Hepburn romanization

Hepburn romanization (ヘボン式ローマ字 Hebon-shiki Rōmaji, 'Hepburn-type Roman letters')[1] is a system for the romanization
of Japanese, that uses the Latin alphabet to write the Japanese language. It is used by most foreigners learning to spell Japanese in the
Latin alphabet[2] and by the Japanese for romanizing personal names, geographical locations, and other information such as train
tables, road signs, and official communications with foreign countries.[3] Largely based on English writing conventions, consonants
[1]
closely correspond to the English pronunciation and vowels approximate the Italian pronunciation.

The Hepburn style (Hebon-shiki) was developed in the late 19th century by an international commission that was formed to develop a
unified system of romanization. The commission's romanization scheme was popularized by the wide dissemination of a Japanese–
English dictionary by commission member and American missionary James Curtis Hepburn which was published in 1886.[1] The
"modified Hepburn system" (shūsei Hebon-shiki), also known as the "standard system" (Hyōjun-shiki), was published in 1908 with
revisions by Kanō Jigorō and the Society for the Propagation of Romanization Romaji-Hirome-kai).
( [4][5]

Although Kunrei romanization is officially favored by the Japanese government today, Hepburn romanization is still in use and
remains the worldwide standard.[1] The Hepburn style is regarded as the best way to render Japanese pronunciation for Westerners.
Since it is based on English and Italian pronunciations, people who speak English or Romance languages (e.g., Italian, French,
Portuguese and Spanish) will generally be more accurate in pronouncing unfamiliar Japanese words romanized in the Hepburn style
compared to Nihon-shiki romanizationand Kunrei-shiki romanization.[6][7]

Contents
Legal status
Variants
Obsolete variants
Second version
First version

Features
Long vowels
A+A
I+I
U+U
E+E
O+O
O+U
E+I
Other combination of vowels
Loanwords
Variations
Particles
Syllabic n
Long consonants
Romanization charts
Extended katakana
See also
Notes
References
 External links

Legal status
Hepburn is based on English phonology and has competed with the alternative Nihon-shiki romanization, which was developed in
Japan as a replacement of the Japanese script.[6] In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission was appointed to compare the
two.[6] The Commission eventually decided in favor of a slightly-modified version of Nihon-shiki, which was proclaimed to be
Japan's official romanization for all purposes by a September 21, 1937 cabinet ordinance; it is now known as the Kunrei-shiki
romanization. The ordinance was temporarily overturned by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) during the
Occupation of Japan, but it was reissued, with slight revisions, in 1954.

In 1972, a revised version of Hepburn was codified as ANSI standard Z39.11-1972. It was proposed in 1989 as a draft for ISO 3602
but rejected in favor of theKunrei-shiki romanization. The ANSI Z39.11-1972 standard was deprecatedon October 6, 1994.

As of 1978, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, and many other official organizations
used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. In addition The Japan Times, the Japan Travel Bureau, and many other private organizations
used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. TheNational Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki.[8]

Although Hepburn is not a government standard, some government agencies mandate it. For example, the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
requires the use of Hepburn on passports, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport requires the use of Hepburn on
transport signs, including road signs and railway station signs.

In many other areas that it lacks de jure status, Hepburn remains the de facto standard. Signs and notices in city offices and police
stations and at shrines, temples and attractions also use it. English-language newspapers and media use the simplified form of
Hepburn. Cities and prefectures use it in information for English-speaking residents and visitors, and English-language publications
by the Japanese Foreign Ministry use simplified Hepburn as well. Official tourism information put out by the government uses it, as
do guidebooks, both local and foreign, on Japan.

Many students of Japanese as a foreign language learn Hepburn.

Variants
There are many variants of the Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are as follows:

, with the third edition (1886)[9] often

The Traditional Hepburn, as defined in various editions of Hepburn's dictionary
[10]
considered authoritative (although changes in kana usagemust be accounted for). It is characterized by the
rendering of syllabic n as m before the consonantsb, m and p: Shimbashi for 新橋.
Modified Hepburn (修正ヘボン式 Shūsei Hebon-shiki),[11] also known as Revised Hepburn, in which (among other
points) the rendering of syllabicn as m before certain consonants is no longer used:Shinbashi for 新橋. The style
was introduced in the third edition ofKenkyūsha's New Japanese-English Dictionary(1954), was adopted by the
Library of Congress as one of its ALA-LC romanizations, and is the most common version of the system today .[12]
In Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses:

Railway Standard (鉄道掲示基準規程 Tetsudō Keiji Kijun Kitei),[13] which follows the Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji. All Japan
Rail and other major railways use it for station names.
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Standard,[14] how to spell Roman letters (Hepburn style)
of road signs, which follows the modified Hepburn style. It is used for road signs.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs Passport Standard(外務省旅券規定 Gaimushō Ryoken Kitei),[15] a permissive

standard, which explicitly allows the use of "non-Hepburn romaji"(非ヘボン式ローマ字 hi-Hebon-shiki rōmaji) in
personal names, notably for passports. In particular
, it renders the syllabicn as m before b, m and p, and romanizes
long o as oh, oo or ou (Satoh, Satoo or Satou for 佐藤).
Details of the variants can be found below.
Obsolete variants
The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburn's
dictionary are primarily of historical interest. Notable differences from the
third and later versions include:

Second version

エ and ヱ were written as ye: Yedo

ズ and ヅ were written as dzu: kudzu, tsudzuku
キャ, キョ, and キュ were written as kiya, kiyo and kiu
クヮ was written as kuwa[16]

First version
The following differences are in addition to thosein the second version:

ス was written as sz.

ツ was written as tsz. Former Japan National Railways-style
ズ and ヅ were written as du. board of Toyooka Station. Between the
two adjacent stations, “GEMBUDŌ”
クヮ was written as kuwa.
follows the Hepburn romanization system,
but “KOKUHU” follows the Nihon-
Features shiki/Kunrei-shiki romanization system.

The main feature of Hepburn is that its orthography is based on English

phonology. More technically, where syllables that are constructed systematically, according to the Japanese syllabary, contain the
"unstable" consonant for the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that an English-speaker would
pronounce it better matches the real sound:し is written shi not si.

Some linguists such as Harold E. Palmer, Daniel Jones and Otto Jespersen object to Hepburn, as the pronunciation-based spellings
[17] Supporters argue that Hepburn is
can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations.
not intended as a linguistic tool.

Long vowels
The long vowels are generally indicated by macrons ( ¯ ).[18][19] Since the diacritical sign is usually missing on typewriter and
[20][21]
people may not know how to input it on computer keyboards, the circumflex accent ( ˆ ) is often used in its place.

The combinations of vowels are written as follows in traditional/modified Hepburn:

A+A
In traditional and modified:

The combination of a + a is written aa if a word-border exists between them.

邪悪（じゃあく）: {ji + ya} + {a + ku} = jaaku – evil

In traditional Hepburn:

The long vowel a is written aa

お婆さん（おばあさん）: {o} + {ba + a} + {sa + n} = obaa-san[18] – grandmother

In modified Hepburn:
 The long vowel a is indicated by a macron:

お婆さん（おばあさん）: {o} + {ba + a} + {sa + n} = obāsan[19] – grandmother

I+I
In traditional and modified:

The combination i + i is always written ii.

お兄さん（おにいさん）: o + ni + i + sa + n = oniisan – older brother

お爺さん（おじいさん）: o + ji + i + sa + n = ojiisan – grandfather
美味しい（おいしい）: o + i + shi + i = oishii – delicious
新潟（にいがた）: ni + i + ga + ta = Niigata
灰色（はいいろ）: ha + i + i + ro = haiiro – grey

U+U
In traditional and modified:

The combination u + u is written uu if a word-border exists between them or it is the end part
of terminal form of a verb:

食う（くう）: {ku} + {-u} = kuu – to eat

縫う（ぬう）: {nu} + {-u} = nuu – to sew
湖（みずうみ）: {mi + zu} + {u + mi} = mizuumi - lake

The long vowel u is indicated by a macron:

数学（すうがく）: {su + u} + {ga + ku} = sūgaku – mathematics

注意（ちゅうい）: {chu + u} + {i} = chūi – attention
ぐうたら: {gu + u + ta + ra} = gūtara – loafer
憂鬱（ゆううつ）: {yu + u} + {u + tsu} = yūutsu - depression

E+E
In traditional and modified:

The combination e + e is written ee if a word-border exists between them:

濡れ縁（ぬれえん）: {nu + re} + {e + n} = nureen – open veranda

In traditional Hepburn:

The long vowel e is written ee:

お姉さん（おねえさん）: {o} + {ne + e} + {sa + n} = oneesan[18] – older sister

In modified Hepburn:

The long vowel e is indicated by a macron:

お姉さん（おねえさん）: {o} + {ne + e} + {sa + n} = onēsan[19] – older sister

O+O
In traditional and modified:

The combination o + o is written oo if a word-border exists between them:

小躍り（こおどり）: {ko} + {o + do + ri} = koodori – dance

The long vowel o is indicated by a macron:

氷（こおり）: {ko + o + ri} = kōri – ice

遠回り（とおまわり）: {to + o} + {ma + wa + ri} = tōmawari – roundabout route
大阪（おおさか）: {o + o} + {sa + ka} = Ōsaka – Osaka

O+U
In traditional and modified:

The combination o + u is written ou if a word-border exists between them or it is the end part
of terminal form of a verb:

追う（おう）: {o} + {-u} = ou – to chase

迷う（まよう）: {ma + yo} + {-u} = mayou – to get lost
子馬（こうま）: {ko} + {u + ma} = kouma – foal
仔牛（こうし）: {ko} + {u + shi} = koushi – calf

The long vowel o is indicated by a macron:

学校（がっこう）: {ga + (sokuon)} + {ko + u} = gakkō – school

東京（とうきょう）: {to + u} + {kyo + u} = Tōkyō – Tokyo
勉強（べんきょう）: {be + n} + {kyo + u} = benkyō – study
電報（でんぽう）: {de + n} + {po + u} = dempō[18] or denpō[19] – telegraphy
金曜日（きんようび）: {ki + n} + {yo + u} + {bi} = kinyōbi[18] or kin'yōbi[19] – Friday
格子（こうし）: {ko + u} + {shi} = kōshi – lattice

E+I
In traditional and modified:

The combination e + i is written ei.

学生（がくせい）: ga + ku + se + i = gakusei – student

経験（けいけん）: ke + i + ke + n = keiken – experience
制服（せいふく）: se + i + fu + ku = seifuku – uniform
姪（めい）: me + i = mei – niece
招いて（まねいて）: ma + ne + i + te = maneite – call/invite and then

Other combination of vowels

All other combinations of two different vowels are written separately:

軽い（かるい）: ka + ru + i = karui – light (for weight)

鴬（うぐいす）: u + gu + i + su = uguisu – bush warbler
甥（おい）: o + i = oi – nephew

Loanwords
The long vowels indicated bychōonpu (ー) within loanwords are written with macrons ā,
( ī, ū, ē, ō) as follows:

セーラー: se + (chōonpu) + ra + (chōonpu) = sērā – sailor

パーティー: pa + (chōonpu) + ti + (chōonpu) = pātī – party
ヒーター: hi + (chōonpu) + ta + (chōonpu) = hītā – heater
タクシー: ta + ku + shi + (chōonpu) = takushī – taxi
スーパーマン: su + (chōonpu) + pa + (chōonpu) + ma + n = Sūpāman – Superman
バレーボール: ba + re + (chōonpu) + bo + (chōonpu) + ru = barēbōru – volleyball
ソール: so + (chōonpu) + ru = sōru – sole
The combinations of two vowels within loanwords are written separately:

バレエ: ba + re + e = baree – ballet

ソウル: so + u + ru = souru – soul, Seoul
ミイラ: mi + i + ra = miira – mummy

Variations
There are many variations on the Hepburn system for indicating the long vowels. For example, 東京（とうきょう） can be written
as:

Tōkyō – indicated with macrons. That follows the rules of thetraditional and modified Hepburn systems and is
considered to be standard.
Tokyo – not indicated at all. That is common for Japanese words that have been adopted into English and is also the
convention used in thede facto Hepburn used in signs and other English-language information around Japan,
mentioned in the paragraph on legal status.
Tôkyô – indicated with circumflex accents, like the alternative Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanizations. They are
often used when not knowing how to input macrons in a word processor .
Tohkyoh – indicated with an h (only applies after o). It is sometimes known as "passport Hepburn" as the Japanese
Foreign Ministry has authorized (but not required) it in passports.[22][23][24]

Toukyou – written using kana spelling: ō as ou or oo (depending on the kana) andū as uu. That is sometimes called
wāpuro style, as it is how text is entered into a Japanese word processor by using a keyboard with Roman
characters. The method most accurately represents the way that vowels are written in kana by dif ferentiating
between おう (as in とうきょう（東京）, written Toukyou in this system) and おお (as in とおい（遠い）, written
tooi in this system).

However, using this method makes the pronunciation of ou become ambiguous, either a longo or two different
vowels: o and u. See Wāpuro rōmaji#Phonetic accuracyfor details.
Tookyoo – written by doubling the long vowels. Some dictionaries such asPocket Kenkyusha Japanese
dictionary[25] and Basic English writers' Japanese-English wordbookfollow this style, and it is also used in theJSL
[26]
form of romanization. It is also used to write words without reference to any particular system.

Particles
In traditional and modified:

When は is used as a particle, it is writtenwa.

In traditional Hepburn:

When へ is used as a particle, Hepburn originally recommendedye.[18] This spelling is obsolete, and it is commonly
written as e (Romaji-Hirome-Kai, 1974[27] ).
When を is used as a particle, it is writtenwo.[18]
In modified Hepburn:[19]

When へ is used as a particle, it is writtene.

When を is used as a particle, it is writteno.
Syllabic n
In traditional Hepburn:[18]

Syllabic n (ん) is written as n before consonants, but as m before labial consonants: b, m,

and p. It is sometimes written as n- (with a hyphen) before vowels and y (to avoid confusion
between, for example, んあ n + a and な na, and んや n + ya and にゃ nya), but its hyphen
usage is not clear.

案内（あんない）: annai – guide

群馬（ぐんま）: Gumma – Gunma
簡易（かんい）: kan-i – simple
信用（しんよう）: shin-yō – trust
In modified Hepburn:[19]

The rendering m before labial consonants is not used and is replaced with n. It is written n'
(with an apostrophe) before vowels and y.

案内（あんない）: annai – guide

群馬（ぐんま）: Gunma – Gunma
簡易（かんい）: kan'i – simple
信用（しんよう）: shin'yō – trust

Long consonants
Elongated (or "geminate") consonant sounds are marked by doubling the consonant following a sokuon, っ; for consonants that are
digraphs in Hepburn (sh, ch, ts), only the first consonant of the set is doubled, except forch', which is replaced by tch.[18][19]

結果（けっか）: kekka – result

さっさと: sassato – quickly
ずっと: zutto – all the time
切符（きっぷ）: kippu – ticket
雑誌（ざっし）: zasshi – magazine
一緒（いっしょ）: issho – together
こっち: kotchi (not kocchi) – this way
抹茶（まっちゃ）: matcha (not maccha) – matcha
三つ（みっつ）: mittsu – three

Romanization charts
Gojūon
Yōon
あアa いイi うウu えエe おオo

か カ ka き キ ki く ク ku け ケ ke こ コ ko きゃ キャ kya きゅ キュ kyu きょ キョ kyo

さ サ sa しシ す ス su せ セ se そ ソ so しゃ シャ sha しゅ シュ shu しょ ショ sho
shi
た タ ta ちチ つ ツ tsu て テ te と ト to ちゃ チャ cha ちゅ チュ chu ちょ チョ cho
chi
な ナ na に ニ ni ぬ ヌ nu ね ネ ne の ノ no にゃ ニャ nya にゅ ニュ nyu にょ ニョ nyo
は ハ ha ひ ヒ hi ふ フ fu へ ヘ he ほ ホ ho ひゃ ヒャ hya ひゅ ヒュ hyu ひょ ヒョ hyo
まマ み ミ mi むム めメ も モ mo みゃ ミャ mya みゅ ミュ myu みょ ミョ myo
 ma mu me
や ヤ ya ゆ ユ yu よ ヨ yo
ら ラ ra り リ ri る ル ru れ レ re ろ ロ ro りゃ リャ rya りゅ リュ ryu りょ リョ ryo
わ ワ wa ゐ ヰ i † ゑヱ をヲo‡
e†
んン
n /n'
が ガ ga ぎ ギ gi ぐ グ gu げ ゲ ge ご ゴ go ぎゃ ギャ gya ぎゅ ギュ gyu ぎょ ギョ gyo
ざ ザ za じ ジ ji ず ズ zu ぜ ゼ ze ぞ ゾ zo じゃ ジャ ja じゅ ジュ ju じょ ジョ jo
だ ダ da ぢ ヂ ji づ ヅ zu で デ de ど ド do ぢゃ ヂャ ja ぢゅ ヂュ ju ぢょ ヂョ jo
ば バ ba び ビ bi ぶ ブ bu べ ベ be ぼ ボ bo びゃ ビャ bya びゅ ビュ byu びょ ビョ byo
ぱ パ pa ぴ ピ pi ぷ プ pu ぺ ペ pe ぽ ポ po ぴゃ ピャ pya ぴゅ ピュ pyu ぴょ ピョ pyo

Each entry contains hiragana, katakana, and Hepburn romanization, in that order
.
[28][29] In modern
† — The characters inred are rare historical characters and are obsolete in modern Japanese.
Hepburn romanization, they are often undefined. [19]
[20] and
‡ — The characters inblue are rarely used outside of their status as a particle in modern Japanese,
romanization follows the rulesabove.

Extended katakana
These combinations are used mainly to represent the sounds in words in other languages.

Digraphs with orange backgrounds are the general ones used for loanwords or foreign places or names, and those with blue
backgrounds are used for more accurate transliterations of foreign sounds, both suggested by the Cabinet of Japan's Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.[30] Katakana combinations with beige backgrounds are suggested by the
American National Standards Institute[31] and the British Standards Institution as possible uses.[32] Ones with purple backgrounds
[27]
appear on the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting.

イィ yi イェ ye
ウァ wa ウィ wi ウゥ ウェ we ウォ wo
wu*
ウュ
wyu
ヴァ va ヴィ vi ヴ vu⁑ ヴェ ve ヴォ vo
ヴャ vya ヴュ ヴィェ ヴョ vyo
vyu vye
キェ kye
ギェ gye
クァ クィ クェ kwe クォ
kwa kwi kwo
クヮ
kwa
グァ グィ グェ gwe グォ
gwa gwi gwo
グヮ
 gwa
シェ she
ジェ je
スィ si
ズィ zi
チェ che
ツァ tsa ツィ tsi ツェ tse ツォ tso
ツュ
tsyu
ティ ti トゥ tu
テュ tyu
ディ di ドゥ du
デュ
dyu
ニェ nye
ヒェ hye
ビェ bye
ピェ pye
ファ fa フィ fi フェ fe フォ fo
フャ fya フュ fyu フィェ フョ fyo
fye
ホゥ hu
ミェ mye
リェ rye
ラ゜ la リ゜ li ル゜ lu レ゜ le ロ゜ lo
ヷ va⁂ ヸ vi⁂ ヹ ve⁂ ヺ vo⁂

* — The use of ウゥ to represent wu is rare in modern Japanese except for Internet slang and transcription of the
Latin digraph VV into katakana.
⁑ — ヴ has a rarely-used hiragana form in ゔ that is also vu in Hepburn romanization systems.
[28][29]
⁂ — The characters in green are obsolete in modern Japanese and very rarely used.

See also
List of ISO romanizations

Notes
1. Hadamitzky, Wolfgang; Spahn, Mark (October 2005)."Romanization systems"(https://www.hadamitzky.de/english/lp
_romanization_sys.htm). Wolfgang Hadamitzky: Japan-related T
extbooks, Dictionaries, and Reference Works.
Retrieved 10 August 2017.
2. Backhaus, Peter (29 December 2014)."To shine or to die: the messy world of romanized Japanese" (http://www.japa
ntimes.co.jp/life/2014/12/29/language/shine-die-messy-world-romanized-japanese/)
. The Japan Times Online.
Retrieved 10 August 2017.
 3. " 'Ti' or 'chi'? Educators call to unify romanization styles in Japan" (https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20170402/p2a/0
0m/0na/003000c). Mainichi Daily News. 2 April 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
4. Seeley, Christopher (2000). A History of Writing in Japan(https://books.google.com/books?id=ZIkuX0US69QC&lpg=
PA140&dq=%22standard%20system%22%20romaji&pg=PA140#v=onepage&q&f=false)(Illustrated, reprint ed.).
University of Hawaii Press. p. 140.ISBN 9780824822170.
5. Unger, J. Marshall (1996). Literacy and Script Reform in Occupation Japan: Reading between the Lines
(https://book
s.google.com/books?id=ScHa7N2_0HkC&lpg=P A53&dq=%22standard%20system%22%20romaji&pg=P A53#v=one
page&q&f=false). Oxford University Press. p. 53.ISBN 9780195356380.
6. Carr, Denzel. The New Official Romanization of Japanese(https://www.jstor.org/stable/593948). Journal of the
American Oriental Society, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar., 1939), pp. 99-102.
7. Haruhiko Kindaichi, Takeshi Shibata, Naoki Hayashi (1988).日本語百科大事典 [Japanese encyclopedia]. Taishukan
Shoten.
8. Kent, et al. "Oriental Literature and Bibliography
." p. 155 (https://books.google.com/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=P
A155&dq=Kunrei+tourist&hl=en&sa=X&ei=9B2TUa9EkrDwBNOGgZAO&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Kunr
ei%20tourist&f=false).
9. (http://www.ab.cyberhome.ne.jp/~kaizu/roomazi/doc/hep3.html) 和英語林集成第三版 [Digital 'Japanese English
Forest Collection']. Meiji Gakuin University Library(in Japanese). Meiji Gakuin University. March 2010 [2006].
Retrieved 10 August 2017.
10. "明治学院大学図書館 - 『和英語林集成』デジタルアーカイブス" (http://www.meijigakuin.ac.jp/mgda/index5_j.html).
Meijigakuin.ac.jp. Retrieved 2012-06-29.
11. "Japanese" (https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/japanese.pdf) (PDF). Library of Congress. Retrieved
July 13, 2012.
12. "UHM Library : Japan Collection Online Resources"(http://www.hawaii.edu/asiaref/japan/online/rom_hist.htm).
Hawaii.edu. 2005-10-06. Retrieved 2012-06-29.
13. "鉄道掲示基準規程" (http://homepage1.nifty.com/tabi-mo/font_kitei2.htm#10). Homepage1.nifty.com. Retrieved
2012-07-13.
14. (http://www.kictec.co.jp/varieties-road-sign/hebon-romaji/) 道路標識のローマ字（ヘボン式）の綴り方 [How to spell
Roman letters (Hepburn style) of road signs].Kictec (in Japanese). Retrieved 10 August 2017.
15. "パスポートセンター ヘボン式ローマ字表 : 神奈川県" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120730041456/http://www .pre
f.kanagawa.jp/osirase/02/2315/hebon.html). Pref.kanagawa.jp. Archived fromthe original (http://www.pref.kanagawa.
jp/osirase/02/2315/hebon.html)on 2012-07-30. Retrieved 2012-07-13.
16. James Curtis Hepburn (1872).A Japanese-English And English-Japanese Dictionary(http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/p
t?id=nyp.33433081858254;view=1up;seq=326)(2nd ed.). American Presbyterian mission press. pp. 286–290 .
Retrieved 2013-12-16.
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References
Kent, Allen, Harold Lancour, and Jay Elwood Daily (Executive Editors).Encyclopedia of Library and Information
Science Volume 21. CRC Press, April 1, 1978. ISBN 0824720210, 9780824720216.

External links
Preface of first edition of Hepburn's original dictionary
, explaining romanization
Preface of third edition of Hepburn's original dictionary, explaining romanization

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