Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
2.1 Introduction
Power systems are generally based on three-phase alternating current (ac) circuits.
This chapter describes the fundamentals of this type of circuits and is organized as
follows. Section 2.2 defines balanced three-phase sequences. Section 2.3 describes
balanced three-phase voltage and currents, as well as the two different symmetrical
connections of system components and the equivalence among them. Section 2.4
defines instantaneous, active, reactive, and apparent powers and explains how to
measure them. Section 2.5 clarifies why three-phase power is generally preferred
over single phase-phase power. Section 2.6 defines the per-unit system, which is
used in the remaining chapters of this book. Section 2.7 summarizes the chapter
and suggests some references for further study. Finally, Sect. 2.8 proposes some
exercises for further comprehending the concepts addressed in this chapter.
where:
• A is the root mean square (RMS) value of the source,
• ! is its angular frequency (also known as angular speed) measured in radians
per second, and
• is its initial phase angle.
The RMS value of the source is computed as:
s
Z T
1
AD a2 .t/dt; (2.2)
T 0
2
!D D 2f ; (2.3)
T
where f is the ordinary frequency (measured in Hertz).
2. Using a phasorial representation:
AN D A† : (2.4)
Figure 2.1 illustrates the relationship between a sinusoidal ac source (left plot)
and a rotating vector or phasor (right plot). Observe that the projection of the rotating
vector on the imaginary axisp(right-hand-side of the figure) renders the sinusoidal
form of the source: a.t/ D 2Asin .!t C /, shown on the left-hand side of the
figure.
If three ac sinusoidal sources (or phasors) have equal magnitude and equal angle
separation . 2 ı
3 rad or120 /, then they constitute a balanced three-phase sequence.
For example, the following three ac sources constitute a balanced three-phase
sequence:
2.2 Balanced Three-Phase Sequences 19
a(t)
Im √
2A
(w t + y )
y Re
wt
y
Fig. 2.1 Relationship between a sinusoidal AC source (left) and a rotating vector (right)
8 p
ˆ
ˆ
<aA .t/ D p2Asin .!t
C /;
a .t/ D 2Asin !t C 2 ; (2.5)
ˆ B 3
:̂a .t/ D p2Asin !t C C 2 :
C 3
Since aA .t/, aB .t/, and aC .t/ constitute a balanced three-phase sequence, then we
have:
Figure 2.2 shows a balanced three-phase sequence using phasors, where the
initial phase is 0. Note that the phasor denoted by AN A is leading 2=3 rad the
phasor denoted by AN B and lagging 2=3 rad the phasor denoted by AN C . In this case,
the balanced three-phase sequence is denominated positive sequence.
If phases B and C are swapped, we obtain the so-called negative sequence that is
shown in Fig. 2.3 and represented by the following phasors:
20 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
2p
3
rad
2p
3
rad A¯A
2p
3
rad
A¯B
Fig. 2.3 Balanced
three-phase negative A¯B
sequence
2p
3
rad
2p
3
rad AA
2p
3
rad
AC
8
ˆ
ˆ N
<AA D A†0;
AN D A† C 2 ; (2.8)
ˆ B 3
:̂AN D A† 2 :
C 3
In power systems, the reference phasor is generally indicated using the letter R,
the phasor lagging 120ı (or 23
rad) using the letter S, and the phasor leading 120ı
2
(or 3 rad) using the letter T. That is:
2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 21
8
ˆ
ˆ N ı
<AR D A†0 ;
AN D A† 120ı ;
ˆ S
:̂AN D A† C 120ı :
T
R
+ −
ŪRS
−
S ŪT R
+
ŪST
− +
T
22 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
8
ˆ
ˆ N N ı
<UR D URN D UF †0 ;
N DU
U N SN D UF † 120ı ; (2.9)
ˆ S
:̂U N TN D UF † C 120ı ;
NT D U
NR CU
U NS CU
N T D 0: (2.10)
On the other hand, each line voltage is defined as the difference of two phase
voltages (lower plot of Fig. 2.4). That is:
8 p
ˆ
ˆ N N N ı
<URS D UR US D p3UF †30 ;
N DU
U NS U
N T D 3UF † 90ı ; (2.11)
ˆ ST p
:̂U NT U
N TR D U N R D 3UF †150ı :
Note that:
U N ST C U
N RS C U N TR D 0; (2.12)
ŪS
30◦
ŪST
2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 23
where:
• IL is the magnitude of the line current and
• ' is the angle of a phase voltage with respect to the corresponding line current.
Line currents are shown in Fig. 2.6.
Note that:
8
ˆ
ˆ N N N
<IR C ITR D IRS ;
IN C INRS D INST ; (2.15)
ˆS
:̂IN C IN D IN :
T ST TR
Since:
and:
or:
2 3 2 32 3
INRS 2 1 1 INS
4 INST 5 D 1 4 1 1 1 5 4 INT 5 :
3
INTR 1 2 1 0
2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 25
30◦
I¯R
30◦
I¯ST
I¯S
R
I¯R
I¯T R
I¯RS
I¯S
S
I¯ST I¯T
T
or:
8
ˆ
ˆ 1p N
ˆINRS D
ˆ 3 IR † C 30ı ;
ˆ
ˆ 3
<
1p N
INST D 3 IS † C 30ı ;
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 1p N
:̂INTR D 3 IT † C 30ı ;
3
or similarly:
8
ˆ
ˆ 1p N
ˆ
ˆ INRS D 3IR † 150ı ;
ˆ
ˆ 3
<
1p N
INST D 3IS † 150ı ; (2.17)
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 1p N
:̂INTR D 3IT † 150ı ;
3
and finally:
8
ˆ
ˆ 1p N
ˆ
ˆ INRS D 3IS † 30ı ;
ˆ
ˆ 3
<
1p N
INST D 3IT † 30ı ;
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 1p N
:̂INTR D 3IR † 30ı :
3
Considering:
8
ˆ
ˆ N ı
<IR D IG †0 ;
IN D IG † 120ı ; (2.18)
ˆS
:̂IN D I † C 120ı ;
T G
From Eqs. (2.18) and (2.19) above, we conclude that the line and delta currents
in a balanced three-phase delta-connected generator are balanced sequences.
28 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
Z̄y ĒS
− + I¯S
N ∼ S
Z̄y ĒT
− ∼ + I¯T
T
− + R
I¯T R I¯R
∼ E¯ C ∼ E¯A
+ −
Z̄ d Z̄d
Z̄ d I¯RS
− + I¯S
∼ S
I¯ST
E¯B I¯T
T
To preserve balance, three balanced voltage sources can be either wye (y) or delta
(d) connected, as shown in the upper and lower plots of Fig. 2.10, respectively. In
the wye connection, point N, known as the common start point, is considered as the
reference for phase voltages.
We consider the balanced voltage source sequence:
8
ˆ
ˆ N ı
<ER D EF †0 ;
EN D EF † 120ı ; (2.20)
ˆ S
:̂EN D E † C 120ı ;
T F
where EF is the magnitude of each voltage source, while the balanced voltage-source
current sequence is:
8
ˆ
ˆ N ı
<IR D IL † .' 0/ ;
IN D IL † .' 120/ı ; (2.21)
ˆS
:̂IN D I † .' C 120/ı ;
T L
2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 29
Then:
8 p p
ˆ
ˆ N N N N ı ı
<ER ES D EA D p3ER †30 D p 3EF †30 ;
EN EN T D EN B D 3EN S †30ı D 3EF † 90ı ; (2.23)
ˆ S
:̂EN EN D EN D p3EN †30ı D p3E †150ı :
T R C T F
On the other hand, these circuits should be equivalent under load conditions as
well. Thus:
8
ˆ
ˆ N N N
<ITR IRS D IR ;
IN INST D INS ; (2.24)
ˆ RS
:̂IN IN D IN :
ST TR T
or:
8
ˆ 1
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ INRS D p IG † 150ı ;
ˆ
ˆ 3
< 1
INST D p IG † C 90ı ; (2.26)
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
ˆ
ˆN 1
:̂ITR D p IG † 30ı :
3
Under load conditions, line voltages in both connections should be equal. Thus,
from Fig. 2.10, we have:
or:
EN A C INRS ZN d D EN R EN S C INS INR ZN y : (2.28)
or:
1 p
p INR †150ı ZN d D 3INR † 150ı ZN y ; (2.30)
3
as well as:
1 p
p ZN d D 3ZN y ; (2.31)
3
and finally:
ZN d D 3ZN y : (2.32)
We conclude that the equivalence conditions for the wye and delta connections
in the circuits in Fig. 2.10 are as follows:
8 p
ˆ
ˆ N N ı
<EA D p3ER †30 ;
EN D 3EN †30 ;
ı (2.33)
ˆ B p S
:̂EN D 3EN †30ı ;
C T
and:
ZN d D 3ZN y ; (2.34)
or alternatively:
8
ˆ 1
ˆEN R D
ˆ p EN A † 30ı ;
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
< 1 N
EN S D p EB † 30ı ; (2.35)
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 1 N
:̂EN T D p EC † 30ı ;
3
2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 31
and:
1
ZN y D ZN d : (2.36)
3
Illustrative Example 2.3 Balanced three-phase circuit
We consider the circuit depicted in Fig. 2.11 in which voltage sources constitute a
known balanced three-phase positive sequence and impedances ZN iy and ZN cd are also
known. We compute below:
1. Currents INR , INS , and INT .
2. Currents INRS , INST , and INTR .
3. Voltages U N R, U N S , and U N T.
or:
2 32 3 2 3
2ZN iy C ZN cd ZN cd ZN iy IN1 EN R 1 ˛N 2
4 ZN cd 3ZN cd ZN cd 5 4 IN2 5 D 4 0 5:
ZN iy N N
Zcd 2Ziy C Zcd N N
I3 N 2
ER ˛N ˛N
and:
2 3
2 3 2 1 1 2 3
NI1 1 ˛N 2
1 6 N iy
Z 7
4 IN2 5 D 6 7 EN 4 0 5 ;
3ZN iy C ZN cd 4 1 1 C ZN cd 1 5 R
IN3 ˛N 2 ˛N
1 1 2
or:
8
ˆ
ˆ 3EN R
ˆIN1 D
ˆ ;
ˆ
ˆ 3Ziy C ZN cd
N
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
< .1 ˛/ N EN R
IN2 D ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 3ZN iy C ZN cd
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆIN D 3˛N EN R :
ˆ
:̂ 3
3ZN iy C ZN cd
or:
8
ˆ EN R
ˆINR D
ˆ ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN iy C 13 ZN cd
ˆ
ˆ
< EN S
INS D ;
ˆ
ˆ N iy C 1 ZN cd
Z
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
ˆ EN T
ˆ
ˆINT D
:̂ :
ZN iy C 13 ZN cd
On the other hand, currents INRS , INST , and INTR are computed as:
8 ER .3 1 C ˛/
N
ˆ
ˆ N N N
ˆIRS D I1 I2
ˆ
D
N N
3Ziy C Zcd
;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
< EN R .3˛N 1 C ˛/
N
INST D IN3 IN2 D ;
ˆ
ˆ N N
3Ziy C Zcd
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆN EN R .˛N 1/
:̂ITR D IN2 D ;
3ZN iy C ZN cd
or:
8
ˆ EN R 1 ˛N 2
ˆ
ˆINRS D ;
ˆ
ˆ 3ZN iy C ZN cd
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 1
ˆ
< ˛N 2 EN R 1 ˛
EN R ˛N 2 ˛N N EN S 1 ˛N 2
INST D D D ;
ˆ
ˆ 3ZN iy C ZN cd 3ZN iy C ZN cd 3ZN iy C ZN cd
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 1
ˆ
ˆ NER .˛N 1/ ˛N EN R 1 ˛ EN T 1 ˛N 2
ˆN N
:̂ITR D D D :
3ZN iy C ZN cd 3ZN iy C ZN cd 3ZN iy C ZN cd
Note that the relationship between currents INRS , INST , INTR and INR , INS , INT is as follows:
p
INRS INST INTR 1 ˛N 2 3†30ı 1
D D D D D p †30ı :
INR INS INT 3 3 3
or:
8 N N
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ N R D EN R ER Ziy ;
U
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN iy C 13 ZN cd
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
< N N
N S D EN S ES Ziy ;
U
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN iy C 13 ZN cd
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ EN T ZN iy
ˆ
ˆUN N
:̂ T D ET N ;
Ziy C 13 ZN cd
and finally:
8 0 1
ˆ
ˆ N
Ziy
ˆ
ˆ N R D EN R @1
U A;
ˆ
ˆ 1 ZN
ˆ
ˆ ZN C
ˆ
ˆ iy 3 cd
ˆ
ˆ 0 1
ˆ
ˆ
< N iy
Z
N S D EN S @1
U A;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN iy C 13 ZN cd
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ 0 1
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN iy
ˆ
ˆUN D EN T @1 A:
:̂ T ZN iy C 13 ZN cd
I¯S
Z̄iy
1
Z̄
3 cd
+
∼ E¯S
−
I¯T
Z̄iy
1
Z̄
3 cd
+
∼ E¯ T
−
+ −
I¯T R ŪR I¯R
∼ ĒA ∼ Z̄ cy
ĒB
− +
I¯1 I¯2
Z̄ id Z̄ id
Z̄ id I¯RS Z̄ cy
ŪS I¯S
+ ∼ − N
I¯ST ¯ Z̄ cy
I3
Ē C ŪT I¯T
We compute below:
1. Currents INR , INS , and INT .
2. Currents INRS , INST , and INTR .
3. Phase voltages U N R, U
N S , and U
N T.
36 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
We solve the circuit in Fig. 2.13 using the mesh-current method [5]:
2 32 3 2 3
3ZN id ZN id ZN id IN1 0
4 ZN id 2ZN cy C ZN id ZN cy 5 4 IN2 5 D 4 ˛N 2 EN A 5 :
ZN id ZN cy 2ZN cy C ZN id IN3 ˛N EN A
and:
2 3
2 3 ZN cy 2 3
IN1 6 1 C 1 1 7 0
1 NZid
4 IN2 5 D 6 7 4 ˛N 2 EN A 5 ;
N id C 3ZN cy 4
Z 1 2 15
IN3 ˛N EN A
1 1 2
and finally:
8
ˆ 1
ˆIN1 D N
ˆ
ˆ
EN ;
N cy A
ˆ
ˆ Z id C 3Z
ˆ
< 1
IN2 D EN A 1 ˛N 2 ;
ˆ
ˆ N
Zid C 3Zcy N
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆN 1
:̂I3 D EN .1 ˛/N :
NZid C 3ZN cy A
or:
2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 37
8
ˆ EN A 1 ˛N 2
ˆINR D
ˆ ;
ˆ
ˆ ZN id C 3ZN cy
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
<
EN B 1 ˛N 2
INS D ;
ˆ
ˆ ZN id C 3ZN cy
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ EN C 1 ˛N 2
ˆN
:̂IT D :
ZN id C 3ZN cy
Next, mesh currents INRS , INST , and INTR are computed as:
8
ˆ
ˆ ˛N 2 EN A
ˆINRS D IN1 IN2 D
ˆ ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN id C 3ZN cy
ˆ
< ˛N EN A
INST D IN1 IN3 D ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ Zid C 3ZN cy
N
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆN EN A
:̂ITR D IN1 D ;
ZN id C 3ZN cy
or:
8
ˆ
ˆ EN B
ˆ
ˆ INRS D ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN id C 3ZN cy
ˆ
< EN C
INST D ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN id C 3ZN cy
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆN EN A
:̂ITR D :
NZid C 3ZN cy
Note that line currents (INR , INS , INT ) and mesh currents (INRS , INST , INTR ) constitute
balanced three-phase positive sequences. The relationship between line and mesh
currents is as follows:
Note that phases R, S, and T are decoupled. Thus, instead of analyzing the three-
phase circuit in Fig. 2.13, it is possible to consider the three equivalent single-phase
circuits depicted in Fig. 2.14. Using these equivalent single-phase circuits, we obtain
that phase voltages are equal to:
8
ˆ
ˆ N N N
<UR D IR Zcy ;
N D INS ZN cy ;
U
ˆ S
:̂U
N D IN ZN ;
T T cy
38 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
I¯S
1
Z̄
3 id
Z̄cy
+
∼ 1 ¯
E 1 − a¯ 2
3 B
−
I¯T
1
Z̄
3 id
Z̄cy
+
∼ 1 ¯
E 1 − a¯ 2
3 C
−
or:
8
ˆ
ˆ
N R D EN A 1 ˛N 2
ZN cy
ˆ
ˆ U ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN id C 3ZN cy
ˆ
<
N S D ˛N 2 EN A 1 ˛N 2
ZN cy
U ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ZN id C 3ZN cy
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆN ZN cy
:̂UT D ˛N EN A 1 ˛N 2 :
NZid C 3ZN cy
N R, U
As in the case of line and mesh currents, the phase voltages U N S, U
N T constitute
also a balanced three-phase positive sequence.
We consider the balanced three-phase network depicted in Fig. 2.15. In this circuit,
we have:
2.3 Balanced Three-Phase Voltages and Currents 39
Z̄ I¯S
ĒS
− ∼ +
Z̄ I¯T
ĒT
N I¯N N
8
ˆ
ˆ N NN
<ER Z IR D 0;
NES ZN INS D 0; (2.40)
ˆ
:̂EN ZN IN D 0;
T T
and:
8
ˆ
ˆ EN R
ˆ
ˆ INR D ;
ˆ
ˆ ZN
ˆ
ˆ
<
EN S
INS D ; (2.41)
ˆ
ˆ ZN
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆN EN T
:̂IT D :
ZN
1
INN D INR C INS C INT D .EN R C EN S C EN T /: (2.42)
ZN
Since voltage sources constitute a balanced sequence, we obtain:
INN D 0 (2.43)
and, thus:
N NN 0 D 0:
U (2.44)
Z̄ I¯T
Ē T
2 1 IN1 1 ˛N 2
ZN N
D ER : (2.45)
1 2 IN2 ˛N 2 ˛N
Thus:
1
IN1 EN R 2 1 1 ˛N 2
D ; (2.46)
IN2 ZN 1 2 ˛N 2 ˛N
and:
IN1 EN R 2 1 1 ˛N 2
D ; (2.47)
IN2 3ZN 1 2 ˛N 2 ˛N
and finally:
8
ˆ
ˆ EN
<IN1 D R ;
ZN (2.48)
ˆN EN EN
:̂I2 D ˛N R D T :
Z ZN
or:
8 1N
ˆ
ˆ INR D ER ;
ˆ
ˆ ZN
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
< 1N
INS D ES ; (2.50)
ˆ
ˆ ZN
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
:̂INT D 1N
ET ;
ZN
which is the same result previously obtained in Eq. (2.41) for the circuit with NN 0
connection.
Note also that:
N N 0 N D EN R INR ZN D EN R 1 EN R ZN D 0;
U (2.51)
ZN
as expected.
We note once more that phase equations are decoupled: the equation of a given
phase depends only on variables and constants of that phase. That is:
8
ˆ
ˆ N NN
<ER D Z IR ;
EN D ZN INS ; (2.52)
ˆ S
:̂EN D ZN IN ;
T T
In other words, the impedance matrix is diagonal, which verifies phase decoupling.
Thus, we can consider three independent single-phase networks as depicted in
Fig. 2.17.
Typically, the R equivalent single-phase circuit is used to represent the balanced
three-phase circuit. Note that such single-phase circuit includes all required infor-
mation to characterize the balanced three-phase circuit. The other two equivalent
single-phase circuits replicate the R one; circuit S lagging 120ı , and circuit T leading
120ı .
42 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
+
∼ Ē R
−
I¯S
Z̄
+
∼ Ē S
−
I¯T
Z̄
+
∼ Ē T
−
One of the most important magnitudes in three-phase circuits is the power, which is
analyzed in this section.
2.4.1 Definitions
4
p.t/ D pR .t/ C pS .t/ C pT .t/
D uR .t/iR .t/ C uS .t/iS .t/ C uT .t/iT .t/: (2.54)
p 2 p 2
C 2UF sin !t C 2IL sin !t C ' ; (2.55)
3 3
where:
• UF is the RMS value of the phase voltage and
• IL is the RMS value of the line current.
Rearranging terms:
p.t/ D UF IL cos' cos .2Œ!t 0 '/
2
C UF IL cos' cos 2 !t '
3
2
C UF IL cos' cos 2 !t C ' (2.56)
3
and:
UL
p.t/ D 3UF IL cos' D 3 p IL cos': (2.57)
3
That is:
p
p.t/ D 3UL IL cos'; (2.58)
where UL is the RMS value of the line voltage. Thus, the instantaneous power at
any point of a balanced three-phase circuit is time invariant.
The three-phase active power, denoted by P, is equal to the instantaneous power
and, thus:
4
p
PD p.t/ D 3UL IL cos': (2.59)
The fact that in three-phase power systems the three-phase active power is time-
invariant makes these systems preferable over single-phase systems, in which the
active power has a nonzero average value, but is alternating. Alternating active
power results in vibrations and long-term mechanical issues, while time-invariant
active power does not. This is indeed a key reason for using three-phase systems
instead of single-phase ones.
The per-phase complex power is computed as:
8
ˆ UL
N R INR D p
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ SN R D U IL †';
ˆ
ˆ 3
ˆ
ˆ
< UL 2 2 UL
NSS D UN S INS D p IL † C C ' D p IL †'; (2.60)
ˆ
ˆ 3 3 3 3
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ UL 2 2 UL
ˆN N T INT D p
:̂ST D U IL † C ' D p IL †':
3 3 3 3
44 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
N is computed as:
Then, the three-phase complex power, S,
p
SN D SN R C SN S C SN T D 3UL IL †'
p p
D 3UL IL cos' C j 3UL IL sin '
D P C jQ; (2.61)
where:
4
p
QD 3UL IL sin' (2.62)
Note that the active power can be computed using either of the two expressions
below:
or:
p
PD 3UL IL cos': (2.64)
Equation (2.64) requires the system to be balanced, while Eq. (2.63) does not.
Active power is generally measured using a watt-meter that multiplies three
terms: the RMS value of current, the RMS value of the voltage, and the cosine
of the angle between these two signals (see (2.64)).
On the other hand, reactive power is measured as active power, but using var-
meters that, instead of multiplying by the cosine, multiply by the sine.
Finally, apparent power is measured using a volt-meter and an amp-meter.
If we need to measure energy, then we should use an energy meter, which is a
watt-meter that integrates over time.
S1 D S;
U1 D U; (2.65)
S
I1 :
U
Then, the conductor section should be:
I1 S
A1 D D (2.66)
ı ıU
and the required material is:
I1 Sd
M1 D 2A1 d D 2 d D 2 ; (2.67)
ı ıU
while losses are:
d S2 ıUd S
PL1 2I12 D 2 2 D 2 ıd; (2.68)
A1 U S U
S3 D S;
p
U3 D 3U; (2.69)
S3 S
I3 p D :
3U3 3U
I3 S
A3 D D (2.70)
ı 3ıU
and the required material is:
S Sd
M3 D 3A3 d D 3 dD ; (2.71)
3ıU ıU
while losses in this case are:
d S2 3ıUd S
PL3 3I32 D 3 2 D ıd: (2.72)
A3 9U S U
46 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
M1
D 2; (2.73)
M3
i.e., the material required to transmit apparent power S [MVA] over a distance d
[km] with a phase-to-neutral voltage U [kV] considering a single-phase ac line is
about twice the material needed if a three-phase ac line is used.
On the other hand, we have:
PL1
D 2; (2.74)
PL3
i.e., the losses of transmitting apparent power S [MVA] over a distance d [km] with
a phase-to-neutral voltage U [kV] considering a single-phase ac line are about twice
the losses if a three-phase ac line is used.
This simple back-of-the-envelope analysis illustrates the economic advantage of
building/using a three-phase transmission line over a single-phase one.
This section defines and describes the per-unit system, which is important in power
systems spanning different voltage levels.
2.6.1 Motivation
Power transformers interconnect power system areas with different voltage levels.
This is a problem at the time of analyzing these systems since all magnitudes
need to be transformed to a single voltage level. However, if a per-unit analysis
is performed, this problem disappears and a unique voltage level is obtained. This
greatly simplifies the subsequent analysis.
M
mD ; (2.75)
MB
where:
• m is the per-unit value,
• M is the value of the variable/parameter in its own units, and
• M B is the base value.
Then, instead of analyzing a circuit using actual values, it is possible to analyze it
using per-unit values. This generally simplifies the subsequent analysis.
Illustrative Example 2.5 Illustration of per-unit analysis
We consider the single-phase circuit depicted in Fig. 2.18. Taking into account
that V D 220 V and Z D 55 , we obtain the current I. To do so, we analyze the
circuit using the per-unit system considering a base-voltage value of 220 V and a
base-current value of 2 A.
First, we obtain the equivalent per-unit circuit by transforming the voltage and
impedance values to per-unit values.
On the one hand, we compute the per-unit voltage v as follows:
V 220
vD D D 1 puV:
VB 220
In order to obtain the per-unit impedance, first we need to compute the base-
impedance value, which is obtained as the base-voltage value divided by the base-
current value, i.e.:
VB 220
ZB D D D 110 :
IB 2
Then, we obtain the per-unit impedance as:
Z 55
zD D D 0:5 pu:
ZB 110
Finally, we derive the equivalent single-phase circuit using per-unit values and
depict it in Fig. 2.19.
48 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
v 1
iD D D 2 puA:
z 0:5
I D i I B D 2 2 D 4 A:
Using per-unit analysis in Illustrative Example 2.5 is not convenient since it is
V 220
possible to directly compute current I from the circuit in Fig. 2.18 as D D
Z 55
4 A. However, the use of a per-unit system to analyze power systems with multiple
voltage levels is most convenient for two reasons (provided that the per-unit system
is properly defined):
1. Power transformers disappear from the equivalent single-phase circuit. This is
further analyzed and shown in Sect. 3.3 of Chap. 3.
2. Voltage values are close to 1 puV, which allows detecting errors.
Besides these two important advantages, there is an additional advantage of using
a per-unit analysis for three-phase power systems:
3. The per-unit impedances of machines generally take values within tight bounds,
independently of their nominal values, which facilitates their characterization.
1
SB D SNk ; (2.76)
3
2.6 Per-Unit System 49
where:
• SB is the single-phase base power and
• SNk is the three-phase rated power of component k.
2. Recalling that power transformers separate the voltage zones of the network, we
select the base voltage in one zone as the rated phase voltage of one component
in that zone, i.e.:
1
UBi D p UNj ; (2.77)
3
where:
• UBi is the base-voltage value at zone i and
• UNj is the rated three-phase voltage of component j in zone i.
3. The base-voltage values in other zones are determined strictly complying with
the transformation ratios of the power transformers, which makes transformers
disappear from equivalent single-phase circuits, i.e.:
Ui
UBi D UBj ; (2.78)
Uj
where:
• UBi is the base-voltage value in zone i,
• UBj is the base-voltage value in zone j, and
• Ui =Uj is the three-phase transformation ratio of the power transformer
coupling zones i and j.
4. We define the base-current value and the base-impedance value per zone as
SB
IBi D (2.79)
UBi
and:
2
UBi
ZBi D ; (2.80)
SB
respectively, where:
• IBi is the base-current value at zone i and
• ZBi is the base-impedance value at zone i.
5. We specify phase shifts due to power transformers including delta and zigzag
connections. We explain transformer phase shifts in Chap. 3.
50 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
Table 2.1 Illustrative Value Generator zone Line zone Motor zone
Example 2.6: base values
SB [MVA] 26.667 26.667 26.667
VB [kV] 6.351 69.859 2.794
IB [kA] 4.199 0.382 9.544
ZB [] 1.512 183.013 0.293
Note that the base values defined in this section are single-phase base values.
However, three-phase base values, equivalent to single-phase ones, are similarly
defined.
If we define the three-phase base-power value as:
4
SB3 D 3SB ; (2.81)
4
p
UB3i D 3UBi ; (2.82)
SB3 3SB SB
IB3i D p Dp p D D IBi (2.83)
3UB3i 3 3UBi UBi
and:
p 2
2
UB3 3UBi 2
UBi
ZB3i D D D D ZBi ; (2.84)
SB3 3SB SB
respectively.
The procedure to analyze power systems using a per-unit system comprises the five
steps below:
1. Define base values as explained in Sect. 2.6.3.
2. Transform the three-phase power system into an equivalent single-phase circuit
in which impedances are expressed in per unit.
3. Apply the operating conditions (in per unit).
4. Solve the circuit (in per unit).
5. Obtain actual values by multiplying per-unit values by the corresponding base
values.
52 2 Power System Fundamentals: Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
2.1 Why three-phase power systems are used instead of single-phase ones?
2.2 List the advantages of analyzing power systems using a per-unit system.
2.3 Consider the three-phase circuit depicted in Fig. 2.21. Voltage sources consti-
tute a balanced three-phase positive sequence:
8
ˆ
ˆ N ı
<ER D 100†0 V;
EN D 100† 120ı V;
ˆ S
:̂EN D 100†120ı V:
T
Ē R
Z̄ i ¯ Z̄ Z̄T R
− ∼ + ŪR1 IR ŪR2 I¯T R
I¯RS
Z̄RS
Ē S
Z̄ i ¯ Z̄
− ∼ + ŪS1 IS N
N
ŪS 2 I¯ST ŪT 2
Z̄ ST
Ē T
Z̄ i ¯ Z̄
− ∼ + ŪT 1 I T
G1 1 T1 2 3 T2 4 G2
L1
∼ ∼
L2 L3
5 7
T3 T4
6 8
C ∼ M
G2 T2
L2
∼
Using these data, determine the number of voltage zones and the base values of
each zone.
2.6 Consider the three-phase power system depicted in Fig. 2.23. The rated powers
and voltages of the system components are provided below:
• Generator G1 : 50 MVA, 12 kV.
• Generator G2 : 100 MVA, 15 kV.
• Transformer T1 : 50 MVA, 10/138 kV.
• Transformer T2 : 100 MVA, 15/138 kV.
Using as base values the rated parameters of generator G2 , determine the number
of voltage zones and the base values of each zone.
References
1. Bergen, A.R., Vittal, V.: Power Systems Analysis, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ (1999)
2. Duncan Glover, J., Sarma, M.S., Overbye, T.: Power System Analysis and Design, 5th edn.
Cengage Learning, Stamford, CT (2008)
3. Gómez-Expósito, A., Conejo, A.J., Cañizares, C.: Electric Energy Systems: Analysis and
Operation. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL (2008)
4. Kothari, D.P., Nagrath, I.J.: Modern Power System Analysis, 4th edn. Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, New Delhi (2011)
5. Nilsson, J.W., Riedel, S.A.: Electric Circuits, 10th edn. Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ (2014)
http://www.springer.com/978-3-319-69406-1