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Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.

Dhanasekaran 1

CH 6404 MECHANICAL OPERATIONS

UNIT - I
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Characterization of Solid Particles


Solid particles are characterized by their shape, size and
density.

Particles of homogeneous solids have the same density


as the bulk material.

Particles obtained by breaking up a composite solid have


various densities, different from the density of the bulk.

Size and shape are easily specified for regular particulars


(e.g. spheres and cubes).

Size and shape for irregular particles are not so clear.


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Particle Shape Factor


Shape of individual particle is expressed in terms of the
sphericity (ɸs). It is independent of particle size

Shape factor = 1/sphericity= 1/ ɸs

Sphericity is a measure of how spherical (round) an


object is. It is the ratio of the surface area of sphere (with
the same volume as the given particle) to the surface area
of the particle.

For spherical particle of diameter Dp, ɸs=1.

Volume shape factor, Vp α d3avg


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Diameters are specified for equidimensional particle.

Particles which are not equidimensional are characterized


by the second longest major dimension.

For needlelike particles, Dp would refer to the thickness of


the particle.

Coarse particles are measured in inches or centimeters

fine particles in terms of screen size

very fine particles in micrometer or nanometers

ultra fine particles in terms of their surface area per unit


mass, usually in square meters per unit mass (m2/g).
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Dhanasekaran
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Dhanasekaran
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Particle size is characterized using these terms :


 Very coarse (#8)
 Coarse (#20)
 Moderately coarse (#40)
 Fine (#60)
 Very fine (#80)

Particle size can influence variety of important factors :


 Suspendability
 Dissolution rate
 Uniform distribution
 Penetrability
 Lack of grittiness
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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What does mesh size mean?


• Mesh size is count the number of openings in one inch of
screen. The number of openings is the mesh size. So a 4
mesh screen means there are four little squares across one
linear inch of screen. A 100 mesh screen has 100 openings,
and so on. Note, therefore that as the number describing
the mesh size increases, the particle size decreases.
Higher numbers = finer powder. Mesh size is not a precise
measurement of particle size. Screens can be made with
different thicknesses of wire, the thicker the wires.

• What do the minus ( - ) and plus ( + ) plus signs mean when


describing mesh sizes? Here’s a simple example of how
they work. -200 mesh aluminum would mean that all
particles would pass through a 200 mesh screen. A +200
mesh aluminum means that all the particles are retained on
a 200 mesh screen.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Average Particle Size


• Volume-surface mean diameter (most used average particle
size ):
 6  1 N 3
Ds    N i D pi
 s Aw  p   or
N  x  D S  i N 1  2
 

i 
  N i D pi
D
i  1
pi  i1
 

•Arithmetic mean diameter:  


฀  
฀ N  
x
  N   
N 
  

i 

i  1 2 
  N Dpi   Ni Dpi 

 i D  
DN   i  1
i  1
 
  pi 
N NT  
 Ni 
N 
x


where i 1
   i 
 
i  1 3 
NT = number of particles in the entire sample D  
 pi 
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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• Mass mean diameter :


 N 
DW   xi D pi
i1

• ฀ diameter:
Volume mean

 1/ 3
 
 
 
 1


DV  
Nx 
 i 
 3 

i  1 
 D pi 
 
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN MIXTURE


Volume of any particle :

vp  aDp3
where
a = volume shape factor (a =0.5236 for sphere, 0.785 for
a฀short cylinder (height = dia.), 1.0 for a cube)
Assuming that a is independent of size

Total population in the sample (particles/g), Nw :


N x
1
Nw  a  i  1 
p i  1 D3
pi
a D
p v
3
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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MIXED PARTICLE SIZE


Mixture of particles of various size & densities sorted into
fractions, each of constant density & approx. constant size
p &  s are known
specific surface, Aw (mm2/g) :

6x1 6x2 6xn


6 N xi
Aw     ...     
s p Dp1 s p Dp2 s p Dpn s p i1 D
pi
where
xi = mass fraction in a given increment
฀

Dpi = average diameter
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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Methods to Determine Particle Size


 Sieving Method

 Microscopy

 Sedimentation Techniques

 Laser Light Scattering Techniques

 Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analysis

 Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (PCS)


Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Screen Analysis

 Mixtures of particles having various sizes and densities can


be sorted into fractions.

 Each fraction can be weighed.

 Information from particle size analysis is tabulated to show


the mass or number fraction in each size increment as a
fraction of the average particle size.

 The screen analysis is done into two ways


• differential analysis(fig. a)
• cumulative analysis(fig. b).
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Standard Screen Series

 Used to measure the size and size distribution of particles


in the size range between 3 and 0.0015 in (76mm to
38µm).

 Testing sieves are made of woven wire screens, the


openings are square.

 Each screen is identified in meshes per inch.

 Actual openings are smaller than those corresponding to


the mesh numbers, because of the thickness of the wires.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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 The characteristics of one common series, the Tyler


standard screen series are given in table. This set of
screens is based on the opening of the 200 mesh screen,
which is established at 0.074mm.
 The area of the openings in any one screen in the series is
exactly twice that of the openings in the next smaller
screen.
 The ratio of the actual mesh dimension of any screen to
that of the next smaller is √2=1.41. for closer sizing,
intermediate screens has a mesh dimension of 4√2=1.189
times that of the next smaller standard screen.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Method of screen analysis:


 A set of standard screens is arranged serially in a
stack, with the smallest mesh at the bottom and the
largest at the top.

 The sample is placed on the top and stack is shacked


mechanically for a definite time.

 The particles retained on each screen are removed


and weighed.

 The masses of individual screens are converted to


mass fractions or mass percentages of the total
sample.

 Particles passing the finest screen are caught in a pan


at the bottom of the stack.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Analysis of the Results


Differential analysis:

 Results are tabulated to show mass fraction of each


screen as a function of the mesh size range.

 Two numbers are needed to specify the size range, one


for the screen through which the fraction passes and
the other on which it is retained (i.e. 14/20 means
through 14 mesh and on 20 mesh).

 Typical differential analysis is shown in the following


table.
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Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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• The first two columns give the mesh size and width of
opening of the screen; the third column is the mass fraction
of the total sample that is retained on the designated
screen Xi, where i is the number of the screen starting at
the bottom of the stack; thus i = 1 for the pan, and screen
i+1 is the screen above i.
• Dpi means the particle diameter equal to mesh opening of
screen i.
• The last two columns show the average diameter in
each increment and the cumulative fraction smaller than
each value of Dpi
• In screen analysis cumulative are sometimes written
starting at the top of the stack and are expressed as the
fraction larger than a given size.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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• Cumulative plot is shown in the following figure from column
2 and 5 of the table
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Size measurements with fine particles


Dry screening is useful for sizing particles with diameters
greater than about 44µm(325 mesh); wet screen analysis can
be used for diameters down to 10µm.
Particles finer than this can be measured in a variety of ways.
Optical microscopy and gravity sedimentation are used with
particles 1 to 100µm in diameter, as is the coulter counter, a
device that measures changes in the resistivity of an
electrolyte as it carries the particles one by one through a
smaller orifice.
Light scattering techniques, sedimentation in centrifuges or
ultracentrigfuges, photon correlation spectroscopy, and
electron microscopy are useful with even finer particles.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran 29

PARTICLE-SIZE-DISTRIBUTION DATA
• presented in the form of a table
Mesh Screen Opening, Mass % Mass
Dpi Retained on Retained,
(mm) Screen,
(g)
14 1.400 0.000 0.00
16 1.180 9.12 1.86
18 1.000 32.12 6.54
20 0.850 39.82 8.11
30 0.600 235.42 47.95
40 0.425 89.14 18.15
50 0.300 54.42 11.08
70 0.212 22.02 4.48
100 0.150 7.22 1.47
140 0.106 1.22 0.25
Pan - 0.50 0.11
Total 491.00 100

• these results are not so informative as the exact size of the


material sitting on each screen is unknown
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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DIFFERENTIAL SCREEN ANALYSIS


• arithmetic-average aperture for each mass fraction that passes thru’ one
screen but not the next screen
Mesh Screen Opening, Mass % Mass
Dpi Retained on Retained,
Mesh Ave. Mass
Screen,
(mm)
(g)
Range Particle  Fraction
Size, D Retained,
pi
14 1.400 0.000 0.00 (mm) xi
16 1.180 9.12 1.86 16 1.290 0.0186
18 1.000 32.12 6.54 18 ฀ 1.090 0.0654
20 0.850 39.82 8.11 20 0.925 0.0811
30 0.600 235.42 47.95 30 0.725 0.4795
40 0.425 89.14 18.15 40 0.513 0.1815
50 0.300 54.42 11.08 50 0.363 0.1108
70 0.212 22.02 4.48 70 0.256 0.0448
100 0.150 7.22 1.47 100 0.181 0.0147
140 0.106 1.22 0.25 140 0.128 0.0025
Pan - 0.50 0.11 pan 0.053 0.0011
Total 491.00 100

Eg. mass fraction of 0.0186 passes thru’ a screen of 1.4mm aperture but being
retained at 1.180mm aperture, ave. of these two apertures =(1.4 + 1.18)/2 = 1.29mm
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran 31

DIFFERENTIAL SCREEN ANALYSIS

Mesh Ave. Mass


Range Particle  Fraction
Size, D Retained,
pi
(mm) xi
16 1.290 0.0186
18 ฀ 1.090 0.0654
20 0.925 0.0811
30 0.725 0.4795
40 0.513 0.1815
50 0.363 0.1108
70 0.256 0.0448
100 0.181 0.0147
140 0.128 0.0025
pan 0.053 0.0011
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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CUMULATIVE SCREEN ANALYSIS


• Cumulative-weight-percent oversize (greater than Dpi) or cumulative-
weight-percent undersize (smaller than Dpi)
Mesh Screen Opening, Mass % Mass
Dpi Retained on Retained Mesh Screen Opening, ฀
Cumulative Cumulative
(mm) Screen, ฀ Dpi wt% wt%
(g) (mm) undersize oversize

14 1.400 0.000 0.00 14 1.400 100 0.00


16 1.180 9.12 1.86 16 1.180 98.14 1.86
18 1.000 32.12 6.54 18 1.000 91.60 8.40
20 0.850 39.82 8.11 20 0.850 83.49 16.51
30 0.600 235.42 47.95 30 0.600 35.54 64.46
40 0.425 89.14 18.15 40 0.425 17.39 82.61
50 0.300 54.42 11.08 50 0.300 6.31 93.69
70 0.212 22.02 4.48 70 0.212 1.83 98.17
100 0.150 7.22 1.47 100 0.150 0.36 99.64
140 0.106 1.22 0.25 140 0.106 0.11 99.89
Pan - 0.50 0.11
Total 491.00 100

• bec. 0.11 wt% particle retained on the pan, cumulative wt% undersize
0 & cumulative wt% oversize  100
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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CUMULATIVE SCREEN ANALYSIS

Mesh Screen Opening, Cumulative Cumulative


Dpi wt% wt%
(mm) undersize oversize

14 1.400 100 0.00


16 1.180 98.14 1.86
18 1.000 91.60 8.40
20 0.850 83.49 16.51
30 0.600 35.54 64.46
40 0.425 17.39 82.61
50 0.300 6.31 93.69
70 0.212 1.83 98.17
100 0.150 0.36 99.64
140 0.106 0.11 99.89

• two curves (mirror images of each other) cross at a median size where
50wt. % is larger in size & 50wt.% is smaller
• A log scale for the cumulative wt% preferred if an appreciable fraction of
the data points lie below 10%
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Example 1 (page 11 in note)
Mesh Screen Opening, Mass
Dpi Fraction
Calculate (a) average particle diameter,
(mm) Retained, (b) cumulative fraction smaller than Dpi
xi
(c) plot the graph cumulative analysis of
4 4.699 0.000
part (b)
6 3.327 0.0251 ฀
8 2.362 0.1250
10 1.651 0.3207
14 1.168 0.2570
20 0.833 0.1590
28 0.589 0.0538
35 0.417 0.0210
48 0.295 0.0102
65 0.208 0.0077
100 0.147 0.0058
150 0.104 0.0041
200 0.074 0.0031
Pan - 0.0075
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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Solution for Example 1

Mesh Screen Opening, Mass Ave Particle Cumulative


Dpi Fraction Diameter, fraction
(mm) Retained,  (mm) smaller
xi D pi than D pi

4 4.699 0.000 - 1.000


6 3.327 0.0251
฀ ฀
8 2.362 0.1250
10 1.651 0.3207
14 1.168 0.2570
20 0.833 0.1590
28 0.589 0.0538
35 0.417 0.0210
48 0.295 0.0102
65 0.208 0.0077
100 0.147 0.0058
150 0.104 0.0041
200 0.074 0.0031
Pan - 0.0075
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K. Dhanasekaran 36
Solution for Example 1

Mesh Screen Opening, Mass Ave Particle Cumulative


Dpi Fraction Diameter, fraction
(mm) Retained,  (mm) smaller
xi D pi than D pi

4 4.699 0.000 - 1.000


6 3.327 0.0251 4.013 0.9749
฀ ฀
8 2.362 0.1250 2.845 0.8499
10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.5292
14 1.168 0.2570 1.409 0.2722
20 0.833 0.1590 1.001 0.1132
28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.0594
35 0.417 0.0210 0.503 0.0384
48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.0282
65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.0205
100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.0147
150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.0106
200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.0075
Pan - 0.0075 0.037 0.000
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Example 2
Mesh Screen Opening, Mass Ave Particle Cumulative Determine from mesh 4 to
Dpi Fraction Diameter, fraction mesh 200 :
(mm) Retained,  (mm) smaller
xi D pi than D pi

4 4.699 0.000 - 1.000 (a) arithmetic mean diameter


6 3.327 0.0251 4.013 0.9749
฀ ฀ (b)Volume -surface mean
8 2.362 0.1250 2.845 0.8499
10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.5292
diameter
14 1.168 0.2570 1.409 0.2722 (c) Mass mean diameter
20 0.833 0.1590 1.001 0.1132
28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.0594
(d) Volume mean diameter
35 0.417 0.0210 0.503 0.0384
48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.0282
65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.0205
100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.0147
150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.0106
200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.0075
Pan - 0.0075 0.037 0.000
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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Formula
Calculate (a) arithmetic mean diameter (b)Volume-surface mean
diameter (c) Mass mean diameter (d) Volume mean diameter
   
 
N x  
N x 
(a) arithmetic mean DN    i    i 
i1 
D2 
i1 
D3 
 pi   pi 
N 3
 N D pi
 i
(b)Volume-surface฀mean diameter D  i  1
S N 2
 N D pi
i
i 1
 N 
(c) Mass mean diameter D   x D pi
 1/ 3 W i 1 i
฀
 
 
  1 
D   
(d) Volume mean diameter V  N x 
  i 
i  1  ฀
3 
 
 D pi 
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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Example 3
Calculate (a) arithmetic mean diameter (b)Volume-surface mean
diameter (c) Mass mean diameter (d) Volume mean diameter
   
 
N x  
N x 
DN 
Mesh Ave. Mass
Range Particle Fraction
(a) arithmetic mean   i    i 
Size, Dpi Retained, i1 
D2 
i1 
D3 
(mm) xi  pi   pi 
14 1.290 0.0186 N 3
 N D pi
16 1.090 0.0654  i
(b) Volume-surface฀ mean diameter D  i  1
18 0.925 0.0811
S N 2
20 0.725 0.4795  N D pi
i
30 0.513 0.1815
i 1
40 0.363 0.1108  N 
50 0.256 0.0448 (c) Mass mean diameter D   x D pi
70 0.181 0.0147  1/ 3 W i 1 i
฀
 
100 0.128 0.0025  
140 0098 0.0011
  1 
D   
(d) Volume mean diameter V  N x 
  i 
i  1  ฀
3 
 
 D pi 
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
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Solution Example 3
Mesh Ave. Mass
Solution: Range Particle Fraction xi/ xi xi/ 2 xi/ 3
Size, Dpi Retained,
(mm) xi

14 1.290 0.0186 0.0144 0.0240 0.0112 0.0087


16 1.090 0.0654 0.0600 0.0713 0.0550 0.0505
18 0.925 0.0811 0.0877 0.0750 0.0948 0.1025
20 0.725 0.4795 0.6614 0.3476 0.9122 1.2583
30 0.513 0.1815 0.3538 0.0931 0.6897 1.3444
40 0.363 0.1108 0.3052 0.0402 0.8409 2.3164
50 0.256 0.0448 0.1750 0.0115 0.6836 2.6703
70 0.181 0.0147 0.0812 0.0027 0.4487 2.4790
100 0.128 0.0025 0.0195 0.0003 0.1526 1.1921
140 0.098 0.0011 0.0112 0.0001 0.1145 1.1687
 1.0000 1.7695 0.6658 4.0032 12.5909

(a) arithmetic mean diameter = 0.318 mm


(b) Volume-surface mean diameter = 0.565 mm
(c) Mass mean diameter = 0.666 mm
(d) Volume mean diameter = 0.430 mm
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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MIXED PARTICLE SIZE & SIZE ANALYSIS
Uniform particles of diameter Dp:
m
Total number of particle in sample , N 
p p
6m
Total surface area of the particles, A = NSp 
฀
Spp
where
m = mass of the sample
p = density of one particle ฀

Sp = surface area of one particle


vp = volume of one particle
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
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AVERAGE PARTICLE SIZE
• Volume-surface mean diameter (most used average particle
size ):  6 1 N 3
Ds     or   N i D pi
 s Aw  p N  x  D S  i N 1  2
  i   N i D pi
D
i  1
pi  i1
 

• Arithmetic mean diameter: 





฀ N 
x 
฀
  N   
N 
  

i 

i  1 2 
  N Dpi   Ni Dpi 

 i D  
DN  i  1 i  1
 
  pi 
N NT  
 Ni 
N 
x


i 1
  

i 

i  1 3 
D  
 pi 
where
NT = number of particles in the entire sample
฀
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
43
MIXED PARTICLE SIZE & SIZE ANALYSIS

Mixture of particles of various size & densities sorted into


fractions, each of constant density & approx. constant size

p &  s are known


specific surface, Aw (mm2/g) :

6x1 6x2 6xn


6 N xi
Aw     ...     
s p Dp1 s p Dp2 s p Dpn s p i1 D
pi
where
xi = mass fraction in a given increment
฀

Dpi = average diameter
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
44
NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN MIXTURE
Volume of any particle :

vp  aDp3
where
a = volume shape factor (a =0.5236 for sphere, 0.785 for
a฀short cylinder (height = dia.), 1.0 for a cube)
Assuming that a is independent of size

Total population in the sample (particles/g), Nw :


N x
1
Nw  a  i  1 
p i  1 D3
pi
a D
p v
3
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
45
Example 5
The density of the particles is 2650 kg/m3 (0.00265 g/mm3) and the shape factors
are a = 0.8 and S = 0.571. For the material between 4-mesh and 200-mesh in
particle size, calculate Mesh Screen Opening, Mass Ave Particle Cumulative
Dpi Fraction Diameter, fraction
(a) AW (mm2/g) (mm) Retained,  (mm) smaller 
xi D pi than D
pi
(b) NW (particles/g) 4 4.699 0.000 - 1.000
6 3.327 0.0251 4.013 0.9749
(c) Ni for the 150/200-mesh ฀ ฀
8 2.362 0.1250 2.845 0.8499
increment (particles/g) 10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.5292
14 1.168 0.2570 1.409 0.2722
(d) fraction of the total number of 20 0.833 0.1590 1.001 0.1132
particles in the 150/200-mesh 28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.0594
increment 35 0.417 0.0210 0.503 0.0384
48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.0282
65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.0205
100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.0147
150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.0106
200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.0075
Pan - 0.0075 0.037 0.000
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
46

Mechanical separations
Techniques used to separate one material from the other
are called separation.
 Separations are extremely in chemical manufacture.
In fact, much processing equipment is devoted to separate
one phase or one material from the other.
Types of Separation
Diffusional Separation
Mechanical Separation
Diffusional Separation
Membrane separation can also be used for homogeneous
mixtures of macromolecules such as proteins or polymers
that are larger than the pores in the membrane.
This separation involves the transfer of the material
between the phases.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
47

Mechanical Separation
It for heterogeneous mixtures include methods of separating
solids from gases or liquids, separating liquid drops from
gases or other liquids, and separating one type or size of
solids from a mixture of particles.
These are based on the physical properties of the particles
such as size, shape or density, and on the density and
viscosity of the liquid.
Two general methods are (i) the use of a screen, septum, or
porous membrane that retains one component and allows the
other to pass and (2) the utilization of differences in
sedimentation rates as particles or drops move through a gas
or liquid.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
48

Screening
Separation of mixture of particles of various sizes into two or
more fractions by a screening surface is called screening.
This method is only based on the size of particles.
Over size material
Material that retain on the screening surface is called over
size material.
Under size material
Material that passes through the screening surface is called
under size material.
Intermediate material
When two screens are used for screening, the material that
retain on the second screen is called the intermediate
material.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
49

Unsized function
A single screen can make a single separation into two
fractions i.e. under size and over size. Such type of functions
is called the unsized function.
Sized function
When the material is passed through the series of screens
then it is divided into many fractions. Such type of function is
known as sized function.
Mesh
Hole of the screen is called the mesh.
Mesh number
It is defined as the numbers of holes per linear inch.
Aperture of screen
Aperture is the maximum clear space between the edges of
the screen opening. It is usually given in inches or mm.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
50

Clear and actual opening


Actual opening of the screen is always smaller than
corresponding mesh number because wire diameter is
also included.
There is a formula for expressing the mesh number and
clear opening
1/mesh# = clear opening + wire diameter
Construction of screens
Woven wires
Metal bars
Perforated or slotted metal plates
Silk or plastic clothes
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
51

Standard Screens
U.S. Tyler
These are the U.S standard sieves and are available in mesh
number 4 – 325.
U.S. ASTM
It is “American Society of Testing Materials” standard sieves
series and are available in mesh number 4 – 325.
B.S.S
British standard sieve as available in mesh number 5 – 300.
I.M.M.S
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy standard sieves are
available in mesh number 5 – 200.
F.S.S
French standard sieves are available in mesh number 17 – 38.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
52

Material Balance Over Screen


Consider two materials ‘a’ & ‘b’ is feed for screening. Let F, D
and B be the mass flow rates of feed, overflow and underflow
respectively. Let xF, xD and xB be the mass fractions of material
‘a’ in three streams, therefore mass fractions of the material ‘b’
are 1 – xF, 1 – xD and 1 – xB in the three streams.
Overall material balance:
F=D+B
Material balance of component ‘a’
FxF = DxD + BxB
Overflow to feed ratio:
D/F = (xF – xB)/(xD – xB)
Underflow to feed ratio:
B/F = (xF – xD)/(xB – xD)
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
53

Screen Effectiveness / Screen Efficiency


Effectiveness of screen
It is the measure of the success of the screen in closely
separating the materials. Consider two materials ‘a’ & ‘b’ is feed
for screening. Let F, D and B be the mass flow rates of feed,
overflow and underflow respectively. Let xF, xD and xB be the
mass fractions of material ‘a’ in three streams, therefore mass
fractions of the material ‘b’ are 1 – xF, 1 – xD and 1 – xB in the
three streams. It is supposed that ‘a’ is larger in size than ‘b’
material.
Screen effectiveness based on the oversize
Ea = DxD/FxF
Screen effectiveness based on the undersize
Eb = B(1 – xB)/F(1 – xF)
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
54

Combined overall efficiency


E = Ea × Eb
E = xD(1 – xB)(xF – xB) (xD – xF)/xF(1 – xF)(xD – xB)2

Factors Affecting the Effectiveness


• Mesh size and wire diameter
• Capacity
• Blinding
• Moisture
• Direction of approach of particle to screen surface
• Cohesion
• Adhesion
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
55

Screen equipment
Stationary screens and grizzlies
Mechanically Vibrating screens
Gyrating screens
Centrifugal Screens
Stationary screens and grizzlies
A grizzly is a grid of parallel metal bars set in an inclined stationery
frame. The slope and the path of the material are usually parallel to
the length of the bars.
Very coarse feed, as from a primary crusher, falls on the upper end
of the grid. Large chunks roll and slide to the tails discharge; small
lumps fall through to a separate collector. The spacing between the
bars is 2 to 8 in. (50 – 200 mm).
Stationery inclined woven-metal screens operate in the same way,
separate particles ½ to 4 in.(12 to 100mm) in size. These are
effective only very coarse, free flowing solids containing few fine
particles.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
56

Gyrating screens
Two screens, one above the other, are held in a casing inclined
at an angle between 16º to 30º with the horizontal.
The feed mixture is dropped on the upper screen near its
highest point.
Casing and screens are gyrated in a vertical plane about a
horizontal axis by an eccentric that is set halfway between the
feed the feed point and the discharge.
The rate of gyration is between 600 and 1800 r/min. the screens
are rectangular and fairly long.
Oversize particles fall from the lower ends of the screens into
collecting ducts; fines pass through the bottom screen into a
discharge chute.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
57

Vibrating screen

Screens that are rapidly vibrated with small amplitude are less likely
to blind than are gyrating screen. The vibrations may be generated
mechanically or electrically.
Mechanical vibrations are usually transmitted from high speed
eccentrics to the casing of the unit and from heavy duty solenoids
are transmitted to the casing or directly to the screens.
Ordinarily no more then three decks are used in vibrating screens.
Between 1800 and 3600 vibrations per minute are usual. A 48 by
120-in(1.2 to 3-m) screen draws about 4 hp(3kW).
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
58

Mechanically operated screens (trommel)


A very large mechanically operated screen consists of a
slowly rotating perforated cylinder with its axis at a slight
angle to the horizontal.
The material to be screened is fed in at the top and
gradually moves down the screen and passes over
apertures of gradually increasing size, with the result that
all the material has to pass over the finest screen. There
is therefore a tendency for blockage of the apertures by
the large material and for oversize particles to be forced
through.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
59

Capacity of screen
The capacity of a screen is measured by the mass of
material that can be fed per unit time to a unit area of the
screen.
Capacity and effectiveness are opposing factors.
To obtain maximum effectiveness, the capacity must be
small
Large capacity is obtainable only at the expense of a
reduction in effectiveness.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
60

A quartz mixture is screened through a 10- mesh screen. The


cumulative screen analysis of feed, overflow and underflow are
given in the table. Calculate the mass ratios of the overflow and
underflow to feed and the overall effectiveness of the screen.
From the table:
Mesh Dp (mm) Feed Overflow Underflow
xF= 0.47
4 4.699 0 0 0
xD= 0.85
6 3.327 0.025 0.071 0
xB= 0.195
8 2.362 0.15 0.43 0
10 1.651 0.47 0.85 0.195
14 1.168 0.73 0.97 0.58
20 0.833 0.885 0.99 0.83
28 0.589 0.94 1.0 0.91
35 0.417 0.96 0 0.94
65 0.208 0.98 0 0.975
Pan 0 1.0 0 1.0
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
61

Comparison of ideal and actual screens


 The object of a screen is to accept a feed containing a mixtures of
particles of various sizes and separate it two fractions, an underflow that
is passed through the screen and an overflow that is rejected by the
screen. Either one, or both, of those streams may be a product.

 An ideal screen would sharply separate the feed mixture in such a way
that the smallest particle in the overflow would be just larger than the
largest particle in the underflow. Such an ideal separation defines a cut
diameter Dpc that marks the point of separation between the fractions.
Usually Dpc is chosen to be equal to the mesh opening of the screen.
Acutal screens do not give a perfect separation about the cut diameter.
The closet separations are obtained with spherical particles on standard
testing screens, but even here there is an overlap between the smallest
particles in the overflow and the largest ones in the underflow.

 The overlap is especially pronounced when the partilces and needlike or


fibrous or where the particles tend to aggregate into clusters that act as
largest particles. Commercial screens usually give poorer separations
than testing screens of the same opening operating on the same
mixture.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
62

Sieving Method
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
63

Sieving
• Weight distribution
• Sieve analysis is performed using a nest or stack of sieves
where each lower sieve has a smaller aperture size than
that of the sieve above it.
• Sieves can be referred to either by their aperture size =
mesh size = sieve number
• The mesh size is the number of wires per linear inch.
250 μm = No. 60
125 μm = No. 120
• Approx. size range : 5μm - ~3mm
Standard woven wire sieves
Electroformed micromesh sieves at the lower end or range
(< 20μm)
Punch plate sieves at the upper range
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
64

Microscopy
• Optical microscopy (1μm - mm)
• Electron microscopy (0.001μ-)
• Number distribution
• Being able to examine each particle individually has led to
microscopy being considered as an absolute measurement
of particle size.
• Can distinguish aggregates from single particles
• Can be coupled to image analysis computers, each field can
be examined, and a distribution obtained.
• Most severe limitation of optical microscopy is the depth of
focus being about 10μm at x100 and only 0.5μm at x1000.
• With small particles, diffraction effects increase causing
blurring at the edges - determination of particles < 3μm is
less and less certain.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
65

Submicron particles
• For submicron particles it is necessary to use either:
TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) or
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy)
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
66
Diameters Measured

• Martin's diameter (M)


The length of the line which bisects the particle image.
The lines may be drawn in any direction which must
be maintained constant for all image measurements.
• Feret's diameter (F)
is the distance between two tangents on opposite
sides of the particle, parallel to some fixed direction.
Projected area diameter (da or dp) is the diameter of a
circle having the same area as the particle viewed
normally to the plane surface on which the particle is
at rest in a stable position. Others:
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
67

• Longest dimension:
a measured diameter equal to the maximum
value of Feret's diameter.
• Perimeter diameter:
the diameter of a circle having the same
circumference as the perimeter of the particle.
• Maximum chord:
a diameter equal to the maximum length of a
line parallel to some fixed direction and limited
by the contour of the particle.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
68

Manual Optical Microscopy


• Advantages
Relatively inexpensive
Each particle individually examined - detect
aggregates, 2D shape, colour, melting point (hot stage
microscopy)
Permanent record – photograph
Small sample sizes required
• Disadvantages
Time consuming - high operator fatigue - few particles
examined*
Very low throughput
No information on 3D shape
Certain amount of subjectivity associated with sizing –
operator bias * Overcome with (semi-)automated
image analysis systems
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
69
Electron Microscopy
• Advantages
Particles are individually examined
Visual means to see sub-micron specimens
Particle shape can be measured
• Disadvantages
Very expensive
Time consuming sample preparation
Materials such as emulsions difficult/impossible to prepare
Low throughput - Not for routine use
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
70
Sedimentation Techniques


Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
71

• The particle size distribution of fine powder can be


determined by examining a sedimenting suspension of the
powder
i. The pipette method: e.g. the Andreasen pipette (fixed
position pipette)
Allow a homogeneous suspension to settle in a cylinder, take
samples from the settling
suspension at a fixed horizontal
level at intervals of time.
Each sample will contain a
representative sample of the
suspension, with the exception of
particles greater than a critical size,
all of which will have settled below
the level of the sampling point.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
72

The concentration of solid in a sample taken at time t is


determined
This concentration expressed as a percentage of the initial
concentration gives the percentage (w/w) of particles
whose falling velocities are equal to or less than x/t.
Substitution in the equation above gives the corresponding
Stokes' diameter.
ii Photosedimentation technique (Photoextinction
sedimentometers) : white light
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
73
• Advantages
Equipment required can be relatively simple and
inexpensive.
Can measure a wide range of sizes with accuracy
and reproducibility.
• Disadvantages
Sedimentation analyses must be carried out at
concentrations which are sufficiently low for
interactive effects between particles to be negligible
so that their terminal falling velocities can be taken
as equal to those of isolated particles.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
74

Large particles create turbulence, are slowed and are


recorded undersize.
Careful temperature control is necessary to suppress
convection currents.
The lower limit of particle size is set by the increasing
importance of Brownian motion for progressively
smaller particles.
Particle re-aggregation during extended
measurements.
Particles have to be completely insoluble in the
suspending liquid.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
75

Laser Light Scattering Techniques

• Laser Diffraction Particle Size Analysis (Particle size


range 0.02-2000μm/0.01-3500μm)
• Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (Particle size range
: 1nm to 5μm)
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
76

Laser Diffraction

• Particles pass through a laser beam and the light


scattered by them is collected over a range of angles
in the forward direction.
• The angles of diffraction are, in the simplest case
inversely related to the particle size.
• Volume distribution
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
77

• The particles pass through an expanded and collimated


laser beam in front of a lens in whose focal plane is
positioned a photosensitive detector consisting of a series
of concentric rings.
• Distribution of scattered intensity is analysed by computer
to yield the particle size distribution.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
78
• Advantages:
Non-intrusive : uses a low power laser beam
Fast : typically <3minutes to take a measurement and
analyse.
Precise and wide range up to 64 size bands can be
displayed covering a range of up to 100,000:1 in size.
Absolute measurement: No calibration is required, the
instrument is based on fundamental physical properties.
Simple to use Highly versatile
• Disadvantages:
expense
volume measurement all other outputs are numerical
transformations of this basic output form, assuming
spherical particles
must be a difference in refractive indices between particles
and suspending medium
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
79

PCS

• Large particles move more slowly than small particles,


so that the rate of fluctuation of the light scattered from
them is also slower.
• PCS uses the rate of change of these light fluctuations
to determine the size distribution of the particles
scattering light.
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
80
Mechanical Operations Unit - I notes - Dr. K.
Dhanasekaran
81

• Comparison of a "snap-shot" of each speckle pattern


with another taken at a very short time later
(microseconds).
• The time dependent change in position of the speckles
relates to the change of position of the particles and
hence particle size.
• The dynamic light signal is sampled and correlated
with itself at different time intervals using a digital
correlator and associated computer software.
• The relationship of the auto-correlation function
obtained to time intervals is processed to provide
estimates of the particle size distribution.

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