Construction and Building Materials 14 Ž2000.

89]97

Influence of soil type on stabilization with cement kiln dust

Gerald A. Miller a,U , Shahriar Azadb

a
School of Ci¨ il Engineering and En¨ ironmental Science, Uni¨ ersity of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA
b
Bridgefarmer & Associates, Inc., 8001 LBJ Freeway, Suite 400, Dallas, TX 75251, USA

Received 18 March 1999; received in revised form 20 November 1999; accepted 6 January 2000

Abstract

A laboratory study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of cement kiln dust ŽCKD. as a soil stabilizer. The study
revealed that increases in the unconfined compressive strength ŽUCS. of soil occurred with the addition of CKD. Increases in
UCS were inversely proportional to the plasticity index ŽPI. of the untreated soil. Significant PI reductions occurred with CKD
treatment, particularly for high PI soils. Measurements indicate that the change in pH of soil as a function of CKD content is
related to the PI of the untreated soil, and good correlation between pH response and performance of CKD treated soil was
observed. Q 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cement kiln dust; Soil; Stabilization

1. Introduction 3 500 000 metric tons of CKD, unsuitable for recycling

During the manufacture of Portland cement, a large
amount of dust is collected from kiln exhaust gases.
While some of this cement kiln dust ŽCKD. is recycled,
a large amount is disposed in landfills. The CKD has
cementitious properties that make it an effective
stabilizer for certain soil types. This paper presents
results of a laboratory study that investigated the ef-
fectiveness of CKD for stabilizing low and high plastic-
ity soils. A tentative method based on pH measure-
ments of soil]CKD mixtures is presented for rapidly
assessing potential strength increases due to the addi-
tion of CKD.
2. Background
Large volumes of CKD are produced annually in the
USA. In 1992, Todres et al. w1x reported that more than
in the cement manufacturing process, were disposed of
annually in the USA. Given the prevalence of cement
manufacturing facilities across the USA, CKD repre-
sents a potentially useful and cost-effective alternative
to other soil stabilizers such as lime, fly ash and Port-
land cement. Furthermore, recycling of CKD is an
attractive alternative to landfilling. In parts of the
country CKD is being used increasingly for soil
stabilization. For example, in Oklahoma CKD has been
used quite extensively by some cities and counties for
stabilizing road beds; however, CKD has not been fully
accepted for use on the state highway system due to
lack of substantial scientific proof of its effectiveness.
The body of data presented in this paper lends further
credibility to using CKD for soil stabilization under
appropriate conditions. The focus is on the influence of
soil type on the CKD effectiveness.
2.1. Cement kiln dust

U A typical Portland cement is manufactured by feed-

Corresponding author. Tel.: q1-405-325-4253; fax: q1-405-325-
4217. ing materials containing appropriate proportions of

0950-0618r00r$ - see front matter Q 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 5 0 - 0 6 1 8 Ž 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 7 - 6
90 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97

lime, silica, alumina and iron into the upper end of a
kiln. The mix passes through the kiln at a rate con-
trolled by the slope of the kiln and the speed at which
the kiln rotates. Burning fuel is forced into the lower
end of the kiln where it produces temperatures of
1400]16508C, changing the raw mix to a cement clinker.
During this operation a small percentage of the mate-
rial in the form of dust ŽCKD. is collected. The physical
and chemical properties of CKD can vary from plant-
to-plant, depending on the raw materials used and type
of collection process in the plant. However, the dust
collected from the same kiln and producing the same
cement type will typically have a relatively consistent
composition w2x. It is a good practice to frequently test
the material to evaluate its characteristics and quality.
Typical analytical chemical compositions of CKD from
a plant in Oklahoma are given in Table 1. Also shown
in Table 1 are the chemical composition of cement
compounds, Alite and Belite, that were used to guide
the manufacturing of a cement stabilizer developed by
Kamon and Nontananandh w3x. They suggested that a
cementitious stabilizer should have a hydration modu-
lus between that of Alite and Belite, as shown in Table
1. CKD satisfies this requirement and thus, having
self-cementing characteristics, reacts with soil in a
manner similar to Portland cement. Typically, CKD has
approximately one-third of the amount of cement ox-
ides ŽCaO, Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , Fe 2 O 3 . present in Portland
cement. Of the total analytical calcium oxide shown in
Table 1, approximately 6]10% represents free lime.
It is important to note that soluble sulfates de-
termined by quantitative chemical analysis can be rela-
tively high in CKD. In a separate study by the first
author on dusts from three different manufacturers,
soluble sulfate levels were found to vary from 2270 to
25 800 ppm. According to a study by Prakash et al. w4x,
sulfate levels of this magnitude in a soil could poten-
tially result in the formation of expansive minerals
ettringite and thaumasite with the addition of a cal-
cium-based stabilizer. The dust used for the study
reported herein had a sulfate level of 6450 ppm, as
determined by quantitative chemical analysis. Subse-
quent swell tests on this dust mixed with a sulfate-
bearing shale Ž1008 ppm soluble sulfate . revealed no
increased tendency for swelling as a result of CKD
treatment. However, the swell testing was limited in
scope and additional research is needed to further
investigate the potential for problematic sulfate reac-
tions in CKD-treated soils.
2.2. Soil stabilization with CKD
Previous research has shown that CKD is a poten-
tially useful soil stabilizer. Baghdadi w5x found that after
28 days of curing kaolinite samples mixed with 16% Žby
weight. CKD, the unconfined compressive strength
ŽUCS. was increased from 210 to 1115 kPa. For highly
plastic bentonite Žsodium montomorillonite. clay,
Baghdadi w5x found that the addition of 8% CKD
resulted in a reduction of the plasticity index ŽPI. from
513 to 326%. This reduction in PI was found to in-
crease with increasing CKD content. Fatani and Khan
w6x utilized CKD to stabilize dune sand and asphalt
mixes used for pavement bases; they reported a 10-fold
improvement in mix stability with the addition of 11%
CKD. Baghdadi et al. w2x found that CKD significantly
increased the compressive strength of dune sand and
that the compressive strength increased with increasing
amount of CKD and curing duration. Zaman et al. w7x
found that when added to a highly expansive clay, CKD
increased the UCS from 103 to 263 kPa after 28 days of
curing, and the PI of the clay decreased from 64 to
46% 2 h after mixing. Results of scanning electron
microscopy revealed that crystalline hydration products

Table 1
Analytical chemical composition of CKD, Alite and Belite

Chemical compound Analysis method Composition Ž% by weight.

CKDb CKDc Alite Belite

Silicon dioxide, SiO2 X-ray fluorescence 15.90 15.14 24.83 32.50

Aluminum oxide, Al2 O3 X-ray fluorescence 3.43 3.91 1.24 2.13
Iron oxide, Fe2 O3 X-ray fluorescence 1.90 1.97 0.94 1.03
Calcium oxide, CaO X-ray fluorescence 43.50 48.40 72.23 62.83
Magnesium oxide, MgO X-ray fluorescence 1.64 1.38 0.98 0.52
Sulfur trioxide, SO3 X-ray fluorescence 1.62 4.53 ] ]
Sodium oxide, Na2 O X-ray fluorescence 0.30 0.19 0.09 0.20
Potassium oxide, K2 O X-ray fluorescence 2.94 2.51 0.14 0.30
Loss on ignition ASTM C 575 25.70 22.14 ] ]
Specific gravity, Gs ASTM D 854 3.22 ] ] ]
Hydration modulusa ] 2.05 2.30 2.67 1.76
a
Hydration moduluss CaOrŽAl 2 O 3 q SiO 2 q Fe 2 O 3 ..
b
Conducted independent of manufacturer.
c
Provided by manufacturer.
 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97 91

were present in the CKD treated soils, and these
hydration products were presumed to be the major
factor contributing to strength improvements. Miller et
al. w8x found that CKD substantially reduced the col-
lapse potential and compressibility of compacted shale.
For three shales compacted dry of the OMC the col-
lapse strain was reduced from approximately 5% to
zero with the addition of 16% CKD, at a vertical stress
of 380 kPa.
Recently, a field implementation study was con-
ducted by the FHWA at the Oklahoma PRA-CHIC
12Ž1. Guy Sandy Area of the Chickasaw National
Recreation Area w9x. Laboratory optimization of the
CKD content for the soil on this project ŽPI f 28. led
to the use of 10% CKD, which compared to lime,
resulted in an estimated cost savings of approximately
$25 000 w10x for 18 000 m2 of treated area. With 10%
CKD the PI was reduced from 28 to 15% and the
California Bearing Ratio ŽCBR. value was increased
from slightly less than 10 Žno CKD. to approximately
50. Compared to lime, the increase in CBR due to
CKD was much greater; however, lime proved to be
better at reducing the PI, giving a PI reduction from
28% to nearly 0% at 5% lime content. The available
literature indicates that given the proper conditions,
CKD can be an effective soil stabilizer. The remainder
of this paper presents results of a study conducted at
the University of Oklahoma to evaluate the effective-
ness of CKD for stabilizing three different fine-grained
soils.
3. CKD and test soil properties
Chemical properties and associated methods of anal-
ysis are presented in Table 1 for the CKD used in the
study. Results of analyses supplied by the manufacturer
are given along with results obtained from an indepen-
dent laboratory, and shown for comparison are the
compositions for the cement compounds Alite and
Belite. Relative to these cement compounds, CKD
contains main oxides CaO, Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 in
proportions that produce intrinsic cementitious proper-
ties as indicated by the calculated hydration modulus
w3x.
Test soil properties are listed in Table 2. Three
natural soils from Oklahoma were selected: Ž1. a high
plasticity clay from Norman, OK; Ž2. a medium plastic-
ity clay from Atoka, OK; and Ž3. a low plasticity silt
from Shawnee, OK. Soils 1, 2 and 3 have Unified Soil
Classification System designations of CH, CL and ML,
respectively.
4. Laboratory tests on CKD–soil mixtures
Laboratory work on mixtures of CKD and soil in-
cluded pH, moisture]density, unconfined compression
and Atterberg Limit testing. The effectiveness of CKD
was judged on the basis of the increase in UCS and
decrease in PI that occurred as a result of adding CKD
to each test soil. According to ASTM Standard D 4609
ŽStandard Guide for Evaluating the Effectiveness of
Chemicals for Soil Stabilization. w11x, a 345-kPa in-
crease in UCS or a significant PI reduction due to the
addition of an additive indicates a potentially effective
stabilizer. The lowest percentage of CKD used with
each soil was based on the presumption that it would
perform similarly to Portland cement, except that the
required CKD amount would be approximately three
times greater than required for Portland cement
stabilized soil w12x. This presumption is based on the
observation that the amounts of main oxides present in
CKD are approximately one-third of the amounts found

Table 2
Test soil properties

Method Soil number

1 2 3

USCS symbol ASTM D 2487 CH CL ML

% finer than 0.075 mm ASTM D 2487 98 94 52
% finer than 0.002 mm ASTM D 422 51 42 21
Liquid limit Ž%. ASTM D 4318 55 48 23
Plasticity index Ž%. ASTM D 4318 40 33 6
Activity ] 0.78 0.79 0.29
Specific gravity ASTM D 854 2.82 2.72 2.67
Optimum moisture content Ž%.a ASTM D 4609 23.3 16.0 14.0
Max. dry unit weight ŽkNrm3 .a ASTM D 4609 15.9 17.5 18.6
pH Eades and Grimb 7.6 5.3 7.7
Sulfate content, SO4 2y Žmgrkg. EPA 375.4 137 191 ND
Organics Ž% by weight. ASTM D 2974 1.62 0.86 0.36
a
Determined with a Harvard miniature device calibrated against the standard Proctor compaction test ŽASTM D 698. results.
b
See Eades and Grim, 1966 w13x.
92 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97
in Portland cement. Additional mixtures were made
with CKD amounts that were 1.5 and 2 times greater
than the lowest CKD percentage.
4.1. pH testing
The pH of CKD]soil mixtures was determined using
the method of Eades and Grim w13x, which involves
mixing the solids with pure water ŽH 2 Orsolid 5:1.,
periodically shaking samples, and then testing with a
pH meter after 1 h. This procedure was developed to
determine the lime requirements of soil and gives an
indication of the amount of lime necessary to satisfy
the various reactions that take place. If the pH of the
soil]lime]water mixture is elevated to a point where it
approaches the pH of a lime]water mixture then it is
assumed that sufficient lime is available to satisfy ion-
exchange and other reactions. Also, at the higher pH
levels the solubility of clay silica and alumina is greatly
enhanced, which is important for continued pozzolanic
activity in the treated soil. In cement stabilized soil,
hydrous silica and alumina react with calcium ions
released during cement hydration to form secondary
cementitious products, and this pozzolanic activity can
occur over long periods of time w14x. Since elevated pH
levels are important for promoting chemical activity,
tests were conducted with each of the soils mixed with
various amounts of CKD to investigate whether pH
would reflect the performance of CKD-treated soil.
In Fig. 1, pH values for different proportions of CKD
mixed with each soil are shown. Curves for soil 2
ŽPI s 30. and soil 3 ŽPI s 6. converge to an asymptotic
value of pH equal to approximately 12.3 where the
CKD content is 15%. The curve for soil 1 does not
reach a similar level until the CKD content reaches
approximately 40%. Soil 3 reaches the higher pH levels
at the lowest percentages of CKD. It appears that the
pH response of the soil]CKD mixtures is related to the
Fig. 1. pH of soil]CKD mixtures for soils 1, 2 and 3.
Fig. 2. Average pH for soil]CKD mixtures vs. plasticity index of the
untreated soil. First order regression yields pH avg s 11.46]0.022 PI,
r 2 s 0.9954.
nature of the clay size fraction. This relationship was
explored further by determining the average pH in the
CKD content range of 0]15% and plotting it against
the soil PI in Fig. 2. Over this range the differences
between pH curves for each soil are most significant,
and based on the lead author’s experience, 15% CKD
represents a practical upper limit for cost-effective
stabilization.
For the limited data shown in Fig. 2, the relationship
between the pH response and PI of untreated soil is
quite strong. This is expected since higher PI is gener-
ally equated with greater chemical reactivity, i.e. cation
exchange capacity of the clay fraction. Results of un-
confined compression tests shown subsequently indi-
cate that the pH response can be used to predict
relative performance of CKD-treated soils.
4.2. Unconfined compression tests
Unconfined compression tests were conducted on
samples molded with a Harvard miniature device. The
Harvard miniature procedure was calibrated using soil
1 so that at the standard Proctor optimum moisture
content ŽOMC. the Harvard procedure produced a
sample having the standard Proctor maximum dry unit
weight. The calibration procedure is described in ASTM
Standard D 4609 w11x.
After calibration, moisture]density curves were pro-
duced using the Harvard device for each soil and for
each soil mixed with three different amounts of CKD.
All samples were prepared with the same compactive
effort. Optimum moisture contents and maximum dry
unit weights are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
An increase in OMC and a decrease in dry unit weight
occurred as the CKD content increased for all three
soils. In contrast, Baghdadi w5x observed that CKD
added to pure kaolinite increased the compacted dry
 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97
Fig. 3. Optimum moisture content vs. CKD content for soils 1, 2, and
3.
density and decreased the OMC slightly. Others have
observed effects similar to the current study w7x. The
influence of CKD on dry density and water content is
obviously a function of the soil and CKD type as well
as the method of compaction. For the current study,
the increase in OMC apparently resulted from the
affinity of CKD for water, and dry unit weight appears
to decrease because aggregation of particles due to
CKD results in larger macropores within the soil.
All UCT samples were prepared at the optimum
moisture content of the soil]CKD mixture, as given in
Figs. 3 and 4. Samples were allowed to cure 7, 14, and
28 days prior to compression testing. For each curing
period, six samples were prepared, wrapped in cel-
lophane and stored upright in humidity chambers.
Three samples were tested after the prescribed curing
time, and the remaining three samples were submerged
in water for 48 h prior to compression testing. Sub-
merged samples were tested to assess the resistance of
the treated soil to immersion in water. For each soil
Fig. 4. Maximum dry unit weight vs. CKD content for soils 1, 2 and 3.
93
Fig. 5. Unconfined compression strength vs. curing time for soil 1, 2
and 3. Numbers in the upper left of the graph indicate soil number.
Open symbols represent strength after submerging samples for 48 h
and solid symbols represent non-submerged strength. Numbers to the
right of curves indicate the CKD content in percent by weight.
type, UCT samples were prepared using three different
percentages of CKD. In addition, samples of untreated
soil were prepared.
Unconfined compressive strength ŽUCS. is plotted
against curing time in Fig. 5 for each soil. In Fig. 5,
closed symbols represent tests without immersion, open
symbols are for immersed samples, and numbers to the
right of each curve indicate the percentage of CKD.
Each data point represents the average UCS from
three UCT tests. A comparison of the strength re-
sponse of each soil to CKD stabilization is shown in
Fig. 6, which contains a plot of 28-day UCS vs. CKD
amount. Some important observations follow:
1. Unconfined compressive strengths of untreated
soils were in all cases lower than treated soils. For
untreated soils the UCS did not increase with in-
creasing time after molding Žcuring time..
2. For CKD-treated soils, the most significant strength
gains occurred during the first 14 days.
3. Compared to soil 1 ŽPI s 40. and soil 2 ŽPI s 30.,
94 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97
Fig. 6. Twenty-eight-day unconfined compression strength vs. CKD
content for soils 1,2 and 3.
the strength gain over time exhibited by treated
soil 3 ŽPI s 6. is significantly greater.
4. Untreated soils disintegrated when immersed in
water Žindicated by UCS values of zero in Fig. 5..
5. The UCS for treated soils immersed in water for 48
h was 50]100% of the strength obtained for similar
samples that were not immersed. The percent of
retained strength was between 75 and 95% for
most samples. Compared with untreated soil, these
results show that CKD provides resistance to ad-
verse effects of saturation.
6. Significant increases in UCS occurred with in-
creases in CKD content in treated soils.
7. The increase in UCS due to the addition of similar
amounts of CKD is dramatically higher for the low
PI soil Žno. 3. relative to the higher PI soils Žnos. 1
and 2.. However, the change in UCS of treated
soils as a function of percent of CKD is roughly
similar for each soil. This is observed in Fig. 6 by
comparing the slopes of the curves for the three
data points plotted beyond the zero-percent CKD
point. The average slopes are 99, 85 and 123 kPar%
of CKD, for soils 1, 2 and 3, respectively. This
suggests that a certain amount of CKD is needed
to satisfy the various reactions that can occur with
the chemicals and minerals present in clay, and
that CKD in excess of this amount contributes
primarily to cementitious reactions. This is similar
to lime in that a certain amount of lime is con-
sumed through cation-exchange and reactions with
sulfates, organic carbon and other chemicals pre-
sent in the soil w13x. To obtain significant strength
gain, lime must be added so that all of these
reactions are satisfied.
The effectiveness of CKD is diminished as the PI of
Fig. 7. Change in strength due to the addition of 15% CKD vs.
plasticity index of untreated soil. Regression lines labeled a, b, and c
correspond to 7-day Žcircles., 14-day Žtriangles . and 28-day Žsquares.
curing periods, respectively. First order regression yields: Ža. DUCS
Ž%. s 638]11.2 PI, r 2 s 0.9975; Žb. DUCS Ž%. s 1234]26.4 PI, r 2 s
0.9920; and Žc. DUCS Ž%. s 1425]31.3 PI, r 2 s 0.9859.
the soil increases. Apparently, a certain amount of
CKD is required to satisfy cation-exchange and other
reactions, which leaves lower pH levels and less CKD
for the continued formation of cementitious reaction
products. In Fig. 7 the change in soil strength due to
the addition of 15% CKD is shown as a function of the
untreated soil PI for 7-, 14-, and 28-day curing periods.
Fifteen percent CKD was selected because based on
the lead author’s experience it appears to represent a
practical upper limit for cost-effective stabilization.
While the data is limited, the change in strength corre-
lates strongly to the PI of the clay. It follows that the
pH response of soil]CKD mixtures as represented by
pH avg should show an equally strong correlation, as
shown in Fig. 8.
The data in Fig. 8 demonstrates that for the CKD
used, the change in UCS of a soil due to the addition of
15% CKD can be predicted using pH avg determined
from a pH response curve for soil]CKD mixtures. In
Fig. 9, similarly obtained data from a separate study
Žopen symbols., involving a single soil but three differ-
ent sources of CKD, is plotted next to the 7-day data
from Fig. 8. The trend of the limited data shown
suggests there is merit to the concept of using pH
response to predict the strength of CKD-treated fine-
grained soils. The concept is useful because it allows
for rapid assessment of the stabilizing potential of
CKD, since pH data can be generated in a little over 1
h after sample preparation. As an example, consider
that ASTM Standard D 4609 suggests that an effective
chemical stabilizer should increase the UCS of a soil by
approximately 345 kPa. Using Fig. 9 and pH data, a
quick check for this requirement can be made for a
CKD]soil combination. If the CKD is potentially use-
 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97
Fig. 8. Change in strength due to the addition of 15% CKD vs.
pH avg . Regression lines labeled a, b, and c correspond to 7-day
Žcircles., 14-day Žtriangles. and 28-day Žsquares. curing periods, re-
spectively. First order regression yields: Ža. DUCS Ž%. s 513
pH avg ]5240, r 2 s 0.9997; Žb. DUCS Ž%. s 1219 pH avg ]12 725, r 2 s
0.9995; and Žc. DUCS Ž%. s 1445 pH avg ]15 130, r 2 s 0.9974.
ful, then additional testing can be conducted for verifi-
cation and selection of the optimum CKD content.
Developing a correlation based on the pH response
is more appealing than one based on PI because the
pH response appears to better represent the nature of
both the soil type and CKD type. That is, the same soil
may react differently with CKD from different sources.
This is demonstrated by the additional data presented
in Fig. 9 Žopen symbols. that were obtained using CKD
from three different sources, mixed at the same con-
centration with the same soil Ži.e. same PI.. Further-
more, the PI of a soil may not reflect the presence of
other soil constituents such as organic carbon or sul-
Fig. 9. Change in strength due to the addition of 15% CKD vs. pH avg
for a 7-day curing period. Solid symbols are as per Fig. 8. Open
symbols represent data obtained from a separate study using one soil
type but with three different sources of CKD. First order regression
yields DUCS Ž%. s 444 pH avg ]4505, r 2 s 0.9359.
95
Fig. 10. Typical stress]strain data from unconfined compression tests
on CKD-treated soil after 28 days of curing. Solid symbols represent
soil 1 Žcircles., soil 2 Žtriangles. and soil 3 Žsquares. treated with 13%,
12% and 10% CKD, respectively. Open symbols represent strength
of untreated soils.
fates that may also react with the CKD, whereas the
pH response should to some extent reflect these reac-
tions.
The unconfined compression stress]strain behavior
of test soils was dramatically altered with the addition
of CKD, as shown in Fig. 10. The stiffness increased
substantially and failure occurred at much smaller val-
ues of axial strain when compared to the untreated soil.
With few exceptions, the tangent modulus from UCT
stress]strain curves increased approximately 10-fold
with the addition of CKD. Brittle failure was exhibited
by the treated soils at axial strains of approximately
1]3%, whereas untreated soils exhibited plastic behav-
ior.
4.3. Atterberg limit tests
Atterberg limit tests were conducted on each soil
mixed with CKD. After mixing, soil was cured in a
plastic bag for approximately 2 days, allowed to air dry
for approximately 2 days, and then pulverized and
passed through a No. 40 sieve. After reconstituting the
samples with moisture for 1 day, liquid and plastic limit
tests were conducted in accordance with ASTM Stan-
dard D 4318 w11x.
Results of Atterberg limit tests are shown in Figs.
11]13. Results show that substantial PI reductions
occurred with modest amounts of CKD for soils 1 and
2. For soil 1 the PI reduction resulted from an increase
in PL and decrease in LL with increasing CKD con-
tent, while for soil 2 the reduction in PI resulted mainly
from a substantial increase in PL. For soil 3, both the
LL and PL increased with increasing CKD content and
the PI remained nearly constant. Diamond and Kinter
w15x indicated that the LL is much more sensitive than
96 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97
Fig. 11. Liquid limit Žsolid symbols. and plastic limit Žopen symbols.
vs. CKD content for soil 1 Žcircles., soil 2 Žtriangles. and soil 3
Žsquares..
the plastic limit to the cation exchange complex of the
soil. The LL has been observed to increase or decrease
due to lime treatment depending on the nature of the
cation exchange complex whereas the PL nearly always
increases significantly. Calcium saturated clays tend to
exhibit increases in LL when treated with lime, whereas
clays with lower valence cations such as sodium will
experience significant cation exchange and a significant
reduction in LL with increasing lime content. The
difference in LL behavior exhibited by soils 1 and 2 in
Fig. 11 is likely due to different cation exchange com-
plexes in each of these soils. For the predominantly
cohesionless soil 3, the addition of the CKD resulted in
a nearly equivalent increase in LL and PL that probably
resulted from the increase in CKD fines and the ac-
companying increased affinity for water.
The change in PI that results from adding 15% CKD
to each of the soils was determined from the piecewise
linear curves shown in Fig. 12. This change is plotted
Fig. 12. Plasticity index vs. CKD content for soils 1, 2 and 3.
Fig. 13. Reduction in plasticity index due to the addition of 15%
CKD vs. pH avg . First order regression yields DPI Ž%. s 535]47.3
pH avg , r 2 s 0.9458.
against pH avg in Fig. 13 where it is seen that for the
limited data shown there is some correlation between
pH avg and PI reduction.
5. Conclusions
Cement kiln dust added to soil in modest amounts
has a beneficial effect on the soil behavior and is a
viable material for stabilizing certain soil types. It has
the potential to significantly decrease PI and increase
soil strength in a relatively short time. Based on the
study presented in this paper the following conclusions
are made:
1. Addition of CKD to soil can substantially improve
the unconfined compressive strength. The improve-
ment is more significant for soils with low PI.
2. Relative to untreated soil, CKD provides some
protection from the adverse effects of saturation
on strength.
3. Addition of CKD rapidly increases unconfined
compressive strength for 7]14 days after com-
paction, and thereafter more slowly. For similar
CKD contents the rate of increase is greater for
low PI soils.
4. The CKD-treated soil exhibits brittle behavior dur-
ing unconfined compression. Significant increases
in modulus and decreases in the strain at failure
occur with the addition of CKD.
5. The optimum moisture content and maximum dry
unit weight, increase and decrease, respectively,
with increasing amounts of CKD.
6. Treatment with CKD reduces the PI of moderately
to highly plastic soil.
7. The pH response of soil]CKD mixtures provides
 G.A. Miller, S. Azad r Construction and Building Materials 14 (2000) 89]97
an indication of the potential increase in uncon-
fined compressive strength and PI reduction of soil.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support of this research by Dr Floyd Farha of New
Technology Ventures, Inc. of Oklahoma City, OK.
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