Thermoelectric Technical Reference

Thermoelectric Technical Reference —
Introduction to Thermoelectric Cooling

Ferrotec's Thermoelectric Technical Reference Guide is a comprehensive technical explanation of
thermoelectrics and thermoelectric technology.
1.0 Introduction to Thermoelectric Cooling
1.1 A thermoelectric (TE) cooler, sometimes called a thermoelectric module or Peltier cooler, is a
semiconductor-based electronic component that functions as a small heat pump. By applying a low
voltage DC power source to a TE module, heat will be moved through the module from one side to
the other. One module face, therefore, will be cooled while the opposite face simultaneously is
heated. It is important to note that this phenomenon may be reversed whereby a change in the
polarity (plus and minus) of the applied DC voltage will cause heat to be moved in the opposite
direction. Consequently, a thermoelectric module may be used for both heating and cooling thereby
making it highly suitable for precise temperature control applications.
1.1.1 To provide the new user with a general idea of a thermoelectric cooler's capabilities, it might
be helpful to offer this example. If a typical single-stage thermoelectric module was placed on a
heat sink that was maintained at room temperature and the module was then connected to a
suitable battery or other DC power source, the "cold" side of the module would cool down to
approximately -40°C. At this point, the module would be pumping almost no heat and would have
reached its maximum rated "DeltaT (DT)." If heat was gradually added to the module's cold side,
the cold side temperature would increase progressively until it eventually equaled the heat sink
temperature. At this point the TE cooler would have attained its maximum rated "heat pumping
capacity" (Qmax).
1.2 Both thermoelectric coolers and mechanical refrigerators are governed by the same
fundamental laws of thermodynamics and both refrigeration systems, although considerably
different in form, function in accordance with the same principles.
In a mechanical refrigeration unit, a compressor raises the pressure of a liquid and circulates the
refrigerant through the system. In the evaporator or "freezer" area the refrigerant boils and, in the
process of changing to a vapor, the refrigerant absorbs heat causing the freezer to become cold.
The heat absorbed in the freezer area is moved to the condenser where it is transferred to the
environment from the condensing refrigerant. In a thermoelectric cooling system, a doped
semiconductor material essentially takes the place of the liquid refrigerant, the condenser is
replaced by a finned heat sink, and the compressor is replaced by a DC power source. The
application of DC power to the thermoelectric module causes electrons to move through the
semiconductor material. At the cold end (or "freezer side") of the semiconductor material, heat is
absorbed by the electron movement, moved through the material, and expelled at the hot end.
Since the hot end of the material is physically attached to a heat sink, the heat is passed from the
material to the heat sink and then, in turn, transferred to the environment.
1.3 The physical principles upon which modern thermoelectric coolers are based actually date back
to the early 1800's, although commercial TE modules were not available until almost 1960. The first
important discovery relating to thermoelectricity occurred in 1821 when a German scientist, Thomas
Seebeck, found that an electric current would flow continuously in a closed circuit made up of two
dissimilar metals provided that the junctions of the metals were maintained at two different
temperatures. Seebeck did not actually comprehend the scientific basis for his discovery, however,
and falsely assumed that flowing heat produced the same effect as flowing electric current. In 1834,
a French watchmaker and part time physicist, Jean Peltier, while investigating the "Seebeck Effect,"
found that there was an opposite phenomenon whereby thermal energy could be absorbed at one
dissimilar metal junction and discharged at the other junction when an electric current flowed within
the closed circuit. Twenty years later, William Thomson (eventually known as Lord Kelvin) issued a
comprehensive explanation of the Seebeck and Peltier Effects and described their interrelationship.
At the time, however, these phenomena were still considered to be mere laboratory curiosities and
were without practical application.
In the 1930's Russian scientists began studying some of the earlier thermoelectric work in an effort
to construct power generators for use at remote locations throughout the country. This Russian
interest in thermoelectricity eventually caught the attention of the rest of the world and inspired the
development of practical thermoelectric modules. Today's thermoelectric coolers make use of
modern semiconductor technology whereby doped semiconductor material takes the place of
dissimilar metals used in early thermoelectric experiments.
1.4 The Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson Effects, together with several other phenomena, form the
basis of functional thermoelectric modules. Without going into too much detail, we will examine
some of these fundamental thermoelectric effects.
1.4.1 SEEBECK EFFECT: To illustrate the Seebeck Effect let us look at a simple thermocouple
circuit as shown in Figure (1.1). The thermocouple conductors are two dissimilar metals denoted as
Material x and Material y.
In a typical temperature measurement application, thermocouple A is used as a "reference" and is

maintained at a relatively cool temperature of Tc. Thermocouple B is used to measure the
temperature of interest (Th) which, in this example, is higher than temperature Tc. With heat
applied to thermocouple B, a voltage will appear across terminals Tl and T2. This voltage (Vo),
known as the Seebeck emf, can be expressed as: Vo = axy x (Th - Tc)
where:
Vo is the output voltage in volts
axy is the differential Seebeck coefficient between the two materials, x and y, in volts/oK
o
Th and Tc are the hot and cold thermocouple temperatures, respectively, in K
1.4.2 PELTIER EFFECT: If we modify our thermocouple circuit to obtain the configuration shown in
Figure (1.2), it will be possible to observe an opposite phenomenon known as the Peltier Effect.
If a voltage (Vin) is applied to terminals Tl and T2 an electrical current (I) will flow in the circuit. As
a result of the current flow, a slight cooling effect (Qc) will occur at thermocouple junction A where
heat is absorbed and a heating effect (Qh) will occur at junction B where heat is expelled. Note that
this effect may be reversed whereby a change in the direction of electric current flow will reverse
the direction of heat flow. The Peltier effect can be expressed mathematically as:
Qc or Qh=pxy x I
Where: pxy is the differential Peltier coefficient between the two materials, x and y, in volts I is the
electric current flow in amperes Qc, Qh is the rate of cooling and heating, respectively, in watts
Joule heating, having a magnitude of I x R (where R is the electrical resistance), also occurs in the
conductors as a result of current flow. This Joule heating effect acts in opposition to the Peltier
effect and causes a net reduction of the available cooling.
1.4.3 THOMSON EFFECT: When an electric current is passed through a conductor having a
temperature gradient over its length, heat will be either absorbed by or expelled from the
conductor. Whether heat is absorbed or expelled depends upon the direction of both the electric
current and temperature gradient. This phenomenon, known as the Thomson Effect, is of interest in
respect to the principles involved but plays a negligible role in the operation of practical
thermoelectric modules. For this reason, it is ignored.
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Basic

Principles of Thermoelectric Materials
2.0 Basic Principles of Thermoelectric Modules & Materials
2.1 THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS: The thermoelectric semiconductor material most often used
in today's TE coolers is an alloy of Bismuth Telluride that has been suitably doped to provide
individual blocks or elements having distinct "N" and "P" characteristics. Thermoelectric materials
most often are fabricated by either directional crystallization from a melt or pressed powder
metallurgy. Each manufacturing method has its own particular advantage, but directionally grown
materials are most common. In addition to Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te 3), there are other
thermoelectric materials including Lead Telluride (PbTe), Silicon Germanium (SiGe), and Bismuth-
Antimony (Bi-Sb) alloys that may be used in specific situations. Figure (2.1) illustrates the relative
performance or Figure-of-Merit of various materials over a range of temperatures. It can be seen
from this graph that the performance of Bismuth Telluride peaks within a temperature range that is
best suited for most cooling applications.
APPROXIMATE FIGURE-OF-MERIT(Z)FOR VARIOUS TE MATERIALS
Figure (2.1) Performance of Thermoelectric Materials at Various Temperatures
2.1.1 BISMUTH TELLURIDE MATERIAL: Crystalline Bismuth Telluride material has several
characteristics that merit discussion. Due to the crystal structure, Bi2Te3 is highly anisotropic in
nature. This results in the material's electrical resistivity being approximately four times greater
parallel to the axis of crystal growth (C-axis) than in the perpendicular orientation. In addition,
thermal conductivity is about two times greater parallel to the C-axis than in the perpendicular
direction. Since the anisotropic behavior of resistivity is greater than that of thermal conductivity,
the maximum performance or Figure-of-Merit occurs in the parallel orientation. Because of this
anisotropy, thermoelectric elements must be assembled into a cooling module so that the crystal
growth axis is parallel to the length or height of each element and, therefore, perpendicular to the
ceramic substrates.
There is one other interesting characteristic of Bismuth Telluride that also is related to the material's
crystal structure. Bi2Te3 crystals are made up of hexagonal layers of similar atoms.
While layers of Bismuth and Tellurium are held together by strong covalent bonds, weak van der
Waals bonds link the adjoining [Te¹] layers. As a result, crystalline Bismuth Telluride cleaves readily
along these [Te¹][Te¹] layers, with the behavior being very similar to that of Mica sheets.
Fortunately, the cleavage planes generally run parallel to the C-axis and the material is quite strong
when assembled into a thermoelectric cooling module.
2.1.2 Bismuth Telluride material, when produced by directional crystallization from a melt, typically
is fabricated in ingot or boule form and then sliced into wafers of various thicknesses. After the
wafer's surfaces have been properly prepared, the wafer is then diced into blocks that may be
assembled into thermoelectric cooling modules. The blocks of Bismuth Telluride material, which
usually are called elements or dice, also may be manufactured by a pressed powder metallurgy
process.
2.2 THERMOELECTRIC COOLING MODULES: A practical thermoelectric cooler consists of two or
more elements of semiconductor material that are connected electrically in series and thermally in
parallel. These thermoelectric elements and their electrical interconnects typically are mounted
between two ceramic substrates. The substrates serve to hold the overall structure together
mechanically and to insulate the individual elements electrically from one another and from external
mounting surfaces. After integrating the various component parts into a module, thermoelectric
modules ranging in size from approximately 2.5-50 mm (0.1 to 2.0 inches) square and 2.5-5mm
(0.1 to 0.2 inches) in height may be constructed.
Figure (2.2) Schematic Diagram of a Typical Thermoelectric Cooler
2.2.1 Both N-type and P-type Bismuth Telluride thermoelectric materials are used in a
thermoelectric cooler. This arrangement causes heat to move through the cooler in one direction
only while the electrical current moves back and forth alternately between the top and bottom
substrates through each N and P element. N-type material is doped so that it will have an excess of
electrons (more electrons than needed to complete a perfect molecular lattice structure) and P-type
material is doped so that it will have a deficiency of electrons (fewer electrons than are necessary to
complete a perfect lattice structure). The extra electrons in the N material and the "holes" resulting
from the deficiency of electrons in the P material are the carriers which move the heat energy
through the thermoelectric material. Figure (2.2) shows a typical thermoelectric cooler with heat
being moved as a result of an applied electrical current (I). Most thermoelectric cooling modules are
fabricated with an equal number of N-type and P-type elements where one N and P element pair
form a thermoelectric "couple." The module illustrated in Figure (2.2) has two pairs of N and P
elements and is termed a "two-couple module".
Heat flux (heat actively pumped through the thermoelectric module) is proportional to the
magnitude of the applied DC electric current. By varying the input current from zero to maximum, it
is possible to adjust and control the heat flow and temperature.
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Applications

of Thermoelectric Coolers
3.0 Applications for Thermoelectric Coolers
3.1 Applications for thermoelectric modules cover a wide spectrum of product areas. These include
equipment used by military, medical, industrial, consumer, scientific/laboratory, and
telecommunications organizations. Uses range from simple food and beverage coolers for an
afternoon picnic to extremely sophisticated temperature control systems in missiles and space
vehicles.
Unlike a simple heat sink, a thermoelectric cooler permits lowering the temperature of an object
below ambient as well as stabilizing the temperature of objects which are subject to widely varying
ambient conditions. A thermoelectric cooler is an active cooling module whereas a heat sink
provides only passive cooling.
Thermoelectric coolers generally may be considered for applications that require heat removal
ranging from milliwatts up to several thousand watts. Most single-stage TE coolers, including both
high and low current modules, are capable of pumping a maximum of 3 to 6 watts per square
centimeter (20 to 40 watts per square inch) of module surface area. Multiple modules mounted
thermally in parallel may be used to increase total heat pump performance. Large thermoelectric
systems in the kilowatt range have been built in the past for specialized applications such as cooling
within submarines and railroad cars. Systems of this magnitude are now proving quite valuable in
applications such as semiconductor manufacturing lines.
3.2 Typical applications for thermoelectric modules include:
 Avionics
 Black Box Cooling
 Calorimeters
 CCD (Charged Couple Devices)
 CID (Charge Induced Devices)
 Cold Chambers
 Cold Plates
 Compact Heat Exchangers
 Constant Temperature Baths
 Dehumidifiers
 Dew Point Hygrometers
 Electronics Package Cooling
 Electrophoresis Cell Coolers
 Environmental Analyzers
 Heat Density Measurement
 Ice Point References
 Immersion Coolers
 Integrated Circuit Cooling
 Inertial Guidance Systems
 Infrared Calibration Sources and Black Body References
 Infrared Detectors
 Infrared Seeking Missiles
 Laser Collimators
 Laser Diode Coolers
 Long Lasting Cooling Devices
 Low Noise Amplifiers
 Microprocessor Cooling
 Microtome Stage Coolers
 NEMA Enclosures
 Night Vision Equipment
 Osmometers
 Parametric Amplifiers
 Photomultiplier Tube Housing
 Power Generators (small)
 Precision Device Cooling (Lasers and Microprocessors)
 Refrigerators and on-board refrigeration systems (Aircraft, Automobile, Boat, Hotel, Insulin,
Portable/Picnic, Pharmaceutical, RV)
 Restaurant Portion Dispenser
 Self-Scanned Arrays Systems
 Semiconductor Wafer Probes
 Stir Coolers
 Thermal Viewers and Weapons Sights
 Thermal Cycling Devices (DNA and Blood Analyzers)
 Thermostat Calibrating Baths
 Tissue Preparation and Storage
 Vidicon Tube Coolers
 Wafer Thermal Characterization
 Water and Beverage Coolers
 Wet Process Temperature Controller

Wine Cabinets
Advantages of Thermoelectric Cooling

4.0 Advantages of Thermoelectric Cooling
4.1 The use of thermoelectric modules often provides solutions, and in some cases the ONLY
solution, to many difficult thermal management problems where a low to moderate amount of heat
must be handled. While no one cooling method is ideal in all respects and the use of thermoelectric
modules will not be suitable for every application, TE coolers will often provide substantial
advantages over alternative technologies. Some of the more significant features of thermoelectric
modules include:
No Moving Parts: A TE module works electrically without any moving parts so they are virtually
maintenance free.
Small Size and Weight: The overall thermoelectric cooling system is much smaller and lighter
than a comparable mechanical system. In addition, a variety of standard and special sizes and
configurations are available to meet strict application requirements.
Ability to Cool Below Ambient: Unlike a conventional heat sink whose temperature necessarily
must rise above ambient, a TE cooler attached to that same heat sink has the ability to reduce the
temperature below the ambient value.
Ability to Heat and Cool With the Same module: Thermoelectric coolers will either heat or cool
depending upon the polarity of the applied DC power. This feature eliminates the necessity of
providing separate heating and cooling functions within a given system.
Precise Temperature Control: With an appropriate closed-loop temperature control circuit, TE

coolers can control temperatures to better than +/- 0.1°C.
High Reliability: Thermoelectric modules exhibit very high reliability due to their solid state
construction. Although reliability is somewhat application dependent, the life of typical TE coolers is
greater than 200,000 hours.
Electrically "Quiet" Operation: Unlike a mechanical refrigeration system, TE modules generate
virtually no electrical noise and can be used in conjunction with sensitive electronic sensors. They
are also acoustically silent.
Operation in any Orientation: TEs can be used in any orientation and in zero gravity
environments. Thus they are popular in many aerospace applications.
Convenient Power Supply: TE modules operate directly from a DC power source. Modules having
a wide range of input voltages and currents are available. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) may be
used in many applications
Spot Cooling: With a TE cooler it is possible to cool one specific component or area only, thereby
often making it unnecessary to cool an entire package or enclosure.
Ability to Generate Electrical Power: When used "in reverse" by applying a temperature
differential across the faces of a TE cooler, it is possible to generate a small amount of DC power.
Environmentally Friendly: Conventional refrigeration systems can not be fabricated without using
chlorofluorocarbons or other chemicals that may be harmful to the environment. Thermoelectric
devices do not use or generate gases of any kind.

Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Heat Sink

Considerations
5.0 Heat Sink Considerations
5.1 Rather than being a heat absorber that consumes heat by magic, a thermoelectric cooler is a
heat pump which moves heat from one location to another. When electric power is applied to a TE
module, one face becomes cold while the other is heated. In accordance with the laws of
thermodynamics, heat from the (warmer) area being cooled will pass from the cold face to the hot
face. To complete the thermal system, the hot face of the TE cooler must be attached to a suitable
heat sink that is capable of dissipating both the heat pumped by the module and Joule heat created
as a result of supplying electrical power to the module.
A heat sink is an integral part of a thermoelectric cooling system and its importance to total system
performance must be emphasized. Since all operational characteristics of TE devices are related to
heat sink temperature, heat sink selection and design should be considered carefully.
A perfect heat sink would be capable of absorbing an unlimited quantity of heat without exhibiting
any increase in temperature. Since this is not possible in practice, the designer must select a heat
sink that will have an acceptable temperature rise while handling the total heat flow from the TE
device(s). The definition of an acceptable increase in heat sink temperature necessarily is
dependent upon the specific application, but because a TE module's heat pumping capability
decreases with increasing temperature differential, it is highly desirable to minimize this value. A
heat sink temperature rise of 5 to 15°C above ambient (or cooling fluid) is typical for many
thermoelectric applications.
Several types of heat sinks are available including natural convection, forced convection, and liquid-
cooled. Natural convection heat sinks may prove satisfactory for very low power applications
especially when using small TE devices operating at 2 amperes or less. For the majority of
applications, however, natural convection heat sinks will be unable to remove the required amount
of heat from the system, and forced convection or liquid-cooled heat sinks will be needed.
Heat sink performance usually is specified in terms of thermal resistance (Q):
Ts - Ta
____________
Qs=
Q
where:
Qs = Thermal Resistance in Degrees C per Watt

Ts = Heat Sink Temperature in Degrees C
Ta =Ambient or Coolant Temperature in Degrees C
Q = Heat Input to Heat Sink in Watts
5.2 Each thermoelectric cooling application will have a unique heat sink requirement and frequently
there will be various mechanical constraints that may complicate the overall design. Because each
case is different, it is virtually impossible to suggest one heat sink configuration suitable for most
situations. We have several off the shelf heat sinks and liquid heat exchangers appropriate for many
applications but encourage you to contact our engineering department.
Note that when combining thermoelectric cooling modules and heat sinks into a total thermal
system, it normally is NOT necessary to take into account heat loss or temperature rise at the
module to heat sink junctions. Module performance data presented herein already includes such
losses based on the use of thermal grease at both hot and cold interfaces. When using commercially
available heat sinks for thermoelectric cooler applications, it is important to be aware that some off-
the-shelf units do not have adequate surface flatness. A flatness of 1mm/m (0.001 in/in) or better
is recommended for satisfactory thermal performance and it may be necessary to perform an
additional lapping, flycutting, or grinding operation to meet this flatness specification.
5.2.1 NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT SINKS: Natural convection heat sinks normally are useful
only for low power applications where very little heat is involved. Although it is difficult to
generalize, most natural convection heat sinks have a thermal resistance (Qs) greater than
0.5°C/watt and often exceeding 10°C/watt. A natural convection heat sink should be positioned so
that (a) the long dimension of the fins is in the direction of normal air flow, vertical operation
improves natural convection and (b) there are no significant physical obstructions to impede air
flow. It also is important to consider that other heat generating components located near the heat
sink may increase the ambient air temperature, thereby affecting overall performance.
5.2.2 FORCED CONVECTION HEAT SINKS: Probably the most common heat-sinking
method used with thermoelectric coolers is forced convection. When compared to natural convection
heat sinks, substantially better performance can be realized. The thermal resistance of quality
forced convection systems typically falls within a range of 0.02 to 0.5°C/watt. Many standard heat
sink extrusions are available that, when coupled with a suitable fan, may be used to form the basis
of a complete cooling assembly. Cooling air may be supplied from a fan or blower and may either be
passed totally through the length of the heat sink or may be directed at the center of the fins and
pass out both open ends. This second air flow pattern, illustrated in Figure (5.l), generally provides
the best performance since the air blown into the face of the heat sink creates greater turbulence
resulting in improved heat transfer. For optimum performance, the housing of an axial fan should be
mounted a distance of 8-20mm (0.31-0.75") from the fins. Other configurations may be considered
depending on the application.
Figure (5.1) Forced Convection Heat Sink System Showing Preferred Air Flow
The thermal resistance of heat sink extrusions often is specified at an air flow rate stated in terms of
velocity whereas the output of most fans is given in terms of volume. The conversion from volume
to velocity is:
Velocity = Volume / Cross-sectional Area of Air Passage

or: Linear Feet per Minute = Cubic Feet per Minute / Area in Square Feet
or: Linear Meters per Minute = Cubic Meters per Minute / Area in Square Meters
5.2.3 LIQUID COOLED HEAT SINKS: Liquid cooled heat sinks provide the highest thermal
performance per unit volume and, when optimally designed, can exhibit a very low thermal
resistance. Although there are many exceptions, the thermal resistance of liquid cooled heat sinks
typically falls between 0.01 and 0.1°C/watt. Simple liquid heat sinks can be constructed by
soldering copper tubing onto a flat copper plate or by drilling holes in a metal block through which
water may pass. With greater complexity (and greater thermal performance), an elaborate
serpentine water channel may be milled in a copper or aluminum block that later is sealed-off with a
cover plate. We offer several liquid-type heat sinks that may be used advantageously in
thermoelectric systems. With other commercial heat sinks, always check the surface flatness prior
to installation. While liquid cooling may be considered undesirable and/or unsatisfactory for many
applications, it may be the only viable approach in specific situations.
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Installation

of Thermoelectric Modules
6.0 Installation of Thermoelectric Modules
This section of the technical reference guide explaines the techniques that can used to install or
mount a thermoelectric module or peltier cooler including:
» Clamping
» Bonding with Epoxy
» Soldering
» Mounting Pads and other Material

6.1 Important Installation Considerations
Techniques used to install thermoelectric modules in a cooling system are extremely important.
Failure to observe certain basic principles may result in unsatisfactory performance or reliability.
Some of the factors to be considered in system design and module installation include the following:
 Thermoelectric modules have high mechanical strength in the compression mode but shear
strength is relatively low. As a result, a TE cooler should not be designed into a system
where it serves as a significant supporting member of the mechanical structure.
 All interfaces between system components must be flat, parallel, and clean to minimize
thermal resistance. High conductivity thermal interface material is often used to ensure
good contact between surfaces.
 The "hot" and "cold" sides of standard thermoelectric modules may be identified by the
position of the wire leads. Wires are attached to the hot side of the module, which is the
module face that is in contact with the heat sink. For modules having insulated wire leads,
when the red and black leads are connected to the respective positive and negative
terminals of a DC power supply, heat will be pumped from the module's cold side, through
the module, and into the heat sink. Note that for TE modules having bare wire leads, the
positive connection is on the right side and the negative connection is on the left when the
leads are facing toward the viewer and the substrate with the leads attached presented on
the bottom.
 When cooling below ambient, the object being cooled should be insulated as much as
possible to minimize heat loss to the ambient air. To reduce convective losses, fans should
not be positioned so that air is blowing directly at the cooled object. Conductive losses also
may be minimized by limiting direct contact between the cooled object and external
structural members.
 When cooling below the dew point, moisture or frost will tend to form on exposed cooled
surfaces. To prevent moisture from entering a TE module and severely reducing its thermal
performance, an effective moisture seal should be installed. This seal should be formed
between the heat sink and cooled object in the area surrounding the TE module(s). Flexible
foam insulating tape or sheet material and/or silicone rubber RTV are relatively easy to
install and make an effective moisture seal. Several methods for mounting thermoelectric
modules are available and the specific product application often dictates the method to be
used. Possible mounting techniques are outlined in the following paragraphs.
6.1.1 HEIGHT TOLERANCE: Most thermoelectric cooling modules are available with two height
tolerance values, +/-0.3mm (+/-0.010") and +/-0.03mm (0.001"). When only one module is used
in a thermoelectric subassembly, a +/-0.3mm tolerance module generally is preferable since it
provides a slight cost advantage over a comparable tight-tolerance module. For applications where
more than one module is to be mounted between the heat sink and cooled object, however, it is
necessary to closely match the thickness of all modules in the group to ensure good heat transfer.
For this reason, +/-0.03mm (+/-0.001") tolerance modules should be used in all multiple-module
configurations.
6.2 Clamping
The most common mounting method involves clamping the thermoelectric module(s) between a
heat sink and flat surface of the article to be cooled. This approach, as illustrated in Figure (6.1),
usually is recommended for most applications and may be applied as follows:
a) Machine or grind flat the mounting surfaces between which the TE module(s) will be located. To
achieve optimum thermal performance mounting surfaces should be flat to within 1mm/m (0.001
in/in).
b) If several TE modules are mounted between a given pair of mounting surfaces, all modules
within the group must be matched in height/thickness so that the overall thickness variation does
not exceed 0.06mm (0.002"). Module P/N with a "B" ending should be specified.
c) Mounting screws should be arranged in a

symmetrical pattern relative to the module(s) so as
to provide uniform pressure on the module(s)
when the assembly is clamped together. To
minimize heat loss through the mounting screws, it
is desirable to use the smallest size screw that is
practical for the mechanical system. For most
applications, M3 or M3.5 (4-40 or 6-32) stainless
steel screws will prove satisfactory. Alternately,
nonmetallic fasteners can be used, e.g., nylon.
Smaller screws may be used in conjunction with
very small mechanical assemblies. Belleville
spring washers or split lock-washers should be
used under the head of each screw to maintain
even pressure during the normal thermal
expansion or contraction of system components.
d) Clean the module(s) and mounting surfaces to ensure that all burrs, dirt, etc., have been
removed.
e) Coat the "hot" side of the module(s) with a thin layer (typically 0.02mm / 0.001" or less
thickness) of thermally conductive grease and place the module, hot side down, on the heat sink in
the desired location. Gently push down on the module and apply a back and forth turning motion to
squeeze out excess thermal grease. Continue the combined downward pressure and turning motion
until a slight resistance is detected. Ferrotec America recommends and stocks American Oil and
Supply (AOS) type 400 product code 52032.
f) Coat the "cold" side of the module(s) with thermal grease as specified in step (e) above. Position
and place the object to be cooled in contact with the cold side of the module(s). Squeeze out the
excess thermal grease as previously described.
g) Bolt the heat sink and cooled object together using the stainless steel screws and spring
washers. It is important to apply uniform pressure across the mounting surfaces so that good
parallelism is maintained. If significantly uneven pressure is applied, thermal performance may be
reduced, or worse, the TE module(s) may be damaged. To ensure that pressure is applied
uniformly, first tighten all mounting screws finger tight starting with the center screw (if any). Using
a torque screwdriver, gradually tighten each screw by moving from screw to screw in a crosswise
pattern and increase torque in small increments. Continue the tightening procedure until the proper
torque value is reached. Typical mounting pressure ranges from 25 - 100 psi depending on the
application. If a torque screwdriver is not available, the correct torque value may be approximated
by using the following procedure:
In a crosswise pattern, tighten the screws until they are "snug" but not actually tight. In the same
crosswise pattern, tighten each screw approximately one quarter turn until the spring action of the
washer can be felt.
h) A small additional amount of thermal grease normally is squeezed out soon after the assembly is
first clamped together. In order to insure that the proper screw torque is maintained, wait a
minimum of one hour and recheck the torque by repeating step (g) above.
i) CAUTION: Over-tightening of the clamping screws may result in bending or bowing of either the
heat sink or cold object surface especially if these components are constructed of relatively thin
material. Such bowing will, at best, reduce thermal performance and in severe cases may cause
physical damage to system components. Bowing may be minimized by positioning the clamping
screws close to the thermoelectric module(s) and by using moderately thick materials. However, if
hot and/or cold surfaces are constructed of aluminum which is less than 6mm (0.25") thick or
copper which is less than 3.3mm (0.13") thick, it may be necessary to apply screw torque of a lower
value than specified in step (g) above.
Figure (6.1)
TE Module Installation Using the Clamping Method The proper bolt torque for TE module assemblies
can be determined by the following relationship:
T=((Sa x A)/N) x K x d
Where:
T= torque on each bolt
Sa= cycling 25-50 psi, static 50-75 psi.

A= total surface area of module(s)
N= number of bolts used in assembly
K= torque coefficient (use K=0.2 for steel, K=0.15 for nylon)
d= nominal bolt diameter
For steel fasteners, we typically recommend either:
6-32 d=.138 in (.350 cm)

4-40 d=.112 in (.284 cm)
The following recommended torque is calculated for nine 9500/065/018 modules held by four 4-40
steel fasteners:
T=((75 lbs/in.2 x (.44" x .48") x 9)/4)x 0.2 x .112 in. = 0.8 in-lbs.
6.3 BONDING WITH EPOXY
A second module mounting method that is useful for certain applications involves bonding the
module(s) to one or both mounting surfaces using a special high thermal-conductivity epoxy
adhesive. Since the coefficients of expansion of the module's ceramics, heat sink and cooled object
vary, we do not recommend bonding with epoxy for larger modules. Please consult your applications
engineer for guidance. Note: Unless suitable procedures are used to prevent outgassing, epoxy
bonding is not recommended if the TE cooling system is to be used in a vacuum. For module
mounting with epoxy:
a) Machine or grind flat the mounting surfaces between which the TE module(s) will be located.
Although surface flatness is less critical when using epoxy, it is always desirable for mounting
surfaces to be as flat as possible.
b) Clean and degrease the module(s) and mounting surfaces to insure that all burrs, oil, dirt, etc.,
have been removed. Follow the epoxy manufacturer's recommendations regarding proper surface
preparation.
c) Coat the hot side of the module with a thin layer of the thermally conductive epoxy and place the
module, hot side down, on the heat sink in the desired location. Gently push down on the module
and apply a back and forth turning motion to squeeze out excess epoxy. Continue the combined
downward pressure and turning motion until a slight resistance is detected.
d) Weight or clamp the module in position until the epoxy has properly cured. Consult the epoxy
manufacturer's data sheet for specific curing information. If an oven cure is specified, be sure that
the maximum operating temperature of the TE module is not exceeded during the heating
procedure. Note that most TE cooling modules manufactured by Ferrotec have maximum operating
temperatures of 200°C for the 95-Series.
6.4 SOLDERING
Thermoelectric modules that have metallized external faces may be soldered into an assembly
provided that reasonable care is taken to prevent module overheating. Soldering to a rigid
structural member of an assembly should be performed on one side of the module only (normally
the hot side) in order to avoid excessive mechanical stress on the module. Note that with a
module's hot side soldered to a rigid body, however, a component or small electronic circuit may be
soldered to the module's cold side provided that the component or circuit is not rigidly coupled to
the external structure. Good temperature control must be maintained within the soldering system in
order to prevent damage to the TE module due to overheating. Our thermoelectric modules are
rated for continuous operation at relatively high temperatures (150 or 200°C) so they are suitable
in most applications where soldering is desirable. Naturally these relative temperatures should not
be exceeded in the process. Since the coefficients of expansion of the module ceramics, heat sink
and cooled object vary, we do not recommend soldering modules larger than 15 x 15 millimeters.
Soldering should not be considered in any thermal cycling application. For module mounting with
solder, the following steps should be observed:
a) Machine or grind flat the mounting surface on which the module(s) will be located. Although
surface flatness is not highly critical with the soldering method, it is always desirable for mounting
surfaces to be as flat as possible. Obviously, the heat sink surface must be a solderable material
such as copper or copper plated material.
b) Clean and degrease the heat sink surface and remove any heavy oxidation. Make sure that there
are no burrs, chips, or other foreign material in the module mounting area.
c) Pre tin the heat sink surface in the module mounting area with the appropriate solder. The
selected solder must have a melting point that is less than or equal to the rated maximum operating
temperature of the TE device being installed. When tinning the heat sink with solder, the heat sink's
temperature should be just high enough so that the solder will melt but in no case should the
temperature be raised more than the maximum value specified for the TE device.
d) Apply soldering flux to the TE module's hot side and place the module on the pre tinned area of
the heat sink. Allow the module to "float" in the solder pool and apply a back and forth turning
motion on the module to facilitate solder tinning of the module surface. A tendency for the module
to drag on the solder surface rather than to float is an indication that there is an insufficient amount
of solder. In this event, remove the module and add more solder to the heat sink.
e) After several seconds the module surface should be tinned satisfactorily. Clamp or weight the
module in the desired position, remove the heat sink from the heat source, and allow the assembly
to cool. When sufficiently cooled, degrease the assembly to remove flux residue.
6.5 Mounting Pads And Other Material
There are a wide variety of products available designed to replace thermally conductive grease as
an interface material. Perhaps the most common are silicon-based mounting pads. Originally for use
in mounting semiconductor devices, these pads often exhibit excessive thermal resistance in
thermoelectric applications. Since the pads allow for rapid production and eliminate cleanup time,
they are popular in less demanding applications. Leading manufacturers in this area include The
Bergquist Company and the Chomerics Division of Parker Hannifin Corporation.
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Power

Supply Requirements
7.0 Power Supply Requirements
7.1 Thermoelectric coolers operate directly from DC power suitable power sources can range from
batteries to simple unregulated "brute force" DC power supplies to extremely sophisticated closed-
loop temperature control systems. A thermoelectric cooling module is a low-impedance
semiconductor device that presents a resistive load to its power source. Due to the nature of the
Bismuth Telluride material, modules exhibit a positive resistance temperature coefficient of
approximately 0.5 percent per degree C based on average module temperature. For many
noncritical applications, a lightly filtered conventional battery charger may provide adequate power
for a TE cooler provided that the AC ripple is not excessive. Simple temperature control may be
obtained through the use of a standard thermostat or by means of a variable-output DC power
supply used to adjust the input power level to the TE device. In applications where the thermal load
is reasonably constant, a manually adjustable DC power supply often will provide temperature
control on the order of +/- 1°C over a period of several hours or more. Where precise temperature
control is required, a closed-loop (feedback) system generally is used whereby the input current
level or duty cycle of the thermoelectric device is automatically controlled. With such a system,
temperature control to +/- 0.1°C may be readily achieved and much tighter control is not unusual.
7.2 Power supply ripple filtering normally is of less importance for thermoelectric devices than for
typical electronic applications. However we recommend limiting power supply ripple to a maximum
of 10 percent with a preferred value being < 5%.
7.2.1 Multistage cooling and low-level signal detection are two applications which may require lower
values of power supply ripple. In the case of multistage thermoelectric devices, achieving a large
temperature differential is the typical goal, and a ripple component of less than two percent may be
necessary to maximize module performance. In situations where very low level signals must be
detected and/or measured, even though the TE module itself is electrically quiet, the presence of an
AC ripple signal within the module and wire leads may be unsatisfactory. The acceptable level of
power supply ripple for such applications will have to be determined on a case-by-case basis.
7.3 Figure (7.1) illustrates a simple power supply capable of driving a 71-couple, 6-ampere module.
This circuit features a bridge rectifier configuration and capacitive-input filter. With suitable
component changes, a full-wave-center-tap rectifier could be used and/or a filter choke added
ahead of the capacitor. A switching power supply, having a size and weight advantage over a
comparable linear unit, also is appropriate for powering thermoelectric devices.
Figure (7.1)
Simple Power Supply to Drive a 71-Couple, 6-Ampere TE Module
7.4 A typical analog closed-loop temperature controller is illustrated in Figure (7.2). This system is
capable of closely controlling and maintaining the temperature of an object and will automatically
correct for temperature variations by means of the feedback loop. Many variations of this system
are possible including adaptation to digital and/or computer control.
Figure (7.2)
Block Diagram of a Typical Closed-Loop Temperature Controller
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Thermal

System Design Considerations
8.0 Thermal System Design Considerations
8.1 The first step in the design of a thermoelectric cooling system involves making an analysis of
the system's overall thermal characteristics. This analysis, which may be quite simple for some
applications or highly complex in other cases, must never be neglected if a satisfactory and efficient
design is to be realized. Some of the more important factors to be considered are discussed in the
following paragraphs. Although we have made certain simplifications that may horrify the pure
thermodynamicist, the results obtained have been found to satisfy all but those few applications
that approach state-of-the-art limits.
Please note that design information contained in this manual is presented for the purpose of
assisting those engineers and scientists who wish either to estimate cooling requirements or to
actually develop their own cooling systems. For the many individuals who prefer not to become
involved in the details of the thermoelectric design process, however, we encourage you to contact
us for assistance. Ferrotec America is committed to providing strong customer technical support and
our engineering staff is available to assist in complex thermoelectric-related design activities.
8.2 ACTIVE HEAT LOAD: The active heat load is the actual heat generated by the component,
"black box" or system to be cooled. For most applications, the active load will be equal to the
electrical power input to the article being cooled (Watts = Volts x Amps) but in other situations the
load may be more difficult to determine. Since the total electrical input power generally represents
the worst case active heat load, we recommend that you use this value for design purposes.
8.3 PASSIVE HEAT LOAD: The passive heat load (sometimes called heat leak or parasitic heat
load) is that heat energy which is lost or gained by the article being cooled due to conduction,
convection, and/or radiation. Passive heat losses may occur through any heat-conductive path
including air, insulation, and electrical wiring. In applications where there is no active heat
generation, the passive heat leak will represent the entire heat load on the thermoelectric cooler.
Determination of the total heat leak within a cooling system is a relatively complicated issue but a
reasonable estimate of these losses often can be made by means of some basic heat transfer
calculations. If there is any uncertainty about heat losses in a given design, we highly recommend
that you contact our engineering staff for assistance and suggestions.
8.4 HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS: Several fundamental heat transfer equations are presented to
assist the engineer in evaluating some of the thermal aspects of a design or system.
8.4.1 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL: The relationship that describes the
transfer of heat through a solid material was suggested by J.B. Fourier in the early 1800's. Thermal
conduction is dependent upon the geometry and thermal conductivity of a given material plus the
existing temperature gradient through the material. Although thermal conductivity varies with
temperature, the actual variation is quite small and can be neglected for our purposes.
Mathematically, heat transfer by conduction may be expressed as:
Q=(K)(DT)(A)
x
English
Symbol Definition Metric Units
Units
Heat Conducted Through the

Q BTU/hour watts
Material
BTU/hour- watts/meter-
K Thermal conductivity of the material o o
ft F C
square
A Cross-sectional area of the material square feet
meters
x Thickness of length of the materials feet meters
Temperature difference between

DT Degrees F Degrees C
cold and hot sides of the material
8.4.2 HEAT TRANSFER FROM AN EXPOSED SURFACE TO AMBIENT BY CONVECTION: Heat

leak to or from an uninsulated metal surface can constitute a significant heat load in a thermal
system. Isaac Newton proposed the relationship describing the transfer of heat when a cooled (or
heated) surface is exposed directly to the ambient air. To account for the degree of thermal
coupling between the surface and surrounding air, a numerical value (h), called the Heat Transfer
Coefficient, must be incorporated into the equation. Heat lost or gained in this manner may be
expressed mathematically as: Q=(h)(A)(DT)
English
Units
Q Heat transferred to or from ambient BTU/hour watts

2
BTU/hour- watts/meter -
Heat transfer coefficient.
ft2-oF o
C
h For still air use a value of:
4 to 5 23 to 28
For turbulent air use a value of:
15 to 20 85 to 113
square
A Area of the exposed surface square feet
meters

the exposed surface and ambient
8.4.3 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH THE WALLS OF AN INSULATED ENCLOSURE: Heat leak to
or from an insulated container combines an element of thermal conduction through the insulating
material with an element of convection loss at the external insulation surfaces. Heat lost from (or
gained by) an insulated enclosure may be expressed mathematically as:
Q = (A)(DT)
x + 1
K h
English
Units
Heat conducted through the

Q BTU/hour watts
enclosure
Thermal conductivity of the BTU/hour- watts/meter-

K o o
insulation ft F C
External surface area of the square

A square feet
enclosure meters
x Thickness of the insulation feet meters

DT the inside and outside of the Degrees F Degrees C
enclosure
2
BTU/hour- watts/meter -
Heat transfer coefficient 2 o o
ft - F C
h For still air use a value of:
4 to 5 23 to 28
For turbulent air use a value of:
15 to 20 85 to 113
8.4.4 TIME NEEDED TO CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF AN OBJECT: Determination of the

time required to thermoelectrically cool or heat a given object is a moderately complicated matter.
For good accuracy, it would be necessary to make a detailed analysis of the entire thermal system
including all component parts and interfaces. By using the simplified method presented here,
however, it is possible to make a reasonable estimate of a system's thermal transient response.
(m)(Cp)(DT)
t=
Q
English Metric
Symbol Definition
Units Units
Time period for temperature

t hours seconds
change
m Weight of material pounds grams

o o
Cp Specific heat of the material BTU/pound- F calgram- C
Temperature change of the

material
Q Heat transferred to or from material BTU/hour cal/second
Note (1): 1 Watt = 0.239 calories/second

Note (2):Thermoelectric modules pump heat at a rate that is proportional to the temperature
difference (DT) across the module. In order to approximate actual module performance, the
average heat removal rate should be used when determining the transient behavior of a thermal
system. The average heat removal rate is:
Q = 0.5 (Qc at DT min + Q c at DTmax)
Where: Qc at DTmin is the amount of heat a thermoelectric module is pumping at the initial object
temperature when DC power is first applied to the module. The DT is zero at this time and the heat
pumping rate is at the highest point.
Qc at DTmax is the amount of heat a thermoelectric module is pumping when the object has cooled to
the desired temperature. The DT is higher at this time and the heat pumping rate is lower.
8.4.5 HEAT TRANSFER FROM A BODY BY RADIATION: Most thermoelectric cooling applications
involve relatively moderate temperatures and small surface areas where radiation heat losses
usually are negligible. Probably the only situation where thermal radiation may be of concern is that
of a multistage cooler operating at a very low temperature and close to its lower limit. For such
applications, it sometimes is possible to attach a small radiation shield to one of the lower module
stages. By fabricating this shield so that it surrounds the upper stage and cooled object, thermal
radiation losses may be reduced substantially.
As an indication of the magnitude of heat leak due to thermal radiation, consider the following. A
2
perfect black-body having a surface area of 1.0 cm and operating at -100°C (173K) will receive
approximately 43 milliwatts of heat from its 30°C (303K) surroundings. Be aware that the accurate
determination of radiation loss is a highly complicated issue and a suitable heat transfer textbook
should be consulted for detailed information. A very simplified estimation of such losses may be
made, however, by using the equation given below.
4 4
QR=(s)(A) (e) (Th – T c )
Symbol Definition English Units Metric Units
QR Radiation heat loss BTU/hour watts

-9 -8
1.714 x 10 5.67 x 10
2 2
s Stefan-Boltzmann constant BTU/hour-ft - watts/meter -
o 4 4
R K
A Area of the exposed surface square feet square meters
e Emissivity of exposed surfaces -- --
Absolute temperature of warmer

Th Degrees R Degrees K
surface
Absolute temperature of colder

Tc Degrees R Degrees K
surface
8.4.6 R-VALUE OF INSULATION: The R-value of an insulating material is a measure of the

insulation's overall effectiveness or resistance to heat flow. R-value is not a scientific term, per se,
but the expression is used extensively within the building construction industry in the United States.
The relationship between R-value, insulation thickness, and thermal conductivity may be expressed
by the equation:
x
R=
12K
where:
x = Thickness of the insulation in inches
k = Thermal conductivity of the insulation in BTU/hr-ft-°F
Note: Insulation R-value normally is based on insulation thickness in inches. Since thermal
conductivity values in Appendix B are expressed in feet, the k value in the equation's denominator
has been multiplied by 12.
8.5 THERMAL INSULATION CONSIDERATIONS: In order to maximize thermal performance and

minimize condensation, all cooled objects should be properly insulated. Insulation type and
thickness often is governed by the application and it may not be possible to achieve the optimum
insulation arrangement in all cases. Every effort should be made, however, to prevent ambient air
from blowing directly on the cooled object and/or thermoelectric device.
Figures (8.1) and (8.2) illustrate the relationship between the heat leak from an insulated surface
and the insulation thickness. It can be seen that even a small amount of insulation will provide a
significant reduction in heat loss but, beyond a certain point, greater thicknesses give little benefit.
The two heat leak graphs show heat loss in watts per square unit of surface area for a one degree
temperature difference (DT) through the insulation. Total heat leak (Qtot) in watts for other surface
areas (SA) or DT's may be calculated by the expression:
Qtot = Qleak x SA x DT
Figure (8.1)
Heat Leak from an Insulated Surface in Metric Units
Figure (8.2)
Heat Leak from an Insulated Surface in English Units

Thermoelectric Module Selection
9.0 Thermoelectric Module Selection
9.1 Selection of the proper TE Cooler for a specific application requires an evaluation of the total
system in which the cooler will be used. For most applications it should be possible to use one of the
standard module configurations while in certain cases a special design may be needed to meet
stringent electrical, mechanical, or other requirements. Although we encourage the use of a
standard device whenever possible, Ferrotec America specializes in the development and
manufacture of custom TE modules and we will be pleased to quote on unique devices that will
exactly meet your requirements.
The overall cooling system is dynamic in nature and system performance is a function of several
interrelated parameters. As a result, it usually is necessary to make a series of iterative calculations
to "zero-in" on the correct operating parameters. If there is any uncertainty about which TE device
would be most suitable for a particular application, we highly recommend that you contact our
engineering staff for assistance.
Before starting the actual TE module selection process, the designer should be prepared to answer
the following questions:
1. At what temperature must the cooled object be maintained?

2. How much heat must be removed from the cooled object?
3. Is thermal response time important? If yes, how quickly must the cooled object change
temperature after DC power has been applied?
4. What is the expected ambient temperature? Will the ambient temperature change
significantly during system operation?
5. What is the extraneous heat input (heat leak) to the object as a result of conduction,
convection, and/or radiation?
6. How much space is available for the module and heat sink?
7. What power is available?
8. Does the temperature of the cooled object have to be controlled? If yes, to what precision?
9. What is the expected approximate temperature of the heat sink during operation? Is it
possible that the heat sink temperature will change significantly due to ambient
fluctuations, etc.?
Each application obviously will have its own set of requirements that likely will vary in level of
importance. Based upon any critical requirements that can not be altered, the designer's job will be
to select compatible components and operating parameters that ultimately will form an efficient and
reliable cooling system. A design example is presented in section 9.5 to illustrate the concepts
involved in the typical engineering process.
9.2 USE OF TE MODULE PERFORMANCE GRAPHS: Before beginning any thermoelectric design
activity it is necessary to have an understanding of basic module performance characteristics.
Performance data is presented graphically and is referenced to a specific heat sink base
temperature. Most performance graphs are standardized at a heat sink temperature (Th) of +50°C
and the resultant data is usable over a range of approximately 40°C to 60°C with only a slight error.
Upon request, we can supply module performance graphs referenced to any temperature within a
range of -80°C to +200°C.
9.3 To demonstrate the use of these performance curves let us present a simple example. Suppose
we have a small electronic "black box" that is dissipating 15 watts of heat. For the electronic unit to
function properly its temperature may not exceed 20°C. The room ambient temperature often rises
well above the 20°C level thereby dictating the use of a thermoelectric cooler to reduce the unit's
temperature. For the purpose of this example we will neglect the heat sink (we cannot do this in
practice) other than to state that its temperature can be maintained at 50°C under worst-case
conditions. We will investigate the use of a 71-couple, 6-ampere module to provide the required
cooling.
9.3.1 GRAPH: Qc vs. I This graph, shown in Figure (9.1), relates a module's heat pumping
capacity (Qc) and temperature difference (DT) as a function of input current (I). In this example,
established operating parameters for the TE module include Th = 50°C, Tc = 20°C, and Qc = 15
watts. The required DT = Th-Tc = 30°C.
It is necessary first to determine whether a single 71-couple, 6-ampere module is capable of

providing sufficient heat removal to meet application requirements. We locate the DT=30 line and
find that the maximum Qc value occurs at point A and with an input current of 6 amperes. By
extending a line from point A to the left y-axis, we can see that the module is capable of pumping
approximately 18 watts while maintaining a Tc of 20°C. Since this Qc is slightly higher than
necessary, we follow the DT=30 line downward until we reach a position (point B) that corresponds
to a Qc of 15 watts. Point B is the operating point that satisfies our thermal requirements. By
extending a line downward from point B to the x-axis, we find that the proper input current is 4.0
amperes.
Figure (9.1)
Heat Pumping Capacity Related to Temperature Differential as a Function of Input Current for a 71-
Couple, 6-Ampere Module
9.3.2 GRAPH: Vin vs. I This graph, shown in Figure (9.2), relates a module's input voltage (Vin)
and temperature difference (DT) as a function of input current (I). In this example, parameters for
the TE module include Th = 50°C, DT = 30°C, and I = 4.0 amperes. We locate the DT=30 line and,
at the 4.0 ampere intersection, mark point C. By extending a line from point C to the left y-axis, we
can see that the required module input voltage (Vin) is approximately 6.7 volts.
Figure (9.2)
Input Voltage Related to Temperature Differential as a
Function of Input Current for a 7I-Couple, 6-Ampere Module
9.3.3 GRAPH:COP vs. I This graph, shown in Figure (9.3), relates a module's coefficient of
performance (COP) and temperature differential (DT) as a function of input current (I). In this
example, parameters for the TE module include Th = 50°C, DT = 30°C, and I = 4.0 amperes.
We locate the DT=30 line and, at the 4.0 ampere intersection, mark point D. By extending a line
from point D to the left y-axis, we can see that the module's coefficient of performance is
approximately 0.58.
Figure (9.3)
Coefficient of Performance Related to Temperature Differential as a
Function of Input Current for a 71-Couple, 6-Ampere Module
Note that COP is a measure of a module's efficiency and it is always desirable to maximize COP
whenever possible. COP may be calculated by:
9.4 An additional graph of Vin vs. Th, of the type shown in Figure (9.4), relates a module's input
voltage (Vin) and input current (I) as a function of module hot side temperature (Th). Due to the
Seebeck effect, input voltage at a given value of I and Th is lowest when DT=O and highest when
DT is at its maximum point. Consequently, the graph of Vin vs. Th usually is presented for a DT=30
condition in order to provide the average value of Vin.
Figure (9.4)
Input Voltage Related to Input Current as a Function of
Hot Side Temperature for a 71-Couple, 6-Ampere Module
9.5 DESIGN EXAMPLE: To illustrate the typical design process let us present an example of a TE
cooler application involving the temperature stabilization of a laser diode. The diode, along with
related electronics, is to be mounted in a DIP Kovar housing and must be maintained at a
temperature of 25°C. With the housing mounted on the system circuit board, tests show that the
housing has a thermal resistance of 6°C/watt. The laser electronics dissipate a total of 0.5 watts
and the design maximum ambient temperature is 35°C.
It is necessary to select a TE cooling module that not only will have sufficient cooling capacity to
maintain the proper temperature, but also will meet the dimensional requirements imposed by the
housing. An 18-couple, 1.2 ampere TE cooler is chosen initially because it does have compatible
dimensions and also appears to have appropriate performance characteristics. Performance graphs
for this module will be used to derive relevant parameters for making mathematical calculations. To
begin the design process we must first evaluate the heat sink and make an estimate of the worst-
case module hot side temperature (Th). For the TE cooler chosen, the maximum input power (Pin)
can be determined from Figure (9.5) at point A.
 Max. Module Input Power (Pin) = 1.2 amps x 2.4 volts = 2.9 watts
 Max. Heat Input to the Housing = 2.9 watts + 0.5 watts = 3.4 watts
 Housing Temperature Rise = 3.4 watts x 6°C/watt = 20.4°C
 Max. Housing Temperature (T,) = 35°C ambient + 20.4°C rise = 55.4°C Since the hot side
temperature (Th) of 55.4°C is reasonably close to the available Tin = 50°C performance
graphs, these graphs may be used to determine thermal performance with very little error.
Figure (9.5)
Vin vs. I Graph for an 18-Couple, I.2 Ampere Module
Now that we have established the worst-case Th value it is possible to assess module performance.
Module Temperature Differential (DT) = Th - Tc = 55.4 - 25 = 30°C
Figure (9.6)
Qc vs. I Graph for an 18-Couple, 1.2 Ampere Module
From Figure (9.6) it can be seen that the maximum heat pumping rate (Qc) for DT=30 occurs at
point B and is approximately 0.9 watts. Since a Qc of only 0.5 watts is needed, we can follow the
DT=30 line down until it intersects the 0.5 watt line marked as point C. By extending a line
downward from point C to the x-axis, we can see that an input current (I) of approximately 0.55
amperes will provide the required cooling performance. Referring back to the Vin vs. I graph in
Figure (9.5), a current of 0.55 amperes, marked as point D, requires a voltage (Vin) of about 1.2
volts. We now have to repeat our analysis because the required input power is considerably lower
than the value used for our initial calculation. The new power and temperature values will be:
 Max. Module Input Power (Pin) = 0.55 amps x 1.2 volts = 0.66 watts
 Max. Heat Input to the Housing = 0.66 watts + 0.50 watts = 1.16 watts
 Housing Temperature Rise = 1.16 watts x 6°C/watt = 7°C
 Max. Housing Temperature (Th) = 35°C ambient + 7°C rise = 42°C
Module Temperature Differential (DT) = Th-Tc = 42°C-25°C = 17°C
It can be seen that because we now have another new value for Th it will be necessary to continue
repeating the steps outlined above until a stable condition is obtained. Note that calculations usually
are repeated until the difference in the Th values from successive calculations is quite small (often
less that 0.1°C for good accuracy). There is no reason to present the repetitive calculations here but
we can conclude that the selected 18-couple TE module will function very well in this application.
This analysis clearly shows the importance of the heat sink in any thermoelectric cooling application.
9.6 USE OF MULTIPLE MODULES: Relatively large thermoelectric cooling applications may require
the use of several individual modules in order to obtain the required rate of heat removal. For such
applications, TE modules normally are mounted thermally in parallel and connected electrically in
series. An electrical series-parallel connection arrangement may also be used advantageously in
certain instances. Because heat sink performance becomes increasingly important as power levels
rise, be sure that the selected heat sink is adequate for the application.

Mathematical Modeling of TEC Modules
11.0 Mathematical Modeling of thermoelectric Cooling Modules
11.1 INTRODUCTION: The operation of thermoelectric cooling devices may be described

mathematically and device performance can readily be modeled on a personal computer. Since the
semiconductor material used in module fabrication has several temperature-dependent properties,
temperature effects on module operation must be considered if a realistic model is to be developed.
We have not attempted to provide a highly detailed description of computer modeling techniques,
but rather to present the basic algebraic expressions needed to simulate thermoelectric module
performance.
Ferrotec America has performed a comprehensive analysis of many thermoelectric cooling modules
over a wide temperature range. This study has resulted in the development of mathematical models
that may be used to reliably predict module performance under typical operating conditions. Data
presented herein is based on module operation in a normal air atmosphere with thermally
conductive grease (heat sink compound) used at both hot and cold module interfaces. These
conditions are applicable to the majority of thermoelectric cooling applications. It should be noted
that for modules having metabolized external surfaces, slight performance improvement may be
observed if the modules are mounted with solder as opposed to thermal grease. In addition, when
modules are operated in a vacuum, a small to moderate performance increase may be seen,
especially in the case of multi-stage devices.
11.2 TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT MATERIAL PROPERTIES: There are a number of parameters

associated with thermoelectric materials and modules that normally would have to be considered in
a mathematical model. However, since actual module test data was used to derive several
important coefficients, certain factors may be neglected thereby simplifying the modeling process.
Elements that must be incorporated into the model include the module's effective Seebeck
coefficient (SM), Electrical Resistance (RM), and Thermal Conductance (KM).
The values of SM, RM, and KM can be expressed mathematically by polynomial equations. The
specified equation coefficients, applicable over a range of -100°C to +150°C, were derived from an
industry-standard 71-couple, 6-ampere module. Other module configurations easily can be modeled
by applying a simple correction factor as described in paragraph 11.2.4. Note that when using the
various equations, temperature values must be stated in degrees Kelvin.
An alternative method for estimating temperature-dependent module properties, which may be

useful under certain circumstances, involves the use of tabulated module data. Values representing
average SM, RM, and KM characteristics for selected modules over a wide temperature range will be
found in Appendix A at the end of this manual. Although somewhat less accurate than using
calculated values, this method provides a relatively simple approach to predicting module
performance.
11.2.1 SEEBECK COEFFICIENT: When a temperature differential is maintained across a

thermoelectric device, a voltage can be detected at the input terminals. The magnitude of the
resultant voltage, called the Seebeck emf, is proportional to the magnitude of the temperature
difference. The Seebeck coefficient, as a function of temperature, can be expressed as a third order
polynomial:
SM = s1 + s2T = s3T2 + s4T 3
Where: SM is the Seebeck coefficient of the module in volts/°K

T is the average module temperature in °K
Coefficients for a 71-cpl, 6-amp module

-2
s1 = 1.33450 x 10
-5
s2 = -5.37574 x 10
-7
s3 = 7.42731 x 10
-9
s4 = -1.27141 x 10
The above polynomial expression represent the Seebeck coefficient when the temperature
difference across the module is zero (DT = Th - Tc = 0). When DT>0, the Seebeck coefficient must
be evaluated at both temperatures Th and Tc using the expressions:
2 3 4
s2T s3T s4T
S MTh or S MTc = s1T _____ ______ ______
+ + +
2 3 4
SM = (SMTh - SMTc) / DT
Where: SMTh is the module's Seebeck coefficient at the hot side temperature Th
SMTc is the module's Seebeck coefficient at the cold side temperature Tc
11.2.2 MODULE RESISTANCE: The electrical resistance of a thermoelectric module, as a function

of temperature, can be expressed as third order polynomials for the two conditions (a) and (b):
2 3
(a) when DT = 0: RM = r1 + r2T + r3T + r4T
r2T 2 r3T3 r4T 4
____ ____ ____
(b) when DT > 0: RMTh or R MTC = r1T + + +
2 3 4
RM = (RMTh - RMTc) / DT
Where:
RM is the module's resistance in ohms

RMTh is the module's resistance at the hot side temperature Th
RMTc is the module's resistance at the cold side temperature Tc
Coefficients for a 71-cpl, 6-amp module
r1 = 2.08317
-2
r2 = -1.98763 x 10
-5
r3 = 8.53832 x 10
-8
r4 = -9.03143 x 10
11.2.3 MODULE THERMAL CONDUCTANCE: The thermal conductance of a thermoelectric

module, as a function of temperature, can be expressed as third order polynomials for the two
conditions (a) and (b):
2 3
(a) when DT = 0: KM = k1 + k2T + k3T + k4T
2 3 4
k2T k3T k4T
____ ____ ____
(b) when DT > 0: KMTh or KMTc = k1T + + +
2 3 4
KMTh - KMTc
= ___________
KM
DT
Where:
K is the module's thermal conductance in watts/°K

KMTh is the thermal conductance at the hot side temperature Th
KMTc is the thermal conductance at the cold side temperature Tc
coefficients for a 71-cpl, 6-amp module
-1
k1 = 4.76218 x 10
k2 = -3.89821 x 10 -6
k3 = -8.64864 x 10 -6
-8
k4 = 2.20869 x 10
11.2.4 PARAMETER CONVERSIONS FOR OTHER MODULE CONFIGURATIONS: The SM, RM,
and KM parameters shown are calculated for a 71-couple, 6-ampere thermoelectric module. If a
new or different module configuration is to be modeled, it is necessary to apply a conversion factor
to each of these parameters, as follows:
Nnew
Snew = S M x _____
71
6 Nnew
Rnew = R M x _____ x _____
Inew 71
Inew Nnew
Knew = K M x _____ x _____
6 71
Where:
Snew is the Seebeck coefficient for the new module

Rnew is the electrical resistance of the new module
Knew is the thermal conductance of the new module
Nnew is the number of couples in the new module
Inew is the optimum or maximum current of the new module
11.3 CALCULATION OF THERMOELECTRIC MODULE PERFORMANCE: There are five variable

parameters applicable to a thermoelectric module that affect its operation. These parameters
include:
I - the input current to the module expressed in amperes

Vin - the input voltage to the module expressed in volts
Th - the hot side temperature of the module expressed in °K
Tc - the cold side temperature of the module expressed in °K
Qc - the heat input to (or heat pumped by) the module expressed in watts
In order to calculate module performance it is necessary to set at least three of these variables to
specific values. Two common calculation schemes involve either (a) fixing the values of Th, I, and
Qc or, (b) fixing the values of Th, I and Tc. For the computer-oriented individual, a relatively
straightforward calculation routine can be developed to incrementally step through a series of fixed
values to produce an output of module performance over a range of operating conditions.
11.4 SINGLE-STAGE MODULE CALCULATIONS: These equations mathematically describe the

performance of a single-stage thermoelectric module as illustrated in Figure (11-l). When entering
numerical data, do not forget that temperature values must be expressed in degrees Kelvin (°K).
Calculations of the various parameters should be performed in the order shown.
Figure (11-1)
a) The temperature difference (DT) across the module in °K or °C is:
DT = T h - T c
b) Heat pumped (Qc) by the module in watts is:
Qc = (SM x Tc x I) - (0.5 x I2 x R M) - (K M x DT)
c) The input voltage (Vin) to the module in volts is:
Vin = (SM x DT) + (I x RM)

d) The electrical input power (Pin) to the module in watts is:
Pin = V in x I
e) The heat rejected by the module (Qh) in watts is:
Qh = Pin + Q c
f) The coefficient of performance (COP) as a refrigerator is:
COP = Qc / Pin
11.5 HEATING MODE OPERATION: Thermoelectric modules may be operated in the heating
mode by reversing the polarity of the applied DC power. When used in this manner, the TE module
functions as a "heat pump" and heating efficiencies in excess of 100 percent may be realized under
certain conditions. A rapid increase in temperature occurs when heating a small-mass object, and
care must be taken to avoid overheating either the module or object. In the heating mode,
illustrated in Figure (11-2), the heat sink and object effectively are in opposite positions whereby
the object is now at temperature (Th) and the heat sink is at temperature (Tc).
Figure (11-2) a) Heat flow to the object (Qh) is given by the expression:
2
Qh = (SM x T h x I) + (0.5 x I x R M) - (KM x (T h - T c))
b) The coefficient of performance as a heater (COPH) is:
COPH = Qh / P in
11.5.1 Heating mode performance of a standard 71-Couple, 6-Ampere module is presented

graphically in Figures (11-3) and (11-4). These graphs illustrate module performance at a heat sink
temperature of 25°C.
Figure (11-3)
Heat Output at Various Hot-Side Object Temperatures
Figure (11-4)
Coefficient of Performance in the Heating Mode
11.6 OTHER THERMOELECTRIC DEVICE ATTRIBUTES: There are many other properties of
thermoelectric devices that can be described mathematically. Several characteristics that might be
of interest for specific situations follow. Remember that temperature values must be expressed in
°K.
a) The maximum heat pumping capacity (Qmax) in watts of a thermoelectric module is given by the
following expression. Note that DT =0 at the maximum Qc condition and, therefore, Tc = Th.
2 2
S M x TC
Qmax = __________
2 x RM
b) The maximum temperature differential (DTmax) in °K may be expressed as shown below. To
obtain an accurate DTmax value, however, it will be necessary to perform an iterative series of
calculations comparing Tc to DTmax at a fixed value of Th.
2 2
S M x TC
DT max = __________
2 x RM x K M
c) The Figure-of-Merit (Z) is a measure of the overall performance of a thermoelectric device or

material. Z always is higher for raw thermoelectric semiconductor material than for an actual
module functioning within a thermal system. Since an operating module is affected by interface,
conductive, convective, and other losses, the effective Figure-of-Merit is less than that of the raw
material. The Figure-of-Merit may be expressed:
For Raw Material For a TE Module

2 2
a SM
__________ __________
Z= Z=
pxk R M x KM
where:
a is the Seebeck coefficient of the material in v/°K

p is the electrical resistivity of the material in ohm-cm
k is the thermal conductivity of the material in w/cm-°K
d) The optimum current (Iopt) in amperes required to produce the maximum heat removal rate
(Qmax) is:
For Raw Material For a TE Module
a x Tc x a a x Tc SM x T c
___________ = _________
Iopt = Iopt = _____________
pxl R RM
where:
a is the cross-sectional area of an individual thermoelectric element in centimeters.

l is the length (height) of an individual thermoelectric element in centimeters
R is the resistance of an individual thermoelectric element in ohms.
11.7 MODELING OF COMPLETE THERMOELECTRIC COOLING SYSTEMS: Information

presented in the foregoing paragraphs describes the mathematical modeling of thermoelectric
modules as opposed to complete thermal systems. By incorporating the module calculations into a
more sophisticated system model, it is possible to accurately simulate the overall thermal
performance. Two heat leak sources that must not be overlooked in a complete thermal model
include (a) heat conduction between the cooled object and heat sink, and, (b) heat conduction
through clamping screws, if any, that physically connect the heat sink and cooled object.
Heat conduction between the heat sink and object generally involves the transfer of heat through
the air gap surrounding the module mounting area. The actual heat leak value can be calculated
using the equation in paragraph 8.4.1 where area (A) is the "open" surface area not covered by the
thermoelectric modules, distance (x) is the width of the air gap, and thermal conductivity (K) is the
value for air.
Heat conduction through the clamping screws also can be calculated by means of the same
equation. In this case, area (A) is the cross-sectional area of all mounting screws calculated from
the screw's pitch diameter and (K) is the thermal conductivity of the screw material.
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Modeling of

Cascade Thermoelectric Modules
12.0 Description & Modeling of Cascade Thermoelectric Modules
12.1 A standard single-stage thermoelectric cooling module is capable of achieving a maximum no-
load temperature differential (DTmax) of approximately 72°C. It is possible to obtain DTs of up to
130°C by mechanically stacking modules on top of one another whereby the cold side of one
module becomes the hot side of another module mounted above. This stacking arrangement is
called a Cascade or Multi-Stage module configuration. Cascade modules usually, but not always,
have a pyramid shape thereby the higher stages are physically smaller than those below.
Regardless of the physical shape, however, lower stages must always have greater heat pumping
capacity than the higher stages. although cascade configurations of up to six and seven stages have
been constructed, practical cascade devices usually have from two to four stages.
The principal factor that limits cascade module performance is related to the temperature
dependent properties of the thermoelectric semiconductor materials. The performance of Bismuth
Telluride alloys used in most thermoelectric coolers generally peaks near 70°C and performance
falls-off appreciably at lower temperatures. Consequently, cascade modules exhibit a condition of
diminishing returns where, as successive stages are added, the increase in DT becomes smaller.
Figure (12-1)
Performance Graph of a Typical Cascade Module
12.2 MODELING OF CASCADE MODULES: Modeling of cascaded or multi-stage thermoelectric
coolers is somewhat more complicated than for single-stage devices. With multi-stage coolers, the
temperature between each stage is critically important and module performance cannot be
established until each interstage temperature value is known. With a two-stage cooler only one
interstage temperature must be determined but, as more stages are added, the thermal analysis
becomes increasingly complex. Manually calculating multi-stage module performance is extremely
laborious, yet with a computer, the required calculations can be performed with little effort.
The most common method for computer-modeling cascade modules involves carrying out an
iterative series of performance calculations beginning with assumed interstage temperature values.
Using this technique, the performance of each stage is repeatedly calculated until the difference
between successive interstage temperature calculations becomes very small (typically 0.1°C or
less). When this point is reached, each of the relevant module performance parameters can be
ascertained. Note that the temperature-dependent value of SM, RM, and KM must be converted as
explained in paragraph 11.2.4 to reflect the number of couples in each stage together with their
optimum TE element currents. The following paragraphs describe the calculations needed to model
two and three-stage cascaded thermoelectric modules. Four and greater-stage modules may be
modeled in a similar manner by expanding the three-stage calculation routines to include terms for
each additional stage. Calculations of the various parameters should be performed in the order
shown.
12.2.1 TWO-STAGE MODULE CALCULATIONS: A typical two-stage thermoelectric module is

illustrated in Figure (12-2). The following new terms will be used in the module performance
calculations:
TM12 is the interstage temperature between stages 1 and 2 in °K

SM1 is the Seebeck coefficient of the 1st stage in volts/°K
SM2 is the Seebeck coefficient of the 2nd stage in volts/°K
RM1 is the resistance of the 1st stage in ohms
RM2 is the resistance of the 2nd stage in ohms
KM1 is the thermal conductance of the 1st stage in watts/°K
KM2 is the thermal conductance of the 2nd stage in watts/°K
Figure (12-2) a) The interstage temperature (TM12) in °K is:
2
(0.5 x I ) x (R M2 + RM1) + (KM1 x T h) + (K M2 x Tc )
________________________________________________________________
I x (S M1 - SM2) +
T M12 = KM1 + KM2
b) Heat pumped (Qc) by the module in watts is:
Qc = (SM2 x T c x I) - (0.5 x I 2 x RM2) - (KM2 x (T M12 -Tc))
c) The input voltage (Vin) to the module in volts is:
Vin = (SM2 x (T M12 -Tc) + (I x RM2) + (SM1 x (Th - TM12)) + (I x R M1)

d) The electrical input power (Pin) to the module in watts is:
Pin = Vin x I
e) The heat rejected by the module (Qh) in watts is:
Q h = (SM1 x T h x I) + (0.5 x I2 x RM1) - (K M1 x (T h - TM12)

or
Qh = Q c - P in
f) The coefficient of performance (COP) as a refrigerator is:

COP = Qc / Pin
12.2.2 THREE-STAGE MODULE CALCULATIONS: A typical three-stage module is illustrated in

Figure (12-3). The following new terms will be used in the module performance calculations:
TM23 is the interstage temperature between stages 2 and 3 in °K

SM3 is the Seebeck coefficient of the 3rd stage in volts/°K
RM3 is the resistance of the 3rd stage in ohms
KM3 is the thermal conductance of the 3rd stage in watts/°K
o
Figure (12-3) a) The lower interstage temperature (TM12) in K is:
2
(0.5 x I x (RM1 + RM2)) + (KM1 x T h) + (KM2 x T M23)
___________________________________________
TM12 = I x (SM1 - SM2) + KM1 + KM2
b) The upper interstage temperature (TM23) in oK is:
2
(0.5 x I x (R M2 + RM3)) + (KM2 x TM12) + (K M3 x Tc)
___________________________________________
TM23= I x (S M2 - SM3) + K M2 + KM3
c) Heat pumped by the module (Qc) in watts is:
Qc = (SM3 x Tc x I) - (0.5 x I 2 x R M3) - (KM3 x (TM23 - Tc))
d) The input voltage (Vin) to the module in volts is:
Vin = (SM1 x (T h - T M12)) + (I x RM1) + (SM2 x (TM12 - TM23)) +

(I x RM2) + (SM3 x (TM23 - Tc)) + (I x R M3)
e) The input power (Pin) to the module in watts is: P in = Vin x I

f) The heat rejected by the module (Qh) in watts is: Qh = Q c + Pin
g) The coefficient of performance (COP) as a refrigerator is: COP = Q c / Pin
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Power

Generation
13.0 Power Generation
13.1 Bismuth Telluride-based thermoelectric modules are designed primarily for cooling or
combined cooling and heating applications where electrical power creates a temperature difference
across the module. By using the modules "in reverse," however, whereby a temperature differential
is applied across the faces of the module, it is possible to generate electrical power. Although power
output and generation efficiency are very low, useful power often may be obtained where a source
of heat is available.
13.2 A thermoelectric module used for power generation has certain similarities to a conventional
thermocouple. Let us look at a single thermoelectric couple with an applied temperature difference
as shown in Figure (13.1)
Figure (13-1)
Single Thermoelectric Couple where Th > Tc
With no load (RL not connected), the open circuit voltage as measured between points a and b is:
V = S x DT
where:
V is the output voltage from the couple (generator) in volts

S is the average Seebeck coefficient in volts/°K
DT is the temperature difference across the couple in °K where DT = Th-Tc
When a load is connected to the thermoelectric couple the output voltage (V) drops as a result of
internal generator resistance. The current through the load is:
S x DT
____________________
I= R C + RL
where :
I is the generator output current in amperes
Rc is the average internal resistance of the thermoelectric couple in ohms
RL is the load resistance in ohms
The total heat input to the couple (Qh) is:
2
Qh = (S x T h x I) - (0.5 x I x R c) + (Kc x DT)
where:
Qh is the heat input in watts

Kc is the thermal conductance of the couple in watts/°K
Th is the hot side of the couple in °K
The efficiency of the generator (Eg) is:
VxI
Eg = —————
Qh
We have thus far discussed an individual thermoelectric couple, but since a complete module
consists of a number of couples, it is necessary to rewrite our equation for an actual module, as
follows:
V o = SM x DT = I x (RM + RL)
where:
Vo is the generators output in volts

SM is the module’s average Seebeck coefficient in volts/°K
RM is the module’s average resistance in ohms
It must be remembered that module Seebeck coefficient, resistance and thermal conductance
properties are temperature dependent and their values must be calculated as described in Section
11, paragraphs 11.2 through 11.2.4. As an alternative to these calculations, however, generator
performance may be reasonably approximated through the use of the data shown in Appendix A. In
either case, the values of SM, RM, and KM must be selected at the average module temperature
Tavg where:
Th + T c
Tavg = ————
2
The power output (Po) from the module in watts is:
Po = RL x
It is possible, but unlikely, that the precise conditions will exist within a given generator application
whereby one module will provide the exact output power desired. As a result, most thermoelectric
generators contain a number of individual modules which may be electrically connected in either
series, parallel, or series/parallel arrangement. A typical generator configuration is illustrated in
Figure (13.2). This generator has a NT total number of modules with NS number of modules
connected in series and NP number of modules connected in parallel. The total number of modules
in the system is:
NT = NS x NP
Figure (13-2)
Typical Thermoelectric Generator with a Series-Parallel Arrangement of Modules
The current (I) in amperes passing through the load resistance RL is:
NS x S M x DT
________________
I=
NS x R M
_________
+ RL
NP
The output voltage (V o) from the generator in volts is:
The Output Power (P O) from the generator in watts is:
NT x (SM x DT)2
___________
Po = Vo x I = 4 x RM
The total heat input (Qh) to the generator in watts is:

The efficiency (Eg) of the generator is:
Po
Eg = ————— x 100%
Qh
Maximum efficiency occurs when the internal resistance of the generator (RGEN) equals the load
resistance (RL). The generator resistance is:
NS x RM
RGEN = —————
NP
13.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE: To illustrate the typical design process let us analyze a requirement for a
12-volt, 1.5 ampere thermoelectric power generator. The generator is needed to power telemetry
electronics at a remotely located oil pipeline where the hot, continuously flowing oil produces a
130°C pipe casing temperature. Flowing water (having a temperature of 10°C) also is available at
the remote site, and it has been determined that an efficient water-cooled heat sink can maintain
the TE generator cold-side at a temperature of +30°C. We will use Appendix A to obtain the values
of SM, RM and KM for our calculations.
To begin the design process we will review the system parameters and make some preliminary
calculations.
Given:
Th = + 130°C = 403.2K
T c = + 30°C = 303.2K
V o = 12 volts
I = 1.5 amperes
therefore:
Tav = (Th+T c)/2 = (403.2+303.2)/2 = 353.2K

R L = Vo/I = 12 / 1.5 = 8.0 ohms
P o = Vo x I = 12 x 1.5 = 18 watts
DT = T h-T c = 403.2 - 303.2 = 100K
It is usually desirable to select a relatively "high power" thermoelectric module for generator
applications in order to minimize the total system cost. For this reason we will choose a 127 couple,
6-ampere module to be used in our design.
From Appendix A for our selected 127-couple, 6 ampere module, the following values are obtained
at Tav = 353.2K:
SM = 0.05544 volts/K
R M = 3.0994 ohms
K M = 0.6632 watts/K
The required power for the load has been calculated as 18 watts. It is now necessary to determine
the minimum number of modules needed to meet this load requirement. The maximum output
power from one module is:
2 2
(SM x DT) (0.05544 x 100)
P max= ————— = ——————— = 2.479 watts
4 x RM 4 x 3.0994
The minimum number of modules needed is:
Po 18
—— = ——— =
NT min = P 2.479 7.3 » 8
max
Because maximum generator efficiency occurs when RGEN = RL, it is desirable for most applications
to select the series/parallel module configuration that will best approximate this resistance balance.
One possible exception to the equalizing RGEN with RL is in the situation where a relatively low
current (in the milliampere range) and moderate voltage is required. In this case, the connection of
all modules electrically in series may give the best results. Be aware, however that the maximum
output voltage from the generator will be obtained from a straight series-connected group of
modules only when the resistance of the load is significantly higher than the internal resistance of
the generator.
As a starting point in the evaluation of any thermoelectric power generator, it is often helpful to first
examine the straight series-connected configuration. The resistance of a series string of eight
modules is:
NS x R M 8 x 3.0994
RGEN = ————— = ————— = 24.8 ohms
NP 1
It can be seen that the 24.8 ohm generator resistance is considerably higher than the 8.0 ohm load
resistance, thereby indicating that a straight series module connection probably is not the best
arrangement. For the all series condition where NS = 8 and NP = 1, the output voltage is:
With a group of eight modules, the next most logical connection configuration is two parallel strings
of four modules, i.e., NS = 4 and NP = 2. Generator resistance for this configuration is thus:
NS x RM 4 x 3.0994
R GEN = ———— = ———— = 6.2 ohms
NP 2
While 6.2 ohm RGEN value does not exactly match the 8.0 ohm load resistance, this value normally
would be considered as being within the satisfactory range. In any event, this is the closest
resistance match that can be obtained with the selected module type. The voltage for this
arrangement (12.49 volts) is calculated as follows:
We can now see that Vo is quite close to the desired value and it is apparent that we have obtained
the optimum series/parallel configuration. If "fine tuning" of Vo is required, it will be necessary to
accomplish this either by some form of electronic voltage regulation or by externally altering the
applied temperature differential (DT). In certain instances it will be found that the output voltage is
significantly out of range despite trying all possible series/parallel combinations. In this event it may
be necessary to use an alternate thermoelectric module having a different current rating and/or
number of couples.
It is now possible to complete our design analysis by determining power levels and efficiency. Since
we have established Vo, output power (Po) can be simply calculated:
2 2
(V o) (12.49)
Po = ——— = ——— = 19.5 watts
RL 8.0
The total heat input (Qh) to the generator is:
The generator efficiency (Eg) is:
Po 19.5
Eg = —— x 100% = ——— x 100% = 2.97%
Qh 657.5
The heat transferred to the cold-side heat sink (Qc) is :
Q c = Qh - Po = 657.7 - 19.5 = 638.2 watts
The maximum allowable thermal resistance (Qs) of the cold-side heat sink is :
Trise 30°C - 10°C

(Qs)= ————— = —————— = 0.031 °C/watt
Qc 638.2
For any thermoelectric generator design it is always desirable to maximize the applied temperature
differential in order to minimize the total number of modules in the system. This situation can be
clearly seen in Figure (13.3). Module requirements for a typical 12-volt, 1-ampere power generator
are plotted at several fixed values of Th based on the use of 127-couple 6-ampere TE modules.
From this graph, it is evident that a very large number of modules is needed when the cold side
temperature (Tc) is high and the temperature differential, therefore, is small. Performance of the
cold-side heat sink is of the utmost importance and its thermal resistance must be extremely low.
In many cases, cold-side heat sink design will prove to be the most challenging engineering
problem.
Figure (13-3)
The Total Number of 127 Couple, 6 Amp Modules Required for a 12-volt, 1 Ampere Thermoelectric
Power Generator
13.4 USE OF THERMOELECTRIC MODULES IN A CALORIMETER: A lesser, yet viable,

application for thermoelectric modules operating in the power generation mode is in the
construction of calorimeters. The conventional calorimeter uses common thermocouples for heat
measurement based solely on the Seebeck effect. Through the use of a multi-couple thermoelectric
cooling module, it is possible to fabricate a calorimeter having a sensitivity (output voltage per unit
of heat flux density) as much as 10 to 200 times the sensitivity of a standard copper-constantine
thermocouple. When used in a calorimeter application, the thermoelectric module is often referred
to as a thermopile. The open-circuit output voltage (V) of a single thermoelectric couple, as
described in paragraph 13.2 and illustrated in Figure (13.1), is:
V = S x DT
where:
V is the output voltage from the couple in volts

S is the average Seebeck coefficient in volts/°K
DT is the temperature difference across the couple in °K where DT=Th-Tc
For an actual TE module having a number of couples and a Seebeck coefficient of SM, the output
voltage (Vo) is:
Vo = SM x DT
The heat flow through the TE or "thermopile" is:
K M x Vo
—————
Q = KM x DT = SM
where:
Q is the heat flow in watts

KM is the thermal conductance of the module in watts/°K
The total cross-sectional area (AM) of all elements in the module is:
AM = A x N
where:
AM = total area of all module elements in cm2

2
A = cross-sectional area of one element in cm
N = total number of elements in the module
2
The heat flux density (q) in watts/cm is:
K M x DT K M x Vo
q= ————— = —————
AM S M x AM
Most standard thermoelectric cooling modules may be used in a calorimeter application but
improved sensitivity may be realized by modifying the length-to-area (L/A) aspect ration of the TE
elements. A relatively large L/A ratio resulting in a tall and "skinny" element will produce the best
calorimeter sensitivity. To illustrate this situation let us consider the following:
The sensitivity of a module as a calorimeter (Sc) is:
Vo SM x AM
Sc = ————— = —————
q KM
It has been seen that sensitivity (Sc) is directly proportional to the Seebeck coefficient (SM) and
total cross-sectional element area (AM) and inversely proportional to the thermal conductance (KM).
By rewriting the above equation in respect to thermal conductivity (k) instead of thermal
conductance (KM) we have:
SM x AM
S c= —————
k x N x A/L
Since N x A = AM, the expression can be restated as:
SM x L
Sc = —————
k
From this equation, it is evident that calorimeter sensitivity is directly related to the length (L)
dimension of an element and it is desirable, therefore, to select a thermoelectric module having the
largest possible element aspect ratio. Be aware that there are practical limits on element geometry
due to the fragility of crystalline Bismuth telluride material. Working within these limits, however, it
is possible to fabricate custom modules that are particularly suited for calorimeter use.
Averaged Module Material Parameters at Various
Temperatures
For all tables:
SM = Module Seebeck coefficient in volts/K (or volts/degreeC)

RM = Module resistance in ohms
KM = Module thermal conductable in watts/K (or watts/degreeC)
NOTE: The data on the following tables reflects effective module parameters of Ferrotec
manufactured TEs, in normal ambient air using thermal grease at both the hot and cold module
interfaces. Raw Bismuth Telluride semiconductor material not in module form has substantially
different values for these parameters. We do not recommend using this data for the analysis of
other manufacturer's modules.
31-Couple Modules
9-Ampere Module 15-Ampere Module
Temperature
SM RM KM RM KM
°C °K V/K ohms w/K ohms w/K
-100 173.2 0.00859 0.2130 0.2103 0.1278 0.3504
-90 183.2 0.00898 0.2186 0.2086 0.1312 0.3477
-80 193.2 0.00938 0.2263 0.2056 0.1358 0.3427
-70 203.2 0.00978 0.2360 0.2018 0.1416 0.3364
-60 213.2 0.01017 0.2474 0.1976 0.1484 0.3293
-50 223.2 0.01056 0.2604 0.1933 0.1562 0.3221
-40 233.2 0.01094 0.2748 0.1892 0.1649 0.3153
-30 243.2 0.01130 0.2906 0.1857 0.1743 0.3096
-20 253.2 0.01165 0.3075 0.1831 0.1845 0.3052
-10 263.2 0.01198 0.3253 0.1816 0.1952 0.3027
0 273.2 0.01229 0.3440 0.1815 0.2064 0.3024
10 283.2 0.01257 0.3634 0.1828 0.2180 0.3047
20 293.2 0.01282 0.3833 0.1858 0.2300 0.3096
30 303.2 0.01304 0.4035 0.1905 0.2421 0.3176
40 313.2 0.01323 0.4239 0.1971 0.2544 0.3286
50 323.2 0.01337 0.4444 0.2057 0.2666 0.3428
60 333.2 0.01347 0.4647 0.2162 0.2788 0.3602
70 343.2 0.01353 0.4848 0.2286 0.2909 0.3809

80 353.2 0.01353 0.5044 0.2428 0.3026 0.4047
90 363.2 0.01349 0.5234 0.2589 0.3140 0.4316
100 373.2 0.01338 0.5417 0.2768 0.3250 0.4613
110 383.2 0.01322 0.5590 0.2961 0.3354 0.4936
120 393.2 0.01300 0.5753 0.3169 0.3452 0.5282
130 403.2 0.01271 0.5904 0.3389 0.3542 0.5649
140 413.2 0.01235 0.6041 0.3619 0.3624 0.6032
150 423.2 0.01192 0.6162 0.3856 0.3697 0.6426
71-Couple Modules
Temperature
SM RM KM RM KM
-100 173.2 0.01968 1.0980 0.2140 0.7318 0.3210
-90 183.2 0.02058 1.1270 0.2123 0.7511 0.3185
-80 193.2 0.02148 1.1663 0.2093 0.7775 0.3140
-70 203.2 0.02239 1.2159 0.2054 0.8106 0.3082
-60 213.2 0.02329 1.2746 0.2011 0.8498 0.3017
-50 223.2 0.02418 1.3417 0.1967 0.8945 0.2951
-40 233.2 0.02505 1.4162 0.1926 0.9441 0.2889
-30 243.2 0.02588 1.4974 0.1891 0.9983 0.2836
-20 253.2 0.02668 1.5844 0.1864 1.0563 0.2796
-10 263.2 0.02744 1.6766 0.1849 1.1177 0.2773
0 273.2 0.02814 1.7729 0.1847 1.1819 0.2771
10 283.2 0.02879 1.8727 0.1861 1.2485 0.2791
20 293.2 0.02937 1.9751 0.1891 1.3167 0.2837
30 303.2 0.02987 2.0793 0.1939 1.3862 0.2909
40 313.2 0.03029 2.1845 0.2007 1.4564 0.3010
50 323.2 0.03062 2.2899 0.2094 1.5266 0.3140
60 333.2 0.03085 2.3947 0.2200 1.5965 0.3300
70 343.2 0.03098 2.4980 0.2326 1.6654 0.3490
80 353.2 0.03100 2.5991 0.2472 1.7327 0.3708
90 363.2 0.03089 2.6971 0.2636 1.7981 0.3954
100 373.2 0.03066 2.7913 0.2817 1.8608 0.4226

110 383.2 0.03029 2.8807 0.3015 1.9205 0.4522
120 393.2 0.02977 2.9647 0.3226 1.9765 0.4839
130 403.2 0.02911 3.0423 0.3450 2.0282 0.5175
140 413.2 0.02828 3.1129 0.3684 2.0753 0.5526
150 423.2 0.02729 3.1755 0.3925 2.1170 0.5887
127-Couple Modules
Temperature
SM RM KM RM KM
-100 173.2 0.03520 1.9634 0.3828 1.3089 0.5742
-90 183.2 0.03680 2.0152 0.3798 1.3435 0.5697
-80 193.2 0.03843 2.0862 0.3744 1.3908 0.5616
-70 203.2 0.04005 2.1749 0.3675 1.4500 0.5512
-60 213.2 0.04166 2.2800 0.3597 1.5200 0.5396
-50 223.2 0.04325 0.3999 0.3519 1.6000 0.5278
-40 233.2 0.04480 2.5332 0.3445 1.6888 0.5168
-30 243.2 0.04630 2.6784 0.3382 1.7856 0.5073
-20 253.2 0.04773 2.8341 0.3335 1.8894 0.5002
-10 263.2 0.04908 2.9989 0.3307 1.9993 0.4961
0 273.2 0.05034 3.1713 0.3304 2.1142 0.4956
10 283.2 0.05150 3.3498 0.3328 2.2332 0.4992
20 293.2 0.05253 3.5329 0.3383 2.3553 0.5074
30 303.2 0.05343 3.7193 0.3469 2.4796 0.5204
40 313.2 0.05418 3.9075 0.3590 2.6050 0.5384
50 323.2 0.05477 4.0961 0.3745 2.7307 0.5617
60 333.2 0.05519 4.2835 0.3936 2.8556 0.5903
70 343.2 0.05542 4.4683 0.4161 2.9789 0.6242
80 353.2 0.05544 4.6491 0.4422 3.0994 0.6632
90 363.2 0.05525 4.8244 0.4715 3.2163 0.7072
100 373.2 0.05483 4.9928 0.5039 3.3285 0.7559
110 383.2 0.05417 5.1528 0.5392 3.4352 0.8088
120 393.2 0.05325 5.3030 0.5771 3.5354 0.8656
130 403.2 0.05206 5.4419 0.6171 3.6280 0.9257

140 413.2 0.05059 5.5681 0.6589 3.7121 0.9884
150 423.2 0.04882 5.6801 0.7021 3.7867 1.0531
Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Glossary

13.0 Glossary of Thermoelectric and Thermal Terms
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE: Temperature of the air or environment surrounding a thermoelectric

cooling system; sometimes called room temperature.
ASPECT RATIO: The numerical ratio of the length (height) to cross-sectional area of a
thermoelectric element. An element’s L/A aspect ratio is inversely proportional to its optimum
current.
BISMUTH-ANTIMONY: A thermoelectric semiconductor material that exhibits optimum

performance characteristics at relatively low temperatures.
BISMUTH TELLURIDE: A thermoelectric semiconductor material that exhibits optimum

performance in a "room temperature" range. An alloy of bismuth telluride most often is used for
thermoelectric cooling applications.
BTU: British Thermal Unit: The amount of thermal energy required to raise one pound of water
by one degree Celsius at a standard temperature of 15°C.
CALORIMETER: A scientific apparatus used to measure the evolution or absorption of heat.

Thermoelectric modules, when used in a calorimeter, may exhibit much higher sensitivity than
conventional thermopiles.
CASCADE MODULE (MULTI-STAGE MODULE): A thermoelectric module configuration whereby

one module is stacked on top of another so as to be thermally in series. This arrangement makes it
possible to reach lower temperatures than can be achieved with a single-stage module.
CFM: Cubic Feet per Minute: The volgenerallyumetric flow rate of a gas, typically air, expressed in
the English system of units. For thermoelectric applications, this refers to the amount of air passing
through the fins of a forced convection heat sink.
CLOSED-LOOP TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER: A temperature controlling device having some

type of temperature sensor (thermocouple, thermistor, RTD, etc.) that will transmit or "feed back"
temperature data to the controller. Based on the returned information, the controller will
automatically adjust its output to maintain the desired temperature.
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP): A measure of the efficiency of a thermoelectric module,

device or system. Mathematically, COP is the total heat transferred through the thermoelectric
device divided by the electric input power. COP sometimes is stated as COPR (Coefficient of
Performance as a Refrigerator) or as COPH (Coefficient of Performance as a Heater).
COLD SIDE OF A THERMOELECTRIC MODULE: The side of a module that normally is placed in
contact with the object being cooled. When the positive and negative module leads are connected to
the respective positive and negative terminals of a DC power source, heat will be absorbed by the
module's cold side. Typically, the leads of a TE module are attached to the hot side.
CONDUCTION(THERMAL): The transfer of heat within a material caused by a temperature

difference through the material. The actual material may be either a solid, liquid or gas (or a
combination) where heat will flow by means of direct contact from a high temperature region to a
lower temperature region.
CONVECTION (THERMAL): The transfer of heat by means of air (gas) movement over a surface.
Convection actually is a combined heat transfer process that involves elements of conduction,
mixing action, and energy storage.
COUPLE: A pair of thermoelectric elements consisting of one N-type and one P-type connected
electrically in series and thermally in parallel. Because the input voltage to a single couple is quite
low, a number of couples normally are joined together to form a "module."
DEGREES KELVIN: Absolute temperature scale where absolute zero (0K) represents the point
where all molecular kinetic energy of a mass is zero. When calculating the temperature dependent
properties of semiconductor materials, temperature values must be expressed in degrees Kelvin. On
the Celsius scale, 0°C equals 273.15K; in respect to quantity, one Kelvin degree equals one Celsius
degree. Note that the (°) symbol normally is not used when denoting degrees Kelvin.
DELTA-T: The temperature difference between the cold and hot sides of a thermoelectric module.
Delta T may also be expressed as "DT" or "DT."
DENSITY: The mass of a material per unit volume; often expressed as pounds per cubic foot or
grams per cubic centimeter.
DICE: A general term for blocks of the thermoelectric semiconductor material or "elements"
prepared for use in a thermoelectric module.
DIE: An individual block of thermoelectric semiconductor material used in the fabrication of a

module. A die may also be called an "element," "leg," or "thermoelement."
EFFICIENCY: For thermoelectric coolers, mathematical efficiency is the heat pumped by a module
divided by the electrical input power; for thermoelectric generators, efficiency is the electrical
output power from the module divided by the heat input. To convert to percent, multiply by 100.
See definition of Coefficient of Performance.
ELEMENT: An individual block of thermoelectric semiconductor material. See definition of DIE.
EMISSIVITY: The ratio of the energy emitted by a given object to the energy emitted by a black-
body at the same temperature. Emissivity is dependent upon an object’s material and surface finish.
ENERGY: Energy is the physical quantity which, in the context of thermoelectrics, generally is used
to express a unit of heat or electricity. Energy may be stated in British Thermal Units (BTU) or watt-
hours. It is important to note the difference between energy and power. Power is the rate at which
energy is being used, and power may be stated in BTU/hour or watts. The relationship between
power and energy is Power = Energy / Time.
FIGURE-OF-MERIT (Z): A measure of the overall performance of a thermoelectric device or
material. Material having the highest figure-of-merit also has the highest thermoelectric
performance.
FORCED CONVECTION HEAT SINK: A heat sink that incorporates a fan or blower to actively
move air over the heat sink’s fins. Greatly improved cooling performance may be realized with a
forced convection system when compared to a natural convection heat sink.
HEAT LEAK: The amount of energy gained or lost by an object being thermoelectrically controlled
due to heat transfer to or from external media. Heat transfer may occur due to conduction,
convection, and/or radiation.
HEAT LOAD: The quantity of heat presented to a thermoelectric device that must be absorbed by
the device’s cold side. The term heat load, when used by itself, tends to be somewhat ambiguous
and it is preferable to be more specific. Terms such as active heat load, passive heat load or total
heat load are more descriptive and less uncertain as to meaning.
HEAT OF FUSION: More correctly called Latent Heat of Vaporization. The amount of heat energy
required to change a given mass of a substance from a liquid to a gas without changing the
temperature of the substance. To change water into stream, for example, requires a heat input of
about 971 BTU/pound or 540 calories/gram.
HEAT PUMP: A general term describing a thermoelectric cooling device, often being used as a
synonym for a thermoelectric module. In somewhat less common usage, the term heat pump has
been applied to a thermoelectric device operating in the heating mode.
HEAT PUMPING CAPACITY: The amount of heat that a thermoelectric device is capable of
pumping at a given set of operating parameters. Frequently, this term will be used interchangeably
with the expression maximum heat pumping capacity. The two terms are not strictly synonymous,
however, because maximum heat pumping capacity specifically defines the maximum amount of
heat that a module will pump at the maximum rated input current and at a zero temperature
differential.
HEAT SINK: A body that is in contact with a hotter object and that expedites the removal of heat
from the object. Heat sinks typically are intermediate stages in the heat removal process whereby
heat flows into a heat sink and then is transferred to an external medium. Common heat sinks
include natural (free) convection, forced convection and fluid cooled.
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT: A numerical value that describes the degree of coupling that
exists between an object and a cooling or heating fluid. The heat transfer coefficient actually is an
extremely complex value that encompasses many physical factors.
HEIGHT TOLERANCE (MODULE): The maximum variation in height or thickness of a thermoelectric

module referenced to its nominal specified dimension. Most Ferrotec modules are available in two
tolerance ranges of +/-0.03mm (+/-0.001") and +/-0.3mm (+/-0.01"). When more than one
module will be installed between a given pair of mounting surfaces, the maximum height variation
of all modules should not exceed 0.06mm (0.002").
HOT SIDE OF A THERMOELECTRIC MODULE: The face of a thermoelectric module that usually is
placed in contact with the heat sink. When the positive and negative module leads are connected to
the respective positive and negative terminals of a DC power source, heat will be rejected by the
module’s hot side. Normally, the wire leads are attached to the hot side ceramic substrate.
INTERSTAGE TEMPERATURE: The temperature between specific stages or levels of a multi-stage
or cascade module.
JOULE HEATING: Heat produced by the passage of an electrical current through a conductor or
material due to the internal resistance.
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY: The ratio of a fluid’s viscosity to its density; typically units are
centimeters squared per second and feet squared per second.
LATENT HEAT: Thermal energy required to cause a change of state of a substance such as
changing water into ice or water into steam.
LEAD TELLURIDE: A thermoelectric semiconductor that exhibits its optimum performance within a
temperature range of 250-450°C. Lead telluride is used most often for thermoelectric power
generation applications.
LIQUID COOLING: A heat sink method involving the use of water or other fluids to carry away
unwanted heat. When comparing alternative heat-sinking methods, liquid cooled heat sinks
normally provide the highest thermal performance per unit volume.
MASS FLOW RATE: The weight of a fluid flowing per unit of time past a given cross-sectional area.
Typical units include pounds per hour-square foot and grams per second-square centimeter.
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL (MAXIMUM DT): The largest difference that can be
obtained between the hot and cold faces of a thermoelectric module when heat applied to the cold
face is effectively zero. DTmax or Dmax is one of the significant thermoelectric module/device
specifications.
MAXIMUM HEAT PUMPING CAPACITY (MAXIMUM Qc): The maximum quantity of heat that can
be absorbed at the cold face of a thermoelectric module when the temperature differential between
the cold and hot module faces is zero and when the module is being operated at its rated optimum
current. Qmax is one of the significant thermoelectric module/device specifications.
MODULE: A thermoelectric cooling component or device fabricated with multiple thermoelectric

couples that are connected thermally in parallel and electrically in series.
MULTI-STAGE MODULE (CASCADE MODULE): A thermoelectric module configuration whereby one

module is mechanically stacked on top of another so as to be thermally in series. This arrangement
makes it possible to reach lower temperatures than can be achieved with a single-stage module.
NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT SINK: A heat sink from which heat is transferred to the
surrounding air by means of natural air currents within the environment. No external fan, blower or
other appliance is used to facilitate air movement around the heat sink.
N-TYPE MATERIAL: Semiconductor material that is doped so as to have an excess of electrons.
OPTIMUM CURRENT: The specific level of electrical current that will produce the greatest heat
absorption by the cold side of a thermoelectric module. At the optimum current, a thermoelectric
module will be capable of pumping the maximum quantity of heat; maximum temperature
differential (DTmax) typically occurs at a somewhat lower current level.
PELTIER EFFECT: The phenomenon whereby the passage of an electrical current through a
junction consisting of two dissimilar metals results in a cooling effect; when the direction of current
flow is reversed heating will occur.
PHASE CHANGE: The change of a substance from a liquid to solid, liquid to gas, etc. A phase
change occurs, for example, when water freezes and turns into ice. See Heat of Fusion and Heat of
Vaporization.
POWER SUPPLY: Any source of DC electrical power that may be used to operate a thermoelectric
device.
P-TYPE MATERIAL: Semiconductor material that is doped so as to have a deficiency of electrons.
RADIATION (THERMAL): The transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic waves as a result of a

temperature difference between two bodies. In thermoelectric cooling applications, radiation losses
are quite small and usually have to be considered only for multi-stage coolers operating near a
DTmax condition.
RESISTIVITY (ELECTRICAL): Resistivity is a bulk or inherent property of a material that is

unrelated to the physical dimensions of the material. Electrical resistance, on the other hand, is an
absolute value dependent upon the cross-sectional area (A) and Length (L) of the material. The
relationship between Resistivity (r) and Resistance (R) is: r = (A/L) (R)
SEEBECK EFFECT: The phenomenon whereby an electrical current will flow in a closed circuit made
up of two dissimilar metals when the junctions of the metals are maintained at two different
temperatures. A common thermocouple used for temperature measurement utilizes this principle.
SI: An abbreviation for System International, the international standard metric system of units.
SILICON-GERMANIUM: A high temperature thermoelectric semiconductor material that exhibits

its optimum performance within a temperature range of 500-1000°C. Silicon-Germanium material
most often is used for special thermoelectric power generation applications that utilize a
radioisotope/nuclear heat source
SINGLE-STAGE MODULE: The most common type of thermoelectric cooling module using a single
layer of thermoelectric couples connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel. Single-stage
modules will produce a maximum temperature differential of approximately 70°C under a no-load
condition.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: The ratio of the mass of any material to the mass of an equal volume of
water at a temperature of 4°C.
SPECIFIC HEAT: The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a given
substance by one degree compared to the energy required to raise the temperature of an equal
mass of water by one degree. The specific heat of water is 1.000.
SUBSTRATE: A plate or sheet of thermally conductive and electrically insulated material on which a
thermoelectric module is fabricated. A typical module has two individual substrates each having a
metalized pattern to conduct electric current. Thermoelectric elements are sandwiched between the
two substrates to form a completed module. Most substrates used in thermoelectric coolers are
made of alumina ceramic although berylia ceramic and other materials may be used in special
circumstances.
THERMAL COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION: A measure of the dimensional change of a material

due to a change in temperature. Common measurement units include centimeter per centimeter per
degree Celsius and inch per inch per degree Fahrenheit.
THERMAL CONDUCTANCE: The amount of heat a given object will transmit per unit of
temperature. Thermal conductance is independent of the physical dimensions, i.e., cross-sectional
area and length of the object. Typical units include watts per degree Celsius and BTU per hour per
degree Fahrenheit.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: The amount of heat a material will transmit per unit of temperature
based on the material’s cross-sectional area and thickness.
THERMAL GREASE: A grease-like material used to enhance heat transfer between two surfaces by
filling in the microscopic voids caused by surface roughness. Most thermal greases, also known as
Transistor Heat Sink Compound or Thermal Joint Compound, are made from silicone grease loaded
with zinc oxide. Non-silicone based compounds are also available which in most cases are superior
but more expensive than silicone-based alternatives.
THERMAL RESISTANCE (HEAT SINK): A measure of a heat sink’s performance based on the
temperature rise per unit of applied heat. The best heat sinks have the lowest thermal resistance.
THERMOELECTRIC DEVICE: A general and broad name for any thermoelectric apparatus. The
term Thermoelectric Device has recently been modified to exclude thermoelectric modules in favor
of thermoelectric assemblies.
THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR: A device that directly converts energy into electrical energy
based on the Seebeck Effect. Bismuth telluride-based thermoelectric generators have very low
efficiencies (generally not exceeding two or three percent) but may provide useful electrical power
in certain applications.
THERMOELECTRIC HEAT PUMP: Another name for a thermoelectric module or thermoelectric

cooler. The term Heat Pump has been used by some specifically to denote the use of a
thermoelectric module in the heating mode, but this usage is uncommon.
THERMOELEMENT: Another name for a thermoelectric element or die.
THERMOPILE: When a thermoelectric module is used in a calorimeter application it is frequently

called a thermopile. Some have used the word thermopile as a synonym for thermoelectric module
regardless of application, but such use is unusual.
THOMSON EFFECT: The phenomena whereby a reversible evolution or absorption of heat occurs at
opposite ends of a conductor having a thermal gradient when an electrical current passes through
the conductor.
VISCOSITY: A fluid property related to the interaction between fluid molecules that determines the
fluids resistance to sheering forces and flow.

Thermoelectric Technical Reference

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Thermoelectric Technical Reference —

Introduction to Thermoelectric Cooling

1.0 Introduction to Thermoelectric Cooling

In a typical temperature measurement application, thermocouple A is used as a "reference" and is

Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Basic

2.0 Basic Principles of Thermoelectric Modules & Materials

Figure (2.1) Performance of Thermoelectric Materials at Various Temperatures

Figure (2.2) Schematic Diagram of a Typical Thermoelectric Cooler

Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Applications

3.0 Applications for Thermoelectric Coolers

3.2 Typical applications for thermoelectric modules include:

Thermoelectric Technical Reference —

Advantages of Thermoelectric Cooling

4.0 Advantages of Thermoelectric Cooling

Precise Temperature Control: With an appropriate closed-loop temperature control circuit, TE

Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Heat Sink

5.0 Heat Sink Considerations

Heat sink performance usually is specified in terms of thermal resistance (Q):

Qs = Thermal Resistance in Degrees C per Watt

Velocity = Volume / Cross-sectional Area of Air Passage

Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Installation

6.0 Installation of Thermoelectric Modules

» Bonding with Epoxy

» Mounting Pads and other Material

c) Mounting screws should be arranged in a

Sa= cycling 25-50 psi, static 50-75 psi.

N= number of bolts used in assembly

K= torque coefficient (use K=0.2 for steel, K=0.15 for nylon)

d= nominal bolt diameter

For steel fasteners, we typically recommend either:

6-32 d=.138 in (.350 cm)

6.5 Mounting Pads And Other Material

Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Power

7.0 Power Supply Requirements

Thermoelectric Technical Reference — Thermal

Heat Conducted Through the

x Thickness of length of the materials feet meters

Temperature difference between

8.4.2 HEAT TRANSFER FROM AN EXPOSED SURFACE TO AMBIENT BY CONVECTION: Heat

Q Heat transferred to or from ambient BTU/hour watts

Temperature difference between

Heat conducted through the

Thermal conductivity of the BTU/hour- watts/meter-

External surface area of the square

Temperature difference between

8.4.4 TIME NEEDED TO CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF AN OBJECT: Determination of the

Time period for temperature

m Weight of material pounds grams

Temperature change of the

Q Heat transferred to or from material BTU/hour cal/second

Note (1): 1 Watt = 0.239 calories/second

Q = 0.5 (Qc at DT min + Q c at DTmax)

Symbol Definition English Units Metric Units

QR Radiation heat loss BTU/hour watts

A Area of the exposed surface square feet square meters

e Emissivity of exposed surfaces -- --

Absolute temperature of warmer

Absolute temperature of colder

8.4.6 R-VALUE OF INSULATION: The R-value of an insulating material is a measure of the

8.5 THERMAL INSULATION CONSIDERATIONS: In order to maximize thermal performance and

Thermoelectric Technical Reference —

9.0 Thermoelectric Module Selection

1. At what temperature must the cooled object be maintained?