent circuit (TEC). In class, you often
determine the TEC by finding the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current. In the
lab, it is easy to measure the open circuit voltage, but short-circuiting can be a
dangerous and destructive procedure. Instead of using a short circuit, we will apply
known resistors to the output of the function generator. Then we can measure how the
voltage changes as a function of these “load” resistances. From these data, it is
possible to determine the Thevenin resistance, RTH. (Refer to the Pre-Lab questions to
review this method.)

Use the function generator and the oscilloscope to create a voltage signal of

v(t) = sin(2π.1000t) volts

Please refer to Laboratory #2 if you need to review the use of these two instruments.

Since the resistance of the oscilloscope is very large, it accurately measures1 the open
circuit voltage of the function generator. This means that we now know the Thevenin
voltage: VTH = sin(2π.1000t) volts.

Complete the model of the function generator by finding the Thevenin equivalent
resistance, RTH. Short-circuiting the function generator and trying to measure the current
might damage the instrument. A safer alternative, is to attach the “load” resistances
listed in Table 1 to the function generator and measure the resulting output voltage
(Vout). You will only be given 4 resistors, so you will need to create the tabulated
resistances using multiple resistors connected in series. Use the breadboard to securely
hold these resistors in place. Two resistors are connected in series in Figure 2 below.

1
Strictly speaking, this is only true if you are measuring low frequency signals. The oscilloscope and the
probes have parasitic (unwanted) capacitance and the impedance of this capacitance will be much less than
the probe’s resistance at high frequency (|ZC| = 1/ωC << 1MΩ).

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 3 of 13
 Figure 2. Two resistors in series, connected to the function generator. The function
generator’s test leads are visible at the top of the photograph and the
oscilloscope probe is visible at the bottom.

Table 1: Function Generator Output Voltage (Vout) and Average Power Dissipated
in RL for various load resistances, RL.

RL Vout (zero-pk) RTH Average power

(Load Resistance) (Calculated) Pave = ½*(Vout2/RL)
Scope only 1 volt --- 0.5 μW
(1MΩ)
20 Ω
30 Ω
50 Ω
100 Ω
150 Ω

The equivalent circuit, oscilloscope, and the load resistor are shown in Figure 3. Notice
that RTH and RL form a simple voltage divider. Therefore, the output voltage is given by:

RL
Vout = VTH
RL + RTH

Find the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the function generator (RTH) for each of the
load resistances listed in Table 1. In your lab report, describe the measurement method.
Also include the complete data set in tabular form (i.e., Table 1). Comment on the
invariance of RTH as RL is changed.

Function generator Main

Out
vout (Scope)
S

VTH R
50THΩ
RL

Figure 3: Equivalent Circuit of the Function Generator with a Load Resistor

B. Maximum Power Transfer

The delivery of the maximum power to a device is a common engineering problem.

Examples of maximum power transfer include delivering the maximum power to your cell

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 4 of 13
phone antenna (to improve the coverage area), and maximum power delivery to an
audio speaker (to get the highest sound level from the lowest power amplifier).

You have already learned that the DC power dissipated in a resistor (R) is

V2
Pdiss = watts
R
If the voltage is sinusoidal, however, the dissipated power is not constant but varies with
the sinusoidal voltage. It is common to use the time-averaged power (Pave) when
describing non-DC signals. For a sinusoidal voltage (sine or cosine), the average power
dissipated in a resistor (RL) is

2
1 T ⎡V sin(ωt ) ⎤ 2
1 V0 − pk
Pave = ∫ ⎢ 0 − pk ⎥ dt = watts
T 0⎣ RL ⎦ 2 RL

The coefficient of ½ is due to the integration of sin2(ωt) over one full period of the
sinusoid (T= 1/f = 2π/ω).

Calculate the average power dissipated in RL for the measurements recorded in Table 1.

The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power is dissipated in
the load (i.e., RL, an antenna, or an audio speaker) when the load resistance is equal to
the Thevenin resistance of the source (i.e., the function generator, the cell phone, or the
audio amplifier). That is, RL = RTH is the condition that delivers maximum power to RL.

Make a graph of Pave vs. RL using Excel. Please refer to Laboratory #1 to review the
instructions for using Excel to make a graph. Be certain to properly label the axes of the
graph with appropriate units.

Include the graph of power dissipation in your lab report. Describe your computation of
power delivered to RL and describe how the maximum power transfer theorem is
confirmed by these measurements.

C. Modeling a 9 volt Battery

A battery can also be modeled as a Thevenin equivalent circuit. In this section, you
should develop a TEC model for a 9 volt battery by using the following components:

1. 9 volt battery and battery clip

2. 100Ω resistor
3. DC voltmeter
4. a breadboard

CAUTION: the DC power dissipated in the 100Ω resistor will be PDC = V2/R ≅ 92/100 =
0.81 watts. The resistor is only capable of handling 0.5 watts, so the resistor will
become very hot! DO NOT connect the resistor to the battery for more than 5 seconds

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 5 of 13
and avoid touching the resistor. When designing circuits, it is always important to make
certain that all of the circuit elements are sufficiently robust to dissipate the expected
power. You could make this experiment safer by using two 200Ω resistors in parallel, or
two 50Ω resistors in series, but that wouldn’t be as interesting!

In your lab report, describe the experiment that you devised to determine VTH and RTH of
the 9 volt battery. Remember to measure and record the actual resistance of the 100Ω
resistor.

Using the TEC of the battery that you determined above, answer the following questions:
If the 9 volt battery is connected to a GPS (global positioning system) receiver that
requires 250 mA to operate, what is the output voltage of the battery? If the same battery
is used to power a cell phone that requires 2.0 amperes, what is the output voltage of
the battery? In your lab report, write a description of the problem and its solution.

D. Thevenin Equivalent Circuit of a Microphone

In addition to electronic circuits and batteries, it is also useful to model sensors as

Thevenin equivalent circuits. Sensors include chemical, optical, or mechanical devices
that convert a physical action into an electrical signal. A microphone converts sound into
an electrical signal and is a common example of a sensor.

Recall that a speaker produces sound by converting current flowing through the voice
coil into mechanical motion of the speaker cone. By reversing this process, it is also
possible to use a speaker as a microphone: Sound waves will cause the speaker cone
and voice coil to move. As the voice coil moves through the permanent magnet, a
current is induced in the voice coil and a voltage appears across the voice coil. This is
commonly called a dynamic microphone (see Figure 4). Notice that the dynamic
microphone looks very similar to the speaker described in Laboratory #2. The main
difference is that a very thin diaphragm replaces the bulky cone of the speaker. This
thin diaphragm greatly improves the microphones ability to accurately convert high
frequency sound into an electrical signal.

Figure 4. Operation of a dynamic microphone

(source: http://www.burninggrooves.com)

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 6 of 13
We will use an audio speaker as a simple microphone in the next experiment. The goal
of the exercise is to develop a Thevenin equivalent model of this “acoustic sensor.” In
order to provide a stable, controllable sound that is easy to measure, you will excite the
dynamic microphone using another 16 Ω speaker connected to the function generator.

Couple two speakers together as shown in the Figure 5. You may want to use some
wire to tie the speaker frames together through the mounting holes.

Using the function generator, apply a voltage of

Vspkr = 0.5sin(2π.440t) volts

to one of the speakers; we will call this speaker the ‘driver’. Use the oscilloscope to
measure the voltage generated by the second speaker. Note that this second speaker is
performing the function of a microphone (albeit, rather poorly).

Determine the TEC for the ‘microphone’ by measuring the open circuit voltage produced
by the microphone. Then add a 20 Ω resistor across the terminals of the microphone
such that current flows through the coil and the 20Ω resistor. Deduce the value of RTH
based on the change in voltage observed as the 20 Ω resistor is added to the circuit.
Describe the experiment and then draw the TEC of the dynamic microphone in your lab
report.

Driver Microphone

Wires to the
oscilloscope

Figure 5. Two speakers coupled together. The speaker on the left is connected to a function
generator and produces sound at 440 Hz. The speaker on the right acts as a dynamic
microphone and converts the sound waves into an electrical signal.

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 7 of 13
IV. LAB REPORT:

All required data, questions, and written comments can be found within the framed text
blocks. Tabulate or plot all of the requested data and answer the questions in a manner
that flows naturally. Complete Lab Report Guidelines are listed on the course website.

In addition, complete the following problem:

Engineers frequently use sensors to monitor a huge variety of devices. The sensor
signals are often quite weak and need to be interfaced with an amplifier. As a concrete
example, consider interfacing a microphone (acoustic sensor) with an audio amplifier.
To solve this circuit problem, we need to have a Thevenin equivalent circuit model for
the microphone as well as a model for the amplifier and the audio speaker. The block
diagram for this system is shown in Figure 6.

The circuit model for the entire audio system is shown in Figure 7. It is important to
realize that Figure 7 is not the actual circuit (which is much more complicated); it is only
a model that describes how the real circuit responds to inputs and outputs. It is very
important to notice, however, that both the microphone and the output of the amplifier
can be modeled as simple Thevenin equivalent circuits (an ideal voltage source and a
resistor).

Microphone Amplifier Speaker

Figure 6. A system consisting of a sensor (microphone), electronics (amplifier) and an actuator

(speaker).

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 8 of 13
 Microphone Model Amplifier Model Speaker Model

Rth(mic) Rth(amp)

VIN
+
RIN + AVVIN Rspkr
(Vmic)sin(ωt) -
-

Figure 7. The equivalent circuit model for the microphone, amplifier, and speaker that are shown
schematically in Figure 6.

The microphone and speaker in Figure 7 are correctly modeled with the following
parameters:

Microphone Model: Speaker Model:

Vmic = 0.1 volts Rspkr = 16 Ω
Rth(mic) = 16 Ω

Two different amplifiers are available. As an engineer, your task is to select the amplifier
that delivers the highest average power to the speaker. The parameters for each
amplifier are:

Amplifier Model #1:

RIN = 5 Ω.
AV = 100 (volts/volts)
Rth(amp) = 16 Ω

Amplifier Model #2:

RIN = 500 Ω.
AV = 100 (volts/volts)
Rth(amp) = 16 Ω

Analyze the performance of the two amplifiers, choose the best amplifier, and justify your
decision in the lab report. Describe the importance of developing an accurate Thevenin
equivalent circuit model of sensors. Also, develop a general principle for selecting an
appropriate amplifier for a sensor.

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 9 of 13
V. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

The Breadboard
FRONT SIDE
Throughout this lab you will use a
breadboard. These boards are useful for
quickly assembling circuits without
soldering.

The front side of the board consists of long

rows of tie points that are all connected
together. These rows are useful for
distributing power supply voltages
IC
throughout the board.

Surrounded by these long rows are columns

BACK SIDE of five tie points. Each group of five is
electrically connected under the surface by
metal clips, as shown in the back-side view
below.

Integrated circuits should straddle the deep

groove running along the board such that
each pin of the IC is connected to a unique
set of five tie points.

Figure A. The breadboard consists fo hundreds of holes with underlying metallic connectors.
Wires pushed into groupings of holes are connected to each other.

To better understand how a breadboard is used to create a circuit prototype, consider

the example in Figure B. We wish to use a 9 volt battery to power a red light emitting
diode (LED). A 1000Ω resistor must be placed in series with the LED so that the current
flowing through the LED is limited, and the LED does not overheat and burn out.

- +
9 volts
mA

Resistor LED

- 7v + - 2v +

Figure B. The LED schematic for the breadboard circuit of Figure 8.

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 10 of 13
Figure C shows a photograph of this circuit, as implemented on a breadboard. The
battery or power supply in more complicated circuits connects to a large number of
nodes, so we usually connect the battery to the long rows on the breadboard (see Figure
8). The black wire from the 9v battery is connected to the line of tie points next to the
blue line marked with (-) in the photograph. This set of tie points connects vertically to
the 1000Ω resistor. The resistor jumps horizontally to a new set of five tie points. The
LED connects to the fifth tie point, joining the LED and the 1kΩ resistor. The other wire
of the LED then connects to the vertical line of tie points marked with the red line and the
(+) sign. The LED and a short length of red wire are connected by this vertical set of tie
points. The end of the red wire is connected to the ammeter by the black alligator clip.
Finally, the circuit is completed by the connection between the ammeter and the battery.
This connection is between the red alligator clip and the red wire of the battery.

MULTIMETER

mA

COM mA

Figure C: One possible configuration for prototyping the circuit schematic in Figure B.

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 11 of 13
Reading Resistor Color Codes

The resistance is usually printed on a resistor using four bands of color. Each color
represents a digit from 0-9, or, in the case of silver and gold, a manufacturing tolerance.

The code is formatted in scientific notation. The first two bands represent the mantissa
(with no decimal point!) and the third band represents the power of ten in the exponent.
3
In the example below, a 26kΩ resistor is coded as 26x10 which uses the colors red-
blue-orange.

Resistor Color Codes

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Silver ±10%
Gold ±5%

Example: 26 kΩ ± 5% =
RED + BLUE + ORANGE + GOLD

2 6 x 103 ±5% = 26kΩ

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 12 of 13
VI. PARTS LIST:

Resistors (10 Ω, 20 Ω, 30 Ω, 50 Ω, 100 Ω)

Two small audio speakers (16Ω)
9 volt battery and battery clip

Breadboard for prototyping circuits

Function Generator (Instek, GFG-8250A)
Oscilloscope (Tektronix TDS 2012, or equivalent) with probes

Test Leads: BNC-to-Alligator clips (1)

Wires with Alligator clips (2)
Banana plug-to-Alligator clips (2)

ES 3 Laboratory #3 Page 13 of 13